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By the Sweat & Toil of Children, Volume II: The

Use of Child Labor in U.S. Agricultural Imports &

Forced and Bonded Child Labor

U.S. International Child Labor Program

United States Bureau of International Labor Affairs

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By the Sweat & Toil of Children, Volume II: The Use of Child Labor in

U.S. Agricultural Imports & Forced and Bonded Child Labor

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By the Sweat & Toil of Children, Volume II.

This article is available at DigitalCommons@ILR: http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/key_workplace/141

This report is published by the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs. Copies

of this report or the 1994 report, By The Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume I): The Use of Child

Labor in U.S. Manufactured and Mined Imports, may be obtained by contacting the International

Child Labor Study Group, Bureau of International Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor, Rm. S-1308,

200 Constitution Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20210. Tel: (202) 208-4843; Fax: (202) 219-4923.

The reports are available on the Internet via World-Wide Web:

http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/library/e_archive/ChildLabor/. They can also be accessed at FTP site:

ftp.ilr.cornell.edu or via GOPHER at gopher.ilr.cornell.edu.
By the Sweat and Toil of Children

Volume II:

The Use of Child Labor in U.S. Agricultural Imports

&

Forced and Bonded Child Labor

A Report to the Committee on Appropriations

U.S. Congress

U.S. Department of Labor

Bureau of International Labor Affairs

Joaquin F. Otero, Deputy Under Secretary for International Affairs

1995
Acknowledgments

This report was written and edited by the staff of the International Child Labor Study Group,

Bureau of International Labor Affairs. The staff includes: Maureen E. Jaffe, Monica Mills,

Sonia A. Rosen, Robert B. Shepard, and Beth Slavet. Additional contributions were made

by Daniel Solomon, Special Assistant to the Deputy Under Secretary. The report was

prepared under the direction of Andrew J. Samet, Associate Deputy Under Secretary for

International Affairs.

Thanks are due to numerous people and organizations. The support of many members of the

Bureau of International Affairs was critical to the production of this report. In addition, labor

reporting officers and labor attaches in U.S. embassies and consulates across the globe

provided important input and advice under the guidance of the International Labor office of

the State Department's Bureau of Democracy, Labor and Human Rights. The International

Labor Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) provided

crucial information and insight. Representatives of foreign governments also contributed

important information.

Finally, thanks must be given to the hundreds of individuals and non-governmental

organizations throughout the world with whom we spoke, visited or corresponded -- but

more importantly -- who are active in the battle to eliminate the exploitation of child labor

and to develop real alternatives for working children and their families. Their work is to be

commended.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Executive Summary ................................................ 1

II. Introduction ...................................................... 9

A. Overview .................................................. 9

1. Child labor in commercial agriculture and fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2. Forced or bonded child labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

B. Current Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

III. Child Labor In Commercial Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1. Overview and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

a. International Laws and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2. Why Children Work: Explanations for Use of Child Labor in

Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

a. Demand for Child Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

b. Supply of Child Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

i. Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

ii. Educational Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

iii. Parent's Choice/Children's Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

iv. Societal Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

v. Minority Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

vi. Government Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3. Working Conditions: Health and Safety Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4. Terms of Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5. Education and Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 34

B. Regional and Industry Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1. Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

a. Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

b. Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

c. Fruits and Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

d. Jasmine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

e. Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

f. Sisal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

g. Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

h. Tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

i. Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

j. Vanilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table of Contents (cont'd)

2. Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

a. Tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

b. Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

c. Palm Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

d. Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

e. Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

f. Fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

g. Rattan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

h. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3. Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

a. Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

b. Fruits and Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

c. Grapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

d. Resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

e. Sisal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

f. Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

g. Tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

h. Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

i. Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

j. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

III. Forced and Bonded Child Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

2. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

3. Situations of forced child labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

a. Debt bondage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

b. Trafficking in Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

c. Sale of children and fraudulent recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

d. Domestic Servants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

B. Manufacturing and Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

1. Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

a. Hand-made carpets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

b. Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

c. Stone Quarries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

d. Silk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

e. Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
f. Brassware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

g. Matches and fireworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

h. Brick Kilns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Table of Contents (cont'd)

i. Beedis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

j. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

2. Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

a. Charcoal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

b. Gold Panning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

C. Farm Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

1. South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

a. Small-scale farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

D. Service Sector and Illegal Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

1. The Sex Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

2. Domestic Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

3. Camel Jockeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

V. Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Appendix A: ILO Convention 138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Appendix B: ILO Recommendation No. 146 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Appendix C: ILO Convention 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Appendix D: UN Convention on the Rights of the Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Appendix E: Delhi Declaration (1995) (excerpt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

VI. Country Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

VII. Product Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Executive Summary

1

I. Executive Summary

Virtually every country in the world has national laws that limit the extent to which

children may be employed. Several international conventions bar children from performing

work that is likely to be hazardous, that interferes with a child's education, or that harms a

child's health, or physical, mental, spiritual, or moral development. Most countries have

education laws that endorse the principle that the proper place for a child is the schoolroom,

not the workplace. 

Nevertheless, the use of illegal child labor is widespread. This report, the second of

two Congressionally mandated reports by the U.S. Department of Labor on the exploitation

of child labor, is about two widely practiced forms of child labor that have for the most part

remained inexplicably beyond public scrutiny. These are (i) children working in commercial

agriculture and fishing, and (ii) child slavery, in the form of forced and bonded labor.

Child agricultural laborers and child slaves are largely invisible. Their employment

is rarely reported by their employers and only occasionally noted by government surveys and

censuses. Often working in the shadows, where government and society rarely recognizes

their existence, child agricultural workers and child slaves often work long hours, sometimes

under inhuman conditions, for little or no pay.

Both child agricultural workers and child slaves are often the source of large profits

for others. The exploitation of child labor may enable entire industries to profit, as child

workers provide employers with a low-cost and easily subjugated labor force. In Brazil, an

estimated 3 million children work on plantations that produce sugar cane, tea, tobacco, sisal,

and other agricultural products. In the brick kiln industry in Pakistan, which is said to

operate almost exclusively on the basis of debt bondage, over half the workers are children.

Work for these children often is harsh and dangerous. Repeated injuries to children

who cut sugar cane usually incapacitate them at an early age and limit them to an average

working life of 12 years. Children in glass factories in India work in unventilated factories

where furnace temperatures reach 1,400 to 1,600 degrees celsius.

Child slavery is hidden because it is illegal. It exists because those who practice it

are either able to evade the law, or because governments are either unwilling or unable to

enforce the law. Child slaves mine gold in the jungle of Peru, knit carpets by hand in

southern Asia, and work as prostitutes in Thai brothels. Millions of children -- mostly young
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

2

girls -- work as domestic servants in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. The girls often work

extended hours, suffer harsh physical and psychological treatment, and are sometimes

sexually abused.

By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II) identifies a number of countries and

industries where children have been reported either to be working in commercial agriculture

or as forced or bonded laborers. The situations reviewed are not necessarily the only such

cases. The choice of which countries or industries and practices to highlight reflects access

to credible information and does not necessarily indicate that any particular country is the

"worst" child labor violator.

In certain regions facts about child labor have been documented for years, and thus

more information is available to report. In other areas where it is believed that the

exploitation of child labor in commercial agriculture -- or the use of forced or bonded child

labor -- exists, access to credible information has been difficult to compile due to 1)

governments which do not allow a free press or nongovernmental organizations to report on

the issue; 2) the intimidation of persons investigating situations of child labor; and 3) a lack

of attention given to the subject. Although this report brings together much of the available

information on child labor in commercial agriculture and forced or bonded child labor,

further research is often needed to thoroughly document individual cases mentioned in the

report as well as patterns and trends of child labor exploitation throughout the world. In

some instances, problems of access are a major barrier to research.

Children in Commercial Agriculture

More children work in agriculture than any other economic sector. Large numbers

of children may be found toiling in the fields and fisheries from daybreak until dusk. Many

of these children work for commercial farms and plantations or fishing operations.

Plantations, which produce commodities exclusively for export, employ 20 million persons,

or 2 percent of the persons working in the agricultural sector in developing countries.

Children make up an estimated 7 to 12 percent of the work force on plantations. 

Among the products produced by children are cocoa, coffee, coconuts, cotton, fruit

and vegetables, jasmine, palm oil, rubber, sisal, sugar cane, tea, tobacco, and vanilla.

Children also dive for fish, work on fishing platforms and boats, and work in factories that

process the fish.

The great majority of children in agriculture work as part of a family unit. In lieu of

paying workers on a salary basis, many plantations pay workers either by the weight or the
Executive Summary

3

quantity of the product collected. In some cases, minimum amounts of a product must be

collected in order for any compensation to be paid. To ensure that this minimal amount is

collected, or to maximize earnings, parents turn to their children.

Those children hired as full-time wage-laborers usually perform the same work as

adult workers, but are typically paid one-half to one-third what is paid to adults doing

comparable work.

Many children who work on farms and plantations attend school when they are not

working, but the quality of rural schools is often low, the duration of children's attendance

short, and the ability of children to concentrate and thrive in school, when they must perform

arduous physical labor either before or after school, may be severely taxed.

Work days can be extremely long. Eleven hour days are reportedly the norm for

children working on sisal plantations in Tanzania. Girls in one fish cleaning plant in India

may work 12 hour days, while some children who shell shrimp in Thailand may work for 15

hours or longer, mostly squatting on the floor or sitting on a small bench. 

Children in agriculture face many safety and health risks. Poisonous and diseasecarrying insects and reptiles are constant threats to children on plantations. Fatigue is an

ever present problem. Living conditions on plantations often include substandard hygienic

conditions, unsafe drinking water, unclean sanitary facilities, and medical facilities that, if

they exist at all, are often inadequate to treat the illnesses and injuries suffered by children.

Regular exposure to dangerous chemical fertilizers and pesticides pose another threat

to children. In Brazil, children may be assigned to spread pesticides onto tea leaves.

Children in South Africa have been seen spreading pesticides with their bare hands. In the

Philippines, the use of pesticides and other toxic chemicals has been linked to retarded

growth, disease, and malnutrition in children.

 A large demand for cheap labor in agriculture, coupled with the availability of large

numbers of children, accounts for the continued employment of minors. Employers opt for

children because they can be hired for a fraction of what is paid to adult workers; they are

plentiful in numbers in rural areas and already live on plantations; and they are considered

to be more docile and more pliant than adult workers. 

The large supply of available working children is a result of several economic and

social factors, chief of which are: a real or perceived need on the part of families for

additional income; a dearth of educational opportunities, an inability to pay for education,
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

4

or a belief on the part of parents that education is of little value; and a belief, in some

countries, that child labor is beneficial to the child, the family, and the society in general.

Government policies -- or lack thereof -- and societal indifference also contribute to

the use of child labor in commercial agriculture. In many countries, a lack of surveillance,

enforcement, and intervention on the part of governments allow child labor to thrive. Even

when violators are caught, penalties are often too small to induce employers to change their

practices. And few governments place a high priority on establishing free, universal, and

compulsory primary education in rural areas.

Children in Forced and Bonded Labor

Forced labor -- the enslavement of workers through the threat or use of coercion --

is found primarily in informal, unregulated or illegal sectors of the economy. The victims

of forced labor are usually the most economically vulnerable and least educated members of

society, such as minority ethnic or religious groups, the lowest social classes, or "scheduled"

castes. 

Forced child laborers receive little or no pay and have no control over their daily lives.

They are often forced to work beyond their physical capacity and under conditions that

threaten their health, safety and development. In many cases their most basic rights, such

as freedom of movement and expression, are suppressed. They are often subjected to

extreme physical and verbal abuse.

Bonded labor -- or debt bondage -- is a form of forced labor in which children enter

into servitude as a result of some initial financial transaction. This most frequently occurs

when, having no other security to offer, parents pledge their own labor or that of their child

in return for a money advance or credit. Often, a parent takes a loan knowing that the entire

family will be forced to work in return. High interest charges, low wages and deductions for

missed work, mistakes, meals and lodging often trap poor families for life and create a neverending, intergenerational system of debt and servitude.

Landless and near-landless households, as well as migrant laborers, are the main

victims of bonded labor. With few resources to meet daily needs, and no alternative sources

of credit available, parents are often forced to pledge their children's labor as payment or

collateral on a debt. While parents may assume their children will be able to repay the debt

out of future earnings, a combination of low wages and usurious interest rates often make

repayment impossible. The child becomes bonded indefinitely. 
Executive Summary

5

Forced and bonded child labor can be found in all sectors of the economy. Bonded

children working in the carpet industries of India, Pakistan, and Nepal may work up to 20

hours per day, seven days a week. They often sleep, eat and work in the same small, damp

room, and are sometimes locked in at night. Forced to work in cramped positions for long

periods of time in poorly-ventilated sheds filled with wool fluff and dust particles, many of

the children suffer from skin ailments, chronic colds, respiratory problems, spine deformities,

and weakened eyesight.

In the jungle of south-eastern Peru, children recruited by contractors to work for nine

months in golds mines find they must continue to work well beyond that period to pay off

the difference between their wages and the larger amount they owe the contractors for

transportation to the mines, food, and medication. In 1991, common graves of child workers

were uncovered. The corpses revealed that the youths had died of disease, work accidents

such as falls, and contusions.

Poor, landless peasants and tenant farmers in rural areas borrow money and food from

their landlord to live through the year. Loans are taken to meet the cost of daily needs or for

expenses occasioned by ceremonial events such as marriages and funerals. In return, the

peasants offer their labor or that of their children.

The forced labor of children occurs in the fishing industries of Indonesia, Sri Lanka,

the Philippines, India, and Pakistan. In Indonesia, boys aged 10-18, some of whom are

kidnapped, work on fishing platforms off the coast of Sumatra where they are held as virtual

prisoners for up to three months at a time.

Forced child labor is also widespread in the informal service sector, particularly in the

employment of child domestic servants and in the sex industry. Sometimes parents

knowingly "sell" their children into such work, while in other cases children are fraudulently

recruited or abducted. 

There are many paths by which children may end up as prostitutes. Frequently, they

are tricked or kidnapped, and then sold into prostitution: estimates are that 10,000 Burmese

women and girls are trafficked into Thailand each year. The price paid by brothel owners --

$400 to $800 -- must be paid off by the young women themselves. 

Some children in the sex industry are knowingly sold by their parents to recruiters to

augment family income. Others are offered jobs by recruiters in the restaurant, hotel or

entertainment industry, and then forced to prostitute themselves. Sometimes children who

run away are lured into prostitution to survive on the streets. No matter what the cause, the
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

6

result is that they become prisoners of a large and profitable industry willing to sexually

exploit children to satisfy a demand for child prostitutes.

Children forced to work as prostitutes are generally scarred for life. Occupational

hazards such as AIDS, other sexually transmitted diseases, or brutal psychological and

physical abuse often kill them before they reach adulthood.

Child domestic servants -- usually young girls -- are often hidden from public view.

They are given or sold to families or distant relatives to serve as household help. They are

recruited by brokers, placed by a friend or acquaintance, sent by their parents, offered by

parents for a cash advance, adopted, or even kidnapped. Child domestic servants are often

the first to rise in the morning and the last to go to sleep at night. They are sometimes treated

harshly by their employers and subjected to beatings or sexual abuse. 

Some child domestics are stolen outright. In Sudan, marauding "militias" from the

north kidnap children while raiding tribal communities in the south of the country and

transport the children to the north where the militias either keep them for their own use or

sell them into domestic slavery.

A different form of child labor in the service sector is the use of young boys, usually

kidnapped from southern Asia, as camel jockeys in Persian Gulf States. Sometimes glued

or strapped to the camel's back, their cries of fright are perceived to propel the camel to run

even faster. The boys are deliberately underfed to reduce their weight on the camel, and are

sometimes subjected to sexual abuse and physical harassment. 

Current Developments

Few major changes have occurred in the countries reviewed in the Department of

Labor's 1994 report, By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume I): The Use of Child Labor

in U.S. Manufactured and Mined Imports, which considered child labor in manufacturing

and mining industries that export to the United States. Still, there are several positive

developments to acknowledge. The issue of child labor is receiving heightened attention

from the public, the media, academia, donor agencies, governments, NGOs, and international

organizations such as the ILO and UNICEF. Interest in child labor has spawned action by

consumers and industry worldwide and the subject is increasingly being debated by many

governments and in various international fora. Some governments are introducing legislation

to make primary education compulsory, while others are raising the number of years children

are required to attend school. Numerous NGOs are developing and implementing programs

to assist child workers and their families, including establishing small, non-formal education
Executive Summary

7

programs for the children.

Two recent events are particularly worthy of note. The first is a historic agreement

in Bangladesh to phase children out of the garment factories and place them in school. This

agreement, signed on July 4, 1995, joins the forces of industry, NGOs, and international

organizations such as the ILO and UNICEF in a humanitarian effort to provide child workers

with the opportunity to go to school, while adult relatives are given preference to fill jobs

vacated by children. The U.S. Department of Labor will provide a portion of the funds for

this project through its FY 1995 contribution to the ILO's International Programme on the

Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC).

The second development is the public pledge of the Labor Ministers of Non-Aligned

Countries to eliminate child labor. In their "Delhi Declaration" of January 1995, the

Ministers resolved that, "we are aware and hold that the practice of exploitative child labour

wherever it is practiced is a moral outrage and an affront to human dignity . . . [w]e too are

pro-actively committed to eliminate this practice in terms of the International Labour

Conference, 1979 . . . giving immediate priority for total and de facto elimination of child

labour in hazardous employments."

Conclusion

The United Nations Children's Fund, in its testimony at the Department of Labor's

hearings on child labor, stated that "we are now seeing growing commitment and increased

action toward the goal of eliminating exploitative child labour -- although there is no

question that progress remains uneven and we obviously have a very long way to go to win

back childhood for the world's laboring children. It is morally unacceptable to even think

of going into the 21st century with the shame of child labour still on humanity's list of

unresolved social issues."

This second report on the exploitation of child labor, in addition to the Department

of Labor's $2.1 million contribution to the ILO's IPEC program, reflects the high priority that

the Department of Labor's Bureau of International Labor Affairs places on ending the

shameful practice of child labor.

Introduction

 See Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education, and Related 1

Agencies Appropriations Act, 1995. Department of Labor Appropriations Act, P.L. 103-333,

108 Stat. 2539 (September 30, 1994).

 See Department of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education, and Related 2

Agencies Appropriations Act, 1994. Department of Labor Appropriations Act, P.L. 103-112,

107 Stat. 1082 (October 21, 1993).

9

II. Introduction

A. Overview

This is the second of two Congressionally mandated reports by the U.S. Department

of Labor on the exploitation of child labor. The first report, entitled By the Sweat and Toil 1

of Children: Child Labor in American Imports, identified child labor practices in

manufacturing and mining industries which export to the United States. This report reviews 2

commonly practiced, and often egregious, forms of child labor: 1) the exploitation of

children in commercial agriculture, and 2) forced or bonded child labor.

This report uses the International Labor Organization's (ILO) Convention No. 138 on

the Minimum Age for Employment as its principal standard. Convention 138 sets 15 years

as the minimum age for work in developed countries and 14 years in developing nations.

Other provisions allow slightly younger children to perform "light work" which is not likely

to harm their health or development, and does not prejudice their attendance at school.

Convention 138 also prohibits any child under the age of 18 from undertaking work that "by

its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out is likely to jeopardize the health,

safety or morals of young persons."

A second standard is Article 32 of the U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child.

It establishes the right of a child to protection from economic exploitation and from

performing any work that is likely to be hazardous, that interferes with a child's education,

or that is harmful to a child's health, or physical, mental, spiritual, moral, or social

development.

The report refers to other international standards regarding the use of child labor in
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

10

commercial agriculture, and forced or bonded child labor. ILO Convention 138 proscribes

the use of child labor on "plantations and other agricultural undertakings mainly producing

for commercial purposes, but excluding family and small-scale holdings producing for local

consumption and not regularly employing hired workers." The line between "commercial"

agriculture and "production for local consumption" is frequently blurred, and sometimes

requires difficult judgments about which side of the line certain situations fall. The practice

of forced or bonded child labor constitutes de facto and de jure exploitation, as both the ILO

and the United Nations have specific Conventions prohibiting all forced or bonded labor. 

1. Child labor in commercial agriculture and fishing

This report reviews available information on the exploitation of child labor in

commercial agricultural and fishing industries producing primarily for export. Consistent

with international child labor standards, it does not focus on children working on family

farms or in subsistence agriculture. Rather, the focus is on the exploitation of children in

commercial enterprises. The criteria used to determine whether to include a particular

situation in this report were: 1) whether children have any real opportunity to go to school;

or 2) whether the work children perform is hazardous to their health or safety.

Most working children are found toiling in the fields and fisheries of the world. The

use of child labor in such places remains largely accepted in many societies, and is regarded

as an inevitable and often beneficial fact of life. Few researchers have visited the rural areas

where most children work. The exploitation of children in commercial agriculture and

fishing is thus under-researched and under-reported, and this study does not provide an

exhaustive examination of the issue.

Most child laborers on plantations work as part of a family unit. Indeed, the method

of payment at many commercial enterprises encourages families to bring their children to

work. Few agricultural workers earn a standard or minimum daily, weekly, or monthly

wage. Instead, payment usually depends either on the number of pieces harvested or

processed, or the total weight of the daily or monthly crop picked. Thus, the more hands

picking the crop, the larger the potential family income. It is commonly assumed by both

parents and employers that children will help their parents, subject to the same workload and

health and safety conditions borne by adult agricultural laborers.

Conditions in agriculture are worse when people are bonded. In many countries,

entire families -- including children -- serve as bonded laborers on the farms of landowners.

It is not uncommon for a child to assume the debt of a parent once the parent is unable to

work. In other cases, the child works with the family in order to pay off the debt. Rarely
Introduction

11

does a family successfully work its way out of debt. 

2. Forced or bonded child labor

 Despite the international prohibition of slavery in all its forms, child servitude is

disturbingly commonplace. This report reviews much of the available information on the

subject and provides a glimpse into the problems faced by child slaves in various parts of the

world.

The most prevalent -- and the most hidden -- type of forced child labor is the selling

or giving away of children to become domestic servants. The use of young children as

domestic servants is a commonly accepted practice in most regions of the world. In

exchange for promises of a better life, perhaps an education and a stipend, the children --

predominantly girls -- find themselves trapped in a web of grueling and demeaning work.

They are often subjected to extreme physical, sexual, and mental abuse. Many times they

are locked inside their places of work. While the severity of the girls' treatment may vary,

their isolation and physical confinement create the conditions for abuse. 

The chapter on forced or bonded child labor also describes how children are sold,

lured, kidnapped, and sometimes trafficked across borders for the purposes of prostitution.

The reasons children end up in the sex industry vary: parents knowingly sell children to

recruiters to augment family income, recruiters make false promises, children are kidnapped,

or they run away and are lured into prostitution to survive on the streets. Some children

believe the sex industry to be their best option. No matter what the cause, the outcome is the

same. A large and profitable industry is willing to sexually exploit children to satisfy a

demand for child prostitutes. The children are generally scarred for life -- which may be

short -- since occupational hazards such as AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases, or

brutal physical abuse, often kill them.

The debt-bondage of children is another form of forced labor described in the report.

Bonded laborers are most commonly found in small-scale farming, domestic service, and

prostitution, and a variety of industries, including the brick kiln industry, the manufacture

of hand-knotted carpets, and in mining. 

Typically, a parent is given a loan by an employer or an agent, for which the child's

work is offered to repay the debt. Sometimes the child is taken far away from the family.

Other times the child works in the same village and continues to live at home. Children also

are bonded into work as part of a family unit. This is most prevalent in agriculture, where

ancient feudal land-tenancy systems keep families languishing in servitude for generations.
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 The following countries were visited: Bangladesh, India, Kenya, Malaysia, Pakistan, 3

the Philippines, Portugal, South Africa, Tanzania, Thailand, and Zimbabwe.

 International Child Labor Hearing, U.S. Department of Labor, May 5, 1995, 4

Washington, D.C. See 60 Fed. Reg. 17089 (1995).

 The following governments submitted letters or reports to the Department: Australia, 5

Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Kuwait, The Netherlands, Philippines,

Portugal, Spain, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Zimbabwe.

12

Poor families become trapped in debt by high interest charges, low wages, and

deductions for missed work, mistakes, meals and lodging. It is common for workers to

request supplementary loans throughout the year in order to help support the family. The

family becomes caught in a never-ending cycle of debt and servitude. For employers, the

cheap labor provided by bonded laborers is often more valuable than recovery of the original

debt. 

3. Methodology

Many hundreds of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), trade unions, and

independent experts throughout the world provided data for this report. International

organizations such as the International Labor Organization (ILO) (in Geneva and field

offices) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) (both in New York and field

offices) were consulted frequently. U.S. embassies and consulates collected data, provided

information and suggested names of organizations or experts in their host countries to contact

for further information. Department of Labor staff conducted a survey of available literature

and news reports and made trips to some countries discussed in this report. The Department 3

held a public hearing to gather information on the topics of this report. All foreign 4

governments with embassies in Washington were contacted and asked to provide information

or present testimony at the hearing. All trade statistics cited are taken from Official 5

Statistics Collected by the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.

No reliable statistics on child labor exist. Estimates of the total number of working

children in the world range from 100-300 million. This report makes no attempt to assess

the actual number of children who work in commercial agriculture, or who are forced or

bonded into work. Where governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), or

international organizations such as the ILO or UNICEF have estimated numbers or

percentages of child laborers, a range is noted. Where no figures, or only unreliable figures,

are available, the report indicates simply that there is evidence that some children work in
Introduction

13

a particular sector.

B. Current Developments

The 1994 report, By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume I): The Use of Child

Labor in U.S. Manufactured and Mined Imports, presented an overview of why and under

what conditions children work. It outlined some of the debates among policy makers,

academics, NGOs and other experts on the best strategies for ameliorating the dire situation

facing working children and their families. A year later, little has changed for the millions

of child workers and their families. But awareness of the problem seems to be growing.

Experts agree on one theme that crosses ideological, cultural and political boundaries. That

is the pressing need for adequate universal, compulsory, and free primary education. Both

ILO Convention 138 and the Convention on the Rights of the Child stress that work should

not hinder the ability of a child to receive an education.

Unfortunately, many countries with compulsory primary education laws have neither

established an adequate school system nor devoted the necessary resources for enforcing

mandatory attendance. There may be few schools in areas where the most children work.

And where schools do exist, families cannot afford to pay for tuition, supplies or uniforms.

Since many studies have pointed out that the numbers of child laborers decrease when

compulsory primary education is enforced, educational enrollment remains the most

important response to child exploitation.

The most important developments in the last year can be summarized as follows:

First, the media seems to be paying increased attention to child labor. This enhances

the public debate, and clearly places the issue on the international policy agenda and on the

agendas of individual countries and governments. 

Second, greater public attention, as well as increased efforts by donor agencies and

governments to contribute to workable solutions, has encouraged more NGOs to pay

attention and dedicate resources to this issue. In addition, many more studies on child labor

are being conducted. On a community level, more local schools have been built for working

children, more awareness campaigns are being launched on the hazards of child labor, and

there is more consultation and coordination among local NGOs to combat child labor. Not

all of these projects have been successful. Nor has there been agreement on a single,

acceptable strategy. Nonetheless, the ongoing research and efforts are leading the world to

a greater understanding of the situation and more proposals for useful programs to address
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 International Child Labor Hearing, U.S. Department of Labor (May 5, 1995)(Statement 6

of the United Nations Children's Fund)[hereinafter Testimony of UNICEF].

 At the time this report was published, the following countries had an IPEC program and 7

signed Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) with the ILO: Bangladesh, Brazil, India,

Indonesia, Kenya, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Tanzania, Thailand, and Turkey. 

The following countries have requested to participate in the IPEC program, but have not yet

signed MOUs: Argentina, Bolivia, Cameroon, Central America (subregional project),

Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela.

The following countries have requested to participate in the IPEC program, however, MOUs

are not yet signed and donors have not been secured: Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia,

Guinea, Madagascar, Senegal, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.

 Programs funded by the Bureau of International Affairs (ILAB), U.S. Department of 8

Labor, in FY1995, include: 1) monitoring the removal of children from the garment industry

in Bangladesh and placing them in schools; 2) supporting programs in Northern Thailand to

14

the problem. According to UNICEF, 

[t]here is a growing commitment and increasing action toward the goal of

eliminating exploitative child labor -- although there is no question that

progress remains uneven and we obviously have a very long way to go to win

back childhood for the world's laboring children. It is morally unacceptable

to even think of going into the 21st century with the shame of child labor still

on humanity's list of unresolved social issues. Nevertheless, we at UNICEF

believe there is cause for hope.

6

Third, international organizations with expertise in children's issues and labor matters

have expanded their commitment and the number of efforts/projects to eliminate the

exploitation of child labor. They have forged innovative partnerships between governments,

NGOs, the private sector and local communities -- all prerequisites to accomplishing the goal

of eliminating child labor. 

The ILO's International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC) is now

conducting hundreds of projects throughout the world. In addition to the German 7

government, which provided the initial financing for IPEC, the United States and numerous

other nations now contribute funds to IPEC's programs worldwide.8
Introduction

prevent children from being lured into exploitative child labor and child prostitution; 3)

financing a national statistical survey on child labor in the Philippines; and 4) sponsoring an

African regional workshop to formulate measures and activities to improve working

conditions of children on plantations. ILAB and the ILO are considering proposals aimed

at reducing bonded child labor in India, and child labor in the footwear industry in Brazil.

 Testimony of UNICEF. 9

 Testimony of UNICEF. 10

 See Delhi Declaration: Item 5.8 - Elimination of Child Labour, Annexure A (Delhi: 11

Final Documents, Fifth Conference of Labour Ministers of Non-Aligned and other

Developing Countries, 1995) A-4. For the full text of the resolution, see Appendix E.

15

UNICEF is developing and implementing educational strategies to "get more children

into quality primary school and to keep them learning to the end of the cycle." UNICEF and 9

the ILO have drafted a letter of intent that will soon provide a framework for cooperation

between the two agencies in the areas of child labor policy development and research as well

as technical cooperation at the country level.10

Fourth, interest in child labor has spawned action by consumers and industry

worldwide. Consumer groups in many countries actively disseminate information on

products made by children under exploitative conditions. Many multinational corporations

are developing codes of conduct to prohibit the use of child labor as defined by ILO

Convention 138. Indeed, UNICEF itself has responded to this pressure, and on May 23,

1995, it adopted an institution-wide procurement policy prohibiting the purchase of any

product from a supplier found to violate national and international child labor laws. 

Fifth, there is a growing debate by many governments and in various international fora

on the problems of and solutions to the exploitation of child labor. Of particular note, the

Fifth Conference of Labour Ministers of Non-Aligned and other Developing Countries,

hosted by India in January 1995, adopted a strong resolution on child labor. The resolution

states in part, "We are aware and hold that the practice of exploitative child labour wherever

it is practised is a moral outrage and an affront to human dignity . . . [w]e too are pro-actively

committed to eliminate this practice in terms of the International Labour Conference, 1979

. . . giving immediate priority for total and de facto elimination of child labour in hazardous

employments." The Delhi resolution followed the very important statement on child labor 11

made by Indian Prime Minister Rao in his August 15, 1994 Independence Day speech in

which he announced India would initiate a major program to combat child labor. The Indian
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 The countries profiled in the Department's 1994 report are: Bangladesh, Brazil, China, 12

Colombia, Côte D'Ivoire, Egypt, Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Lesotho, Mexico, Morocco,

Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Portugal, Tanzania, Thailand, and Zimbabwe.

 The United States Government will provide a portion of the funds through its 13

contribution to the ILO's IPEC program.

16

Labor Ministry, however, has yet to make public the details of the announced child labor

project.

Sixth, additional governments are introducing legislation to make primary education

compulsory. Others are raising the number of years children are required to attend school

or the minimum age for compulsory education. 

Finally, there are significant developments in some countries profiled in the

Department of Labor's 1994 report, By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume I). The

report contained information on child labor in manufacturing and mining in 19 countries.12

In some of these countries we can report some important developments. 

In Bangladesh, a historic Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on the elimination

of child labor in the garment sector was signed on July 4, 1995. The tripartite Agreement

was signed by UNICEF, the ILO and the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters

Association (BGMEA). The Agreement requires that a survey of child workers in the

garment sector be conducted and that all workers under age 14 will leave garment factories

by a target date of October 31, 1995, and enter NGO-run school programs. The BGMEA

will offer jobs to qualified older family members of under-aged workers who go to school,

and efforts for after school income generation projects will also be explored. Children

terminated under the Agreement will also be paid a monthly stipend to help offset the loss

of their wages. The ILO will contribute funds for a verification program, which will be 13

monitored by a steering committee of the MOU signatories.

U.S. Ambassador to Bangladesh David Merrill, who played a key role in supporting

the MOU, noted at the signing ceremony that the Agreement helps Bangladesh enforce its

own law, and that if implemented as intended, the MOU will not only work toward the

elimination of child labor, but also contribute substantially to the welfare of those children

involved and the garment industry as well. Ambassador Merrill also praised the BGMEA

for its enlightened self-interest in pledging $900,000 toward the Agreement and urged the
Introduction

 See American Embassy-Dhaka, unclassified telegram no. 3197, July 5, 1995. 14

17

BGMEA to implement the Agreement in good faith.14

In India, there is now a labelling program in operation to inform consumers that a

carpet is not made by children. Tens of thousands of rugs bearing the RUGMARK label --

a logo of a smiling child superimposed over the picture of a carpet -- have been shipped to

Germany. The RUGMARK Foundation, supported by UNICEF and well-known local

NGOS, grants a license to use its logo to carpet exporters and manufacturers who: (i) legally

commit themselves not to employ children under 14; (ii) pay their workers at least the

official minimum wage; (iii) make available lists of loom units and sources from which they

procure carpets; and (iv) agree to unannounced inspections by RUGMARK inspectors. In

addition, importers must pay a one percent surcharge on the f.o.b. price of the carpets. The

money will be used by UNICEF to fund educational and vocational programs for the

displaced child carpet workers. 

In June 1995, the Indian government announced its intention to sponsor a new

initiative to label carpets made without child labor. The program, called "kaleen," would be

controlled by the Carpet Export Promotion Council, a semi-autonomous body under the

Indian Textile Ministry. Few details are known about the initiative to date.

Also in June 1995, the Indian Commission on Labour Standards and International

Trade issued a voluminous report entitled, Child Labour in India: A Perspective. The report

describes the factual situation of the exploitation of child labor in India, together with a

discussion of policy perspectives. The report makes a series of recommendations to the

Government for the progressive elimination of child labor in India.

Of concern in India, however, was the June 1 arrest of prominent anti-child labor

activist, Kailash Satyarthi, Chairman of the South Asian Coalition on Child Servitude. The

arrest followed charges made by a local carpet manufacturer that Satyarthi's outspokenness

about child bonded workers in the carpet industry resulted in the cancellation of orders.

Satyarthi was detained for two days. A hearing on the case was originally scheduled for July

5, 1995 but was postponed. No new trial date has been set.

In Pakistan, Iqbal Masih, a liberated bonded child carpet weaver, was murdered in

April 1995. Iqbal was known throughout the world and in certain Pakistani communities as

a crusader against bonded child labor. The circumstances of his murder remain unclear. One

consequence of his murder was to heighten worldwide awareness of child labor. Another
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 See FBIS report dated June 27, 1995 containing translated text [on file] [hereinafter 15

FBIS report]. The task force will consist of five ministries: Labor, Justice, Agriculture,

Industry and Commerce, and Environment, Water Resources and Legal Amazon.

 FBIS report. 16

18

was the immediate cancellation of orders for Pakistani carpets from many importers. The

Pakistani Carpet Manufacturers and Exporters Association has called for discussions to

establish a labelling system based upon the RUGMARK Foundation initiative. The

Government of Pakistan and local NGOs have also expressed interest in such a program.

Of concern in Pakistan, however, is the recent arrest and detention of persons

associated with the Masih case: members of the Bonded Labor Liberation Front (BLLF),

family members of Iqbal Masih, and a journalist covering the Masih murder. Additionally,

in July a Norwegian trade union delegation visiting a soccer ball factory in Sialkot was

attacked as it observed children between the ages of 5 and 10 making soccer balls. The

delegation, accompanied by a team from the Norwegian Broadcasting company and a

representative of the BLLF, was attacked by a few armed men who beat the cameraman and

the BLLF representative. A camera and film were confiscated. The camera was eventually

returned, but without the film. It is alarming that anti-child labor activists in Pakistan are

forced to operate under increasingly dangerous conditions. 

In Nepal, constant media attention (particularly in Germany) has caused a significant

drop in orders for Nepali rugs resulting in a decrease in production. Negotiations are

underway to establish a RUGMARK or similar program. The Government of Nepal has

recently made strong public statements decrying the exploitation of child labor and

announcing its intention to strictly enforce the prohibition of child labor in the carpet

industry.

In Brazil, President Fernando Henrique Cardoso recently acknowledged that slave

labor and child labor has not ended in Brazil, noting that there are still Brazilians who work

without freedom. In a June 27, 1995 radio address to the nation President Cardoso

announced the creation of an executive task force to crack down on forced labor. He 15

described the new task force as an "action-oriented body," and instructed it to formulate

"truly stiff punishments to those people who are making Brazilians work as slaves . . ." The 16

directive also calls upon the Industry and Commerce Ministry to take specific action against

the use of child labor in the shoe industry.
Introduction

 American Embassy-Bogota, unclassified telegram no. 7553, June 1, 1995 [hereinafter 17

Bogota 7553].

 Bogota 7553. 18

19

In Colombia, the government established a committee for the eradication of child

labor and the protection of minor workers on May 30, 1995. At the same time, an awareness

campaign was launched to "bring the plight of child laborers to the Colombian public's

attention." Minister of Labor and Social Security Maria Sol Navia stated that the long 17

range goal of the committee was the eradication of child labor. In her address at the

installation ceremony of the committee, Colombia's first lady, Jacquin Strouss de Samper,

noted that there are approximately 1.8 million children in Colombia's workforce.18

Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 International Child Labor Hearing, U.S. Department of Labor (May 5, 1995) (Statement 1

of the International Labor Organization) [hereinafter Testimony of the ILO].

 See Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education and Related 2

Agencies Appropriation Bill, 1995, S. Rpt. 103-553, 103d Cong., 2d Session (1994).

 The term "family unit" does not mean that children are working on family farms. It 3

describes situations of families working together on commercial agricultural enterprises.

21

III. Child Labor In Commercial Agriculture

A. Introduction

More of the world's working children are employed in agriculture than in any other

sector. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), "it is likely that a majority

of all work done by children is in agriculture." The purpose of this chapter is to survey the 1

use of children in commercial agricultural and fishing activities that export to the United

States.2

The subject of child labor in agriculture has undergone little systematic analysis.

Available information is often vague and incomplete. This chapter seeks to take a first step

in understanding the use of children in commercial agriculture by surveying available

government documents, reports, articles, accounts, studies, and other data in order to sketch

a broad overview of the countries and industries in which children work, and the terms and

conditions of their employment.

The first section of this chapter presents a summary of why children work, the jobs

they perform, the terms under which they are hired, the conditions under which they work,

and the relevant international law governing child labor in the agricultural sector. The

second part of the chapter surveys the use of child labor in specific industries that export

products to the United States.

1. Overview and Scope

Most children in commercial agriculture work on a seasonal basis, often full-time as

part of a family unit during the harvest and seeding seasons, but irregularly or on a part-time 3
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 International Labor Organization, Recent Developments in the Plantations Sector 4

(Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1994) 8 [hereinafter Recent Developments in the

Plantation Sector].

22

basis during the remainder of the year. Many of these children attend school when they are

not working. It is not always known whether children regularly attend school in the nonharvest or seeding months.

Children working in commercial agriculture and fishing face a wide range of health

and safety risks. Often forced to work in harsh conditions without protective clothing or

safety equipment, many children are injured in the course of their work. Children also work

extremely long hours without rest; fatigue makes them more susceptible to accidents.

Dangerous working conditions, excessive physical strain, malnutrition, and regular exposure

to disease-carrying animals and toxic chemicals lead to lung, skin, and respiratory diseases,

back injuries, and permanent physical handicaps and deformities. Few children receive the

medical care required to remedy these ailments.

Because many of these children work on an occasional basis, and because official

statistics either do not count, or are unable to accurately count, seasonal workers, estimates

of the total number of children working in commercial agriculture are difficult to ascertain.

The use of child labor in agriculture is thus, to a large degree, invisible -- uncounted, often

undocumented, and little understood.

a. International Laws and Definitions

International and some national laws sharply proscribe the use of children by

commercial agricultural enterprises. In addition, most countries either promote or make

compulsory primary education. Unfortunately, many governments do not enforce primary

education laws or commit adequate resources for all children to attend school. This is

particularly true in rural areas, where access to education is often limited. The important

linkage between education and increased opportunities for children is stated succinctly by

the ILO: "Enforcement of school attendance, particularly for girls, would go a long way

towards eliminating child labour."4

For purposes of this study, the definition of child labor used is that of ILO Convention

No. 138 on the Minimum Age for Admission to Employment and its accompanying

Recommendation No. 146. Convention 138 establishes a basic minimum age of 15, but

permits countries "whose economy and educational facilities are insufficiently developed"
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Convention No. 138, in International Labour Conventions and Recommendations, 1919- 5

1991, vol. II (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1992) 1032 [hereinafter ILO

Convention No. 138]. 

 Recommendation No. 146, in International Labour Conventions and Recommendations, 6

1919-1991, vol. II (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1992) 1036.

23

to establish a minimum age of 14. Article 5, paragraph 3, specifically applies the Convention

to "plantations and other agricultural undertakings mainly producing for commercial

purposes, but excluding family and small-scale holdings producing for local consumption

and not regularly employing hired workers." 5

Recommendation No. 146 states: 

Where it is not immediately feasible to fix a minimum age for all employment

in agriculture and in related activities in rural areas, a minimum age should

be fixed at least for employment on plantations and in the other agricultural

undertakings referred to in Article 5, paragraph 3, of the Minimum Age

Convention, 1973.6

In accordance with the ILO approach, this study does not include children working

on family farms -- land owned and cultivated by members of nuclear or extended families.

Although the products grown on family farms are sometimes purchased by buyers who in

turn sell them in international markets, their primary purpose is to support the families that

operate them. Nor does the study include conditions of small cooperative farming

arrangements that produce goods solely for local consumption, or other small-scale entities.

Also excluded from this report are those situations in which (i) working children are able to

attend school on a regular basis, and (ii) there is no evidence of jeopardy to the health and

safety of the children who may be working outside of school hours. 

Recognizing the importance of education and training as a means of alleviating

poverty and raising economic standards of children, the thrust of the ILO standards is to

permit children to work only in those circumstances where the nature and timing of their

work does not interfere with their ability to gain a basic education. ILO Convention 138

directly ties a country's establishment of minimum age for work to the completion of

compulsory schooling. Thus, Article 2 of Convention 138 requires a country's minimum age

to be "not less than the age of completion of compulsory schooling." Article 7 of the

Convention permits children 13 to 15 years of age to perform "light work" so long as such
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 ILO Convention No. 138 at 1033. 7

 ILO Convention No. 138 at 1031. 8

 ILO Convention No. 138 at 1031. 9

 Other terms are often used synonymously for plantation. The term "estate" is 10

technically the same as plantation, though the term plantation often is used informally to

describe farms where the product is picked from trees, while the term estate is used to

describe farms where the product is picked from the ground. In India, tea plantations are

often referred to as "tea gardens." In this chapter the term plantation refers to all these

establishments.

24

work does not:

prejudice their attendance at school, their participation in vocational

orientation or training programmes approved by the competent authority or

their capacity to benefit from the instruction received. 

7

This study also concentrates on those sectors and countries where children are

subjected in their work to undue health or safety hazards. This also parallels the ILO

approach. Article 3, paragraph 1 sets a minimum age of 18 for

admission to any type of employment or work which by its nature or the

circumstances in which it is carried out is likely to jeopardise the health,

safety or morals of young persons . . .8

The Convention requires that for those workers above the age of 16 but below the age

of 18, national laws or regulations must ensure that the "health, safety and morals" of such

young workers are "fully protected" and that they "have received adequate instruction or

vocational training in the relevant branch of activity."9

The most economically significant form of commercial agriculture, in terms of size,

revenues, and share of export markets, is the plantation. The definition of a plantation in this

study is that of the ILO Committee on the Work of Plantations: 10

. . . any agricultural undertaking employing hired workers which is situated

in the tropical or subtropical region and which is concerned with the

cultivation and production for commercial purposes of one or more of . . .
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Recent Developments in the Plantation Sector at 2. 11

 Recent Developments in the Plantation Sector at 8. 12

 Recent Developments in the Plantation Sector at 8. 13

25

coffee, tea, sugar cane, rubber, bananas, cocoa, coconuts, groundnuts, cotton,

tobacco, fibers -- sisal, jute and hemp -- citrus, palm oil, cinchona, pineapple

and rice.11

Plantations employ approximately 20 million persons, or about 2 percent of the

persons working in the agricultural sector in developing countries. According to the ILO, 12

"(s)everal hundreds of thousands of children are reported to be working on plantations in

various producer countries; they account for an estimated 7 to 12 percent of the total

plantation wage labour force." 13

2. Why Children Work: Explanations for Use of Child Labor in Agriculture

There are many explanations for the use of child labor in agriculture. The use of child

labor is usually the result of a need for intensive labor coupled with a readily available

supply of labor that is cheap and easily controlled. Employers hire children because they are

available in large numbers, and because, in the view of some employers, child workers are

preferable to adults. While most agree that children should grow up in an environment that

provides the best possible conditions of physical and mental growth, many factors compel

children to enter the workforce. As a result, a large supply of children is often available to

meet the demand.

a. Demand for Child Labor

Even in countries with high unemployment rates, children can be found working full

time on farms and plantations while rural adult workers are unemployed. There are four

principal reasons for this: children are plentiful in numbers in rural areas; they often already

live on plantations or other farms; their labor can be had for a fraction of what is paid to

adult workers; and they are considered to be more docile and more pliant than adult workers.

A study by an Indian Government Commission concluded that: 

On the demand side, there are certain sectors that have tended to rely heavily
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Indian Commission on Labour Standards and International Trade, Child Labour in 14

India: A Perspective (New Delhi: June 10, 1995) 17-18 [hereinafter Indian Commission].

 This chapter includes only children in conditions of forced and bonded labor in 15

agricultural or fishing industries that export to the United States. Part IV of this study,

Forced and Bonded Child Labor, discusses situations of forced or bonded labor on smallscale farms not producing for export to the United States.

 Some studies that have examined the relationship in specific agricultural of fishing 16

industries are: the fishing industry in Thailand, Kerry Richter and Orathai Ard-am, Child

Labor in Thailand's Fishing Industry (Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand: Institute for

26

on child labour, because of the pliability of children or low wage. Agriculture

is one such sector. Plantation industry thrives almost entirely on the

advantage of child labour. Children join the labour force alongside the

parents either for no wage or for a negligible income.14

b. Supply of Child Labor

Studies of the causes of child labor in agriculture have found several, often

overlapping reasons, why there is a supply of children for work on plantations and farms.

The most significant causes are a real or perceived need on the part of families for income;

a dearth of educational opportunities; an inability to pay for education or a belief that

education is of little value; or situations of forced or bonded labor. Children are also found 15

working on plantations after dropping out of school. They may be recruited to perform tasks

their parents prefer not to do, or they can be found tending to younger siblings living on

plantations while the parents work. Finally, some children work on plantations to earn their

own income. In some cases mothers take their children to work with them in the fields

because they have neither a safe place to leave them nor someone to care for them.

i. Poverty

Poverty is the most often cited reason for the use of child labor in agriculture and

fishing. Children most commonly work in poor rural agricultural regions in which families

believe the employment of their children will increase total family income. Systems of

remuneration based on weight/piece provide an incentive to use children to maximize

earnings. Payment schemes that require a minimum amount of a crop to be collected in order

for any wage to be paid also serve as an incentive for parents to employ their children. The

contribution of a child's earnings to general family income has not been studied in detail.16
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 1995); the tea industry in India,

Vasanthi Raman, "Child Labour in Tea Plantations of North-East India -- An Extract," in My

Name is Today: Children in News, vol. 2, no. 1 (January-March 1994) 14-18; and rubber and

palm oil plantations in Malaysia, Jomo K.S., Josie Aini, P. Ramasamy and Sumathy Suppiah,

"Early Labour: Children at Work on Malaysian Plantations," in Jomo K.S., ed., Child Labour

in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: Forum, 1992) 144-171.

 Jomo K.S., Josie Aini, P. Ramasamy and Sumathy Suppiah, "Early Labour: Children 17

at Work on Malaysian Plantations," in Jomo K.S., ed., Child Labour in Malaysia (Kuala

Lumpur: Forum, 1992) 152.

27

In situations where parents work for long hours in the fields, children are often required to

perform domestic chores in their place. 

While the employment of children may supplement family income in some instances,

it may also contribute to keeping the children in poverty. A study of child labor on palm oil

and rubber plantations in Malaysia concluded that children are "doubly pushed into menial

labour: poor households need additional income from the extra working members, while the

lack of affordable opportunities for further education and skill training means limited

prospects for upward or outward mobility."17

ii. Educational Factors 

A major factor contributing to the use of child labor is the lack of educational

opportunities available to children in rural areas. Many plantations do not have schools on

the premises. The long distances that must be travelled, often on foot, to attend the nearest

school commonly preclude attendance. Even when schools are located nearby, children of

poor families are frequently unable to pay school fees or purchase required school uniforms,

books, and other school materials. 

Parents' negative attitudes toward the usefulness of schooling also prevents the

placement of children in schools. In many rural areas where farm work is the only job

available, many parents perceive little utility in sending their children to school when they

could be more useful to the family by working. Furthermore, many parents believe that

children will receive more useful training by working on farms than they would in the

classroom -- even if the work they perform actually provides little actual training in

agricultural techniques.
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Alec Fyfe, Child Labour, (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989) 73 [hereinafter Fyfe]. 18

 Fyfe at 72-73. 19

 Indonesian Documentation and Information Centre, Child Labour in U.S.-Exporting 20

Industries in Indonesia (Leiden: Indonesian Documentation and Information Centre, 1994)

1. 

 Child Labour in Indonesia (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1993) 6 21

[hereinafter Child Labour in Indonesia].

28

iii. Parent's Choice/Children's Choice

While most children work as part of a family unit, children may also work so that

"(p)arents can reduce their own work burdens through the use of their children's work." 18

In other instances older children may opt to become employed against their parent's

wishes, "rather than endure the `eternal apprenticeship' of long hours without remuneration

under the control of parents." The lure of an independent salary also may cause older 19

children to seek paying jobs rather than to work without compensation on their family farms.

iv. Societal Attitudes

Many children work because child labor has become an accepted norm within the

social structure. Children growing up on farms are inculcated into a lifestyle centered around

work at an early age and simply know no other way of life, particularly if schooling is not

a possibility. In many agrarian societies children as young as 5 perform small tasks on the

farm.

In some instances the use of child labor supports the reigning social and family value

system; child labor is viewed as beneficial to the child, the family, and the society in general.

In Indonesia, for example, the "Pancasila" ideology states a child's foremost duty is to help

their parent. An ILO study of child labor in Indonesia notes that "cultural values in 20

Indonesia accept and even encourage child employment as an educational process" that

brings understanding of work, personal responsibility, self-discipline, and job satisfaction.21

Similar attitudes are common in many countries throughout the world.

Finally, society in general contributes to child labor through omission, indifference,

a lack of awareness, or the acceptance of child labor as a natural and customary way of life.
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 The Economist, January 6, 1990. 22

 Testimony of the International Labor Organization. 23

29

v. Minority Status

In many cases, especially high concentrations of working children come from either

specific castes, ethnic or religious minorities, or domestic and foreign migrant populations.

In India, the great majority of working children are from lower caste families. In Malaysia,

most of the children working on palm-oil and rubber plantations are Tamils, who descend

from low-caste workers originally imported from India. In Argentina, many of the working 22

children are Paraguayan and Bolivian; in Thailand's fishing industry many are Burmese; in

Costa Rica, most are thought to be from Nicaragua. Children of native or tribal people also

may be employed, such as the Burmese Karen in Thailand's fishing industry, or native

Indians who pick sugar cane in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul in Brazil. In Pakistan many

of the working children may be minority Christians.

vi. Government Policy

Government policies -- or lack thereof -- also contribute to the use of child labor in

agriculture. In many countries, a lack of surveillance, enforcement, and intervention on the

part of governments allows child labor to thrive. According to the ILO: 

. . . almost nowhere do children working in agriculture receive the priority

attention their vulnerability merits; to the contrary, they are especially

underserved and underprotected. Labour inspection in rural areas is often

insufficient, and even under the best of conditions it may cover only the largest

commercial enterprises, which is not where many children work. Even the

structures by which child workers in agriculture might be reached are thin or

leaking; there is often a scarcity of government or NGO organizations capable

of extending services and protection to rural working children, even with

outside financial support. 23

Even when violators are caught and prosecuted, penalties are often too small to induce

employers to change their practices. 

In many countries, governmental policies simply ignore the plight of children.

Mandatory education laws, if they exist, are often disregarded in agricultural regions, and
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Recent Developments in the Plantations Sector at 8. 24

 Testimony of the International Labor Organization. 25

 Recent Developments in the Plantations Sector at 50. 26

30

in many rural areas schools are simply too distant to be accessible. The ILO has stated,

"Primary education facilities are available on most plantations, but are generally found

insufficient to enable all children to attend school regularly and complete their primary

education."24

3. Working Conditions: Health and Safety Issues

Children working in agriculture are exposed to many hazards that imperil their safety

and health. The ILO states that children working in agriculture "are at risk for two reasons

other than being child workers:"

First, they are involved in one of the world's most dangerous sectors; although

data are poor, agriculture is known to have especially high occupational

disease and accident rates for adults. Second, they live in rural areas, which

are generally poorer than cities; rural children in developing countries tend

to have lower weight and life expectancy at birth, higher mortality and

morbidity rates, greater incidence of malnutrition, and lower school

enrollment and completion rates than do urban children. This combination

of risks makes rural working children especially vulnerable.25

Even under the best conditions children in agriculture commonly suffer accidents,

injuries and illnesses. As the ILO notes, "children suffer from long and arduous working

hours, little health and safety protection and services, inadequate diets, rest and leisure, and

are further denied education even where primary school attendance is possible."26

Working children often work with unsafe farm machinery and tools that they are not

always able to operate safely. For example, some children who cut sugar cane use heavy

machetes that they cannot wield properly and suffer various injuries as a result. When

children perform chores that are simply too strenuous for them, such as carrying heavy or

oversized loads of picked coffee, tea, tobacco, and other crops, they suffer from problems

ranging from back injuries to permanent disabilities or deformities.

Children working on tropical plantations are regularly threatened by constant
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 See, for example, D.C. Pitt, "Child Labour and Health," in P.M. Shah, ed., Child 27

Labour: A Threat to Health and Development (Geneva: Defence for Children International,

1985) 23-36.

 Testimony of the International Labor Organization. 28

 World Labour Report 1994 (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1994) 82 29

[hereinafter World Labour Report].

 World Labour Report at 82-83. 30

31

exposure to poisonous or disease-carrying insects and reptiles. They are particularly

susceptible to endemic and parasitic diseases, dermatosis, and respiratory tract diseases.

Fatigue is an ever present problem.27

Hygienic conditions on plantations are often substandard. Drinking water is often

unsafe, sanitary facilities are frequently unclean, and medical facilities found on plantations,

if they exist at all, are often inadequate to treat the illnesses and injuries suffered by children.

A particularly dangerous threat to children working on plantations is regular exposure

to hazardous substances used in agriculture, such as toxic chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

The ILO, noting that the great majority of workers in the agricultural sector live in

developing countries, states:

The bulk of chemical products manufactured in these countries or imported

by them is used in agriculture. Pesticides, chiefly insecticides, are among the

most commonly used of agrochemicals. All too often they are applied without

adequate protective equipment or other precautionary measures. Workers in

these countries are too often untrained in the proper use of pesticides. Often

they cannot read the languages in which instructions are written. As a result

of these and other factors, pesticide poisoning is widespread.28

While some pesticides, such as DDT and other organochlorine compounds, have been

banned in industrial countries, they are regularly used in developing countries. Although 29

there are no doubt significant benefits from the use of agrochemicals, the effects of the use

of these chemicals on child workers in many countries may be more dangerous as a result

of climatic conditions, precarious working conditions, inadequate or even non-existent

medical facilities, ineffective or understaffed regulatory bodies, and general ignorance of the

hazards involved in handling pesticides. An ILO study of the use of agrochemicals states 30
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 World Labour Report at 82. 31

 A. Bequele and W.E. Myers, First things first in child labour: Eliminating work 32

detrimental to children (Geneva: UNICEF and the International Labor Organization, 1995)

9.

 Recent Developments in the Plantations Sector at 50. 33

32

that "(i)ndustrialized countries use 80 percent of the world's agrochemicals but probably

suffer only 1 per cent or less of all deaths due to pesticide poisoning; developing countries,

on the other hand, suffer 99 per cent of all such deaths while using only 20 per cent of the

world's agrochemicals."31

The effects of these safety and health hazards may be far more severe to children than

to adults. A recent study on children in hazardous work states:

A growing body of research indicates that, because of anatomical differences

between children and adults, child workers are considerably more vulnerable

to workplace health hazards. Age seems to be an important factor in the effect

of toxic chemicals, and children exposed to them early tend to become ill or

disabled much more quickly than do adults with similar exposure. Children

are more susceptible to thermal stress and environmental temperature

changes, and are more sensitive to ionizing radiation. They are also more

vulnerable to carcinogens, and, if exposed to them, the probability of their

developing cancer is greater than that of adults having equal exposure.

Furthermore, children who work are more likely than adults to suffer

occupational injuries owing to inattention, fatigue, poor judgment, insufficient

knowledge of work processes, and the fact that equipment, machinery and

tools used are designed for adults.32

4. Terms of Employment

Children working in the commercial agricultural sector are employed under many

different terms and circumstances. 

In some instances, children are hired as wage laborers and are employed on a full time

basis. While children hired in this manner usually perform the same work as adult workers,

only in rare instances do they receive the same wages as their adult counterparts; more

commonly the wages they are paid are one-half to one-third below those paid to adults.33
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

33

The majority of children working on commercial farms do so as part of a family unit.

The main incentive for parents to use children is the use of compensation systems that pay

workers by the weight or quantity of the product collected. By using their children, parents

are able to increase the amount collected and thereby increase earnings. Sometimes,

minimum amounts of a product must be collected in order for any compensation to be paid,

in which case the contributions of children can be critical. While children's earnings can in

some instances significantly enhance family income, more frequently their contribution is

a small percentage of the family's earnings.

Even when they are not engaged in full-time farm work, children may also support

the economic life of the plantation by taking care of younger children, performing domestic

tasks and chores, and taking care of their family's animals and vegetable plots. By doing

these jobs, farm and plantation operators are relieved of having to provide child-care

facilities, and adult workers are freed up to devote more of their time to farm work.

 

There has been a dramatic rise throughout the world in the use of contract labor,

whereby plantation owners and managers contract labor for a limited period of time or for

a particular job. Plantations owners tend to benefit from the use of contract labor, as it

relieves them of the burden of recruiting, overseeing, and paying the workers. But the

system has many negative consequences for children. Their families move frequently, often

to several locations in the course of a year. On the job, they often receive neither

compensation, medical care, overtime pay, rest breaks, rest days, nor education. Because

contract workers often do not live on plantations, working children must often spend many

hours each day commuting to work along with their parents. 

5. Education and Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

It is difficult to generalize about the amount and quality of education received by

children working in the agricultural sector. The quality of schools can vary dramatically,

even in a given area. Differing populations on a particular farm or plantation may follow

differing educational paths. The location or size of a farm or plantation rarely serves as a

clue to the quality or amount of education children receive. Few meaningful statistics are

kept on school attendance in rural areas, and even those that exist provide little insight into

the quality of the education children receive. 

Still, some general tendencies appear evident. For the most part, children living in

more geographically remote regions usually have lesser opportunities to attend schools, and

the quality of the education usually is inferior to that received by urban counterparts. While

many rural children attend primary (elementary) schools, most drop out either during or upon
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 American Embassy-Harare, unclassified telegram no. 4141, April 13, 1995. 34

 Myron Weiner, The Child and the State in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 35

1991) 52 [hereinafter Weiner].

 Maria Anna Mapa, Ramon Lachica, May Angeline Daanoy-Satake, and Violeta Lopez- 36

Gonzaga, Tender Hands that Toil: A Study of the Phenomenon of Child Labor in Northern

Negros (Bacolod City: University of St. La Salle, 1990) 11-12 [hereinafter Mapa, Lachica,

Daanoy-Satake, and Lopez-Gonzaga]. 

34

completion of primary school. Teachers are often scarce in rural areas. Many governments

take few steps to enforce their own mandatory education laws outside of more heavily

populated urban areas. 

Many large plantations and farms operate their own schools. The quality of these

varies greatly: some meet or exceed government educational standards, while others offer

minimal educations and structure school schedules to maximize the amount of time that

students can devote to working in the fields. Schools on commercial farms in Zimbabwe,

for example, have shorter class hours than other schools so children can work, and at times

when labor is needed owners will pay children to work in lieu of remaining in the

classroom.34

Where schools do not exist on the premises, children must often walk long distances

to attend schools, if any are accessible at all. Many rural parents often believe that their

education is not useful and seek to curtail their children's schooling at an early age. 

Children in what appear to be very similar circumstances may encounter very

differing educational opportunities. Children working on tea plantations in hilly areas of

West Bengal, in India, tend to attend either government schools or schools run by

missionaries. Children on tea plantations in the plains have fewer available schools and tend

to drop out by the third grade.35

Even on a given plantation, different groups of children may be offered differing

educational opportunities. In Negros, in the Philippines, the children of skilled plantation

workers attend school full time and work in their free time; the children of unskilled

plantation workers and the children of migrants working on the same plantation do not

receive any schooling.36

Working often has a strong negative impact on education. Children who attend school
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

35

and work are often fatigued and unable to concentrate in the classroom or do homework.

Almost no research has been done on the education of the children of migrant

agricultural workers. Because they regularly move from one plantation or region to another,

schooling opportunities may change with each move. For the most part, they attend school

in their home village, but this is often disrupted by constant moves. Migrant children usually

work with their parents as part of a family unit, and rarely attend school on the farms or

plantations where their parents work. Few governments have addressed the problem.
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Michel Bonnet, "Child Labour in Africa," International Labour Review, vol. 132, no. 37

3 (1993) 382.

 Child Labour in Tanzania at 13; interview by Department of Labor Official with 38

William Malya, National Program Coordinator, International Program for the Elimination

of Child Labor, Dar Es Salaam, June 20, 1995.

36

B. Regional and Industry Profiles

1. Africa

Harsh geography, in the form of rain forest and desert, makes the establishment of

commercial farming virtually impossible in much of Africa. War has shut down other oncelarge exporters, such as Liberia's rubber plantations and the coffee plantations of Rwanda.

In much of the rest of the continent, agriculture is undertaken on small communal or family

farms that grow crops for home use or local consumption.

The plantations in Africa that produce for export are situated mainly in two

geographical regions: the coastal countries of West Africa and the countries of the East

African plateau, running from the highlands of Ethiopia to South Africa. The major products

grown on these plantations are coffee, cocoa, cotton, rice, rubber, sisal, tea, and vanilla.

Fruits and vegetables are commercially produced in South Africa. 

Working conditions for children on African farms are extremely harsh. As one author

notes, "(c)limatic conditions quickly induce fatigue; there is a constant danger from insects,

reptiles and other animals; the ground is hard and tools primitive; distances to be travelled

are sometimes very great; working hours are long; and the overall picture can be even worse

if the children themselves are not in good health."37

Plantations and farms in Africa often hire children directly as contract workers. In

Tanzania, for example, it has been reported that primary school age children, some as young

as six years old, have been recruited for plantation work by owners of commercial farms,

who send trucks to collect workers between November and May, the peak agricultural

period. A 1992 account from the Northern Transvaal, in South Africa, tells "of some 38

children trucked in from outside farms being selected by lot for rape by adult workers on the
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Jackie Loffel, Child Labour: Economic Exploitation as a Form of Child Abuse in South 39

Africa (Johannesburg: Network Against Child Labour/Johannesburg Child Welfare Society,

1993) at 3 [hereinafter Loffel], citing Network Against Child Labour, Minutes and Records,

1991-1993.

 Interview by Department of Labor official with Jackie Loffell and Peter Mugabane of 40

the Network Against Child Labour, Johannesburg, June 6, 1994.

 Toward Action Against Child Labour in Zimbabwe (Geneva: International Labor 41

Organization, 1992) 46-47 [hereinafter Toward Action Against Child Labour in Zimbabwe].

 The Chronicle [Harare], June 11, 1995, p. 1. 42

 Loffell at 2, citing Child Labour in South Africa (London, 1983); Interview by 43

Department of Labor official with Jackie Loffell and Peter Mugabane of the Network Against

Child Labour, June 6, 1994; with Professor Henry Chipeya, University of Capetown,

Capetown, June 9, 1994; and with Professor Sarah Christie, Professor Evance Kalula, and

Davey Bosch, Center for Rural Legal Studies, Capetown, June 9, 1994.

37

host farm. Farmers in South Africa also reportedly contract with tribal chiefs in the 39

Transkei region to hire children. All of the payments go to the chiefs.40

In Zimbabwe, many large plantations, including some owned by the government,

require children to work during the harvest season in order to remain in school. In November

1990, students living on farms in Chipinge and Chisumbange were reportedly forced by the

government to pick cotton during the harvesting season. The students claimed they were told

that a refusal to work would result in their not being allowed to attend classes. In June 41

1995 children were photographed working in cotton fields of a government-owned farm in

Bulilimamange District. Despite protests by parents, the farm management insisted that

children work on weekends in order to finance the school. Those children who did not show

up for work on the weekend were required to work during school hours. 42

The use of child labor appears to be significant in South Africa, though research on

the subject has been limited. Children are reported to work on farms that produce fruit and

vegetables, grapes for wine, maize, sugar cane, and tobacco. The ILO estimated in 1987 43

that more than 60,000 black children between 8 and 14 years of age were employed as
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Loffell at 1, citing NCRC/UNICEF, Children and Women in South Africa: A Situation 44

Analysis (Johannesburg, 1993). 

 Interview by Department of Labor official with Professor Henry Chipeya, University 45

of Capetown, Capetown, June 9, 1994.

 Federation of Kenya Employers, Report on a Survey on Child Labour in Commercial 46

Agricultural Plantations in Kenya (Nairobi: Federation of Kenya Employers, 1994) 8

[hereinafter Federation of Kenya Employers].

 Federation of Kenya Employers at 3. 47

 International Labor Organization, "Des Plantations de Cafe aux rues de Nairobi," 48

Travail, No. 9 (September-October, 1994) 19.

 Federation of Kenya Employers at 6. 49

 Federation of Kenya Employers at 5. 50

38

laborers on South African farms. Prior to 1994, government labor inspectors were not 44

permitted to enter private commercial farms and were thus prevented from enforcing labor

laws or assessing conditions. 45

a. Coffee

In Kenya, children pick coffee berries during the harvest season. Younger children

work alongside their parents -- usually their mothers -- while older children often work

independently. By one estimate, children comprise 58 percent of the coffee plantation 46

work force during peak seasons and 18 percent of the work force during the rest of the year.47

Because workers are paid according to quantity, children are called upon to assist

their mothers to pick coffee and fill the coffee bags. Even with such assistance, earnings are

barely sufficient to buy food. Once the children begin working they rarely return to school.

In addition, many boys migrate to the cities by the time they reach the ages of 11-13.48

While some child workers live on the plantations, others either walk to work or are

picked up by trucks between 5:30-6:30 a.m. and return at 5:00-7:00 p.m. Protective 49

clothing and safety devices are not regularly issued; children who climb taller coffee trees

to collect beans sometimes fall. Children are generally malnourished and suffer from many 50
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Philista P.M. Onyango, "Child Labour Policies and Programmes in Kenya," in Assefa 51

Bequele and Jo Boyden, eds., Combatting Child Labour (Geneva: International Labor

Organization, 1988) 162 [hereinafter Onyango].

 American Embassy-Antananarivo, unclassified telegram no. 2383, April 19, 1995; 52

American Embassy-Kampala, unclassified telegram no. 2463, April 13, 1995. Uganda's

National Organization of Trade Unions (NOTU) claims that children were picking coffee

during the 1994 coffee boom; the Federation of Uganda Employers claims that most of the

children were 14-18 years of age. American Embassy-Kampala, unclassified telegram no.

2643, April 13, 1995.

 American Embassy-Abidjan, unclassified telegram no. 4697, May 16, 1995. 53

 Toward Action Against Child Labour in Zimbabwe at 46. 54

39

health problems.51

In 1994, U.S. imports of Kenyan coffee totalled $15 million.

In Madagascar and Uganda, children work on a seasonal basis, usually assisting in

picking and sorting coffee beans during the harvest season. In Côte d'Ivoire, children work 52

on medium-sized coffee plantations. They sort through the beans and select those that are

useable, strip coffee beans from the trees, and pick up beans that fall off the ground cloth

used to collect them. More research is need to determine the conditions of work, ages of 53

children, and primary school enrollment. 

In 1994 the United States imported $5 million of coffee from Madagascar, $34 million

from Uganda, and $8 million from Côte d'Ivoire.

b. Cotton

In Zimbabwe, children are employed to pick cotton for six weeks during the harvest

season. Because wages paid are extremely low, even many unemployed persons elect not

to seek employment, leaving either migrant families or children to take the jobs.54

Heads of households are hired or contracted by plantation owners to pick, weed, and

harvest cotton. They usually bring their wives and children along with them. Because

seasonal and migrant workers are paid by the task or by the piece, families have a strong

incentive to use their children to boost production. 
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Interview by Department of Labor official with Professor Sarah Christie, Professor 55

Evance Kalula, and Davey Bosch, Center for Rural Legal Studies, Capetown, June 9, 1994.

 Interview by Department of Labor official with Professor Henry Chipeya, University 56

of Capetown, Capetown, June 9, 1994.

 Towards the Elimination of Child Labor (Johannesburg: Network Against Child Labor, 57

n.d.) 1-2 [on file].

40

Some commercial and small-scale farms have resident workers. Farm owners usually

provide workers with housing, schooling, and banking services. Many workers spend their

entire lives on one plantation. While women traditionally picked the cotton, in recent years

children have increasingly performed this task.

In 1994, the United States imported $5 million of woven cotton fabric from

Zimbabwe.

c. Fruits and Vegetables

South Africa is the largest producer of fruits and vegetables in Africa, and child labor

is frequently used on South African farms. Child labor can be found in the Western Cape,

around Kalitsdorp; in the agriculturally rich areas near Stellenbosch and Paarl; and in the

Orange Free State. Children are also reported to farm asparagus on the Lesotho border. 55

 

Children are frequently used on a short-term basis in the harvesting season. A team

leader will hire the children, who are usually 10 years old and above, thus enabling the farm

owners themselves to deny responsibility for knowing the ages of the children or the terms

under which they were hired.56

Also in South Africa, there are reports of Mozambican refugee children who are

recruited by local farmers, put to work and then reported to the police for deportation as

illegal aliens when payment for their labor becomes due. 57

In 1994 the United States imported $22 million of fruits and vegetables from South

Africa.

d. Jasmine
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Marie Dorigny and Sorj Chalandon, Children in Shadow (Parma: International Labour 58

Organization, 1993) [hereinafter Children in Shadow].

 See Children in Shadow. 59

 American Embassy-Abidjan, unclassified telegram no. 4697, May 16, 1995. 60

 Child Labour in Tanzania at 13. 61

41

Children are regularly employed picking jasmine in Egypt. Between July and 58

October, recruiters take children from villages in the Nile Delta to gather the flowers in the

middle of the night, when the essence is purest. Recruiters prefer small children, because

their small hands better enable them to pick delicate single flowers. The children work

barefoot in the mud and must rely on their sense of touch as there is no light. The children

work 9 hour shifts without eating or stopping until the morning sun grows too strong. The

children are paid 3 Egyptian pounds per day. If the children stop work for any reason -- for

example, to avoid swarms of mosquitos -- they may be caned by the recruiter. 59

Imports of jasmine from Egypt by the United States in 1994 were $75,000.

e. Rubber

There are reports of some children working on large rubber plantations in Côte

d'Ivoire. The children have been observed helping their parents to dig holes and plant seeds

in the nurseries and in some cases assisting in the collection process. Children work as part

of their family units and are not directly compensated. More information is needed to 60

determine the extent of child labor in Ivoirian rubber plantations. 

U.S. imports of rubber from Côte d'Ivoire in 1994 totalled $8 million.

f. Sisal

In Tanzania many children aged 12-14 are employed in the sisal industry, where they

cultivate the immature sisal, transplant it once the plants have reached the required height,

and weed it throughout the year. The weeding is done almost exclusively by children.

Children also carry wet sisal fibers from the machines that strip the leaves to the drying lines,

and collect the short fibers that are ejected from the brushing machines.61

On one plantation, children composed 30 percent of the workforce. They work up to
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Child Labour in Tanzania at 13. 62

 Child Labour in Tanzania at 14. 63

 Child Labour in Tanzania at 13. 64

 Onyango at 162. 65

 American Embassy-Abidjan, unclassified telegram no. 4697, May 16, 1995. 66

42

11 hours per day, 6 days per week, with no regular or specified rest periods. Their earnings

are approximately one-half those of adults, not enough to adequately pay for lodging and

food. A survey of the children working on the plantation found that 12 percent had never 62

gone to school; 38 percent dropped out of primary school; and 50 percent had completed

primary school. None received education beyond primary school.63

Sisal production is hazardous. Children regularly work under the hot sun and during

rain without protective clothing. Continuous inhalation of sisal fibers and air-borne dust

from the brushing machines causes byssinosis, a lung disease. When carrying wet sisal

fibers, children are exposed to the sisal liquid, which irritates the skin and causes severe

itching. During weeding, children are injured by the sharp needle points of the sisal plants.64

In Kenya, some migrant children work in the sisal industry, usually for friends and

relatives who are hired as subcontractors by plantation operators.65

In 1994 the United States imported $3 million of sisal from Tanzania and $74,000

from Kenya.

g. Sugar

In the Côte d'Ivoire, children work alongside their parent on both large and small

sugar cane plantations. Children perform tasks such as stacking the cut cane, while young

teenagers sometimes assist in harvesting the cane. 66
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Toward Action Against Child Labour in Zimbabwe at 47. 67

 Rene Loewenson, Child Labour in Commercial Agriculture in Zimbabwe: Report of 68

a Case Study (Harare: ILO International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour,

1995) 8.

 Toward Action Against Child Labour in Zimbabwe at 47-8. 69

43

In 1994 the United States imported over $3 million of sugar from Côte d'Ivoire.

h. Tea 

Tea estates in Zimbabwe employ a large number of children, often 10-12 years old,

on a part-time, contract basis. They are paid according to the amount of tea picked. A study

of child labor on tea estates in Manicaland found that child workers begin their work day at

5:30 a.m., walk 5-8 kilometers to the tea fields, and work until 11:30 a.m. When they finish

picking the tea leaves, they carry the sacks of leaves to the weighing station; they then are

permitted to go to school, which begins at 1:00 p.m. If they fail to pick the minimum daily

load they are forced to work a half day on Saturday as punishment. The clinic staff on one 67

tea plantation found there were "frequent cases of children with abdominal pains and cuts

in the hands and legs from tea picking." The children suffer exhaustion and an inability to 68

concentrate at school as a result of this schedule. In addition, they suffer frequent abdominal

pains from tea picking. The sharp edges of the tea leaves cause cuts on their hands and feet.

Children commonly suffer lacerations and callouses on their plucking fingers, known as "tea

ulcers." 69

In 1994 the United States imported $46,000 of tea from Zimbabwe. 

i. Tobacco

Children are employed as casual laborers on tobacco plantations in Zimbabwe. They

work during the peak harvest season, which lasts 1-3 months per year, and during vacations.

Children who weed and plant tobacco are reported to suffer reactions from the use of

ethylene dibromide. Children working in tobacco grading sheds are exposed to steam, smoke

and dust, which can cause asthma. They are also exposed to heat and fire from boilers inside
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Toward Action Against Child Labour in Zimbabwe at 48. 70

 Interview by Department of Labor official with Professor Henry Chipeya, University 71

of Capetown, Capetown, June 9, 1994.

 Loffell at 3, citing New Nation, February 4, 1993. 72

 City Press [South Africa], March 28, 1993 at 5. 73

 American Embassy-Antananarivo, unclassified telegram no. 2383, April 19, 1995. 74

44

the sheds. 70

In 1994 the United States imported $30 million of tobacco from Zimbabwe.

In South Africa, some children are reported to work on tobacco farms. Children on 71

tobacco farms in the eastern Transvaal have been seen and photographed spreading pesticides

with their bare hands. 72

In 1993 a South African newspaper, the City Press, found children as young as 9

years old working on tobacco farms at Hekpoort, in the West Rand, working for 30 Rand per

week (approximately $10). One 9 year old girl packing tobacco leaves -- one of 20 found

working in a hot, dark, smoke-filled packing room -- told the newspaper that she had never

attended school and said she could not even remember when she had begun to work on the

farm. She said she worked from 7:00 a.m. to 5:30 p.m., 5 days per week.73

In 1994 the United States imported $4 million of tobacco from South Africa.

j. Vanilla

In Madagascar, children are employed in small-scale private farms, mostly along the

Eastern Coast, that produce vanilla. Children aged 10 and older nip the flowers of the vanilla

orchid, usually from 4:00 a.m. to 7:00 a.m. in the morning. They also harvest the raw vanilla

bean. Children earn 500 FMG (12 cents) per day. Child labor tends to be most prominent

where there are no schools. The largest enterprises do not employ children, as high

unemployment allows these producers to hire adult laborers at low wages. 74

In 1994 the United States imported $32 million of vanilla beans from Madagascar.
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Indian Commission at 1. 75

 Indian Commission at 1-2. The estimate of 44 million was made by the Operations 76

Research Group in Baroda in 1984, and the estimate of 100 million child workers was made

by the Center for Concern of Working Children in Bangalore in 1994.

 Indian Commission at 6 77

 American Embassy-New Delhi, unclassified telegram no. 5146, April 18 1995; Manjari 78

Dingwaney, Sunil Dogra, R. Vidyasagar, and Renu Gupta, Children of Darkness: A Manual

on Child Labour in India (New Delhi: Rural Labour Cell, 1988) 27-28; R.K. Goyal, "Child

Labour in India," Indian Labour Journal (February, 1987) 181.

 UNICEF and the Government of Pakistan, Situation Analysis of Children and Women 79

in Pakistan (Islamabad: UNICEF, 1992) 83.

45

2. Asia

Most of the world's working children live in Asia, and the majority of these children

work in the agricultural sector. Children in Asia can be found performing virtually all types

of farm work. 

A 1995 report by the Indian Commission on Labor Standards states that, "(e)ven on

a conservative estimate, India has the largest number of urban and rural child workers in the

world." The report acknowledges at least 18.6 million working children in 1990, but notes 75

that private organizations have placed the figure at between 44 million to over 100 million.76

Of the total, the report estimates that 85 percent work in agriculture and related activities.77

This figure does not distinguish between children working on plantations and children

working on family farms. Children in India work on plantations producing products such as

tea, coffee, cashew nuts, tobacco, cardamom, cinchona (quinine), natural rubber, and in the

fish processing industry.78

Other Asian countries also have large numbers of children working in the agricultural

sector. UNICEF and the Government of Pakistan estimate that there are 3 million children

working in Pakistan's agricultural sector. A 1989 Labor Force Survey by the Bangladesh 79

Bureau of Statistics found that 81.9 percent of the country's 6.1 million economically active
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Report on Labour Force Survey 1989: Trend of 80

Civilian Labour Force (Dhaka: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1992) xiii, 38-39.

 Omar Sattaur, Child Labour in Nepal (Kathmandu: Anti-Slavery International and 81

Child Workers in Nepal Concerned Center, 1993) 11, 41.

 American Embassy-Dhaka, unclassified telegram no. 1795, April 12, 1995; Peter Lee- 82

Wright, Child Slaves (London: Earthscan, 1990) 75-80 hereinafter Lee-Wright].

 Dhammika Moonemalla, "Country Paper: Sri Lanka," in International Programme for 83

the Improvement of Working Conditions and Environment (PIACT), Asian Regional

Tripartite Workshop on Practical Measures to Combat Child Labour: Proceeding and

Working Papers (Geneva, International Labor Organization, 1987) 176 [hereinafter, Asian

Regional Tripartite Workshop]. 

 Child Labour in Indonesia at 7. 84

 Child Labor in Indonesia at 9-10; Augustien Saksono, "Country Paper: Indonesia," in 85

Asian Regional Tripartite Workshop at 196; American Embassy-Jakarta, unclassified

telegram no. 3292, April 13, 1995. The embassy telegram states that non-governmental

organizations have reported children working on cocoa plantations.

 American Embassy-Kuala Lumpur, unclassified telegram no. 2181, April 28, 1995. 86

 Mit Charoenwal, "Country Paper: Thailand," in Asian Regional Tripartite Workshop 87

at 271.

46

children worked in the agricultural sector. 80

 In Nepal, children living on tea plantations prune, replant, sow, and weed. In 81

Bangladesh children are reported to work on tea and tobacco plantations. Children on Sri 82

Lanka's tea plantations weed and pluck tea leaves; on rubber plantations they weed and tap

the rubber trees for latex; and on coconut estates children gather and collect nuts, and weed.83

In Indonesia, an estimated 82.4 percent of boys and 64.8 percent of the girls between

10-14 work in the agricultural sector. Children in Indonesia work on palm, rubber, tea, and 84

tobacco plantations. NGOs in Malaysia estimate that 20 percent of the working children 85

in the country are employed in commercial agriculture. An estimated 85 percent of the 86

child workers in Thailand work in agriculture. It is reported that children aged 12-15 are 87
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Recent Developments in the Plantation Sector at 50. 88

 Victoria Rialp, Children and Hazardous Work in the Philippines (Geneva: International 89

Labour Organization, 1993) 1-2 [hereinafter Rialp]. 

 Comprehensive Study on Child Labor in the Philippines, (Manila: Institute for Labor 90

Studies, 1994) 56-57, 144 [hereinafter Comprehensive Study on Child Labor in the

Philippines.

 American Embassy-New Delhi, unclassified telegram no. 5146, April 18, 1995. 91

 The ILO, in Recent Developments in the Plantation Sector, cites S.K. Bhowmit's figure 92

of 59,000 children aged 12-16 work on tea plantations in Assam, 18,000 in West Bengal.

Recent Developments in the Plantation Sector at 50, citing S.K. Bhowmit, "Plantation Labor

Act and Child Labour," Economic and Political Weekly (Bombay) vol. XXVII, no. 42

(October 17, 1992). India's 1980 census recorded 80,499 children working on tea plantations

throughout the country. Mahendra P. Lama, "Child Labour

in the Darjeeling Tea Industry," in Indira Hirway, Jacqui Cottyn, and Pushkar Pandya, eds.,

Towards Eradication of Child Labour (Ahmedabad: Ghandi Labour Institute, 1991) 174.

Professor Myron Weiner places the number of children between 12 and 15 working on tea

plantations in West Bengal and Assam at 21,000. Weiner at 51. Child welfare groups

estimate as many as 64,000 children work on tea plantations in Assam. Molly Moore,

"India's Battered Tea Industry Seeks New Leaves, Markets," Washington Post, October 23,

1994, A37.

47

commonly recruited for work on sugar cane and rubber plantations in Thailand. 88

The ILO estimates that 18 percent of the child workers aged 5-14 living in rural areas

in the Philippines are wage laborers, many of whom are employed as farm workers.89

Children in the Philippines are employed in various agricultural enterprises, including fruit

and vegetable farms, rice and corn production, poultry farms, sugar plantations, animal care,

fishing, and copra making. 90

a. Tea 

 Children working on tea plantations in India assist their parents to pluck and sort tea

leaves and carry baskets of harvested tea. Most of the plantations are located in the states

of Assam and West Bengal. Estimates of the number of children working on plantations 91

in these two states vary from 21,000 to 77,000.92
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 American Embassy-New Delhi, unclassified telegram no. 5146, April 18, 1995; Weiner 93

at 51.

 Quoted in Myron Weiner at 51. 94

 American Embassy-New Delhi, unclassified telegram no. 5146, April 18, 1995. 95

 Weiner at 52. 96

 American Embassy-New Delhi, unclassified telegram no. 5146, April 18, 1995. 97

48

The demand for labor on tea plantations is highly seasonal. During the plucking and

harvesting season, June-September, children frequently accompany their parents -- usually

their mothers -- to work in the fields. They help to sort leaves and carry baskets of plucked

leaves. The former chairman of the Tea Board in West Bengal described life on the 93

plantation:

The workers are as attached to the land as the tea bushes. They were born in

the tea estates. The live there all their lives. They die there. The mother who

works in the tea gardens has no place to leave her children. She puts her

child on her back and brings the child with her when she works. What is more

natural than that the child wants to know what the mother is doing and wants

to help her pluck the tea. That is how the child becomes a worker. It is easy

for children to pluck. Their fingers are nimble and the bushes are at their

height. The child plucks the leaves and puts them into her mother's basket.

Whatever the child plucks increases the pay of the mother. I would not say

that the children are employed. They are helping their parents. Then, when

the child is twelve, she is given a basket of her own and earns her own wages.

She is paid half of what an adult is given.94

During the harvest season, children have sufficient time to attend school if schools are

available. Most of the children, however, drop out of school at ages 9-10 and spend the 95

non-harvest period pruning bushes and performing other chores. 

Because of the high seasonal demand during the harvest period, tea plantations

employ many migrant workers. The migrant workers bring their families to work on the

plantations. Many of the children are under 12 years old.96

In 1994 the United States imported $7 million of tea from India.97
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 R.R. Boquiren, Child Labor in the Cordillera: a Primer, a study by the University of 98

the Philippines College Baguio, as part of the UNICEF-assisted Joint DOLE-DECS-UPS

Project "Breaking Ground for Community Action on Child Labor" (June, 1990).

 Amparo B. Pinlac, "Country Paper: Philippines," in Asian Regional Tripartite 99

Workshop at 308 [hereinafter Pinlac].

 Pinlac at 308; see also Comprehensive Study on Child Labor in the Philippines at 56- 100

57.

 Pinlac at 308. 101

 102 Comprehensive Study on Child Labor in the Philippines at 56-57. The danger from

poisonous agrochemicals has been acknowledged by former Philippines Labor Secretary

Nieves Confesor, who noted that more than 2,000 child workers in Benguet,

Ifugao, and Mountain Provinces have been exposed to cyanide, a highly poisonous chemical

that can damage the lungs. International Child Labor Hearing, U.S. Department of Labor

(May 5, 1994) (Statement of International Labor Rights Education and Research Fund)

citing "Children Used to Spray Cyanide in Benguet," Manila Chronicle, July 27, 1992. 

49

b. Vegetables

Children can be found working on vegetable farms in the Cordillera region of the

Philippines, an area that encompasses the northern section of the island of Luzon. A 1990

UNICEF-sponsored study reported that children work 10 hours per day from Monday

through Saturday with only short breaks and half a day on Sunday. The children earn 25

pesos (approximately $0.95) daily, less than the minimum wage and less than half the pay

of adult workers. The study found a correlation between the physical strain of the work, the

constant exposure to natural elements, toxic pesticides, and other chemicals with retarded

growth, disease, and malnutrition.98

Children on vegetable farms in the Benguet Province in the Philippines work 8-10

hours per day, Monday-Saturday. They weed, cultivate, turn soil, fix canals, harvest, and 99

apply pesticides. The children are paid much less than their adult counterparts. 100 101

Children suffer from muscle strain and fatigue, and are exposed to harmful pesticides. 102

U.S. imports of vegetables from the Philippines totalled $550,000 in 1994.

c. Palm Oil
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 American Embassy-Kuala Lumpur, unclassified telegram no. 2181, April 28, 1995; 103

Jomo K.S., Aini, Ramasamy and Suppiah at 149-151, 162-163.

 Lee-Wright at 93. 104

 Jomo K.S., Aini, Ramasamy and Suppiah at 157. 105

 Jomo K.S., Aini, Ramasamy and Suppiah at 160; Suara Sam [Malaysia] (1987) 5; Lee- 106

Wright at 103.

 Jomo K.S., Aini, Ramasamy and Suppiah at 160. 107

 Jomo K.S., Aini, Ramasamy and Suppiah at 148-150; "Plantation Children in 108

Malaysia," Child Workers in Asia, vol. 9 no. 2 (April-June 1993) 18-19; Lee-Wright at 96

[hereinafter "Plantation Children in Malaysia"]. 

 Jomo K.S., Aini, Ramasamy and Suppiah at 144. 109

50

In Malaysia children can be found working on palm oil plantations, where they assist

their parents to collect loose fruit, help carry and load bunches of oil palm fruit, and weed

the oil palm fields. One report estimates that 60 percent of the children working on palm 103

oil plantations in Malaysia are 6 to 10 years old. Another survey found that only 16 104

percent of the palm oil plantations provide schooling. Workers on palm oil plantation must 105

collect 1.5-2 tons of palm fruit each day. For workers to successfully meet their daily 106

quota of palm fruit collection, notes one study, "assistance from the child worker is the

savior." 107

U.S. imports of palm oil from Malaysia in 1994 totalled $56 million. 

d. Rubber

Children on rubber plantations in Malaysia mark rubber trees, tap rubber trees, collect

latex, clean latex cups, spray pesticides, and work in factories on the plantations. They also

perform many supporting tasks related to rubber production. Virtually all of the children 108

are members of ethnic Indian families whose descendants were brought to Malaysia by the

British as indentured servants at the turn of the century.109

Most of the children work as part of a family unit, assisting their parents to tap the

trees and clean the latex cups. One survey found that 92 percent of households on four

rubber estates had at least one child below the age of 15 working, and that only 8 percent of
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Jomo K.S., Aini, Ramasamy and Suppiah at 150. 110

 Suara Sam [Malaysia] (1987) 5. 111

 "Plantation Children in Malaysia" at 19. 112

 "Plantation Children in Malaysia" at 19. 113

 "A Picture of Indochina," Child Workers in Asia, vol. 9 no. 2 (April-June 1993) 19. 114

 Abdul Azil Bin Haji Ismail, "Country Paper: Malaysia," in Asian Regional Tripartite 115

Workshop at 254.

 Jomo K.S., Faculty of Economics and Administration, University of Malaya, letter to 116

the International Child Labor Study, Department of Labor, July 19, 1995 [on file]; American

Embassy-Kuala Lumpur, unclassified telegram no. 2181, April 28, 1995.

51

the households in rubber estates did not send their children to work. The major reason 110

cited by parents for using their children is a requirement that workers tap at least 600-700

trees per day in order to receive the daily wage. This is more easily achieved by recruiting

as many family members as possible to tap the trees. Most children themselves do not 111

directly receive their earnings.112

Children who tap rubber with their parents usually work 7 days per week, 8 hours per

day. Rubber tapping begins early in the morning, usually at 5:30 a.m., and continues until

3:00 p.m. Many children who clean the latex cups may be under 14 years of age.113

Injuries in the rubber industry are common: in one report, 15 percent of the children

interviewed suffered injuries, mostly from tapping knives, fallen branches, bee stings, falling

machinery, and cuts from broken glass. Children are regularly exposed to hazardous 114

pesticides and thorny plants. They rarely wear footwear and are susceptible to insect and

leech-bites, as well as to mosquitos that carry the deadly "Dengue" disease. Because they

generally do not wear protective clothing, children are also bitten by poisonous snakes and

stung by hornets, scorpions, and centipedes. Children's eyes are not protected from chips of

wood and flying dirt caused by drilling holes in the trees.115

While many children still work on rubber plantations, the numbers appear to be

diminishing as employers are increasingly replacing domestic with foreign labor, especially

from Indonesia. Most of the foreign workers do not have their children with them.116
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Comprehensive Study on Child Labor in the Philippines, at 57. 117

 Maria Anna Mapa, Ramon Lachica, May Angeline Daanoy-Satake, and Violeta Lopez- 118

Gonzaga, Tender Hands that Toil: A Study of the Phenomenon of Child Labor in Northern

Negros (Bacolod City: University of St. La Salle, 1990) 11-12 [hereinafter Mapa, Lachica,

Daanoy-Satake, and Lopez-Gonzaga]. 

 Mapa, Lachica, Daanoy-Satake, and Lopez-Gonzaga at 57. 119

 Report of the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and 120

Recommendations: General Report and Observations Concerning Particular Countries

(Geneva: International Labor Organization, 81st session, 1994) 135.

52

In 1994 the United States imported $138 million of natural rubber from Malaysia.

e. Sugar

Children on sugar plantations in Ormoc City and Negros Occidental in the Philippines

weed, cut cane, and apply fertilizers. Some children and adolescents operate horse rigs in

the sugar fields, a job that can be strenuous and entails long hours of work. In Negros, 117

children begin to weed the fields when they are as young as 7-8 years old, and begin to cut

the cane at age 12. The children who work are children of unskilled resident plantation

workers and children of migrants who regularly move from plantation to plantation.118

Among the hazards that exist for children on sugar plantations are injuries from using sharp

knives, and poisoning from the use of dangerous fertilizers. 119

In 1994, the Philippines exported $45 million of sugar to the United States.

Deceptive recruiting of children and debt bondage occurs in connection with sugar

cane plantations in Thailand, mainly in the province of Kanchanaburi. Children and adults

are recruited through intermediaries for the plantations; the workers are enticed into taking

loans, becoming entrapped in debt bondage.120

The United States imported $6 million of cane sugar from Thailand in 1994.

f. Fishing

In Thailand, children are involved in all stages of the fishing industry. A study of 427

children and adolescents working in 44 fishing enterprises in Samut Sakhon province, a
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Kerry Richter and Orathai Ard-am, Child Labor in Thailand's Fishing Industry 121

(Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol

University, 1995) Table 1 [hereinafter Richter and Ard-am].

 Richter and Ard-am, Table 1. 122

 Richter and Ard-am at 20-21. 123

 Richter and Ard-am at 16. 124

 Richter and Ard-am at 21. 125

 Richter and Ard-am at Table 4. 126

 Richter and Ard-am at 18. 127

53

center of the fishing industry located approximately 25 miles southwest of Bangkok, found

that 48 percent were aged 14 or under; over 85 percent of the workers had started to work

at age 14 or younger. Of the working children who lived in the area, about 80 percent 121

were girls. Nearly 90 percent worked full time and 62 percent earned their own income. 122 123

Moreover, the researchers observed that many children as young as 5 or 6 years old

accompanied their parents or other relatives for the purpose of working.124

Most of the children surveyed (71 percent) clean, bone, and skin fish; shell squid,

mussels, shrimp and crab; and wash squid to remove the ink. Other children sort, weigh,

check, and load the fish; process seafood; work on fishing boats; build boats; and work on

the docks. Salaries range from an average of 541 Baht per month (approximately $22.00) 125

for boat building to 1,682 Baht per month (approximately $69.00) for sorting, weighing,

checking, and loading the fish. The average wage paid for cleaning fish is 873 Baht per

month (approximately $36.00), for cleaning and shelling seafood, 764 Baht per month

(approximately $31.00). As children gain more experience cleaning and shelling fish, they 126

earn more, because they are paid by the piece. 127

The children who shell seafood generally squat on the floor or sit on a small bench

for the duration of the working day, which can last 15 hours or longer. Children of all ages

use sharp knives or shelling tools, and suffer frequent cuts and scrapes. Because they work

with salt water and fish all day, many children suffer from skin diseases on their hands.

Protective gloves are not used because they slow the pace of work. Many children take off
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Richter and Ard-am at 18-19 128

 Richter and Ard-am at 21 and Table 3. 129

 Richter and Ard-am at 19. 130

 Richter and Ard-am at 20. 131

 Chantana Banpasirichote and Amara Pongsapich, Child Workers in Hazardous Work 132

in Thailand (Chulalongkorn University Social Research Institute, 1992) 42-46. 

54

2 or 3 days each month because of hand problems.128

In some enterprises, children begin work at 1:00 - 2:00 a.m., and work until after 6:00

p.m. Over half the children work 10 hours per day or more. Enterprises that specialize 129

in chopping fish are often open 24 hours per day. Some women bring their children and

work 3-4 days consecutively without stopping. In approximately half of the fishing

enterprises studied, children work every day of the week. Most of the children who do

attend school work only on weekends, but crab shelling takes place every day after school

and on weekends.130

There are many migrant workers aged 12-15 in the Thai fishing industry. Migrant

workers often outnumber resident workers. Some firms hire only migrant workers. The

migrant workers salt and ferment fish, make fish cakes and shrimp and fish balls, and shell

mussels. The workers usually live at their place of work. Among the migrant workers are

refugees and migrants (with no legal status) from Burma, including ethnic Karens, who

receive no compensation. They work solely in return for food and housing. 131

Children in Thailand also work in deep sea fishing operations. The 1985 Marine

Fishery Census of Thailand found 2,442 children aged 11-14, of whom 687 worked for

commercial fishing operations while the rest worked for their families. Children begin their

training by acting as divers, a job older fishermen choose not to perform because it is too

dangerous. The children dive into the sea to close the mouth of the net and stay with the net

until it is hauled in. Hazards include drowning, getting caught under the nets, injuries caused

by hauling rope, and injuries from malfunctioning equipment. The boats, which usually stay

at sea for 20-25 days at a time, often have poor sanitary facilities and unhealthy conditions.132

In 1994 the United States imported $829 million of shrimp, and $51 million of fresh
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 American Embassy-Dhaka, unclassified telegram no. 1795, April 12, 1995. 133

 American Embassy-Jakarta, unclassified telegram no. 3292, April 13, 1995 [hereinafter 134

Jakarta 3292]. See also Jeff Ballinger, Goods Produced for Export to the United States

Using Child Labor in Indonesia (May 1, 1994) 7 [on file]; interview by U.S. Department of

Labor official with Dr. David Parker, Occupational Epidemiologist, (March 29, 1995) [on

file] [hereinafter Parker interview]. 

 The U.S. Embassy Jakarta notes the children are age 15 to 18. See Jakarta 3292. 135

Other reports claim that the average age is 12 but that some boys are as young as 10. See

Parker interview.

 Parker interview. 136

55

and processed fish and other seafood from Thailand. 

Children are reported to work in Bangladesh's shellfish industry. In Chittagong and

Cox's Bazar, in southeastern Bangladesh, large numbers of children can be found on the

beaches collecting shrimp "fry" for cultivation by shrimp farms. Children are also reported

to work in factories in Chulna (southwestern Bangladesh) shelling shrimp and crabs and

possibly packing for freezing. 133

Imports of shrimp from Bangladesh by the United States in 1994 totalled $98 million.

Situations of forced labor of children occur in the fishing industries of Indonesia, Sri

Lanka, the Philippines, India, and Pakistan. 

Young boys are exploited in forced labor on offshore fishing platforms off the coast

of Northern Sumatra in Indonesia. There are an estimated 700 to 1500 platforms in the 134

region, employing three to ten children each. The age of the boys on these platforms ranges

from 10 to 18. They are recruited by contract agents who promise parents that their sons 135

will be employed in well-paying jobs. The children are then held as virtual prisoners for up

to three months at a time. They are sometimes sexually abused. Children are known to

attempt escape by jumping off the platforms and swimming to nearby fishing boats. 136

The fishing platforms, often poorly constructed, are from 1 to 30 kilometers off-shore

and range in size from 50 feet wide and 100 feet long. The children, usually supervised by

one or two adults, throw fishing nets into the water and haul them onto the platforms, where

the fish is then dried. The platforms often have holes, and it is not uncommon for the
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Parker interview. 137

 Jakarta 3292. 138

 Although the present conflict in Sri Lanka makes it impossible to verify the exact 139

situation in these areas, it has been suggested that the Tamil militants may have destroyed

the fishing camps and eliminated child exploitation in this occupation. Goonesekere,

writing in 1993, notes "(m)ore recent evidence indicates that children are perhaps no longer

employed in the fishing camps." Goonesekere states "it has been suggested that the (Tamil)

militants may have used their own method to destroy the fishing camps and eliminate child

exploitation in this occupation," but notes that there is no verification of this. S.W.E.

Goonesekere, Child Labor in Sri Lanka (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1993)

9-10 [hereinafter Goonesekere]; See also 1994 Report of the Committee of Experts at 128;

and telephone interview by U.S. Department of Labor official with Maureen Seniviratne,

Protecting the Environment and Children Everywhere (PEACE), Colombo (June 13, 1995).

 World Labor Report 1993 at 18. 140

56

children to fall through these holes into the water.137

Several non-governmental organizations are actively trying to combat the use of

bonded child labor on fishing platforms and have launched public awareness campaigns and

even attempted to rescue children from the platforms. One organization managed to bring

some platform owners to court in 1994 but its efforts failed when the parents of the victims

dropped the case.138

United States imports of fresh and processed fish from Indonesia were $27 million in

1994.

The International Labor Organization has noted reports of bonded children working

in fishing camps on small islands off the northwestern and eastern coasts of Sri Lanka. More

recent reports state that children perhaps are no longer employed in the fishing camps. In 139

the past, it has been alleged that boys have been removed from their parents for small sums

of money -- even kidnapped in some cases -- by unscrupulous recruiters. The boys were

used as forced labor in fishing camps; exposed to the elements, they were forced to clean,

salt, and dry fish for up to 17 hours a day. Older boys hauled in fishing nets. Police 140

sources indicated that the children were "kept in conditions of virtual slavery" -- badly

nourished, verbally and physically abused by employers and other workers in the camps, and
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Gooneskere at 9. 141

 Centre of Concern for Child Labour, A Summary of Child Labour Report 1992 (New 142

Delhi: Centre of Concern for Child Labour, 1992) 4.

 Suhas Phadke, "Eleven-year-old girls gets deliverance from sea of bonded labor," 143

Bombay Times, February 14, 1995 [hereinafter Phadke].

 Phadke. 144

57

receiving no wages. Due to ongoing political conflict in the regions where some fishing 141

camps are reported to operate, the current status of the children is unknown.

In 1994 the United States imported $310,000 of fresh and processed fish from Sri

Lanka.

Child labor is also used in India's fishing industry. Approximately 20,000 children

are reported to work in fish freezing and processing plants in Kerala. According to the

Centre of Concern for Child Labour, children also work in fisheries, where boys are used "in

loading and unloading and in skinning of the fish." They work from 4:00 p.m. to 7:00 a.m.,

and are paid on a piece-rate basis. 142

A recent report from India documents the incidence of bonded child labor in seafood

cleaning factories. In February 1995 the Bombay Times described a seafood factory in

Ratnagiri, India, a coastal city approximately 100 miles south of Bombay, that employs 30

girls who clean fish and shrimp continuously for 12 hours per day. Young girls were lured

from Kerala and Tamil Nadu with promises of good jobs in Bombay, but were instead taken

by private bus to seafood factories where they were forced to work under harsh conditions.

The Times reported that in the area around Ratnagiri there has been a boom in the number

of child workers in marine products and canning factories, but that the district administration

and police have largely ignored the problem. 143

 Parents received an advance of 400 rupees (approximately $12.00) from a recruiter,

which was deducted from the girls' earnings. For a period of 3 months while the debt was

being paid off, the girls received no salary. The girls were paid Rs. 1.50 (approximately

$0.04) for each basket of fish they cleaned. One girl stated that she could clean no more than

five baskets of fish per day. Often she was so tired she had to take a day of unpaid leave.144

The rescue of an 11 year-old girl by her brother brought the situation to public
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Phadke 145

 Comprehensive Study on Child Labor in the Philippines at 56. 146

 Rialp at 6-7. 147

 Henk Van Oosterhout, "Child Labor in the Philippines: The Muro-ami deep-sea 148

fishing operation," in Combatting Child Labor (Geneva: International Labor Organization,

1988) 111 [hereinafter Van Oosterhout].

 Van Oosterhout at 114. 149

58

attention. Upon her rescue, she was hospitalized and medically determined to be

malnourished. The skin on the palms of her hands had changed color from an infection

caused by prolonged exposure to salt water.145

In 1994 the United States imported $122 million of shrimp, and $27 million of other

fresh and processed fish and seafood from India.

In the Philippines, many boys work as fishermen, while other children, mostly girls,

work in fish processing plants. On the island of Basilan and in Masbate, boys work on

fishing boats that stay out at sea all night. In Masbate children as young as 7 dry, clean, and

sort fish. Children as young as 5 gather fish that have been left to dry.146

A form of debt bondage based on a contract system of payment occurs in the Muroami fishing industry in the Philippines. Muro-ami fishing, introduced in the Philippines by

the Japanese in the 1930s, is a labor intensive form of fishing, where hundreds of swimmers

and divers maneuver a net to catch reef fish that cannot easily be harvested by other means.

Muro-ami accounts for some two percent of the Philippines' total annual fish output. 147

Muro-ami operates on a contract-type system where fishermen are paid at the

completion of a ten-month period at sea. Fishermen are not paid until the completion of 148

their contract. They are compelled to take advances from the master-fishermen to provide

for their families in their absence. These advances are deducted from their final pay, an

amount which is based on total sales. The recruits are bound to conditions of credit set by

the master-fishermen, who have direct charge over them on board. Documents which

stipulate conditions of credit, if provided, are written in legal terminology and are generally

poorly understood by recruits. In other cases, agreements are oral. 149
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Van Oosterhout at 111-112. 150

 Rialp at 8. 151

 Van Oosterhout at 114. 152

 Jo Boyden and William Myers, Exploring Alternative Approaches to Combating Child 153

Labor: Case Studies from Developing Countries, Innocenti Essays No. 6 (UNICEF and

International Child Development Center, February 1995) 14 [hereinafter Boyden and Myers].

59

Deductions from pay are also routinely taken to compensate for the cost of food,

cooks' salaries, equipment rentals and maintenance and medical expenses. If a worker is sick

for a day, a commensurate amount of wages is deducted from his pay. Fishermen are paid

out of any remaining profits according to their rank and performance. While deductions

usually range from 30 to 40 percent of total pay, there are reported cases where deductions

amount to over 100 percent of pay due -- forcing the fishermen to join the operation for

another ten months in order to pay off their debts. 150

Muro-ami fishing in the Philippines is generally considered a good source of income,

and fathers often take two or three sons -- sometimes as young as seven to nine years old --

with them during the 10-month period. The majority of the swimmers and divers -- the most

physically dangerous tasks -- are children between the ages of 12 and 14. They have no

diving equipment other than wooden goggles, and injuries such as ruptured eardrums are

common. The boys are also in danger from shark attacks. The boats from which they dive

and on which they live are overcrowded and unsanitary.151

In 1988 a report stated that approximately 15 percent of the workers on each ship

were below 15 years old. A 1995 report stated that while boys were once hired in great 152

numbers for the Muro-Ami operations, recent press reports and inspections indicate that the

participation of children has since dwindled to a relative handful. This change has reportedly

come about through pressure maintained by national civic groups, community mobilization,

cooperation by international organizations such as the ILO and UNICEF, and stepped up

enforcement of the minimum age of 18 for employment in the industry.153

U.S. imports of fresh and processed fish from the Philippines were $8 million in 1994.

Entire families are entrapped in bondage in fishing operations in Rawalpindi in
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 State of Human Rights in Pakistan (Lahore: Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, 154

1994) 121-122 [hereinafter State of Human Rights in Pakistan].

 State of Human Rights in Pakistan at 122. 155

 Debt Bondage of a Philippines Dumagat Community, Anti-Slavery International 156

submission to the U.N. Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Sixteenth

Session, 1991 [on file] [hereinafter 1991 Anti-Slavery International submission].

 1991 Anti-Slavery International submission. 157

60

northern Pakistan. Contractors who are licensed to fish in water reservoirs or other areas 154

hire fishermen and advance them loans to pay for boats and fishing nets. These loans

become an instrument of bondage, with the entire family becoming engaged in the work --

boys help with the fishing while girls repair and maintain the nets. The families are at the

disposal of the contractor and are required to move from one area to another according to his

orders. 155

U.S. imports of fresh and processed fish from Pakistan were $430,000 in 1994.

g. Rattan

Indigenous Dumagat families in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines work

gathering rattan under conditions of debt bondage. Under the "tabong" system, a tabong, or

merchant, advances money to Dumagat families in return for their labor. In 1991, AntiSlavery International documented the situation of one-hundred Dumagat families working

under the tabong system. Children were found to be working along with their parents,

laboring...

all day and every day gathering and transporting rattan for the tabongs in

exchange for some rice.... These contemporary slaves can only be freed when

the debt, largely fictitious, has been redeemed. This is an impossibility.156

Tabongs often transfer debts among themselves; when this occurs the debts usually

increase. In 1994, Anti-Slavery International indicated that the debt bondage of Dumagat 157
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 The Enslavement of Indigenous Peoples, Anti-Slavery International submission to the 158

U.N. Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Nineteenth Session, April 1994

[on file].

 Lee-Wright at 73. 159

 Recent Developments in the Plantation Sector at 50. 160

 American Embassy-Kuala Lumpur, unclassified telegram no. 2181, April 28, 1995. 161

 Pharis J. Harvey and Lauren Riggin, Trading Away the Future (Washington, D.C.: 162

International Labor Rights Education and Research Fund, 1994) 46-47.

 Joseph Gathia, Centre of Concern for Child Labor, letter to the International Child 163

Labor Study, Department of Labor, April 18, 1994 [on file].

61

communities continued to occur. 158

The United States imported $8,000 of rattan from the Philippines in 1993. U.S.

imports of rattan furniture from the Philippines in 1994 were worth $22 million.

h. Other

Child labor is widespread on tobacco plantations in Bangladesh. Among other tasks,

boys under 14 help spray chemical fertilizers on the fields. Girls help their mothers dry, cut,

and pack the tobacco leaves. In 1994, the United States imported $546,000 of tobacco 159

from Bangladesh.

In Indonesia's tobacco industry, children work both on plantations and in factories.

In one factory, children reportedly comprised 30 percent of the 1500 person work force.160

The United States imported $11 million of tobacco from Indonesia in 1994. 

In Malaysia, children working on cocoa plantations pick and split pods and scoop the

beans. They also climb cocoa trees and pluck pods from low branches. In 1994 the United 161

States imported $40 million of cocoa products from Malaysia.

 

Children in India work on cashew farms, sorting the fruits and separating the nuts

from fruits. Other children shell and process whole cashews imported from East Africa.162

One estimate is that 20,000 children are engaged in processing cashews. Because the 163
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 American Embassy-New Delhi, unclassified telegram no. 5146, April 18, 1995. 164

 The Rights of Children in Guatemala, Submission of the International Federation of 165

Human Rights to the United Nations Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and

Protection of Minorities, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/199/NGO/15 at 3.

 American Embassy-Tegucigalpa, unclassified telegram no. 2267, April 10, 1995. 166

 American Embassy-San Salvador, unclassified telegram no. 2667, April 11, 1995. 167

 American Embassy-San Jose, unclassified telegram no. 2385, April 17, 1995. 168

62

industry is seasonal, children do not work full-time. Imports of cashews from India by the

United States totalled $175 million in 1994.164

3. Latin America

Child labor in agriculture in Latin America is found principally in Mexico, Central

America, the Andean region, and inland areas of Argentina and Brazil.

In Guatemala, over 300,000 people, mostly from the country's highland region,

migrate every year to the southern coast to work on coffee, sugar cane, cardamom and cotton

plantations. It is estimated that roughly 27 to 32 percent of the migrants are children. They

live in substandard housing and are frequently malnourished. Children between the ages of

12-14 do the same work as adults but are paid one-half as much.165

The pledging of children's labor by parents is reported to occur in commercial

vegetable farming in Honduras. Parents receive a pay advance and commit their children to

future work. The practice is estimated to affect only a small number of children -- less than

one percent of child agricultural workers. Children are also reported to work on coffee 166

plantations in Honduras.

In El Salvador children frequently work alongside their parents in commercial

agriculture, especially during planting and harvesting seasons. Anecdotal reports from 167

Costa Rica suggest that children have a "noticeable presence" in some non-traditional export

industries such as ornamental flowers and chili peppers.168

Approximately 3 million children between the ages of 10 and 14 are reported to be
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 American Embassy-Brasilia, unclassified telegram no. 2904, May 16, 1995. 169

 News From Brazil, Number 172, March 30, 1995. 170

 Bóias-frias literally means "cold food," referring to temporary and underemployed 171

workers in rural areas who carry their food to work and are forced to eat cold food.

"Volantes" means "in movement," and refers to temporary workers who are hired for a single

harvest season and must then continue to look for new jobs in other places.

 José Cesar Gnaccarini, "O Trabalho Infantil Agrícola na Era da Alta Tecnologia," in 172

Martins, JoÑé de Souza (ed.) Massacre dos Inocentes - A Criança sem Infância no Brasil

(São Paulo: Hucitec, 1993) 81-116.

 International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, Breaking Down the Walls of Silence 173

(Brussels: International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, 1985) 16 [Breaking Down the

Wall of Silence].

63

working in rural areas of Brazil. They work on sugar cane, tea, tobacco, and sisal 169

plantations, and extract resin in the forests. Most agricultural child labor is found in Brazil's

poorer northeastern states, but child labor is also found in wealthier states such as São Paulo,

Minas Gerais, and Parana. 170

In the 1980s, Brazilian agriculture underwent a major transformation. Large-scale

plantations became increasingly mechanized and export-oriented, and land became

increasingly concentrated in the hands of large agricultural businesses. Both resident

workers on plantations and small farmers expelled from their land joined the ranks of migrant

and temporary workers that became known as "bóias-frias" or "volantes." Because the 171

earnings of many families diminished considerably, they increasingly employed children to

bolster family income. Today, child "bóias-frias" and "volantes" comprise a large number 172

of Brazil's child workers.

In Argentina, a small number of children under the age of 14 work with their parents

harvesting fruits and vegetables. Many of these child workers are illegal immigrants from

Bolivia and Paraguay. Children are also reported to work on plantations that produce

tobacco, tea, and soy. 173
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Jocelyn Boyden, "Working Children in Lima, Peru," in William Myers, ed., Protecting 174

Working Children (London: Zed Press and UNICEF, 1991) 25.

 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994 (U.S. Department of State, 175

February 1995) 390 [hereinafter Country Reports].

 Country Reports at 496. 176

 International Child Labor Hearing, U.S. Department of Labor (May 5, 1994) 177

(Statement of International Labor Rights Education and Research Fund), citing "Peru: Child

Workers to Receive Social Security, Right to Unions," InterPress Service, Lima, Peru,

December 10, 1992.

 "Peru," report by the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, n.d. [on file]. 178

 U.S. Department of Labor and the Mexican Secretariat of Labor and Social Welfare, 179

A Report on Child Labor in Mexico and the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Department of Labor and the Mexican Secretariat of Labor and Social Welfare, 1992) 10,

12.

64

Child labor has traditionally been found in rural areas of the Andean region. In 174

rural Ecuador, school attendance tapers off at about 10 years of age as children work as farm

laborers to support their household's income. Some children in Ecuador reportedly work on

commercial agricultural enterprises that produce bananas and cut flowers.175

Child labor is also heavily used in Peru's agricultural sector. A 1992 report by the 176

Peruvian Government estimated that 7.5 million children under 15 were employed. One 177

estimate is that child agricultural workers make up approximately 70 percent of the total

child work force. There are reports of children who migrate to work on the coast. These

children work 10-12 hours per day, 6 days per week, and are paid half the adult wage. They

do not attend school.178

 

In Mexico, approximately 45 percent of all working minors (defined as ages 12-15)

work in agriculture, mostly assisting their families. Children are used to harvest fruits and 179

vegetables in many parts of the country, tobacco in Vera Cruz, and coffee and cheese in
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 American Embassy-Mexico City, unclassified telegram no. 12769, June 16, 1995; Lee- 180

Wright at 246-248.

 American Embassy-Guatemala City, unclassified telegram no. 3370, April 26, 1995. 181

 Children Without Childhood: Violations of Children's Right in Guatemala (Children's 182

Rights International, 1990) 22 [hereinafter Children Without Childhood].

 Children Without Childhood at 21. 183

 American Embassy-Guatemala City, unclassified telegram no. 3370, April 26, 1995. 184

65

Chiapas. The percentage of the work force under 12 in Mexico's agricultural sector is not 180

known.

a. Coffee

In Guatemala, children as young as 6 or 8 assist their parents during the harvest

season. They pick and sort beans, carry sacks of coffee, and sometimes handle fertilizers,

herbicides, and insecticides without proper health and safety equipment. Children work from

8 to 12 hours per day, often without legally required benefits such as July and Christmas

bonuses, vacations, and severance pay. 181

One report in 1990 found that men who traditionally picked coffee on plantations

were being fired as permanent employees and replaced by women and children hired at less

pay. Women and children reportedly receive about $0.50 per day, half the wage of adult 182

men. Children begin to pick beans when they are old enough to reach the lower branches

of trees and are able to determine which beans to pick. The report mentions that children as

young as 6 years old picked and sorted the coffee beans. Boys also routinely carried sacks

of beans weighing 75-150 pounds for several miles to the weighing stations. Researchers at

one plantation found poor medical facilities, no schools, poor sanitary conditions, and a

communal water supply that consisted of a single spigot. 183

Recent reports, however, suggest that the use of children as full-time employees in

Guatemala's coffee industry may be declining, as an increasing number of larger coffee farms

are setting up schools, and in some cases, day care facilities.184

In 1994 the United States imported $225 million of coffee from Guatemala.
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 American Embassy-Tegucigalpa, unclassified telegram no. 2267, April 10, 1995. 185

 Lee-Wright at 247. 186

 Lee-Wright at 247-8. 187

 American Embassy-Mexico City, unclassified telegram no. 12769, June 16, 1995; Lee- 188

Wright at 246-248.

 American Embassy-Brasilia, unclassified telegram no. 2904, May 16, 1995. 189

66

In Honduras, children as young as 6 are reported to work on coffee plantations in the

planting and harvesting seasons. During the planting season, which lasts from June- 185

August, children comprise approximately 20 percent of the labor force; in the harvesting

season, which runs from November through February, children comprise 30-40 percent of

the work force. Approximately 80-90 percent of the children work with their parents and

are paid the same wage as adults, 11-12 lempiras per unit (one unit equals one gallon of

beans). 

In 1994 the United States imported $20 million of coffee from Honduras.

b. Fruits and Vegetables

 In Mexico's Bajio Valley, 200 miles north of Mexico City, children working barefoot

in wet mud pick strawberries. Most of the harvesting is done during the summer. Until they

are 11, children return to school in September, although they continue to work in the fields

in the afternoons. Girls as young as 12 have been observed cutting broccoli, picking snow 186

peas, and picking onions. Children in Mexico have also been observed helping to produce 187

tomatoes and grapes in Baja California, tropical fruits in Tabasco, and various fruits and

vegetables in Sinaloa and Sonora. 188

The United States imported over $1 billion of fruits and vegetables from Mexico in

1994.

In Brazil, farms regularly employ children, especially migrant laborers during peak

harvest seasons. In the Tabatinga region in the state of São Paulo, 15 percent of the 70,000 189

fruit pickers are estimated to be under 14. Some employers hire children because they are
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 News From Brazil, Number 172, March 30, 1995. 190

 Iolanda Huzak and Jô Azevedo, Crianças de Fibra, (Brasilia: International Labor 191

Organization, 1994) 34 [hereinafter Huzak and Azevedo].

 Unclassified letter from American Consulate-Sao Paulo to the International Child 192

Labor Study (June 26, 1995) [hereinafter Sao Paulo letter][on file], citing a 1994 study by

the Central Unico dos Trabalhadores ("CUT" - National Trade Union Congress).

 American Embassy-Tegucigalpa, unclassified telegram no. 2267, April 10, 1995. 193

 Huzak and Azevedo at 61. 194

67

lighter and more able to climb trees without breaking branches. Children usually pick 190

oranges from trees or off the ground and box them for shipment. They are paid $3.00 for 191

working a 14 hour day.192

In 1994 the United States imported $220 million of orange juice from Brazil.

Child labor has been increasing in Honduras' melon and watermelon industries. At

least one report estimates that up to 25 percent of the workers are between 6-18. In 1994 193

the United States imported $19 million of melons from Honduras, including $2 million of

watermelons.

c. Grapes

In Petrolina, in the Brazilian state of Pernambuco, children work with their mothers

collecting grapes while adult males generally cultivate the land. Most workers in Petrolina

are migrants from Brazil's Northeast region seeking to escape the drought. Due to a high

unemployment rate, "bóias-frias" -- men, women and children -- compete for agricultural

work. Early in the morning, entire families go to farm roads to wait for recruiters known as

"gatos," (literally, "cats") who contract them on a daily basis to collect the grapes. 

Children earn approximately $2.00 per day picking grapes from the vines. They also

load the grapes into boxes, for which they receive less than $0.01 per box. They usually fill

100-200 boxes per day.194

Children also spray pesticides and insecticides, which, according to the Labor

Federation of Pernambuco, are used indiscriminately on grape plantations. One study found
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Huzak and Azevedo at 59-61. 195

 Resin is used to make products such as paper, ink, gum, and soap. 196

 Huzak and Azevedo at 111. 197

68

that 93 percent of workers wear no form of protective clothing during spraying. By the end

of day, children's clothes and hands turn a greenish color as a result of exposure to the

chemicals.195

In 1994 the United States imported $125,000 of grapes, $5 million of grape juice, and

$7 million of wine from Brazil.

d. Resin

Many children work alongside their parents in Brazil's resin industry, which is 196

centered in São Paulo state. Adult workers are usually hired on a temporary basis in the

warmer months, when the resin is extracted. It is common for workers to bring the entire

family to boost production. Most companies in the industry, in violation of the Brazilian

constitution, do not register their workers. Unregistered workers are unable to receive social

benefits such as social security, paid vacations, sick leave, and workman's compensation.

Children perform the same work as adults. They cut niches into trees and then, every

two weeks, apply a mixture of sulfuric acid, water, burnt oil, and rice to the niches. When

the resin is ready to be sapped, they place a small plastic sack to gather the liquid resin, and

then collect the juice in a "tambor," or bin. Each "tambor" holds 200 kilograms. The

tambors are sold for approximately $3.00. 197

Because they do not wear gloves, children's hands often become sticky with glue from

the resin. The glue is usually removed by washing their hands with diesel oil. Children in

the fields are exposed to poisonous snakes. They also suffer from pneumonia. Living

conditions are harsh. There are no schools for children to attend. Landowners provide meals

for the workers, but the cost of the food is deducted from earnings. Oftentimes the cost of

food exceeds total earnings. As a result, many families receive no pay at the end of the

month.
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Huzak and Azevedo at 139. 198

 American Embassy-Brasilia, unclassified telegram no. 2904, May 16, 1995. 199

 Huzak and Azevedo at 132, 135, 139, and 145. 200

 Huzak and Azevedo at 12. 201

 Irandi Pereira and Maria do Carmo Brant Carvalho, Trabalho do Adolescente: Mitos 202

e Dilemas (São Paulo: Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo, 1993) 57 [hereinafter

Pereira and Carvalho].

69

In 1994 the United States imported $600,000 of resin and gum resin from Brazil.

e. Sisal

Children work in Brazil's sisal industry, in the state of Bahia. One report suggests that

approximately 25 percent of the workers in the industry are children and adolescents. In 198

the municipality of Santa Cruz, in Bahia, more than 9,000 children work with their families

to cut and process sisal. Children as young as 4 years old work to help support their 199

parents. They usually drop out of school early to support their families and continue to work

on plantations their entire lives. Many children also suffer from asthma, which can result

from contact with the fibers. Numerous injuries and accidents result from the use of old

machinery, and a lack of safety precautions. 200

In 1994 the United States imported $9,000 of sisal from Brazil.

f. Sugar

Child labor is used on sugar cane plantations throughout Brazil. The principal sugar

cane producing states in which child labor is used are the Northeastern states of Pernambuco,

Alagoas, Ceara, and Bahia; Rio de Janeiro state, in the Southeastern Region; and the state

of Mato Grosso do Sul in Brazil's Center-West.201

Sugar cane cutting is extremely dangerous work; sugar cane workers have an average

working life of 12 years due to incapacitating injuries. Children are injured almost 202

routinely. A survey in the Zona da Mata found that 56.7 percent of child and adolescent

respondents had suffered some type of occupational accident. Knife wounds to the arms,
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Tereza Cristina Wanderley Corrêa de Araujo, Nanci Lourenço, and Álvaro Antônio 203

Vieira de Mello, Trabalhadores Invisíveis: Crianças e Adolescentes dos Canaviais de

Pernambuco. (Recife, Pernambuco: Centro Josué de Castro, 1994) 38 [hereinafter Araujo,

Lourenço, and Vieira de Mello].

 Pereira and Carvalho at 57. 204

 Araujo, Lourenço, and Vieira de Mello at 40 and Pesquisa Sobre as Atividades 205

Laborativas de Crianças e Adolescentes no Estado do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro: Centro

de Articulação de Populaçoes Marginalizadas [CEAP], 1993) 75-76.

 Araujo, Lourenço, and Vieira de Mello at 8. 206

 Araujo, Lourenço, and Vieira de Mello at 10. 207

 Araujo, Lourenço, and Vieira de Mello at 29. 208

70

hands, and legs, accounted for over 85 percent of the injuries. Repeated injuries to the 203

limbs eventually causes irreparable damage to workers' ability to move their arms, and

usually ends their cane-cutting careers at a young age.204

In addition to accidents, children also suffer from respiratory, dermatological, and

digestive problems; back, leg, and arm pain; headaches from prolonged exposure to the sun;

conjunctivitis; and mental and physical stress from having to meet high production quotas.205

The Zona da Mata, a coastal region in Pernambuco state, is Brazil's principal sugar

cane growing and processing area. Most of the sugar cane produced is grown on large 206

plantations that own both the sugar cane fields and the factories that process the cane and

extract the sugar.

An estimated 60,000 children and adolescents, aged 10-17, work on plantations in the

region, accounting for approximately 25 percent of the total number of cane workers in the

Zona da Mata. Many of the cane workers are seasonal workers. 207

Most of the children in the Zona da Mata enter the labor market at young ages. One

survey found that over 90 percent of the working children and adolescents, and nearly 85

percent of the heads of households, had begun working between the ages of 7 and 13. A 208

lack of time, a lack of available schools near the plantations, and a perception that what is

taught in the schools is irrelevant, combine to make school attendance impossible.
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Araujo, Lourenço, and Vieira de Mello at 31-32. 209

 Cícero Belmar, "Menores São Explorados nos Canaviais," Jornal do Brasil, September 210

21, 1991.

 Araujo, Lourenço, and Vieira de Mello at 37. 211

 Cícero Belmar, "Menores São Explorados nos Canaviais," Jornal do Brasil, September 212

21, 1991.

 Huzak and Azevedo at 18. 213

 Araujo, Lourenço, and Vieira de Mello at 37. 214

 Ari Cipola, "Crianças Trabalham Ilegalmente em Canaviais," Folha de São Paulo, 215

October 21, 1991.

 Iúri Totti, Jornal do Brasil, December 28, 1990. 216

71

The majority of the children are not officially registered with the plantations; one

study places the percentage of unregistered children at 90 percent, unregistered adults at 40

percent. The children are paid much less than adults. Over 40 percent of the children 209 210

work more than 40 hours per week. None of these children receive any formal training; they

usually acquire their skills from family members. Children must often wake up at 4:00 211

a.m. and go to work without eating breakfast; they carry candles with them so they can 212

work in the pre-dawn hours. Employers generally do not provide the children with boots 213

or shoes to protect them and most children instead wear either rubber sandals or work

barefoot.214

In Alagoas, Brazil's second largest sugar producing state, an estimated 50,000 of the

400,000 sugar cane workers on plantations are children aged 6-13. Most of the children 215

assist their parents.

Of the 20,000 sugar cane workers in Bahia state's Recôncavo Region, 2,000 are

reported to be children. The children usually work from 5:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. They do not

wear shoes, hats, or other appropriate clothing to protect them from either objects or animals,

or the hot sun. Most workers are hired through verbal contracts negotiated by "gatos" hired

by plantation owners to supply them with the necessary number of workers. Most of the 216

children work with their families. A worker must cut approximately 4 tons of sugar cane
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Brazil's minimum wage in July 1995 was 100 Real (approximately $100) per month. 217

 Huzak and Azevedo at 12. 218

 Análise de Situaçoes e Recomendaçoes - Agroindústria Sucro Alcooleira de Campos - 219

RJ (Brasilia, D.F.: Forum Nacional de Prevenção e Erradicação do Trabalho Infantil, 1995)

6. 

 Versão Preliminar da Análise de Situação do Trabalho Indígena nas Usinas de Álcool 220

de Mato Grosso do Sul (Brasilia: Forum Nacional de Prevencaso e Erradicacas do Trabalho

Infantil, 1995) 1-2 [hereinafter Forum Nacional]. Children also were found working at 8

distilleries in the region that process the sugar cane and turn it into alcohol.

72

daily to receive the minimum wage at the end of the month; to meet this goal, support from 217

other family members is required. Payment is typically made to the head of the household.

In the state of Ceará, children work both in the fields and inside the cane processing

factories. In the fields, where the temperature is often over 40oC (104oF), children cut and

sort cane, transport cane to the processing plants, and carry the unused pulp to the fields

where it is used as feed for cows. Those working inside the processing factories feed cane

into the machines that extract the sugar and carry the pulp outside to dry. Temperatures

inside the factories can reach 60o C (140oF). The children are paid the equivalent of $3.00

per week.218

In the municipality of Campos, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, there are an estimated

5,000-6,000 children aged 7-14 working in the sugar industry (approximately 4,000 boys and

2,000 girls). Most of the work force is seasonal and approximately 60 percent of the work 219

force is either unemployed or underemployed between harvests. In contrast to workers in

the Zona de Mata or Alagoas who live on the plantations, the migrants who work in Campos

live in shanty-towns on the roads or in neighborhoods near the plantation and are brought to

work by trucks daily. 

In the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, there are reports of one plantation employing 600

children between the ages of 9 and 16. Children cut and transport cane, and collect cane 220

that has fallen off trucks. They typically work from 6:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. These children

receive no paid vacation, time off for illness, or overtime. They are not included in the

national social security system. No on-site medical assistance is provided, and when
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Forum Nacional at 1-2. 221

 Conflitos no Campo 1994 (Brazil: Brazilian Land Pastoral Commission, 1995) 31. 222

See also American Consulate-Sao Paulo, unclassified telegram no. 1872, June 27, 1995.

 American Embassy-Guatemala, unclassified telegram no. 3370, April 26, 1995. 223

 Huzak and Azevedo at 38 and 43. 224

73

children are ill they are sent back to their villages.221

In 1994, labor inspectors found 500 workers, including children, working in "the

worst conditions of food, lodging and labor" in factories making distilled alcohol from cut

sugar in Mato Grosso do Sul. All of the workers were brought by recruiting agents from

other states. The workers were supervised by armed guards, and were only allowed to leave

the factory compound on their payday. 222

In 1994 the United States imported $42 million of cane sugar from Brazil.

There are some reports that children in Guatemala cut cane along with their fathers.

Some sources state that the children use small machetes to help trim the cane after it is cut.

Children also are reported to collect loose stalks which have fallen off loaders and trucks.223

In 1994 the United States imported $51 million of cane sugar from Guatemala.

g. Tea

Children are reported to work in the tea industry in rural area of Registro, São Paulo

state, in Brazil. Workers on tea plantations receive parcels of land from the plantation

management "for care" in exchange for 20 percent of production. The plantation

management provides the workers with meals, as well as pesticides; the value of these goods

is deducted from the workers' pay. These arrangements have no official status: there is no

formal contract and the workers are not formally registered in any manner. 224

Tea production can be dangerous. Children are exposed to pesticides. They are not

supplied with clothing to protect them from the sun or snakes that are found in the fields.
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Huzak and Azevedo at 37, 45. 225

 Huzak and Azevedo at 62. 226

 Huzak and Azevedo at 65, 67-68. 227

 Alison Sutton, Slavery in Brazil (London: Anti-Slavery International, 1994) 84 228

[hereinafter Sutton].

74

Because no schools are located near the plantations, children receive no formal education.225

 

In 1994 the United States imported $4 million of tea from Brazil.

h. Tobacco

Children in Brazil are reported to work in the tobacco industry in Santa Cruz do Sul,

a municipality in Rio Grande do Sul Province known as the "national capital of tobacco."

Many of the young workers are children of migrant workers, or "bóias-frias." They help

their families increase daily production, and thus earnings. Children cut and sort tobacco

leaves and spray pesticides and other chemicals on the tobacco plants. They work under the

hot sun, and frequently suffer back pain. One survey of local school children found that 226

a majority had worked in the tobacco fields.227

U.S. imports of tobacco from Brazil in 1994 totalled $146 million.

i. Rubber

Children on rubber plantations in western Brazil are reported to work along with their

parents under conditions of servitude. In 1992, a report on families on a rubber plantation

in the western state of Acre found that boys started tapping rubber at an average age of

nine. 228

In remote parts of Acre, rubber tappers are required to pay "rent-in-kind" for use of

rubber trails -- generally between 150 and 225 pounds of rubber each year or 20 per cent of
Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture

 Sutton at 82. See also Eugênio José Guilherme de Aragão, Is the Brazilian Barracão- 229

Regime Consistent with International Safeguards Against Slavery?, Research Essay in

International Human Rights Law, University of Essex (1994) 6 [on file] [hereinafter

Guilherme de Aragão]. 

 Guilherme de Aragão at 6. In recent years rubber tappers have resisted such a system; 230

but it persists in remote areas. See also Sutton at 77. 

 Guilherme de Aragão at 6-7; Sutton at 84-86. 231

 Sutton at 83. 232

 Sutton at 75. 233

75

their annual production. In addition, they are required to deal exclusively with the 229

plantation boss at the estate warehouse in order to sell the rubber and purchase provisions.230

This system leads to abuses, as the boss fixes all prices arbitrarily. Some rubber tappers find

themselves in perpetual debt. Those who do not comply with these arrangements are

sometimes threatened or thrown off the plantation along with their families. 231

In one estate in Acre, families were forced to sign a contract with the plantation owner

which forbid them from trading with anyone else. They were not allowed access to the

calculations made by the owner to their accounts. Very few families managed to make any

profit by the end of the year. Nor were they permitted to raise any animals to supplement

their income. Their living conditions were bleak:

The houses were extremely modest, mostly without furniture, and families ate

their meals on the floor. The most a family might expect to buy after one

year's work would be a new hammock and a few yards of material. Their

clothes were full of holes, but they could not afford to replace them.232

 

In May 1989, the Brazilian Federal Attorney General's Office initiated an

investigation of labor conditions in the western state of Acre. One of its stated objectives

was to eradicate a labor system which maintains rubber tappers in conditions which can be

characterized under the Brazilian penal code as "analogous to slavery."233

Brazilian exports of natural rubber to the United States were $600,000 in 1994.

j. Other
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 American Embassy-Guatemala, unclassified telegram no. 3370, April 26, 1995. 234

76

Children in Guatemala are also reported to work on farms that produce cardamon

seeds, macadamia nuts, and tea. In 1994 the United States imported $1 million of 234

cardamom seeds; $3 million of macadamia nuts; and $30,000 of tea from Guatemala.
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Children in Bondage: A Call for Action (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1

1992) 3 [hereinafter Children in Bondage: A Call for Action].

 Children in Bondage: A Call for Action at 3-4. See also Neera Burra, Born to Work: 2

Child Labor in India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995) 15 [hereinafter Born to

Work].

 World Labor Report (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1993) 17 [hereinafter 3

World Labor Report 1993].

 Children in Bondage: A Call for Action at 4. 4

 World Labor Report 1993 at 17. 5

77

III. Forced and Bonded Child Labor

A. Introduction

1. Overview

"Slavery is not dead." It is found in the practice of forced or bonded child labor, 1

which is considered to be the most exploitative and egregious form of child labor. 2

There are millions of children whose labor can be considered forced, not only because

they are too young to choose to work, but also because they are, in fact, actively coerced into

working. These include child bonded laborers -- children whose labor is pledged by parents 3

as payment or collateral on a debt -- as well as children who are kidnapped or otherwise

lured away from their families and imprisoned in sweatshops or brothels. In addition,

millions of children around the world work unseen in domestic service -- given or sold at a

very early age to another family.

Forced child laborers work in conditions "that have no resemblance to a free

employment relationship." They receive little or no pay and have no control over their daily 4

lives. They are often forced to work beyond their physical capacity and under conditions 5

that seriously threaten their health, safety and development. In many cases their most basic

rights, such as freedom of movement and expression, are suppressed. They are subject to
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Some of these situations were covered in By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume I): 6

The Use of Child Labor in U.S. Manufactured and Mined Imports (1994). This report

expands on those examples and provides additional information. Some cases of forced and

bonded child labor in the agricultural and fishing sectors are discussed in Section III of this

report -- Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture. See discussion of sugar cane plantations

in Thailand (p. 52), the fishing industries of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, India, and

Pakistan (pp. 55-60), the rattan industry in the Philippines (p. 60), and the rubber industry

in Brazil (p. 74).

 Alec Fyfe, Child Labor (Polity Press, Oxford, 1989) 75 [hereinafter Fyfe]. See also 7

Children in Bondage: A Call for Action at i.

 International Child Labor Hearing, U.S. Department of Labor (April 12, 1994) 8

(Statement of South Asian Coalition on Child Servitude (SACCS), India Chapter) [on file]

[hereinafter 1994 Testimony of SACCS]. 

 Children in Bondage: A Call for Action at 4 . 9

78

physical and verbal abuse. Even in cases where they are not physically confined to their

workplace, their situation may be so emotionally traumatizing and isolating that once drawn

into forced labor they are unable to conceive of a way to escape. 

This chapter reviews some well-known situations of forced child labor, including

bonded labor in manufacturing and mining sectors. In order to provide a more complete 6

picture of these practices as they occur throughout the world, situations of forced child labor

in non-export production, including "services" such as the sex industry and domestic

services, will also be described.

Forms of forced child labor are found in many regions of the world. It is generally

assumed that forced and bonded child labor is most widespread in Asia, particularly in the

Indian subcontinent, because most reports are from that region. The South Asian Coalition 7

on Child Servitude estimates that there are approximately ten million child laborers in

"chronic bondage" in India alone. Forced child labor is also found in Latin America and 8

Africa, although less documentation is available on its occurrence in these regions. While

reliable statistics on forced and bonded child labor are lacking, the ILO estimates that the

number of child victims is increasing in some sectors and industries despite national and

international laws prohibiting the practice. 9

Forced child labor is found primarily in informal, unregulated or illegal sectors of the
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 "Focus: Reserves of Cheap Labor: Slavery and Indigenous Peoples," in Anti-Slavery 10

International Newsletter, issue no. 25 (June 1994) 4. In India, for example, a study

conducted by the Indian Social Institute indicated that 90 percent of bonded laborers come

from the marginalized scheduled castes and tribes. See Walter Fernandes, "The 'nochildhood' Children," Jivan (September 1986) 4.

 ILO Convention 29 on Forced or Compulsory Labor in International Labor 11

Conventions and Recommendations: 1919-1991, vol. 1 (Geneva: International Labor

Organization, 1992) 115.

79

economy. It is most common among the economically vulnerable and least educated

members of society such as minority ethnic or religious groups or the lowest classes or

castes. Children are especially vulnerable to exploitation because their lack of maturity

makes them easy to deceive and ensures that they have little, if any, knowledge of their

rights. As the London-based human rights organization Anti-Slavery International (ASI)

states,

It is an axiom that the weakest and most marginalized groups of people are

those most vulnerable to exploitation. Within the context of slavery,

indigenous peoples along with women and children are amongst the groups

most affected. 

10

2. Definitions

There are no specific international standards on "forced child labor." This study uses

ILO and United Nations standards on minimum age for employment, forced labor, the

economic exploitation of children, and slavery-like practices. 

Forced labor is defined by ILO Convention 29 on Forced or Compulsory Labor as "all

work or service which is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty and for

which the said person has not offered himself voluntarily." Convention 29 calls upon 11

ratifying states to “suppress the use of forced or compulsory labor in all its forms.” 

The United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the

Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery defines slavery to include:

debt bondage, serfdom and any practice whereby a person under 18 years of age is delivered

by his parent/guardian, whether for reward or not, with a view to the exploitation of the

young person or his labor. 
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions 12

and Practices Similar to Slavery, adopted September 7, 1956, entered into force April 30

1957, 266 U.N.T.S. 3.

 Roger Sawyer, Children Enslaved (London: Routledge, 1988) 47 [hereinafter Sawyer]. 13

 U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted November 20, 1989, entered into 14

force September 2, 1990, G.A. Res. 44/25, 44 UN GAOR, Supp. (No. 49), U.N. Doc.

A/44/49, article 32 [hereinafter Convention on the Rights of the Child].

 Convention on the Rights of the Child, articles 33-35. Other U.N. instruments dealing 15

with slavery-related issues are the Slavery Convention of 1926, the Universal Declaration

of Human Rights (1948) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966).

80

The 1956 Convention defines debt bondage as:

the status or condition arising from a pledge by a debtor of his personal

services or of those of a person under his control as security for a debt, if the

value of those services as reasonably assessed is not applied towards the

liquidation of the debt or the length and nature of those services are not

respectively limited and defined.12

Most commonly, the person under control is a child, whose services are sometimes

pledged at a very young age.13

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child states that children must

be protected from all forms of economic exploitation. This includes performing any work

"that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's education, or to be harmful to

the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development." The 14

Convention also calls for the prevention of the use of children in illicit production and

trafficking of drugs; protection against all forms of sexual exploitation; and prevention

against abduction, sale of or traffic in children for any purpose.15

3. Situations of forced child labor

Examples of forced child labor are examined below. They include debt bondage,

kidnapping, trafficking, and sale of children, and domestic servitude. 

a. Debt bondage
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 World Labor Report 1993 at 11. 16

 Fyfe at 76. 17

 Fyfe at 75. 18

 Fyfe at 75. 19

 World Labor Report 1993 at 11. 20

 Fyfe at 76. 21

81

Debt bondage, found predominantly in South Asia and Latin America, occurs when, 16

in return for a money advance or credit, a person, having no other security to offer, pledges

his/her labor or that of a child for an indefinite period of time. In many cases a parent takes

a loan aware that the labor of his entire family will be offered in return. In other cases the

child alone is subjected to bondage by parents or a guardian who pledge the child's labor in

exchange for a loan:

Children become a commodity in this process. Parents have absolute power

over their children, making it possible for children to be pledged chattel-like

to pay off debts.17

Technically, bonded laborers can end their state of servitude once the debt is repaid.18

But the fact of the matter is that this rarely occurs. Since debtors are often illiterate and lack

basic math skills, they are easy prey for deception by moneylenders. A combination of low 19

wages and usurious interest rates make it impossible to repay the initial debt. In many cases

the debt increases because the employer deducts payment for equipment and tools or charges

fines for faulty work. Sometimes the labor pledged is used to repay the interest on the loan 20 

but not the principal. 21

Debt bondage is commonly found in rural areas where traditional class or caste

structures and semi-feudalistic patterns endure. Landless or near-landless households, as

well as migrant laborers, are particularly vulnerable to debt bondage since they have few

resources with which to meet daily needs or unexpected expenses. There are no alternative

sources of credit available. Sometimes families take loans they cannot repay in order to fund

ceremonial events such as weddings and funerals.
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent (London: Anti-Slavery International, 22

1991) 24 [hereinafter Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent].

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 27 citing Michel Bonnet. 23

82

In cases of "intergenerational" bondage, debts are passed down from parent to child.22

Once a parent is no longer able to work, the debt is assumed by the child. This occurs

particularly in countries with longstanding feudal agricultural societies. 

Other contractual-type arrangements exist that can eventually lead to debt bondage.

In agriculture or mining, persons may be recruited and transported long distances to work.

In most cases the actual conditions of employment are not written. Where written contracts

exist, the illiterate children and families are unable to verify their contents. Once they arrive

at the work site, often in remote areas from which escape is impossible, they find the

conditions to be much worse than initially described. 

These situations lead to bondage when transport costs and living expenses are

deducted from pay. Families or children are required to buy food and medicine and other

supplies at inflated prices from a concessionaire or company store. When workers owe more

than they have received in pay, they find themselves ensnared in debt bondage. Unable to

pay for their return trip home, they are forced to stay.

b. Trafficking in Children

The abduction of children leads to some of the most exploitative and abusive

situations of child bondage. In some cases, children are kidnapped, taken far away from

home and sold into prostitution. In other cases abducted children are sold to work in smallscale industries. There are also reports of young boys from South Asia trafficked and sold

to be used as camel jockeys in the Gulf States. 

Systems of child trafficking include various middlemen, recruiting agents and

conveying agents. There are networks of intermediaries at every level -- local, national and

international.23

c. Sale of children and fraudulent recruitment

Many children are sold by their parents or lured away from their homes by recruiters.

Poor families are commonly seduced by false promises of middlemen such as recruiting
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Children in Bondage: A Call for Action at 7. 24

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 27. 25

 World Labor Report 1993 at 11. 26

 Children at Work: A Report Based on the ILO and UNICEF Regional Training 27

Workshop on Programmatic and Replication Issues Related to Child Labour and Street

Children (Bangkok: UNICEF, 1994) 115 [hereinafter Children at Work].

83

agents or contractors. The recruiters promise well-paying jobs and a brighter future for the 24

children, often misrepresenting the type of work the child will perform.

Recruiters or contractors are often associated with a particular employer or organized

agency, or may work independently. Sometimes village members or neighbors earn money

by recruiting children for work. They make their rounds in villages and slums, "insinuating

themselves as friends and helpers of the poorest families, understanding their plight and

offering to help them with their financial problems." The child is then taken away by bus, 25

truck or train to be sold to a master. In some cases, families are never reunited. 

Parents are often given an advance by the recruiter to pay for travel and food. The

child is then confined to the workplace until he/she is able to pay off the debt owed from the

advance. In many countries children are forced into the sex industry because their parents

have sold them to recruiters, or because recruiters have lured the children away with

promises of an exciting life in the big city.

The selling of children by their parents has reportedly been on the increase in Sudan

due to the ongoing civil war. Boys between 7 and 12 years old are sold by destitute families

to merchants for approximately $70 each. Once sold, children have little chance of being

reunited with their parents. 26

d. Domestic Servants

The use of children as domestic servants is widespread and occurs in many countries

in Asia, as well as in Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East. Although no reliable

global or national figures exist on the number of children engaged in domestic employment,

the figure is undoubtedly in the millions worldwide, and may be on the increase.27
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 A. Boudhiba, Exploitation of Child Labour: Final Report of the Special Rapporteur of 28

the U.N. Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities

(Geneva: 1982) 46.

 Fyfe at 15. 29

 In India, where advances are fairly common, the sum loaned to parents by employers 30

or recruiters usually ranges from $5 to $50. See India-- Bonded Labour: 20 Years after its

Abolition, Anti-Slavery International submissions to the U.N. Working Group on

Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Twentieth Session, April 1995 [on file].

84

Child domestic servants -- usually young girls -- work as "virtual slaves." They are 28

given or sold to families or distant relatives to serve as household help. They generally work

extended hours, and are sometimes treated harshly by their employer, beaten or sexually

abused. They are often not paid. Strangers to the city or town where they work and isolated

from their parents, the children are powerless to change their position.29

B. Manufacturing and Mining

In the manufacturing and mining sectors, forced child labor occurs mainly in smallscale, decentralized operations. Larger manufacturers often subcontract work out to small

production units that are not regulated by child labor laws. The victims of forced child labor

in the manufacturing and mining sectors are most often marginalized groups such as rural

poor and migrant workers. 

It is common for children to be lured away from home by recruiters who convince

parents that their children will be placed in promising, well-paying jobs. Often recruiters

give parents an advance, which the children are then required to repay with their labor. In 30

other cases, children are bonded along with their entire family. Those children who are

separated from their families, often by long distances, usually suffer the most abusive

conditions.

1. Asia
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 India has ratified both ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor, and the U.N. 31

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and

Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State Country Reports on

Human Rights Practices for 1994, the Indian Constitution prohibits forced labor, and

legislation passed in 1976 specifically bans the practice of "bonded labor." A Supreme Court

decision defined "forced labor" as work at less than the minimum wage. Country Reports

on Human Rights Practices for 1994 (U.S. Department of State, February 1995) 1232

[hereinafter Country Reports].

 Pakistan has ratified both ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor, and the 32

U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, The Constitution and the law prohibit

forced labor. The Bonded Labor System (Abolition) Act of 1992 outlawed bonded labor.

Regulations implementing the Act are yet to be enacted. Country Reports at 1258.

 Nepal has not ratified ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor; it has ratified 33

the U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, the Constitution prohibits traffic in

human beings, slavery, serfdom, or forced labor of any form. Country Reports at 1244.

 1994 Testimony of SACCS. Another report concludes that 15 percent of an estimated 34

100,000 children working in the carpet industry of Uttar Pradesh, where most Indian carpets

are produced, are in debt bondage. See A Pattern of Slavery: India's Carpet Boys (London:

Anti-Slavery Society, 1988) 3 [hereinafter A Pattern of Slavery: India's Carpet Boys].

85

a. Hand-made carpets

Children ranging in age from 5 to 15 are forced to work under conditions of debt

bondage in the carpet industries of India, Pakistan, and Nepal. In April 1994, the South 31 32 33

Asian Coalition on Child Servitude (SACCS) estimated that there are a total of one million

children in servitude engaged in the carpet industry in the Indian Subcontinent -- 500,000 in

Pakistan, 300,000 in India and 200,000 in Nepal. There is evidence, however, which is 34

discussed below, that there has been a significant reduction in the number of children in the

industry in Nepal since early 1994.

The working environment to which children in the carpet industry are subjected is

detrimental to their physical health and development. They work in cramped positions for
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 See Discover the Working Child: The Situation of Child Labour in Pakistan 1990 35

(Government of Pakistan and UNICEF, 1991) 19 [hereinafter Discover the Working Child];

Child Labour in the Carpet Weaving Industry in Punjab (Government of Pakistan and

UNICEF, 1992) 15 [hereinafter UNICEF Punjab Report]; B.N. Juyal, Child Labour and

Exploitation in the Carpet Industry: a Mirzapur-Bhadohi Case Study (New Delhi: Indian

Social Institute, 1987) 44 [hereinafter 1987 Juyal]; S. Vijayagopalan, Child Labor in the

Carpet Industry: A Status Report (New Delhi: National Council of Applied Economic

Research (NCAER), February 1993) 56-57 [hereinafter NCAER Report]. 

 Pharis Harvey and Lauren Riggin, Trading Away the Future: Child Labor in India's 36

Export Industries (International Labor Rights Education and Research Fund, 1994) 53

[hereinafter ILRERF Report].

 B.N. Juyal, Child Labour in the Carpet Industry in Mirzapur-Bhadohi (New Delhi: 37

International Labor Organization, 1993) 13 [hereinafter Juyal 1993]. Carpets are also

produced in the Jammu-Kashmir region and Rajasthan, but relatively little research has been

done on the industry in these regions. 

 Children in Bondage: A Call for Action at 13. 38

 Juyal 1993 at 1. 39

86

long periods of time in poorly-ventilated sheds filled with wool fluff and dust particles.

Constant contact with the fluff causes skin ailments such as scabies as well as respiratory

problems. Children develop swelling of lower limbs, pain in the joints and spine deformities

from crouching for long periods of time as they work on the looms. Poor lighting conditions

weaken their eyesight; prolonged contact with chemical dyes and the use of sharp knives

during weaving damage their fingers. Many of the children are severely ill by the time they

become adults. 35

The Indian carpet-weaving industry is concentrated in the "Carpet Belt" of Uttar

Pradesh in north Central India, which also accounts for over 85 percent of Indian carpet 36

exports. Bonded child labor is thought to be widely utilized in Uttar Pradesh. In 1991, a 37

fact-finding committee appointed by an Order of the Supreme Court of India found a large

number of children, as young as six to nine years old, working as bonded laborers on carpetweaving looms in Uttar Pradesh. 38

The Indian carpet industry is widely dispersed over a large geographical area. The 39

public scrutiny that the industry has received in recent years has caused it increasingly to
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 ILRERF Report at 53-54; Juyal 1993 at 2. 40

 ILRERF at 54; Anti-Slavery Society, "Child Bonded Labor," in Seminar on the 41

Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (International Commission of

Jurists and Defense for Children International, September 24-28, 1990) 11 [hereinafter

Seminar on the Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child].

 Findings of Indian Supreme Court appointed fact-finding committee cited in Children 42

in Bondage: A Call for Action at 13. See also 1987 Juyal at 21-22 ; Juyal 1993 at 34;

Shamshad Khan, Migrant Child Labour in Carpet Industry of Mirzapur-Bhadohi Belt

(Mirzapur: Centre for Rural Education and Development Action, n.d.) 1 [on file].

 American Embassy-New Delhi, unclassified telegram no. 05146, April 18, 1995; 43

Edward A. Gargan, "Bound to Looms by Poverty and Fear, Boys in India Makes a Few Men

Rich," New York Times (July 9, 1992) [hereinafter Gargan article]. See also NCAER report

at 41.

 Juyal 1993 at 7. 44

 Juyal 1993 at 64. 45

 Born to Work at 18. 46

87

scatter the loom sheds to more rural locations. Small production units typically employing 40

less than ten people make up an estimated 95 percent of Uttar Pradesh's production. These

small units are exempt from labor laws applying to registered factories in the formal sector.41

Bonded children in the carpet industry are often recruited from the neighboring states

of Bihar and Madhya Pradesh by recruiting agents or organized gangs. Their parents, low- 42

caste, poor peasants or landless laborers, are given a cash advance ranging from 600 to 2,800

rupees (approximately $20.00 to $90.00). This practice is generally institutionalized in 43

cases where children are procured by recruiters. Those children whose parents take 44

advances are required to continue working for the same employer until the advance has been

repaid. The amount of time it takes to repay the loan can extend up to five or six years,

during which time the child remains bonded.45

In some cases employers take advantage of the poverty of the family and offer large

loans to parents against their children's future labor knowing that the parents will never be

able to repay the debt. There are also numerous reports of children being abducted by 46

strangers who lure them away with promises of movies, candy, or other sundries and sell
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Born to Work at 19. See also ILRERF Report at 57-58. 47

 1994 Testimony of SACCS. 48

 Juyal 1993 at 66. 49

 ILRERF Report at 57. 50

 ILRERF Report at 57. See also 1987 Juyal at 40; Juyal 1993 at 64. 51

 1987 Juyal at 35-36. 52

 Findings of Indian Supreme Court appointed fact-finding committee cited in Children 53

in Bondage: A Call for Action at 13. 

 1987 Juyal at 40-41; NCAER Report at 56. 54

88

them to loomholders. Sometimes attempts by parents to take back their children are 47

blocked by force.

The worst conditions occur in production units that rely on migrant child laborers who

have been recruited or lured from their villages. SACCS estimates that over 70 percent of

the children working in the carpet industry are migrant children from neighboring states, the

majority of whom receive no wages. The majority of migrant child carpet weavers are not 48

given an opportunity to visit their homes for long periods of time after they begin working

in the carpet industry. One report states that "(I)t is not uncommon for these children to 49

leave their villages never to be heard from again." 50

Once the children arrive at the loom shed, any advance paid to their parents is

deducted from the children's already low wages. The children are penalized with deductions

from pay for any mistakes they make. In addition, the cost of meals, often inadequate and

of poor quality, is usually deducted from their pay. Some children are paid only in food. 51

This category includes young children who are deemed apprentices for a period that can last

from one to five years, during which he or she receives no wage.52

Bonded carpet children are often kept under close watch and not allowed to go outside

or talk to people in the streets. They work up to 20 hours per day, seven days a week, and 53

often sleep, eat and work in the same small, damp room. They are often locked in at 54
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Gargan article. 55

 1987 Juyal at 42. 56

 Children in Bondage: A Call for Action at 13; Born to Work at 20; 1987 Juyal at 43; 57

ILRERF Report at 59.

 Interview by U.S. Department of Labor official with Indian child carpet worker in New 58

Delhi (February 1995).

 1994 Testimony of SACCS. 59

 "17 Child Labourers Rescued from Uttar Pradesh," The Times of India, February 22, 60

1995. Many other newspaper reports and non-governmental publications have described

similar conditions. See Stephan Wagstyl, "The Child Victims of India's Slave Trade: India's

Poor Sell Their Children as Cheap Labour Without Suspecting the True

Nature of the Transaction," The Financial Times, December 19, 1992; Joshi Vijay, "Kids

Bound to the Looms," Associated Press, July 14, 1992; "Bonded Child Laborers Kidnapped

After Rescue," The Economic Times (India), October 7, 1993; "Fear Stalks Rescued Kids,"

The Times of India, January 12, 1994, Child Workers in Asia, vol. 8, no. 4 and vol. 9, no.

1 (October-December 1992 and March 1993) 28.

89

night. When there is a rush order, the workers may be required to work through the night. 55 56

Those who try to escape or make mistakes are often beaten, deprived of food or tortured.

Cases have been documented where children trying to escape were hung from trees, chained

to looms, shot, or branded with a hot iron. One former bonded carpet worker stated in an 57

interview that his master had thrown acid into his eyes when he wept out of homesickness.58

Girl carpet workers are sometimes sexually abused.59

A rescue operation in 1995 by the Bonded Labour Liberation Front secured the

release of 17 bonded child carpet weavers in the Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh revealed

oppressive conditions. The released children ranged in age from 8 to 14 and were dressed

in rags. They worked for some 20 hours every day beginning at 3 a.m. In addition to

weaving carpets, they were expected to work in their masters' fields and in and around their

homes. They were beaten with sticks and iron rods and not allowed to see their parents.

Most of the children could not say how long they had been held captive, but some said they

had been working for three years. 60

Migrant children are also recruited from Nepal, often via Kathmandu carpet factories,
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Juyal 1993 at 6. 61

 Gauri Pradhan, ed., Misery Behind the Looms: Child Laborers in the Carpet Factories 62

in Nepal (Kathmandu: Child Workers in Nepal-CWIN, May 1993) 30 [hereinafter Pradhan].

 "South Asian Seminar on Child Workers in Carpet Factories," in Newsletter of Child 63

Workers in Nepal Concerned Center, nos. 15 & 16 (CWIN, December 1992) [hereinafter

South Asian Seminar] 14.

 South Asian Seminar at 14. 64

 World Labor Report 1993 at 11. See also M. Mahmood, S. Riaz, M. A. Nazeer, and 65

M. E. Haq, Child Labour in Brick Kiln Industries (Lahore: University of Punjab, 1991) cited

in A. R. Kemal, Child Labour in Pakistan (Islamabad: Pakistan Institute of Development

Economics, 1994) 10 [on file] [hereinafter Kemal]. According to the World Labor Report

1993, the arrival of Afghan refugees, including children, in Pakistan has increased the

numbers.

 UNICEF Punjab Report at 3. 66

 UNICEF Punjab Report at ii. 67

90

to work as bonded laborers in the Indian carpet industry. These children, reportedly sought 61

out because they are perceived as pliable and easy to intimidate, are recruited with promises

of high wages and are then forced to work under abysmal conditions. They work up to 18 62

hours a day, are poorly fed and lodged, and are paid little or no wages. NGOs operating 63

in the region estimate that 20,000 to 25,000 Nepali children have become bonded in this

manner. 64

The United States imported $156 million of hand-made carpets from India in 1994.

Reports of bonded child labor in Pakistan suggest that up to 500,000 children are

bonded in the carpet industry. A 1992 study of the carpet weaving industry in Punjab 65

province, which accounts for the largest population of carpet workers in Pakistan, found that

over 80 percent of carpet weavers are children under 15 and estimated that there are

approximately 1.2 million children engaged in carpet-weaving in Pakistan. The study 66

concluded that the number of families who pledged their children's work in return for a

money advance was, at that time, increasing. The Pakistani carpet industry's use of child 67

labor and child bonded labor has come under increased international scrutiny after the killing

of Iqbal Masih, a former bonded carpet worker. Prior to his murder, Masih had become an
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan (New York: Human Rights Watch/Asia, 68

1995) 48 [hereinafter Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan].

 Discover the Working Child at 19; Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 50. 69

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 51. 70

 Discover the Working Child at 19. 71

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 56. 72

 UNICEF Punjab Report at 12. 73

91

advocate for the liberation of bonded laborers.

The bondage of children in the Pakistani carpet industry occurs mainly in rural areas.

Some children, working on household looms, are bonded along with their entire family,

while others are sent away from their families to weaving centers where the majority of

workers are bonded children. Since factories employing less than ten workers are not 68

covered by most labor laws, large carpet-weaving centers have broken down into smaller

units or turned to subcontracting arrangements to avoid these laws.69

Bondage occurs in the home context when the head of the household takes advances

from the "thekadar" (contractor), a middleman who controls the looms, provides material

inputs and transports finished carpets to export centers. Payment is made to the family

weavers according to the quantity and quality of work produced, but the families rarely

receive enough income to cover payments on the initial loans. Contractors arbitrarily make

deductions from the promised payment amounts for mistakes or failure to meet production

deadlines.70

Pressure exerted by the contractors to meet quotas and deadlines induces families to

put their children to work. Families become increasingly dependent on the loans advanced

by the contractor, resulting in "an inescapable cycle of debts which keeps the children in

virtual forced labor for many years." The families are not allowed to abandon their work 71

until their debt is deemed repaid. 72

Often the parents who set up looms at home do not get involved in carpet weaving

themselves. Requiring their children to work at the home looms may enable unemployed

fathers to stop looking for work. Children generally do not attend school and are rarely 73
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 UNICEF Punjab Report at 3 and 12. 74

 UNICEF Punjab Report at 13 . 75

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 52. 76

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 56-57. 77

 International Child Labor Hearing, U.S. Department of Labor (April 12, 1994) 78

(Statement of Human Rights Watch/Asia) [hereinafter Testimony of Human Rights

Watch/Asia]. See also Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 55. 

 According to the U.S. Department of State, children made up one-third of the carpet 79

labor force. Country Reports at 1245. A survey conducted by Nepalese NGO Child

Workers in Nepal Concerned Center (CWIN) in 1992 indicated that children represented as

much as half of the total carpet labor force. Pradhan at 3.

 Pradhan at 3; Statement of Gopal Siwakoti, Executive Director of INHURED 80

International (a Nepali human rights organization), prepared for the U.N. World Conference

on Human Rights, March 13, 1994, 4 [hereinafter Siwakoti Statement]. 

92

allowed to play during the day. Most do not receive any pay directly but instead only get 74

small sums for pocket money from their parents. 75

In other instances, particularly in the Thar area of Sindh province, children are sent

or brought to work at private loom centers by their parents who in exchange receive a loan.

As in India, there are cases where children are abducted and sold into bondage. Bonded 76

child carpet weavers working in private centers often suffer abusive conditions. Interviews

with bonded child carpet workers suggest that they are frequently beaten if they work too

slowly, make errors, or disobey instructions. They are often forcibly confined and locked

inside guarded buildings. Cases have been reported where bonded children are chained to

the looms so as to prevent escape. Local police often fail to prosecute loomholders who 77

commit such abuses.78

The United States imported $48 million of hand-made carpets from Pakistan in 1994.

In Nepal, the number of children engaged in the carpet industry appears to have

declined since 1994. It is reported that in early 1994 (before the decline) child workers,

mainly migrants from the countryside, constituted from one-third to one-half of the labor

force in carpet factories. According to several sources, as many as 150,000 carpet 79 80
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Pradhan at 32. 81

 Siwakoti Statement. 82

 Omar Sattaur, Child Labour in Nepal (Kathmandu: Anti-Slavery International and 83

Child Workers in Nepal Concerned Centre, 1993) 34 [hereinafter Sattaur].

 "Nepal's Carpet Makers Warned on Child Labor Law Violations," Journal of 84

Commerce, May 30, 1995; Gopal Sharma, "Nepal Moves to Punish Child Labour Abusers,"

Reuters Asia-Pacific Business Report, May 26, 1995.

 See American Embassy-Kathmandu, unclassified telegram no. 2665, June 23, 1995 85

[hereinafter Kathmandu 2665]; Country Reports at 1245. The Government of Nepal

estimates that less than one percent of the workers in the carpet industry are children. See

"Nepalese Carpets Flying Low," Depthnews Asia, Manila, January 1995, in World Press

Review (June 1995) 35.

 Kathmandu 2665; Country Reports at 1245. 86

 Born to Work at 21; Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 12. 87

93

workers were children, 10,000 to 27,000 of whom were in debt bondage as a result of 81 82

loans taken by their parents from labor contractors or landlords. Labor contractors have been

known to lure or even kidnap children, often pocketing the children's income on the pretext

of remitting it to the parents. 83

By the end of 1994, negative publicity in Europe concerning the use of child labor and

a resulting drop in Nepalese exports prompted the Nepalese Government and carpet

manufacturers to move to eliminate child labor in carpet factories. As a result, the use of 84

child labor in the carpet industry has dropped to 5-10 percent of the carpet labor force,

according to various sources. The Government of Nepal is working with the carpet 85

industry and NGOs to establish a certification for carpets made without child labor, and

Government inspectors have increased their monitoring of child labor in carpet factories.86

The United States imported $5 million of hand-made carpets from Nepal in 1994.

b. Glass

Bonded child laborers work in the glass industry in Ferozabad, India, 150 miles south

of Delhi. Estimates of the total number of children at work in Ferozabad range from 8,000 87
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 ILRERF Report at 67. 88

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 12. 89

 Born to Work at 22. 90

 ILRERF Report at 67-68. Visits by Departments of Labor and State officials in 1994 91

confirmed the ILRERF's description of conditions in glass factories.

 ILRERF Report at 68. 92

 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs, By the Sweat and Toil of 93

Children (Volume I): The Use of Child Labor in U.S. Manufactured and Mined Imports

(Washington, DC, 1994) 82 [hereinafter By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume I)].

94

to 50,000. Anti-Slavery International estimates that 70 to 80 percent of these children are 88

bonded by debt incurred by their parents in the form of advances. Many of the bonded 89

child laborers are children of landless agricultural workers.

The parents of bonded children take advances from middlemen. The children are

expected to pay off the loan from their wages. In an interview in a village just outside

Ferozabad, two boys, aged eight and twelve, said that they had been left behind by their

parents, who had received advances. The two boys lived alone in the factory where they

worked and cooked their own meals. Their job was to arrange glass bangles on trays before

they were put into the furnace. 90

Conditions in glass factories in Ferozabad have been compared to Dante's Inferno.

The intense heat from furnace temperatures reach 1,400 to 1,600 degrees Celsius; there is

a lack of ventilation, pieces of broken glass everywhere, and dangling electric wires. Adults

and children work without protective gear such as shoes, gloves or goggles. Both adult and 91

child workers stand outside furnaces dipping iron rods into molten glass, bringing it out, and

throwing it to glass molders or blowers. Boys as young as 11 and 12 sit on the floor for long

hours in front of the pot furnaces, melting and fastening glass bangles and beads. Often 92

glass splinters injure the workers, and pieces of glass cut into the children's bare feet.

Children have to run very fast with the molten glass before it cools. They often bump into

one other, sometimes scorching each other's bodies. 93

The air in the glass factories is full of soot and dust. Workers suffer from asthma,
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 12; "Abuses Against Children," 94

Asia Link (October-December 1993) reprinted in Child Workers News, vol. 2, no. 1 (Madras:

Arunodhaya, January-March 1994) 4.

 Carpets At What Cost, Consumer Unity and Trust Society [brochure], 3 [on file]. 95

 Sheela Barse, "Glass Factories of Ferozabad," reprinted in Jose Verghese, Human 96

Rights in India Today (New Delhi: National Center for Protection of Human Rights, 1992).

 "20 Children Freed from Servitude," Indian Express, February 10, 1995. 97

 By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume I) at 81. 98

 ILRERF Report at 87. Anti-Slavery International estimates that there are one million 99

child workers in India's stone quarries. Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at

12. In 1983, Supreme Court Justice Bhagwati ruled that over ten thousand men, women and

95

bronchitis, eye problems, liver ailments, skin burns, tuberculosis and chronic anaemia.94

Children in the glass factories have been reported to suffer from mental retardation; one 95

doctor found genetic damage to occur in the body cells of glass factory laborers who work

close to the furnace heat for three years or more. 96

A February 1995 news report stated that Indian Labour Department officials raided

two glass factories in Ferozabad that were illegally employing children. Twenty children

from age 7 to 11 were released from the factories. They had been working 10-11 hour days

for only ten rupees (approximately 30 cents) per day. They suffered from multiple burn

injuries, chest pains and chronic coughing, but had received no medical treatment for their

injuries while at the factory.97

The glass factories in Ferozabad produce such items as glass bangles, chandeliers,

wine glasses, beads, bulbs, test tubes and beakers. 98

The United States imported $4 million of manufactured glass products from India in

1994.

c. Stone Quarries

Bonded labor, including child bonded labor, is widespread in the quarrying of granite

and other stones in India. Children are required to work along with their parents in order 99
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

children were illegally being forced to work as bonded laborers in India's stone quarries. Id.

at 16. 

 ILRERF Report at 87; Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 14. See 100

also Melissa Blackburn, "A Tradition of Slavery," in Anti-Slavery Reporter (London: AntiSlavery International, 1994) 59 [hereinafter Blackburn].

 Blackburn at 59. 101

 Peter Cross, Bonded Quarry Workers: Tamil Nadu, India (Anti-Slavery International, 102

January 1993) [on file].

 Reggie Norton, Report of a Visit to India and Pakistan to Look at the Bonded Labour 103

Situation (unpublished Anti-Slavery International research, 1990) 3 [on file] [hereinafter

Norton].

 ILRERF Report at 87; Norton at 2-3. 104

 ILRERF Report at 87; A. Sekar, A Study of Granite Export and Bondage of Stone 105

Cutters in Tamilnadu (India: The Association of the Rural Poor, n.d.) 13 [on file];

96

to maximize production. Entire families work digging stones out of the earth with their

hands and hand-tools, and cutting rocks and boulders into pieces. Children aged 4 to 14

work up to 14 hours a day carrying loads of rocks. They also break stones with hammers as

they hold the stones with their feet. 100

Accidents caused by explosions or drilling are common. One report describes how 101

boys aged ten to twelve were observed using a pneumatic drill, "directing the bit with their

bare toes, standing within two feet of the top of a 200 foot rock-face." A twelve year old boy

was observed whose face had been disfigured by flying rock from an explosion. Workers 102

also suffer from respiratory illnesses due to inhaling stone dust. 103

Contractors working for quarry owners secure the labor of poor, landless migrant

families. The workers are required to purchase their own materials, including drills and

gunpowder, and provide for their own medical expenses and housing. They often have no

choice but to borrow money from the contractors, moneylenders or quarry owners.

Dependence on loans and advances leads to a high incidence of debt bondage, with debts

ranging from 100 to 10,000 rupees (approximately $3.00 to $300.00). No records of the 104

debts are kept. Bonded families are not allowed to leave until their debt is repaid, but low

wages and high interest rates make this difficult. Physical threats are sometimes used to 105
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

Blackburn at 59. 

 Blackburn at 59. 106

 ILRERF Report at 87. 107

 Sawyer at 56. 108

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 14. It was the conditions of the 109

families working in the Faridabad quarries that prompted the establishment in 1980 of the

Bonded Labor Liberation Front (BLLF) of India. Sawyer at 56. 

 Blackburn at 59. 110

 India -- Bonded labor: 20 Years After its Abolition, Anti-Slavery International 111

submission to the U.N. Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Twentieth

Session, April 1995 [on file]. 

97

intimidate workers and prevent them from leaving. Bonded children are sometimes sold 106

to other contractors. 107

Sometimes children are born into bondage because of a debt owed by their parents to

contractors. In stone quarries in Faridabad, near Delhi, "three generations may be seen 108

working side by side in conditions of brutal debt bondage." Most of the youngest 109

generation receive no wage. 

A study of stone quarries at Ghaziabad, also near Delhi, found that 25 percent of some

2,000 workers were between the ages of 10 and 14. Whole families were found to be

working 10 to 11 hours a day, seven days a week. They lived in huts made of mud and straw

and lacked schools and other amenities. Female workers were frequently sexually harassed,

even raped. Many workers wished to leave but could not because of the debts they owed.

While a truckload of stone normally fetches 45 to 58 rupees, the families only took home 15

to 20 rupees after making loan payments to the contractors.110

In January 1995, the Indian Citizens' Commission on Bonded Labour and Child

Labour obtained the release of 76 bonded laborers working at a stone quarry in the Bhiwini

District near Delhi. Over half of the workers were described as children in a news report

covering the release.111

The United States imported $34 million of worked and unworked stone, including
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 ILRERF Report at 76. 112

 ILRERF Report at 75-76. 113

 Born to Work at 22-3; ILRERF Report at 78. 114

 ILRERF Report at 78. 115

 ILRERF Report at 76. 116

 ILRERF Report at 77-78. 117

98

granite and marble, from India in 1994.

d. Silk

An estimated 5000 children work in the silk thread manufacturing industry in southern

Karnataka in southwestern India. Some of the factories in the town of Dasarayara Palya 112

are reported to rely on a form of bonded child labor. Girls ranging in age from 5 to 16 are

pledged to work by their parents, who in return receive a loan from the factory owner of

between 5,000 and 6,000 rupees (approximately $160 to $192). The children, who earn 50

paises to 2 rupees (approximately 11⁄2 to six cents) per hour, are required to work until the

loans are paid off. They are obliged to work up to 14 hours a day "until their parents and the

owner decide otherwise." 113

The silk handloom industry in Varanasi (east central India) and Kanchipuram

(southeastern India near Madras) also commonly employs bonded children, mostly girls,

some as young as six. Sometimes parents continue to borrow money even as the initial 114

debt is being worked off by the child. If the child changes employers, the debt is simply

transferred. 115

Most of these child bonded laborers in the silk handloom industry work in

unregistered production units that perform work for registered factories. Children are often 116

paid on a piece rate basis. No written accounts are kept. Sometimes children receive no

wages for a period of two years while they improve their weaving skills.117

Children are verbally and physically abused. Some complain of being beaten with

rods for making mistakes. They work in poorly ventilated, damp, cramped weaving pits in

crouched positions. Constant exposure to dust particles causes respiratory infections, and
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 ILRERF Report at 78. 118

 ILRERF Report at 78. Eighty percent of employers in Varanasi said that they had 119

never been visited by a labor inspector. Id. 

 Dr. Nidhi Sinha, Child Labour in Indian Silk Industry (New Delhi: Uppal Publishing 120

House, 1994) 59.

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 16. 121

 Indian Commission on Labour Standards and International Trade, Child Labour in 122

India: A Perspective (New Delhi: June 1995) 125 [hereinafter Indian Commission on Labour

Standards and International Trade].

 Indian Commission on Labour Standards and International Trade at 126. 123

99

poor lighting and long working hours damage their eyesight. Some children develop peptic

ulcers from ingesting dye when they break off thread with their teeth. They are generally

poorly nourished. Labor inspectors rarely visit the small silk weaving production units. 118 119

One study reports that children working in the silk handloom industry in Bhagalpur,

in the central eastern state of Bihar, are similarly bonded. Parents pledge their children's

labor in exchange for loans offered at exorbitant interest rates.120

The United States imported $28 million of silk thread and silk fabric from India in

1994.

e. Locks

In the town of Aligarh, 100 miles southeast of Delhi in Uttar Pradesh, poor Muslim

families become bonded laborers when advances are taken from middlemen. It is 121

estimated that 80 percent of the locks made in India are produced in Aligarh. Many 122

children in the lock industry work as part of a family unit but others are found in workshops

away from their families. Most production occurs in workshops engaging between 5 and 15

employees. 123

According to one report, many children in the lock industry in Aligarh find themselves

in bondage, cut off from their families. The owners of the lock companies classify their
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 See International Child Labor Hearing, U.S. Department of Labor (May 5, 1995) 124

(Statement of Francoise C. Remington, Executive Director of Forgotten Children, May 1,

1995) [hereinafter Remington].

 Indian Commission on Labour Standards and International Trade at 127. 125

 Indian Commission on Labour Standards and International Trade at 127. 126

 Born to Work at 164. 127

 Born to Work at 164. 128

100

firms as cottage industries so that they are not regulated under the Child Labor Act of 1986.

Many of the small "cottage industries" are subcontractors for larger factories that export.124

A survey of 100 manufacturing units conducted by the Labor Department of Uttar

Pradesh indicated that children under the age of 14 make up over 50 percent of the work

force engaged in polishing, electroplating and spray-painting of locks and lock parts, all of

which are considered to be hazardous jobs. In spray-painting, children inhale large 125

quantities of paints and paint thinners which are harmful to their lungs. Common ailments

include cough, fever, breathlessness, tuberculosis and bronchitis. Many children work late

into the night. 126

The United States imported $23,000 worth of locks from India in 1994.

f. Brassware

Bonded children from 8 to 12 years of age work in the brassware industry of

Moradabad in Uttar Pradesh. The children are recruited from surrounding villages by

middlemen called "dalals." These middlemen are paid a commission by factory owners or

contractors for bringing in child workers. Children are preferred over adults because they

are easy to control.127

Parents who pledge the work of their children are given an advance, typically equal

to one month's wages. Once a parent takes an advance, the child is required to work. One

report states that if a child "plays hooky," wages of other children from the same village are

cut.128

Children in the brassware industry work in all areas of production, including
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Born to Work at 172. 129

 Born to Work at 174-175. 130

 Born to Work at 141. 131

 Born to Work at 140. 132

 Anti-Slavery International estimates that 30 to 40 percent of children working in the 133

match and fireworks industry are bonded. Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent

at 12. In a 1991 survey of 115 child workers in the match industry of Sivakasi, the Child

Labour Cell of India's National Labour Institute found that 58 percent of the children were

"not free to leave their employment because their parents have taken loans from the factory

owners." Child Labour in the Match Industry of Sivakasi (Noida: Child Labour Cell,

National Labour Institute, 1993) 8.

101

electroplating, polishing and application of chemicals. They work under hazardous

conditions for long hours and low wages. Children wearing no protective gear remove

molten metal from molds near furnaces that reach temperatures of 1,100 degrees Celsius.

Burns are a constant danger. The constant inhalation of fumes from the furnaces and metal 129

dust leads to tuberculosis and respiratory problems. Children engaged in polishing are at risk

of injury from pieces of metal that slip and ricochet into the air. Children suffer from eye

irritations from fumes that permeate the workshops during acid washing of the brassware.130

 

It is reported that over 90 percent of brassware goods made in Moradabad are

exported. These goods include vases, planters, plates, dinner services, tea sets, and other 131

decorative objects. 132

The United States imported approximately $26 million worth of brass household and

kitchen articles from India in 1994.

g. Matches and fireworks

It is reported that at least 30 percent (and probably more) of the children working in

the match and fireworks industries of Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu are in debt bondage. There 133

are as many as 6000 unregistered "safety match" cottage units in Sivakasi and the
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Report of the Subcommittee on Elimination of Child Labour in the Match and 134

Fireworks Industries in Tamilnadu (Government of Tamilnadu and UNICEF, March 1993)

7 [on file] [hereinafter Tamilnadu Subcommittee on Elimination of Child Labour Report];

G. V. Krishnan, "Plea to Abolish Child Labour," The Times of India, April 5, 1994

[hereinafter Krishnan].

 Indian Commission on Labour Standards and International Trade at 95. 135

 Tamilnadu Subcommittee on Elimination of Child Labour Report at 8. 136

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 10. 137

 ILRERF Report at 80-81. 138

 Pilot Study of Child Labor in Sivakasi (New Delhi: ICFTU-APRO, South Asia Office, 139

1992) 4 [hereinafter ICFTU-APRO].

 ILRERF Report at 81. 140

 ICFTU-APRO at 4. 141

102

surrounding areas. Sivakasi produces 75 percent of India's matches and 90 percent of its 134

firecrackers, and has been described as having one of the largest concentrations of child

workers in the world.135

 

The average age of child workers in the industry is 10 to 14 years, but some child 136

workers are reported to be as young as four. The extremely arid climate and frequent 137

droughts guarantee a steady stream of migrant laborers from surrounding villages, mainly

from lower castes and tribal families. Child laborers are mainly found in the small 138

unlicensed units. 139

In the match and fireworks industry, the tasks are repetitive and low-skilled. Girls as

young as three fill match boxes, stack boxes for packaging and paste labels to boxes. Older

girls make and label boxes. Boys mix chemicals used for match tips, and dip the tips in the

chemicals. Children in the fireworks industry dye the outer paper, roll the ground powder 140

and pack finished product.141

Conditions of debt bondage arise when parents pledge the labor of their children in

exchange for cash advances from recruiting agents. The advances are then deducted from
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Subcommittee on Elimination of Child Labour Report at 10. See also Myron Weiner, 142

The Child and the State in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991) 24

[hereinafter Weiner]; Born to Work at 24-25.

 ILRERF Report at 82. 143

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 10. 144

 Born to Work at 24. 145

 Kulkarni, M. N., "Match-making in Sivakasi," Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 146

XVIII, no. 42 (October 1983) cited in Born to Work at 25.

 Indian Commission on Labour Standards and International Trade at 99. 147

 Weiner at 24. 148

 ILRERF Report at 82-3. See also Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 149

11-12. 

103

the children's pay. Agents advance sums of money ranging from 500 to 2,000 rupees 142

(approximately $15.00 to $60.00) to the children's parents. Other children are bonded by 143

debts incurred by their parents as interest on loans. Sometimes recruiting agents advance 144

money to the children instead of their parents, "and this keeps them bound to the

employer." There are cases where children are pledged to the factories before they are 145

even born.146

Children work an average of 12 hours a day, with a short break for lunch, six or seven

days a week. Sometimes they are kept at work for over 14 hours a day. They are picked 147

up by bus from their village between 3 and 5 a.m. and are returned home between 6 and 9

p.m. 148

They work in cramped, dark sheds in crouched positions and are exposed to

dangerous chemicals such as chlorates, phosphorous and sulphur. There is a constant risk

of fire and explosions, yet the children wear no protective gear. Local doctors report that 149

children suffer from chronic bronchitis, broncho-pneumonia, tuberculosis, malnutrition,

gastrointestinal disorders, skin disorders, over-exhaustion, burns, water borne diseases and

eye infections. Harsh treatment by employers is common, and girls as young as seven and
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 ILRERF Report at 83. 150

 Indian Commission on Labour Standards and International Trade at 13. 151

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 12; Contemporary Forms of 152

Slavery in Pakistan at 30.

 Sawyer at 54. 153

 Discover the Working Child at 17. 154

 Discover the Working Child at 16; Kemal at 16. 155

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 30. 156

 Discover the Working Child at 16. 157

104

eight are reportedly sexually assaulted by supervisors outside of factory premises. 150

The Government of India considers these industries hazardous, and the Child Labor

(Prohibition and Regulation) Act prohibits employment of children under 14 in the industry

except "in the process of family based work." 151

The United States imported $21,000 of matches and fireworks from India in 1994.

h. Brick Kilns

The brick kiln industry -- the molding and firing of bricks from clay -- is a significant

employer of bonded child labor in both India and Pakistan. Brick kilns employing bonded

laborers are located in small-scale manufacturing units on the outskirts of urban areas in

both countries. Families live and work on the site. The work, which is seasonal, attracts 152

migrant labor from surrounding rural areas. Brick kiln laborers are usually landless 153

families from the lowest classes or ethnic minorities. 154

A large number of children and families in the brick kiln industry work under

conditions of debt bondage. Human Rights Watch/Asia estimates that brick kilns in 155

Pakistan "operate almost exclusively on the basis of debt bondage." Children working at 156

brick kilns are largely regarded as part of a bonded family unit and work alongside their

parents, with only the head of the family receiving remuneration. There are also cases, 157
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 19. 158

 Discover the Working Child at 16. 159

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 18. 160

 Discover the Working Child at 17; Ghazanfer Abbas, "Child Labour in Pakistan," 161

Child Workers in Asia, vol. 10, no. 3, (July-September 1994) 19 [on file] [hereinafter

Abbas].

 Discover the Working Child at 16. 162

 Discover the Working Child at 16. 163

 Z. Mahmood, S. Riaz, M. A. Nazeer and M. E. Haq, Child Labour in Brick Kiln 164

Industries (Lahore: University of Punjab, 1991) cited in Kemal at 10.

 State of Human Rights in Pakistan (Lahore: Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, 165

1994) 111 [hereinafter State of Human Rights in Pakistan].

105

however, where children inherit debts from parents and become bonded as individuals. 158

Families become trapped in debt bondage after having pledged their labor in return

for advances taken from the kiln owners or labor contractors who serve as middlemen.

While a laborer initially sees it to his advantage to borrow, the advance "all too often in fact

becomes a trap from which, due to a combination of high interest charged, manipulation of

the books, and sheer low wages, the labourer never disentangles himself." Sometimes 159

moneylenders arbitrarily call in loans, adding a fine to the original debt when laborers are

unable to pay. Often the debt is intergenerational, with families living on the kiln premises 160

in social isolation for generations. 161

 Children make up a significant part of the brick kiln work force in both countries.

In Pakistan, it is estimated that children, who begin working alongside their parents when

they are as young as 6 - 8, constitute at least half of the work force. On some sites children

have been found to outnumber adults. Estimates of the number of children working at 162

brick kilns in Pakistan range from a conservative estimate of 250,000 to five million. 163 164

The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan states that the "clear majority" of children in the

industry are under fourteen. Many of these children are either the children or 165
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Bonded Labor in Brick-kiln Industry of Pakistan (Lahore: Human Rights Commission 166

of Pakistan, n.d.) cited in Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 30. 

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 12. 167

 Sawyer at 54. 168

 Sawyer at 54; Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 12. 169

 Sawyer at 55. 170

 Discover the Working Child at 16. 171

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 43. 172

 Sawyer at 55. See also Discover the Working Child at 16. 173

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 43. 174

 Discover the Working Child at 16. 175

106

grandchildren of the person who originally took a loan. In India, it is estimated that one 166

million children work in the industry along with their families.167

Children participate in all stages of brick production. In certain tasks, such as the

molding of the bricks by hand, children are preferred because of their dexterity and speed.168

Children also fetch and carry bricks to and from the kilns and load and unload the kilns.169

Children and their families work long hours, often throughout the night or in the early 170

hours of the morning during the summer.171

The mortality rate of children working in the brick kilns of Pakistan is high.172

Children work barefoot, unprotected from the sun in summer and the cold in winter. They

constantly inhale fine quartz dust from the clay. Common illnesses include tuberculosis,

chronic chest infections and silicosis. Children often suffer from injuries to their eyes and

fingers. Deteriorating eyesight and even blindness are common among children. 173 174

Bonded families are often held as virtual prisoners, requiring special permission to

leave the work site until the debt is repaid. Children are often psychologically traumatized. 175

Sexual and physical abuse is often used by employers to punish workers. Several cases were

reported in 1994 where the wives and children of bonded workers were kept in captivity or
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 State of Human Rights in Pakistan at 121. See also Discover the Working Child at 16. 176

 Discover the Working Child at 17. 177

 Study conducted by the ICFTU-affiliate All Pakistan Federation of Labor. See letter 178

from the ICFTU to the International Child Labor Study (April 21, 1995) [on file] [hereinafter

ICFTU letter].

 ICFTU letter. 179

 Children in Bondage: A Call for Action at 16. The bonded labor system in Pakistan 180

consists of giving advances of "peshgi" (bonded money) to a person. As long as all or part

of the peshgi debt remains outstanding, the debtor/worker is bound to the creditor/employer.

In cases of sickness or death, the family of the individual is responsible for the debt, which

often passes down from generation to generation. In the case of children, the peshgi is paid

to a parent or guardian, who then provides the child to work off the debt. By the Sweat and

Toil of Children (Volume I) at 127. In 1992, Pakistan enacted legislation prohibiting bonded

labor.

 Report by the Bonded Labor Liberation Front of Pakistan to the U.N. Working Group 181

on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Nineteenth Session, May 1994, 2-3 [on file].

107

in chains by brick-kiln owners wanting to intimidate or punish the employee. "The 176

children... grow up in a climate of insecurity and fear, being daily witnesses of their parents

being humiliated, insulted or worse." 177

In a 1995 study on bonded children working in the brick kiln industry in the

Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan, it was found that of 40 children interviewed,

ranging in age from 5 to 10, only three had managed to reduce their debt since beginning to

work at the kilns, despite the fact that the average period working as bonded laborers was

over two years. The bonded families live on the work site isolated from the rest of society 178

and guarded by the owners. One child interviewed said that his family only received pay for

complete sets of 1000 bricks. Since the bricks must be left out in the sun to dry for a few

days before firing, rainfall could destroy several days of work and pay.179

In Pakistan, a Supreme Court decision in 1988 abolished the "peshgi" system of

advances and held that brick kiln workers were to be considered bonded laborers. Bonded 180

laborers freed as a result of the 1988 decision were replaced by other workers attracted to

the industry. They, in turn, became bonded. Despite the illegality of the advance system, 181
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 29. 182

 Discover the Working Child at 17. 183

 India -- Bonded Labour: 20 Years after its Abolition, Anti-Slavery International 184

submission to the U.N. Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Twentieth

Session, April 1995 [on file]. Under India's 1986 Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation)

Act, employment of children under the age of 14 is prohibited in the beedi industry, except

in the context of family-based work. See Report of Indian Commission on Labour Standards

and International Trade at 13. 

 M.S. Dinakar, "Mere Pawns in Beedi Industry," Indian Express, December 9, 1992 [on 185

file] [hereinafter Dinakar article].

 Dinakar article. 186

 "Rights of Bonded Child Labourers?," Child Workers News (Royapuram: Arunodhaya 187

Centre for Street and Working Children, July-September/October-December 1994) 3 [on file]

[hereinafter Arunodhaya Centre article]. See also Dinakar article. 

108

bonded labor continues to be widespread in the brick kiln industry. The practice 182

continues at least in part because of ". . . . the lack of effective legal remedies, illiteracy,

psychological dependence on advances, lack of alternative employment and the social forces

which sanction the practice . . . ." 183

i. Beedis

Beedis are hand-rolled local cigars. There are thousands of bonded child workers,

girls and boys as young as 7-8, engaged in the beedi industry in the southern state of Tamil

Nadu, India. One newspaper report estimates that at least half of the children working in 184

the beedi industry in Tamil Nadu are bonded.185

There are some 300 large beedi companies in Tamil Nadu and between 3000 and 4000

small contractor production units. The tobacco leaves are distributed to the contractors, 186

who oversee the rolling of the leaves into beedis. These units, which usually house ten or

more children, are small, dark and poorly ventilated. The children are sometimes beaten or

caned for making mistakes.187

Children in the beedi manufacturing industry cut and clean the leaves and roll, bind
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 N.K. and B.K. Behura, "Incidence of Child Labour in Orissa: Case Studies from 188

Bhubaneshwar," in Pafi, R.N., ed., Rehabilitation of Child Labourers in India (New Delhi:

Ashish Publishing House, 1991) 121.

 Dinakar article. See also "Katpadi . . . Where Children are Pledged for Rs. 1,000," 189

Indian Express, March 24, 1990 [on file] [hereinafter Indian Express article].

 India -- Bonded Labour: 20 Years after its Abolition, Anti-Slavery International 190

submission to the U.N. Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Twentieth

Session, April 1995 [on file]. 

 P.V.V. Murthy, "Bonded Child Labour in Beedi Industry," Hindu, April 11, 1994 191

[hereinafter Murthy article]. See also Dinakar article; Indian Express article. 

 Born to Work at 17. 192

 Arunodhaya Centre article at 3. 193

 Indian Express article; Murthy article. 194

109

and close the ends of the cigars. They become bonded when parents pledge their labor as 188

security on an advance taken from contractors or middlemen who run small, illegal

manufacturing units. Sometimes children who have been mortgaged by their parents work 189

at home, where they are usually out of the reach of labor inspectors. The advances taken 190

by parents range from 500 to 6,000 rupees (approximately $16.00 to $190.00). Interest rates

charged by the contractors range from 10 to 25 percent. Because the children and their 191

parents are illiterate and lack basic math skills, employers often demand that they continue

working to pay off the debt even when the principal and interest have in fact already been

paid. 192

Contractors use various schemes to retain the bonded workers. Children are

sometimes required to roll 1000 beedis per day and are generally paid six to seven rupees (20

to 22 cents) per batch of 1000 -- about one-fourth of adult wages. If they fail to meet the

quota, or if the quality of the beedis are found to be poor, their wages are cut or they are

required to make up the loss by performing extra work the following Sunday. Sometimes 193

contractors do not directly charge interest on advances but pay bonded workers only half or

less of the amount that a regular worker would receive for commensurate work. 194

j. Other
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 The Philippines has not ratified ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor; it 195

has ratified the U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave

Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department

of State Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, forced labor is prohibited

under Philippine law. Country Reports at 678.

 Thailand has ratified ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor, however it 196

is not a party to the U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave

Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department

of State Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, the Constitution prohibits

forced or compulsory labor, except in the case of national emergency, war, or martial law.

Country Reports at 700.

 In general, it is difficult to obtain reliable information on child labor in China. Similar 197

problems of access to information exist in some other countries.

 Interview with Ana Dionela, child labor project officer for UNICEF Manila in Sheila 198

S. Coronel, "Clandestine Trade in Children," Philippine Daily Inquirer (Manila), October

9, 1993 [hereinafter Coronel]. See also Eileen Guerrero, "Bonded Labor of Children on Rise

in Philippines," Associated Press, June 7, 1994 [hereinafter Guerrero].

110

Various studies and news reports indicate that forced child labor is used in the

manufacture of various products in small-scale industrial units in the Philippines and 195

Thailand. While it is not possible to identify any one industry or product that consistently 196

utilizes forced child labor in these countries, there are allegations of the false recruitment

and abduction of children. Recent reports suggest that similar recruitment and abduction of

children occurs in China. 197

The children who are coerced into such situations are often forced to work extremely

long hours under poor conditions for little or no wages. In many cases, they are physically

confined so as to prevent escape. Sometimes parents are given a false or no forwarding

address.

In the Philippines there is evidence of systematic recruitment of children from rural

provinces to work clandestinely in small and medium-scale factories in Manila and Quezon

City. The recruiters, who often work for agencies, go to the poorest areas and coax parents 198

to part with their children by promising well-paying jobs. Sometimes the recruiters are
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Coronel. 199

 Coronel. 200

 Chris Panganiban, "Agusan Child Labor Racket Denounced," Philippines Daily 201

Inquirer (Manila), February 21, 1994 [hereinafter Panganiban]; Charina Sanz, "Children for

the Slave Market," Sunday Inquirer Magazine, October 10, 1993 [hereinafter Sanz].

 After the Kamalayan Development Foundation infiltrated the factory and notified the 202

authorities, the Department of Labor and Employment conducted a rescue operation in the

factory. The Kamalayan Development Foundation has been involved in the rescue of some

twenty-six bonded child workers in cooperation with the Department of Labor and

Employment and other government agencies. See Alex Apit, "A Brief Introduction to the

Kamalayan Development Foundation," at the International Conference on Jobs, Justice and

the Development of the International Economy, International Federation of Trade Unions,

Asian Pacific Region Organization and the Trade Union Congress of the Philippines

(February 21-24, 1995) 4 [on file].

 J. Carson, "Young's Town: 'Prison Camp' and Slave Dungeon for Child Workers," 203

Child Workers Philippines, vol. 1, no. 1 (Manila: Kamalayan Development Center, Inc., July

1993) 3 [on file] [hereinafter Carson]. See also Coronel.

 Carson at 5. 204

111

neighbors or acquaintances. The children are sometimes kept as virtual prisoners and 199

forced to work long hours for little or no pay, in some cases because they owe their

employers for travel expenses or a recruitment fee. There are reports of children who 200

literally disappear after being recruited. 201

In 1993, an NGO found a group of child workers imprisoned in a sardine factory in

metropolitan Manila. The seven children, the youngest of whom was 12, were recruited 202

from the southern province of Mindanao and were originally promised jobs as domestic

workers or store clerks. They were not allowed to leave the factory premises, even on 203

Sundays or holidays, nor to write their parents to tell them where they were. None were

paid, despite the fact that some had been working at the factory for over a year.204

Upon their arrival at the factory, the youths were told that they were in debt to the

owner for their trip to the factory, the food they were given during the journey, and the

payment that the factory owner had made to the recruiter. Of the 23 pesos per day wage that
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 "Child Labour: Rescue Operations," Free Labor World, no. 4 (Brussels: International 205

Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), April 1995) [on file] [hereinafter ICFTU

article].

 Carson at 4 and 7. 206

 See Carson at 8; ICFTU article. In May 1994, the Philippine Department of Labor and 207

Employment and the National Bureau of Investigations raided the sardine factory a second

time since it continued to operate despite an order to shut down. Labor officials and NBI

agents reportedly found about a hundred children working in the factory during the second

raid. The children ranged in age from 10 to 17 and were not paid regularly or sufficiently.

Former Labor Secretary Nieves Confesor stated that the company continued to operate

despite the order to shut down because its owner was protected by a local official of the

Philippine National Police. "Confesor urges boycott of firms employing minors," Philippine

Daily Inquirer (Manila), May 20, 1994.

 "Robina: 'Barracks' and 'Bartolenas' of the Child Workers," Child Workers 208

Philippines, vol. 1, no. 3 (Manila: Kamalayan Development Center, Inc., September 1993)

6-7 [on file] [hereinafter "Robina: 'Barracks' and 'Bartolenas' of the Child Workers"]. 

 "Robina: 'Barracks' and 'Bartolenas' of the Child Workers" at 4-5. See also Coronel. 209

112

had been originally promised, 25 pesos were deducted to pay for the inadequate and often

unsanitary food provided. In this way, the children's debt was instantly and systematically 205

perpetuated.

The children were forced to begin work at 3 a.m. and worked into the evening, seven

days a week, within guarded factory gates. They filled sardine cans with fish parts and 206

were reprimanded by their supervisor if they did not work quickly enough. Their fingers and

hands were often slashed from the cans' sharp edges, and their skin damaged and yellowed

from constant exposure to water and chemicals.207

In a similar case, which came to public attention after an official raid in 1993, children

as young as 14 were found working in a cooking oil factory outside of Manila, where they

were held in a walled compound behind barbed wire and armed guards. The living quarters

were small cage-like structures which were kept locked during the day. The children 208

worked an average of ten hours each day, with meals and medicine deducted from their

wages. None of the children received wages for the first two months because they were

required to repay the money spent to transport them to the factory. The children reportedly 209
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 "Robina: 'Barracks' and 'Bartolenas' of the Child Workers" at 11. 210

 Guerrero. 211

 See International Child Labor Hearing, U.S. Department of Labor (May 5, 1995) 212

(Statement of the Government of the Philippines) [hereinafter Testimony of the Government

of the Philippines].

 Testimony of the Government of the Philippines. 213

113

were frequently beaten or otherwise mistreated.210

Press reports in 1994 documented a case of six girls aged 14 and 15 who escaped from

a print shop in Manila. They were recruited by agents who promised wages of 500 pesos

($18) per month, but for two years they received no money. They were forced to work up

to 21 hours a day. Their mouths were taped to prevent them from talking to each other, and

they were physically punished for any mistakes. Although they were locked inside the

house, the girls had managed to escape when the door was mistakenly left ajar. 211

 

The Philippine Government, which has demonstrated an increasing commitment to

the elimination of child labor, recently proposed measures to improve regulation of

recruitment and placement agencies. Under the proposed new rules, prior to taking a recruit

out of his/her home region, recruiting agents would be required to present to the Department

of Labor and Employment the recruits' i) birth certificate; ii) medical certificate; iii) National

Bureau of Investigation or police clearance; and iv) the recruit in person. The proposed rules

also call for the revocation of private recruiting agencies' operating licenses in cases where

recruitment agencies are found to engage in illegal recruitment. Firms engaging in illegal

recruitment activities will also face criminal charges. In addition, the Government of the 212

Philippines, in cooperation with local NGOs, carried out 18 rescue operations resulting in

the release of 59 illegally-employed children since July 1993.213

Similar situations of false recruitment and otherwise forced child labor have also been

documented in Thailand. In 1995, the ILO Committee of Experts stated that in Thailand: 

. . . many children continue to work under coercion or in conditions of

exploitation which have no resemblance to a free employment relationship.

The situation is often linked to forced or false recruitment, deception and

trafficking. Children are exploited because they are young and helpless, they

are deprived of the right to lead a normal childhood, deprived of education,
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Report of the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and 214

Recommendations: General Report and Observations Concerning Particular Countries

(Geneva: International Labor Organization, 82nd session, 1995) 111 [hereinafter 1995

Report of the Committee of Experts].

 Report of the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and 215

Recommendations: General Report and Observations Concerning Particular Countries

(Geneva: International Labor Organization, 81st session, 1994) 135 [hereinafter 1994 Report

of the Committee of Experts]. See also World Labor Report 1993 at 18; Joseph Albright and

Marcia Kunstel, "Stolen Childhood, Global Report on the Exploitation of Children," in Cox

Newspapers (June 21-26, 1987) 11.

 "An Interview with Sanpasit Khumprapan," in Child Workers in Asia, vol. 8, no. 4 and 216

vol. 9, no. 1 (October-December 1992 and January-March 1993) 9.

 World Labor Report 1993 at 18. 217

 1994 Report of the Committee of Experts at 136. 218

114

deprived of a future.214

Recruiting agents travel around rural areas, particularly in the impoverished

northeastern part of the country, luring children from poor families into sweatshops and

factories with promises of well-paying jobs. According to a staff member of a Thai NGO, 215

many parents do not know where their children have been taken. Factory doors are often

locked to outsiders. In the towns and cities, there are shops that specialize in the selling 216

of children and teenagers.217

Children are also recruited and sometimes kidnapped from the central train and bus

stations in Bangkok. In one such case, described by representatives of the ILO who visited

Thailand in 1993, a young boy was kidnapped at the train station and forced, along with

other children, to work very long hours in a small, illegal factory. He was beaten and

prohibited from leaving the premises or even from looking through the window. All the

windows were sealed and corridors barricaded. Police had to climb over the fence in order

to gain entry to the building.218

In 1986, the Thai Government's National Youth Bureau conducted a detailed survey,

still widely cited, of 145 manufacturing industries utilizing child labor in Bangkok. Results

indicated that most of the 325 children interviewed lacked the opportunity to go home for
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Welfare and Development of Child Labour in the Manufacturing Industries (Bangkok: 219

Government of Thailand, 1986) 6 [on file] [hereinafter Government of Thailand Report].

 Government of Thailand Report at 3. 220

 Government of Thailand Report at 1 and 6. 221

 Government of Thailand Report at 8. 222

 "Sweatshop Bosses Who Torture Child Workers Could Face Death," Agence France 223

Presse, February 6, 1992.

 Dave Todd, "Thais Shocked by Story of Worker-Prisoners," The Vancouver Sun, July 224

6, 1992. 

115

a visit or even to get in touch with their family. Some children for whom advance payment

had been made were not allowed to leave the workplace for fear that they would not return.

Many children staying with employers were found to be "confined, scolded and physically

or psychologically assaulted." More than half the child workers were found to work 219

between 9 and 12 hours a day. Six percent of the children were under twelve years old; 220

the rest ranged in age from 12 to 15. They were found to suffer from ailments such as 221

muscular pain, skin irritations and eye and hearing problems as a result of exposure to loud

noise, heat, dust, chemicals, high intensity light and heavy work load.222

In one highly publicized case in late 1991, police raided a paper cup factory in

Bangkok and rescued 31 children aged 13 to 15 who were being held as prisoners. Many had

been severely beaten; some were partially crippled. They had been imprisoned in a 223

windowless room, where they were forced to work up to 18 hours per day making paper cups

while squatting on the same floor on which they ate and slept. They had been working there

for one to four years. Several of the children had to be helped from the building because

their atrophied legs, after months without walking, could no longer support them.224

In 1994, police raided a garment sweatshop in a Bangkok suburb and found girls as

young as 14 who were forced to work 16 hours a day sewing jeans for no pay. They were

originally promised $20 per month. Among the workers found were girls from Burma. They

were kept behind steel doors and thick window bars and were dependent upon supervisors

for meals. Their mail was screened. Some of the prisoners had been held for as long as four

years, and had only been allowed out when the factory moved to avoid detection. The shop

supervisors were charged with illegal detention of workers, employing child labor, and
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 "Thirty-two Youngsters Freed from Thai Sweatshop," The Washington Times, June 3, 225

1994; "Thai Sweatshop Raid Frees 32 Girls From Slave Labour," Agence France Presse,

May 31, 1994. Under current Thai law, employers who detain child workers can be fined

6,000 baht ($240) and be jailed for up to three years. If a child dies as a result of torture or

mistreatment on the part of the employer, the maximum sentence is 20 years' imprisonment.

In 1994, the Thai Cabinet approved a bill, yet to be enacted into law, that would impose

stricter penalties on persons who trade in women and children. 

 "Lao PDR and Child Labor," Child Workers in Asia, vol. 10, no. 2, (April-June 1994) 226

9.

 China's National Labor Law prohibits employers from recruiting juveniles under the 227

age of sixteen. See American Embassy-Beijing, unclassified telegram no. 11680, April 19,

1995. China has not ratified either ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor or the

U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. Country Reports at 1273.

 Sheila Tefft, "In China's Rush to Riches, it Tries to Curb Child Labor," The Christian 228

Science Monitor, January 31, 1995 [hereinafter Tefft].

 Tefft. 229

 Tefft. 230

116

harboring and sheltering illegal aliens. According to one report, the demand in Thailand 225

for foreign child workers from countries such as Burma and Laos is growing since they are

cheaper than Thai children and less likely to leave.226

There is some evidence that similar situations involving forced child labor in

manufacturing and mining operations are occurring in China. Recent reports in the official 227

Chinese press indicate that increasing numbers of rural children are being kidnapped and

recruited to work under exploitative conditions in Chinese cities. Children are "employed 228

in large numbers in textile factories and other sweatshops where they are sometimes locked

in and not allowed to leave." In December 1994, coal mine owners in Hunan Province 229

were arrested for having kidnapped over 100 children and forcing them to work under

"brutal" conditions with little food or water. The children were forced to work for ten hours

per day carrying heavy loads. They were fed only water and melons, were paid little, and

were physically mistreated. 230
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Brazil has ratified both ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor, and the 231

U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, the Constitution prohibits forced

labor. Country Reports at 340.

 See FBIS report dated June 27, 1995 containing translated text of President Cardoso's 232

speech [on file] [hereinafter Cardoso speech]. 

 Alison Sutton, Slavery in Brazil (London: Anti-Slavery International, 1994) 62 233

[hereinafter Sutton].

 While charcoal is not exported from Brazil, it may be used by iron smelters that 234

produce for the export market. It is difficult to establish a link to exported iron since it is

difficult to identify the employer of the subcontracted charcoal laborers. See By the Sweat

and Toil of Children (Volume I) at 39. The United States imports iron filings, ore and pellets

from Brazil. 

 Terri Lapinsky, The Place for Children is in School: Child Labor in Brazil's Export 235

Industries (May 1994) 22 [on file] [hereinafter Lapinsky].

117

2. Latin America

a. Charcoal

Entire families are recruited by labor contractors called "gatos" (literally "cats") to

work under slave-like conditions in Brazil's charcoal industry, particularly in the state of

Mato Grosso do Sul. In a June 1995 radio address, Brazilian President Fernando Henrique 231

Cardoso described the situation of charcoal workers in Mato Grosso do Sul and northern

Minas Gerais as "involving both enslaving and degrading labor." He stated that

"irregularities range from violations of labor laws -- none of these workers are registered

workers -- to poor living conditions and a lack of both freedom of labor and of freedom in

general."232

Charcoal is produced from felled eucalyptus and pine wood, which is gathered and

fired in kilns. The charcoal is used as an input for pig iron smelters, which procure the 233

charcoal under subcontractor arrangements. Workers often do not know for whom they 234

work, since increasingly smaller production areas are rented to subcontractors to avoid

regulation and union organizing efforts. 235
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Sutton at 66. 236

 Lapinsky at 22. 237

 Sutton at 71-72. 238

 Sutton at 70-71. 239

 Labor inspection report, Operação Mato Grosso do Sul, Ministry of Labor archive 240

(March 1992) cited in Sutton at 60.

 Sutton at 60. 241

118

Children work alongside their parents at the kilns, raking the charcoal and loading

it into sacks or cooling the hot kilns by spreading mud over their sides. The families work 236

in remote areas far from towns, schools or medical facilities and are often prevented from

leaving the work premises by armed guards. They are often forced to buy food and supplies

at inflated prices at the company store and thus constantly find themselves in debt. This

indebtedness reinforces parents' reliance on the work of their children to help boost coal

production. There are cases where families -- sometimes recruited from distances of 800 237

miles or more -- cannot earn enough money to pay for the return trip. 238

Workers in the charcoal industry are vulnerable to silicosis from the fine charcoal dust

that permeates the air and lodges in their lungs. One charcoal worker stated that her 11-yearold son had been coughing for a week after having worked for only 20 days at the kilns.239

Workers suffer from circulatory problems due to long exposure to high temperatures.

Splinters and cuts to the hands are common. 

In March 1992, labor inspectors found 5,000-8,000 people, including entire families,

working in charcoal production in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul. An inspector described

the conditions: 

We are talking about real human servitude, in which any precept of humanity

has been abandoned, with the institutionalization of a policy of company

stores (at the end of the period contracted, the worker is still indebted to the

employer who has supplied him with the worst quality food at absurd

prices). 240

The workers were found to be "in an advanced state of malnutrition." The families 241

worked 12 hour days gathering wood which was stacked up by children as young as nine.
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Sutton at 60. 242

 Misery, Fear and Complicity: The Recipe for Slave Labor in Brazil, Testimony by 243

Darci Frigo, Paraná Pastoral Land Commission, Anti-Slavery International submission to the

U.N. Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Nineteenth Session, April 1994

[on file].

 Cardoso speech. 244

 Peru has ratified ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor, and is a signatory 245

to the U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, Peruvian law prohibits forced labor.

Country Reports at 496.

 Jesús Guillén-Marroquín, "Child Labour in Peru: Gold Panning in Madre de Dios," 246

in Combating Child Labour (Geneva: International Labour Organization, 1988) 61

[hereafter Guillén-Marroquín].

119

At one furnace a 4-year-old girl was found loading charcoal into sacks.242

In a similar case at a charcoal-producing ranch in Mato Grosso do Sul, the Regional

Labor Office discovered 1000 enslaved workers, including over 400 children. These children

were recruited along with their parents from the state of Minas Gerais. One worker, who had

been working at the ranch for three months along with his wife, nephew and eight children,

said that they had been unable to leave because of debts owed to the "gato." 243

During inspections in May 1995, Brazilian labor authorities detected 83 irregularities

regarding labor conditions in four companies in Mato Grosso do Sul. 244

b. Gold Panning

Children are recruited and forced to work in substandard conditions in gold panning

operations in the Madre de Dios department in the jungle of south-eastern Peru. The 245

Peruvian National Institute of Planning has estimated that the Madre de Dios region accounts

for over three-fourths of Peru's gold deposits, the majority of which are found in the Madre

de Dios riverbeds. While there are hundreds of registered concessions in Madre de Dios, 246

there are many more -- possibly thousands -- of small, unregistered gold panning concessions
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Guillén-Marroquín at 61. 247

 Guillén-Marroquín at 61 and 65. 248

 Guillermo Mosquerira Lobatón, "Minería Aurífera Aluvional en Madre de Dios," in 249

XI Congreso Nacional de Economístas del Perú (October 1994) [on file]; Guillén-Marroquín

at 65; and Hayes. 

 Ni Por Todo el Oro del Mundo: Menores Trabajadores en los Lavaderos de Oro de 250

Madre de Dios (Cusco: Coordinadora Derechos del Niño Región INKA (CODENI), 1991)

16 [on file] [hereinafter CODENI study]; Victoria Marchand, "Life and Death of Children

Working in Peruvian Gold Mines," International Children’s Rights Monitor, vol. 9, no. 2

(Geneva: Defence for Children International, 1992) [hereinafter Marchand]; GuillénMarroquín at 68. There is contradictory information concerning whether payment for the

return trip home following the nine-month contract period is provided by the employer, or

is the sole responsibility of the child.

 Hayes. 251

120

that operate under informal arrangements with larger companies. 247

Most of the labor force are migrants from the Andean highlands where there are few

opportunities for employment. It has been estimated that from 20 to 50 percent of the 248

workers are under the age of 18, with some reportedly as young as 11. 249

Contractors promising high wages illegally recruit minors on behalf of the concession

owners through informal verbal contracts. The youths are usually recruited for a nine-month

period with payment for their return journey conditional on the completion of the contract.

The employers generally agree to cover the cost of transport to the mines, as well as food and

lodging.250

A Roman Catholic priest living in one of the gold-mining towns in Madre de Dios in

1991 observed that at least ten children ranging in age from 12 to 16 arrived daily on trucks

from the city of Cuzco. He stated:

Human life is worthless here. From the moment the children are loaded onto

the trucks they are treated like cattle. 251

Children under 18 are often favored by concession owners since they work illegally,
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Guillén-Marroquín at 65. 252

 Hayes. 253

 Guillén-Marroquín at 68. 254

 Guillén-Marroquín at 68 and 73. 255

 Guillén-Marroquín at 72. 256

 Hayes; Guillén-Marroquín at 68. 257

 Guillén-Marroquín at 71. Some allege that there are cases where employers have 258

children killed so that they do not have to pay them. See Hayes.

 Marchand. 259

 Guillén-Marroquín at 69. 260

121

cannot unionize, and do not register complaints regarding wages. "Children are very 252

sought-after as workers. They don't complain. They keep their mouths shut. They work

hard because they want to be like grown-ups . . . And they're paid very little . . ."253

The workers are irregularly fed during the long trip to the remote gold panneries.

They are often weak and ill by the time they arrive. The food provided by the employer 254

at the site is usually insufficient; the workers are encouraged to get advances on their wages

for extra food and drink which are sold at prices fixed by the employer. Wage advances also

are made for medication. Common ailments include insect, bat and snake bites, stomach

illnesses, malaria, anemia, colds and piodermis (a chronic skin disease caused by mosquito

bites). The children sleep in unwalled, temporary structures. Mosquito nets, which are 255

considered indispensable, must be bought or rented from the concession owner.256

When workers realize that the amount they owe is greater than the wages to be paid,

they are forced to continue working in order to pay off the difference. In some cases, the 257

employers simply refuse to pay at the agreed upon time, forcing the workers to stay on

longer. Those children who are paid are sometimes cheated out of their wages by drivers 258

during the return trip home. One survey found that only half of the gold workers in Madre 259

de Dios returned home with any earnings, despite the fact that their main objective for

working had been to gain income for their families.260

 
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Guillén-Marroquín at 71. 261

 Hayes. 262

 Marchand; Guillén-Marroquín at 63 and 74. 263

 CODENI study at 21. 264

 CODENI study at 19; Guillén-Marroquín at 71. 265

 Hayes. 266

 Marchand. 267

122

The method of production used by the gold washeries is very labor intensive and

physically demanding. Children generally work eight hours a day, six days a week,

performing many of the same tasks as adults. One reporter witnessed "boys no more than 261

14 pushing wheelbarrows in the boiling sun and washing gravel through sluices." Children 262

transport top soil and gravel in wheelbarrows along narrow, inclined wooden ramps. They

are preferred for this task because of their lightness and agility in negotiating the ramps, but

accidents occur when they fall or the ramp overturns, causing bone fractures, dislocations,

or muscle damage. During a later phase of production, when mercury is used to separate 263

gold from soil and gravel, young miners come into direct contact with the toxic metal, which

also pollutes the water in the river. 264

Girls as young as 12 or 13 work 12-14 hours a day, seven days a week. They are

responsible for domestic work such as preparing food and washing clothing and eating

utensils. According to some reports, they are sometimes forced into prostitution. 265 266

Mistreatment of the youths by their employers is reportedly common: 

The employer is free to mistreat, rape or even let the youngsters die out of

neglect, should they try to flee, or be caught stealing, or even for no reason

whatsoever. Since the youngsters are totally at the mercy of the employer, the

latter can forcefully establish this type of patriarchal authoritarian

relationship. 267

Many news articles in 1991 reported the discovery of common graves of children in

Peru's gold-producing region. Examination of the corpses indicated that the youths had died
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 CODENI study at 7. 268

 1994 Report of the Committee of Experts at 124. The ILO Committee of Experts 269

(COE) noted that the Government of Peru (GOP) had closed down and fined clandestine

recruitment agencies and organized educational campaigns to prevent workers from being

deceived by the "enganchadores." At the same time, however, the COE urged that the

Government of Peru take the necessary actions to ensure that appropriate penalties were

imposed on violators of the forced labor convention. The Government of Peru indicated that

it had decided to draft a directive reiterating the prohibition on the employment of minors

and the legal requirements for recruiting workers into the Madre de Dios region. 1994

Report of the Committee of Experts at 124. No new developments were reported by the COE

in 1995. Representatives of several Peruvian NGOs have indicated that the situation of

minors working in the gold washeries remains essentially unchanged. Peruvian Congressman

Julio Castro Gómez has proposed that a parliamentary investigation be undertaken. See

Letter from the Centro de Asesoria Laboral (CEDAL) to the International Child Labor Study

(June 2, 1995). 

123

of disease, work accidents such as falls, or contusions caused by abusive employers. 268

In October 1993, the Peruvian Ministry of Labor carried out an operation on a gold

washery in Madre de Dios and rescued 7 youths who were being "exploited as slaves." The

youths testified that labor contractors, or "enganchadores," had used dishonest means to

recruit them and then had sold them to the concession owners. The boys had been overseen

by armed men. 269

The United States imported $16 million of unwrought, non-monetary gold and gold

scrap from Peru in 1994. United States imports of gold necklaces from Peru were over $30

million in 1994.

C. Farm Labor

Large numbers of children around the world are forced to work in the farm

sector. Farming may account for greater numbers of forced child laborers than

manufacturing, although comparatively little research has been devoted to the subject.

In some countries, particularly in South Asia, debt bondage is the prevalent form of

forced child labor in the farm sector. Children are pledged by parents as collateral on a debt

or inherit the debts of their parents, which may have been passed down for generations. Debt

bondage also occurs under land tenancy or sharecropper arrangements; tenants, along with
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Children in Bondage: A Call for Action at 7. 270

 Indonesia has ratified ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor; it has not 271

ratified U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, Indonesian law forbids forced labor.

Country Reports at 606.

 Sri Lanka has ratified both ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor, and the 272

U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, forced or bonded labor is prohibited

under Sri Lankan law. Country Reports at 1267.

124

their children, are expected to provide labor or a share of crops to the landlord. In such cases

children work alongside their parents without receiving separate compensation for their

labor. When wages are insufficient to cover necessary expenditures such as food, tools or

seed, tenants and sharecropper families often rely on the landowners for loans or other forms

of advances. Such conditions lead to a high incidence of debt bondage. 270

Children in rural areas, sometimes along with their entire families, are recruited in the

farm sector to work in remote areas long distances from their home. Recruiters deceive the

children and their families into believing that they will receive much higher wages and better

conditions than those actually offered at the work site. Once at the work site, usually

isolated and far from home, the workers are at the complete disposal of their employer.

Deductions from wages for food and other necessities purchased at inflated prices from a

"company store" lead to reliance on credit and a spiral of indebtedness. 

In addition to reports of forced labor in South Asia's farming sector, there are

situations of forced labor of children in the commercial fishing industries of Indonesia, Sri 271

Lanka, the Philippines, India and Pakistan. Forced child labor in commercial agriculture 272

also may be found in the harvesting of rattan in the Philippines, sugar cane and rubber in

Brazil, and vegetables in Honduras and South Africa. These situations have been described

in further detail in the first section of this report on the exploitation of child labor in

commercial agriculture and fishing. The cases noted below occur on small-scale farms

which are not known to export their products to the United States.

1. South Asia
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 See generally Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 10-11. See also Children 273

in Bondage: A Call for Action at 7.

 Manjari Dingwaney with Sunil Dogra, R. Vidyasagar, and Renu Gupta, Children of 274

Darkness: A Manual on Child Labor in India (New Delhi: Rural Labor Cell, 1988) 17

[hereinafter Dingwaney et al].

 Anti-Slavery Society, "Child Bonded Labor," in Seminar on the Implementation of the 275

Convention on the Rights of the Child (International Commission of Jurists and Defense for

Children International, September 24-28, 1990) 5 [hereinafter "Child Bonded Labor"].

 World Labor Report 1993 at 12. 276

125

a. Small-scale farming

There are large numbers of children in bondage in small-scale agricultural operations

in rural India, Pakistan and Nepal. The farm sector probably accounts for more bonded child

laborers than any other sector in these still largely rural societies. 

Bonded labor in the farm sector occurs when poor, landless peasants and tenant

farmers have no choice but to turn to landlords for loans in the form of cash or food. In 273

return, the peasants offer their labor and/or that of their children. The loans are taken to meet

the cost of daily needs and for expenses occasioned by special events such as marriages and

funerals. Instead of decreasing with the time worked, however, the loans often increase, 274

and bondage becomes a way of life for generations. 

Bonded children in farming in these countries perform jobs such as feeding, grazing

and caring for animals, fetching water and firewood, tending crops, and selling vegetables.

In addition, they often perform domestic duties for the landowner. 

Debt bondage in farming is the most widespread form of forced labor in India.275

There is a startling variation among estimates of bonded child labor in the Indian farm sector.

Official Government of India figures put the total number of bonded workers (children and

adults) at 353,000, while NGO estimates range from 2.6 million (child and adult) bonded 276
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 World Labor Report 1993 at 12. Survey conducted in 1979 by the Gandhi Peace 277

Foundation and the National Labor Institute.

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 30. 278

 Children in Bondage: A Call for Action at 6. 279

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 30; Dingwaney et al at 18; "Child 280

Bonded Labor" at 5. 

 Born to Work at 25 and 27. 281

 "Child Bonded Labour" at 6. 282

 India's Carpet Boys: A Pattern of Slavery at 9. 283

126

workers to 15 million bonded child farm workers. 277 278

 

Debt bondage in India, according to the Indian National Commission on Rural Labor,

has its roots in rural, feudalistic and semi-feudalistic society, hierarchical social order,

extreme poverty and ignorance. It is also closely linked to the Indian caste system. 279

Bonded laborers are often members of the scheduled castes and tribes, which include the

"untouchables" and other low-caste groups. 280

 In many cases bondage is intergenerational, with child bonded laborers replacing their

fathers when the latter have become too old or too weak to work themselves. The initial 281

loans that form the basis for this intergenerational bondage are often quite small. However,

the borrowing family, usually illiterate, is unable to understand interest calculations

performed by the landlord. Written agreements are viewed as unnecessary, and interest rates

can range to as high as 400 percent. 282

Children as young as six are sometimes pledged by their parents to landlords as

bonded laborers. In exchange for a loan, parents engage their sons, ranging in age from 10

to 14, as bonded laborers known as "Kuthias." The amount of the loan, ranging from 400

to 1000 rupees, depends on the age and health of the boy. Kuthias, who are considered to

be in training to become adult bonded laborers, graze cattle and assist bonded adults with all

other agricultural chores. Another type of child bonded laborer is the "Peyjoli"-- a child aged

six to nine -- who, because of extreme poverty, is sold by his/her parents to a landlord for

a yearly fee ranging from 100 to 400 rupees. Sometimes parents receive no payment at all,

but consider themselves better off because they have one less mouth to feed. "Peyjoli" are 283

at the complete disposal of their masters and do all types of jobs -- from collecting cow dung
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 25. See also Rajendra K. Sail, 284

"Agricultural Child Bonded Labourers of Chattisgarh," in Into That Heaven of Freedom?

Report of the South Asian Seminar on Child Servitude (Bonded Labour Liberation Front of

India, June 1989) 47.

 Burra at 26; Dingwaney et. al. at 19. 285

 "Child Bonded Labor" at 5. See also Child Labor: a Threat to Health and 286

Development (Geneva: Defense for Children International, 1985) 30.

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 9; Sawyer at 64. 287

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 30-31, citing from Marla, Sarma, 288

Bonded Labor in India, National Survey on the Incidence of Bonded Labour (New Delhi:

Gandhi Peace Foundation, 1981).

127

to massaging their master. In return, they receive a bare minimum of food and lodging.284

 

Bonded child labor is especially widespread in certain areas of central India such as

Bihar, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. In some villages, landlords have been found to rely

almost exclusively on child bonded labor. 285

Bonded children are sometimes subjected to physical punishment and suffer from a

high incidence of severe malnutrition, vitamin deficiency, anaemia, tuberculosis, and skin

and parasitic diseases. They have no time for either leisure or education -- over 90 percent 286

of bonded laborers in India, many of whom became bonded as children, have never had the

opportunity to go to school. 287

According to a 1979 survey on bonded labor in ten states of India, 30 percent of

bonded families were obliged to send two or more family members into bondage. Over half

of the loans were taken to meet basic needs of food, clothing and shelter, and the average

loan amount was less than 30 dollars. In the central Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, almost

70 percent of bonded children did not receive wages; in the southern state of Tamil Nadu,

99 percent of children were not paid. The study concluded that for landlords and

moneylenders, cheap labor provided by bonded laborers was actually more valuable than

recovery of the original debt.288

In Nepal, bonded labor is rooted in feudalistic patterns of land ownership and
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Sattaur at 42-43. 289

 Country Reports at 1244; Bonded Labor in Nepal, Anti-Slavery International 290

submission to the U.N. Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Eighteenth

Session, 1993 [on file] [hereinafter 1993 ASI Submission on Nepal]. The 25,000 figure is

derived from interviews with over 17,000 individuals conducted by the NGO Informal Sector

Service Centre. See Bonded Labor in Nepal under Kamaiya System (Kathmandu: Informal

Sector Service Centre, 1992) 50 [hereinafter Bonded Labor in Nepal under Kamaiya System].

 Letter from Child Welfare Society in Kathmandu to the International Child Labor 291

Study (May 21, 1995) [on file] [hereinafter Child Welfare Society letter].

 Bonded Labor in Nepal under Kamaiya System at 34. 292

 Bonded Labor in Nepal under the Kamaiya System at 50 and 53-54; Sattaur at 48. 293

 Bonded Labor in Nepal under Kamaiya System at 46. 294

128

poverty. In three districts of Western Nepal, which were the subject of a 1992 NGO 289

survey of bonded labor in Nepal, it is estimated that there are approximately 25,000 families

working as bonded laborers known as "Kamaiya." A recent news report in the Rising 290

Nepal estimates that there are 55,000 bonded Kamaiya families in five districts of Western

Nepal. Most Kamaiya families are from economically marginalized and landless 291

indigenous ethnic groups such as the Tharu. 

A "Kamaiya" is an agricultural laborer who serves an employer, usually a landowner,

under a one-year binding verbal contract. Literally, "Kamaiya" is defined as "a hard tiller

of land, earner; manly or obedient person; one who earns along with his family in other's

land by borrowing in cash or kind from the land owner or a peasant equivalent to him."292

Kamaiya usually must resort to borrowing cash or food from the employer in order to

maintain their families. In most cases, the employer assumes that the Kamaiya's family is

also at his disposal to perform any task he commands. In a small percentage of cases,

children themselves -- some below the age of ten -- are Kamaiya. 293

The conditions of the Kaimaya's contract include a fixed amount of food, land, cash

or other goods to be paid him; these, however, are usually not sufficient to provide even for

basic subsistence. Kamaiyas who have children are provided with the same amount of food

as those without children. In addition, the contract gives the master the option to fine the 294

Kamaiya for each day of absence or for loss of or damage to tools. It also provides that the

Kamaiya's wife and children will also work for the master but for no additional
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 1993 ASI Submission on Nepal. 295

 Bonded Labor in Nepal under Kamaiya System at 61. 296

 Child Welfare Society letter; interview by U.S. Department of Labor official with 297

Kiran Tewari, Secretary, Child Welfare Society, Kathmandu (April 6, 1995). See also 1993

ASI Submission on Nepal.

 Sattaur at 47. 298

 Bonded Labour in Nepal Under the Kamaiya System at 51-52. 299

 Sometimes Kamaiya are separated from their children and wife in the process. See 300

Child Welfare Society letter.

 Bonded Labor in Nepal under Kamaiya System at 49 and 53. 301

129

remuneration. 295

The Kamaiya is not free to end his employment during the one-year period. Working

days of 18 hours for Kamaiyas and 12 hours for their families are routine; there are no days

off. Kamaiya are often subjected to beatings and their daughters to sexual abuse. 296 297

Kamaiya and their families cultivate land, clean animal sheds, collect fuel and perform

domestic chores in their masters' homes. Children sometimes herd buffalos or cows or

perform domestic work for the master.298

Loans are a central feature for maintaining the Kamaiya system. Since Kamaiyas are

generally not paid enough to meet their basic needs, many have no choice but to take loans

from their master. Many also carry inherited debts, sometimes going back for three or four

generations, in addition to their own. A Kamaiya burdened by debt must continue to work 299

for the same landlord until the debt has been repaid. The Kamaiya remains bound to the

landlord unless, at markets held each winter, the Kamaiya finds a new master to pay off his

debt or the original master sells off the Kaimaya and his family to a new master. Debts 300

tend to increase with time because of high interest charged, the master's dishonest

bookkeeping, and fines charged to the Kamaiya for days absent.

Kamaiya and their families often remain in debt-bondage for their entire lives.301

Some families have been indebted for such a long time that their indebtedness assumes a

sense of normality in their minds:
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Harold O. Sklar, Nepal, Indigenous Issues and Civil Rights, The Plight of the Tana 302

Tharu (Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, 1991) cited in Sattaur at 47.

 See Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 18; Testimony of Human 303

Rights Watch/Asia. See also Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 59 and 62-63.

 A Report by the Bonded Liberation Front of Pakistan, report to the U.N. Working 304

Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Sixteenth Session, 1991.

 Discover the Working Child at 20. The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan states 305

that "entire families of farm workers are kept in bondage by feudals in Sindh." Letter to the

International Child Labor Study from Zohra Yusuf, Secretary-General, Human Rights

Commission of Pakistan (May 16, 1995) [on file].

 Testimony of Human Rights Watch/Asia. 306

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan 62-63. 307

130

Some families around Getta, to the north of Dhangadhi, have been kamaiya

for so many generations that they do not know anything about the conditions

of the original bondage. Though they do not know how their forefathers got

into debt, they do know the amount of the debt, a fact which has been

impressed upon them from birth.302

In Pakistan, child bondage, under the system of advances known as "peshgi," is

common in agriculture, particularly in Sindh and Punjab provinces. Bonded laborers are 303

known in certain districts, as “gehna maklooq,” or mortgaged creatures. According to a 304

Government of Pakistan/UNICEF report:

In some parts of the country, the feudal system is still going strong and whole

families are in bondage, including the children who de facto 'belong' to the

landlord to whom the families are indebted.305

Bonded child laborers are reportedly used extensively as laborers on sugar cane and cotton

farms. 306

Tenant families often take loans out of necessity from their landlords during poor

harvests or to pay for materials and other necessities. The debtor and/or the members of 307

his family are bound to the creditor/employer as long as any portion of the debt remains
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Discover the Working Child at 20. 308

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 64. 309

 See Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 63-65. 310

 Contemporary Forms of Slavery in Pakistan at 70. 311

 Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent at 18. 312

131

outstanding.

Under this system, the children are expected to work although they receive no wages.

Children working under such circumstances constitute an integral part of the country's

agricultural work force. Their workload is regulated by demands of the landowner's

overseer, "often with no consideration for the age of the child." 308

Many forms of coercion are used by landlords to physically confine bonded laborers.

Some even have private jails to confine workers. In 1991, the Pakistani army raided a private

jail where a landlord was found to be illegally holding 295 peasants, 132 of which were

children. The bonded laborers worked all day in the fields under supervision of armed 309

guards and were confined at night in the jail, where they were chained with iron shackles.

The only food they were given was flour and chili peppers; no plumbing facilities or medical

care was provided. The local police were aware of the jail's existence, but because of their

close relationship with the local landlord, they had taken no action to release the prisoners.

Interviews indicate that while this case is one of the more notorious examples of illegal

confinement, it is by no means an isolated incident. Attempts at escape from bondage are 310

often brutally punished. 311

The Bonded Labor Liberation Front of Pakistan estimates that out of 20 million

bonded laborers in Pakistan, 7.5 million are "children whose families are looked upon as

slaves." 312

D. Service Sector and Illegal Economy

Largely hidden from public view, forced child labor in the informal service sector is

widespread and includes the sex industry and domestic services. Sometimes parents

knowingly sell their children into such work, while in other cases children are fraudulently
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Children: Sale of children, child 313

prostitution and child pornography: Note by the Secretary-General, U.N. General

Assembly, U.N. Doc. A/49/478, October 5, 1994, p.29.

 Children at Work at 102. The Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 34, 314

prohibits the sexual exploitation of children.

 See Kevin Ireland, 'Wish you Weren't Here:' The Sexual Exploitation of Children and 315

the Connection with Tourism and International Travel (London: Save the Children Fund

(UK), 1993) 3 [hereinafter Ireland]; In the Twilight Zone: Child Workers in the Hotel,

Tourism and Catering Industry (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 1995) 5-6

[hereinafter Twilight Zone]. See also Ron O'Grady, Ending the Prostitution of Asian

Children (Paper presented at the Tenth Annual Congress on Child Abuse and Neglect, Kuala

Lumpur, September 11, 1994) 1 [on file] [hereinafter O'Grady].

 Children at Work at 104. 316

132

recruited or abducted. In still other cases, children -- often with their parents knowledge and

acquiescence -- are enticed to seek employment as prostitutes or domestics. The children,

however, rarely are aware of the conditions and treatment that await them.

The first part of this section focuses on child prostitution, the sexual exploitation of

children for commercial purposes. The second part discusses the use of children as domestic

servants. A final section reports on the trafficking of young boys to be used as camel jockeys

in certain Gulf states.

1. The Sex Industry

Child prostitution is defined by the United Nations as "the sexual exploitation of a

child for remuneration in cash or in kind, usually but not always organized by an

intermediary (parent, family member, procurer, teacher, etc.)." The sexual exploitation 313

of children is considered to be one of the worst forms of child labor and a form of bonded

labor. Children who are sold, induced, tricked, or enticed into prostitution are too young 314

to fully comprehend or consent to the acts that they are forced to perform. Most countries 315

have penal laws against such activity and consider sexual relations with a minor under 16

years of age to be statutory rape. 316

These children are in some cases taken far from their homes and held as virtual slaves,
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 See The Progress of Nations (New York: UNICEF, 1995) 34 [hereinafter Progress of 317

Nations].

 1994 Report of the Committee of Experts at 28. 318

 Twilight Zone at 6. 319

 Twilight Zone at 6. The ILO Committee of Experts notes that the Royal Thai 320

Government estimates the number of child prostitutes to be 20,000 to 30,000. The

Committee states that it "recalls that the Ministry of Health, Division of Venereal Diseases

Control, reported in 1990 that child prostitutes numbered 86,000 and that data from the

Police Department showed that around 160,000 prostitutes would be under 16. Given the

number of children trafficked from neighboring countries, it is unlikely that these figures

would have decreased since 1990." 1995 Report of the Committee of Experts at 114-15.

UNICEF "guesstimates" that there are 100,000 child prostitutes in Thailand. Progress of

Nations at 34. NGOs estimate the number of child prostitutes to be 200,000 - 800,000. See

Sex Tourism and Child Prostitution in Asia: Legal Responses and Strategies (paper by

Douglas Hodgson, Senior Lecturer in Law, The University of Western Australia, n.d.) 3 [on

133

forcibly confined and abused into submission. They are exposed to severe health risks, 317

including HIV infection and AIDS, other sexually-transmitted diseases, and drug addiction,

as well as sustained physical and psychological abuse. 

The ILO expresses particular concern regarding the exploitation of children in the sex

industry:

One aspect of significant disquiet to the Committee relates to forced child

labour, and particularly the exploitation of children for prostitution and

pornography. This form of child labour is increasingly advertised outside the

country in which it occurs and is therefore the subject of deliberate and

increased exploitation by tourists and visitors from other countries. No longer

is such exploitation of children a responsibility only of the country in which

it occurs, it is an international responsibility.318

The term child prostitution generally refers to the prostitution of young (prepubescent) children and adolescents up to the ages of 15 to 18, depending on national

laws. Estimates of the numbers of child prostitutes vary widely. In Thailand, for example, 319

estimates of the number of children and adolescents whose livelihood includes the sale of

sexual services range from 2,500 up to 800,000. Similar discrepancies exist in the figures 320
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

file] [hereinafter Hodgson]; See also O'Grady at 135; Children at Work at 102. 

 Twilight Zone at 6-7. The Norwegian Government reported in 1989 to the European 321

Ministers of Justice that one million children around the world are "kidnapped, bought or

otherwise forced onto the market for sex" each year. This number has been called

speculative by the ILO. See O'Grady at 135; Twilight Zone at 6.

 Twilight Zone at 7; S. Srobanke, "Child Prostitution in Thailand," in Voices of Thai 322

Women, Issue 4 (Bangkok: ECPAT,1990). See also Gilberto Dimenstein, "Little Girls of the

Night," in Disposable Children: The Hazards of Growing Up Poor in Latin America, vol.

XXVII, no. 6 (New York: North American Congress on Latin America, May/June 1994) 29-

33 [hereinafter Dimenstein]. 

 American Consulate-Chiang Mai, unclassified telegram no. 485, July 11, 1995 323

[hereinafter Chiang Mai 485]; Telephone interview by U.S. Department of Labor official

with Mark Connolly, UNICEF (May 1995); Yayori Matsui, "Trafficking Children for Sexual

Purposes in Asia," in Stop Trafficking Children for Sexual Purposes: Report of the

Consultation held in Taipei, June 1-3, 1994 (Taipei: ECPAT-Taiwan, 1994) 28-29

[hereinafter Matsui].

 Rape for Profit: Trafficking of Nepali Girls and Women to India's Brothels (New 324

York: Human Rights Watch/Asia, 1995) 13 [hereinafter Rape for Profit].

 UNICEF/APRO Paper for Country Planning and Programming (UNICEF: January 325

1989) cited in Children at Work at 103.

134

commonly cited for other countries. It is generally accepted, however, that the number of

children being forced or sold into the sex industry is "substantial and growing." 321

While it is believed that those under 15 make up a small minority of child prostitutes,

some observers note a trend towards greater demand for ever younger children in the sex

industry, particularly in Asia but also in Latin America. This can at least partly be 322

attributed to the perception that younger girls are less likely to carry the HIV virus. In some

countries, including Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia and India, there are brothels which

specialize in the prostitution of young virgins. It is reported that the average age at which 323

Nepali girls are recruited into Indian brothels has dropped from 16 to 14 since the 1980s.324

One report stated that of 100,000 estimated Nepali women and girl prostitutes in India, 20

percent are believed to be girls under 14 years of age. A book on girl children and family 325

violence in India found that most girls in the red light districts of Bombay had been initiated
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 "Abuse and Prostitution," Deccan Herald (Bangalore, India) September 10, 1993 in 326

My Name is Today, Children in News, vol. 1, no. 2 at 120 [on file].

 Dimenstein at 33. 327

 Sale of Children: Report submitted by Mr. Vitit Muntarbhorn, Special Rapporteur, 328

U.N. Commission on Human Rights, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1993/67, January 1993 at 26

[hereinafter 1993 Special Rapporteur Report].

 Hodgson at 5. 329

 Twilight Zone at 4. 330

 1993 Special Rapporteur Report at 26. 331

 1993 Special Rapporteur Report at 26-27. 332

135

into prostitution at the age of 12 or 13 years. In Brazil, the average age of child prostitutes 326

is declining due to the increasing numbers of street children and the fact that by time they

reach 18, prostitutes, plagued by various illnesses, are considered finished.327

The most commonly cited explanation for the subjection of children to prostitution

is poverty. Poverty alone cannot, however, explain the increasing sexual exploitation of

children. Another factor is the willingness of parents in some countries such as Thailand 328

to sell their children into prostitution. While many parents sell their children because they

are impoverished, one report estimated that one-third of transactions are motivated by the

desire for consumer goods. Increasing urbanization, with poor families being forced to 329

find a foothold in the modern cash economy, is another factor. 330

The demand for child prostitutes can also be attributed in part to the rise in

international sex tourism, with customers from developed countries exploiting children in

developing countries. In the sophisticated international business of prostitution, children 331

are abducted, drugged and coerced by gangs and syndicates into prostitution both locally and

across frontiers. They are sometimes killed or maimed in the process. Girls from all over 332

Southeast Asia, including Burma, Cambodia, China, Laos and Vietnam can now be found

in the brothels of Thailand.

As a result of many international campaigns to bring a halt to the trafficking of

children for the purposes of prostitution -- and highly-publicized cases of extreme physical

abuse and death of child prostitutes at the hands of foreign tourists -- several industrialized

countries, including Australia, Belgium, France, Germany, Norway, Sweden, New Zealand
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Twilight Zone at 21; Children at Work at 108; End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism 333

Newsletter, no. 13 (August 1995) 3. For the United States, see 18 U.S.C. 2423(b). For

Australia, see International Child Labor Hearing, U.S. Department of Labor (May 5, 1995)

(Statement of the Government of Australia).

 Chiang Mai 485; The Thai Women of Tomorrow (TWT) Project (Bangkok: February 334

1995)(mimeograph) [on file].

 Twilight Zone at 8 and 20-21. 335

 Twilight Zone at 22. 336

 Ireland at 21. 337

 Twilight Zone at 5. 338

136

and the United States have passed or revised laws which permit prosecution of their nationals

for sexually exploiting children abroad. 333

The clientele of the sex industry varies by location, and locals often make up a greater

proportion of clients than do foreigners. In Thailand, for example, where patronizing

prostitutes is considered by many to be socially acceptable, one study found that foreigners 334

constituted less than 10 percent of the clients patronizing girl prostitutes. Western tourists

were found to mainly frequent prostitutes over 18. An ILO study in Sri Lanka found that 335

most customers were male foreign tourists. The same study found that in the Philippines and

Mexico customers included both foreigners and nationals. In Kenya young boys on the

beaches were found to service foreigners; young girls in the towns mainly serviced

nationals. Several other studies conducted in the Philippines indicate that local people 336

represent up to half of the clientele.337

As is the case for forced child labor in general, there are several paths by which

children become prostitutes. The most exploitative situations often result from instances

where children, usually girls, are deliberately tricked or kidnapped and sold into prostitution.

These children are often trafficked from the countryside to larger urban areas. They are also

trafficked across national borders. Some brothel owners actively seek children who come

from long distances or other countries because they are the most powerless, dependent and

least able to escape. 338

In many cases children are promised jobs in restaurants or as domestic workers, but
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 A Modern Form of Slavery: Trafficking of Burmese Women and Girls into Brothels 339

in Thailand, (New York: Human Rights Watch/Asia and Human Rights Watch/Women's

Rights Project, 1993) 1 [hereinafter A Modern Form of Slavery].

 A Modern Form of Slavery at 3 and 54. 340

 Rialp at 10; Comprehensive Study on Child Labor in the Philippines (Manila: Institute 341

for Labor Studies, Philippines Department of Labor and Employment, 1994) 52; Fyfe at 118-

119.

 See Chiang Mai 485. 342

 Double Jeopardy: Police Abuse of Women in Pakistan (New York: Human Rights 343

Watch/Asia and Human Rights Watch/Women's Rights Project, 1992) 126-133 [hereinafter

Double Jeopardy]. The Pakistani National Council for Social Welfare estimated in 1991 that

100 to 150 Bengali women and girls averaging age 15 are brought into Pakistan each month.

Id.

 Double Jeopardy at 126. 344

 Dimenstein at 30; Sutton at 95. 345

137

find themselves instead forced to prostitute themselves. Thai non-governmental

organizations estimate that as many as 10,000 Burmese women and girls, some as young as

13 years old, are illegally brought into Thailand each year by recruiters. Many are sold 339

to brothel owners, with their selling prices -- ranging between $400 and $800 -- becoming

their debt. 340

In the Philippines, children aged 14 to 16 (but some younger) are tricked into

prostitution after their parents sell them to recruiters promising jobs as domestics or sales

clerks in the city. Children of impoverished hill tribe families in northeastern Thailand are 341

similarly tricked into prostitution by procurers promising restaurant, domestic or factory jobs,

although in other cases parents knowingly sell their daughters into prostitution. In 342

Bangladesh, girls are lured by false promises of jobs or marriage and are then smuggled by

middlemen into Pakistan where they are sold into prostitution. Sometimes they are 343

drugged during the trip. In Brazil, girls between the age of 12 and 15 who have been 344

promised employment in restaurants or shops are brought by plane or boat to brothels in

remote mining encampments of the Amazonia region where they are sold to brothel owners

and held as virtual slaves. Trafficking of young boys and girls from Mozambique to South 345
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography: Report submitted by Mr. 346

Vitit Muntarbhorn, Special Rapporteur, U.N. Commission on Human Rights, U.N. Doc.

E/CN.4/1994/84, January 1994 at 38.

 A Report on Action Research on Girls in Especially Difficult Circumstances 347

(Kathmandu: Legal Research and Development Forum and UNICEF, 1995) 5 [hereinafter

Report on Girls in Especially Difficult Circumstances].

 Country Reports at 1243; John Ward Anderson, "Nepal's Shame, Girl-Trafficking 348

Meets a Determined Roadblock," The Washington Post, April 14, 1995 [hereinafter

Anderson article]; Report on Action Research on Girls in Especially Difficult Circumstances

at 5.

 Child Network News (Kathmandu: Children at Risk Network Group, January 1995) 1. 349

 Sattaur at 60. 350

 Progress of Nations at 34. 351

 Chiang Mai 485. 352

138

Africa for sexual exploitation also occurs. In Nepal, the majority of girls who are forced 346

into prostitution are enticed with promises of good jobs in Indian cities. 347

 

Kidnapping is less common, but has been reported to occur in Nepal, where

trafficking of girls as young as ten, particularly into India, is widely acknowledged. NGOs 348

have reported that disappearances of children from villages (purportedly for prostitution) is

on the increase. Sometimes friends or distant relatives pretend to arrange a marriage in 349

another village but instead abduct the girl and send her to India.350

The victims of trafficking are often powerless to escape the situation. In cases where

they have been taken into another country, they are isolated by language barriers and their

illegal status. In Thailand, girls brought from Burma and northern hill tribe villages are 351

unable to read Thai. Most also do not have identity cards, making them illegal immigrants

subject to arrest. 352

Often, in Amazonia and Thailand, the girls are in debt from the moment they arrive --

from transport costs, payoffs to police or other officials, and fees paid to recruiters by brothel

owners. Human Rights Watch/Asia found that Burmese girls recruited and sold to Thai
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 A Modern Form of Slavery at 54. 353

 See generally, A Modern Form of Slavery at 53-59; Sutton at 94-103; and Dimenstein 354

at 30.

 A Modern Form of Slavery at 3. 355

 Telephone interview by U.S. Department of Labor official with Mark Connolly, 356

UNICEF (May 1995).

 Rape for Profit at 40. 357

 Children at Work at 73. 358

 Twilight Zone at 30; Telephone interview by U.S. Department of Labor official with 359

Mark Connolly, UNICEF (May 1995).

 Twilight Zone at 30. 360

139

brothels often had no idea of how large their debt was or how it had been calculated.353

Often the debt becomes impossible to pay off, as food, medicines and other expenses are

deducted from pay. In many cases, money from customers goes directly to the brothel 354

owner and the girls receive only a small percentage. 

In the worst cases, the girls are literally trapped inside the brothels. In Ranong,

Thailand, where a large number of Burmese child prostitutes are found, some brothels are

surrounded by electrified barbed fences and armed guards. In Bombay's red light district, 355

there is a specific area known as "the cages," where girls are displayed in caged window

fronts. Nepalese girls in Indian brothels are sometimed physically confined for fear that 356

they might escape.357

In some cases, children are compelled by their parents to engage in commercial sex,

which may be seen as a good source of family income. In Thailand, for example, where 358

daughters are traditionally considered to have a duty to help support their family, gaining

income through the prostitution of one's daughter is not necessarily viewed as morally

reprehensible. Parents who sell their daughters to procurers receive advances of 359

approximately $300 to $1200 dollars. A high percentage of the victims come from the hill 360

tribes in northern Thailand. Hill tribe people are not granted Thai citizenship and have

limited educational and employment opportunities. It is estimated that in some northern Thai

hill tribe villages, 60 to 70 percent of the girls aged 11 years and older are engaged in the sex
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Children at Work at 127. See also Matsui at 30-31. 361

 Chiang Mai 485. 362

 Matsui at 23; "Thailand School Girls Sold as Prostitutes," The Statesman (Calcutta), 363

February 20, 1994 in My Name is Today, Children in News, vol. II, no. I (January-March

1994) 123.

 Twilight Zone at 30. 364

 Country Reports at 1243; Anderson article. See generally, Rape for Profit. See also 365

Committee on the Rights of the Child, Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties

Under Article 44 of the Convention, Initial Reports of States Parties Due in 1992 - Nepal

(April 10, 1995), U.N. Doc. CRC/C/3/Add. 34, May 10, 1995, 69 [hereinafter Nepal Report

to the Committee on the Rights of the Child].

 "Sex Tourists Prey on Lanka's Children," The Independent (Bombay, India), January 366

21, 1994 in My Name is Today, Children in News, vol. II, no. I (New Delhi: Butterflies,

January-March 1994) 48 [on file] [hereinafter The Independent article].

 Ireland at 22. 367

140

industry. Some parents, particularly in villages that have no prior history of sending girls 361

into prostitution, are deceived by the recruiters and do not know that their daughters are to

be placed in the sex industry. But when they learn the truth, even such parents are

sometimes impressed with their returning daughter's relative wealth and "worldliness."362

There are reported cases from Thailand of parents pledging their daughters to procurers when

the girls are still in elementary school. In other cases parents themselves bring their 363

daughters to brothels.364

In Nepal, where the sale of a young woman can bring as much as ten years of income,

parents or relatives are known to sell young girls into prostitution. In Sri Lanka, where 365

child prostitutes are primarily young boys between 6 and 14 years old, parents sometimes

condone the use of their sons for such activity. NGO workers operating in communities 366

in the Philippines, where child prostitution is rampant, found that many families

"wholeheartedly accepted" the situation of their children. 367

Sometimes girls who are initially hired as waitresses, receptionists, hostesses or

dancers are compelled into performing sexual services in addition to their normal duties. 
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Twilight Zone at 5. 368

 Twilight Zone at 47. 369

 Twilight Zone at 43. 370

 Ghana has ratified both ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor, and the 371

U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, Ghanaian law prohibits forced labor.

Country Reports at 104.

 For more information, see Ritual Slavery: The Sexual Exploitation of the Devadasis 372

(India) [hereinafter Ritual Slavery: The Sexual Exploitation of the Devadasis] and Fetish

Slaves (Ghana) [hereinafter Fetish Slaves], Anti-Slavery International submissions to the

U.N. Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Twentieth Session, April 1995 [on

file]. On Nepal, see Country Reports at 1243 and Anderson article. On Ghana, see also

Country Reports at 104.

141

In those (establishments) which particularly cater for men seeking female (or

male) sexual companionship, the pressure on young employees to engage in

paid sex may be overwhelming, whatever the quoted terms of the original

engagement. 368

An ILO study on child workers in the hotel, tourism and catering industry found that

in both Acapulco and Manila there were informal routes for enticing children into providing

sexual services. For example, in the Philippines, girls might move from waitress onto the

"receptionist track" -- where the likelihood that they will become prostitutes is high.369

Sometimes waitresses and receptionists are paid according to the number of drinks they

themselves consume; they are encouraged to become inebriated with the hope that they will

be more acquiescent to customers' suggestions regarding sexual acts.370

 

In countries such as India, Nepal and Ghana, parents are reported to dedicate their 371

young daughters, once they reach puberty, to serve religious or ritualistic purposes in temples

or shrines. This practice, rooted in traditional society, often degenerates into sexual

exploitation, whereby the girls are kept as virtual sex slaves. In Ghana's eastern Volta 372

region, for example, under the "tro-kosi" (i.e., vestal virgin) system, young girls, usually

under ten years of age, become virtual slaves to a fetish shrine and its priest to atone for an
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Country Reports at 104; Fetish Slaves. 373

 Nepal Report to the Committee on the Rights of the Child at 67-68. 374

 Id. 375

 Ritual Slavery: The Sexual Exploitation of the Devadasis. 376

 Testimony of Kailash Satyarthi, Anti-Slavery International submission to the U.N. 377

Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Sixteenth Session (July-August 1991);

Comprehensive Study on Child Labor in the Philippines (Manila: Institute for Labor Studies,

Philippines Department of Labor and Employment, 1994) 45; Rape for Profit at 35;

Anderson article. See also Richard S. Ehrlich, "On the Streets of Bangkok," Freedom

Review (September-October 1994) 7.

 "Chinese Girls Being Lured into Thai Brothels," The Statesman (New Delhi), May 5, 378

1993, cited in My Name is Today, vol. 1, no. 1 (New Delhi: Butterflies, n.d.) 94-95.

 Sutton at 97-98; Dimenstein at 32. 379

142

alleged crime of a family member. In Nepal, girls are bought by the temple from a poor 373

family; these girls cannot marry and often engage in prostitution ofr economic support.374

The daughters of these girls are also pushed into the flesh trade. In India, it is estimated 375

that 10,000 young girls are dedicated each year to become "devadasi" (i.e, ritual slaves of a

god) in temples. The girls, once they reach puberty, are auctioned off to the highest bidder,

who retains the right to deflower them. Sometimes they are auctioned directly to procurers

for brothels. The dedication of children to become Devadasis invariably leads to 'a life of

prostitution' and sexual exploitation within their communities or in urban brothels.376

Child prostitutes are subjected to many types of physical and emotional trauma,

violence and abuse. They are sometimes brutally raped or beaten into submission and

subjected to sadistic treatment by customers. In one case, a young Chinese girl who had 377

been trafficked into Thailand was beaten to death in a brothel in Chiang Mai. Young 378

prostitutes in mining encampments in Amazonia who refuse a customer or attempt to escape

are beaten, tortured, and in some cases killed.379

Young teenagers also face the risk of pregnancy. Over one hundred thousand

maternal deaths occur each year among adolescents, many from abortions done by primitive
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Twilight Zone at 51. 380

 Dimenstein at 32. 381

 Progress of Nations at 34. 382

 Children at Work at 64. 383

 Twilight Zone at 50-51. 384

 Telephone interview by U.S. Department of Labor official with Mark Connolly, 385

UNICEF (May 1995).

 Twilight Zone at 50-51. 386

 Fyfe at 113. 387

143

methods. Young prostitutes are subjected to abortions using methods such as blows to the 380

abdomen, knitting needles or inappropriate medicine. 381

Child prostitutes are constantly at risk from exposure to harmful contagious diseases,

including sexually-transmitted diseases and AIDS. In Thailand, HIV infection has already

reached alarming proportions among young prostitutes. One study found that approximately

one-third of children involved in prostitution in Thailand are HIV positive, while other 382

reports indicate that 60 to 70 percent of girls in Thai brothels are HIV infected. Despite 383

the threat of AIDS, many girls do not understand the disease or how it is transmitted. 

Drug abuse is another risk associated with prostitution. Some children resort to 384

drugs as a way to block out their personal pain. Drugs are often deducted from their

wages. An ILO study in Sri Lanka found that 6 out of 52 boy prostitutes were drug 385

addicts; they had apparently been initiated to drugs by foreign tourists. 386

2. Domestic Services

The use of domestic servants in the homes of middle and upper-class families is

probably the most widespread form of forced child labor. It is a commonplace and widelyaccepted practice throughout Asia, the Americas, and Africa. Because many child domestics

work and live within the confines of private homes, they are perhaps the most invisible of

all child workers. While there are no reliable national or international figures on the 387

number of children engaged in domestic services, the figure is estimated to be in the millions
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Children at Work at 115. 388

 Children at Work at 115. See also Fyfe at 113; Child Domestic Workers in West 389

Africa, Anti-Slavery International submission to the U.N. Working Group on Contemporary

Forms of Slavery, Twentieth Session, April 1995 [on file]; S.W.E. Goonesekere, Child

Labour in Sri Lanka: Learning From the Past (Geneva: International Labor Organization,

1993) 11 [hereinafter Goonesekere]. 

 The Côte D'Ivoire has ratified both ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor, 390

and the U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, forced labor is prohibited by law in

the Côte D'Ivoire. Country Reports at 64.

 Sattaur at 54; Interview by Department of Labor official with Ms. Mahoua Coulibaly 391

and Ms. Lucie Coulibaly of LIDHO (Ivoirian League for Human Rights), Abidjan, June 2,

1994; "At the Mercy of Dreadful Homes," The Statesman (Calcutta),

June 7, 1993, in My Name is Today, vol.1, no. 1 (New Delhi: Butterflies, n.d.) 82.

144

worldwide and possibly on the increase. 388

In many countries poor families traditionally sent their children to live in the home

of a better-off relative. There, while receiving beneficial training, they were treated as

family members and assumed the same kinds of chores and responsibilities as the children

of their host family. The current situation is drastically different. The procurement of young

child domestic workers has become, in many countries, commercialized and highly

exploitative, even where "relatives" are involved:

Previous perceptions that domestic servants worked in a protected

environment are changing as more information reveals that this group of

children may be seriously abused. These children are the most vulnerable,

exploited and difficult to protect because of their young age, their sex (most

are girls), and their confinement in the household with very little contact with

the outside world. 389

Children, usually girls from poor, rural families and sometimes as young as six to ten

years old, may be recruited by a special agency, placed by a friend or acquaintance, sent by

their parents, adopted or kidnapped. In Nepal, the Côte D'Ivoire, and India, for example, 390

child domestic workers are often recruited by brokers or agents. In Syria, poor families 391
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 American Embassy-Damascas, unclassified telegram no. 1578, April 21, 1995. 392

 Fyfe at 114. 393

 Morocco has ratified both ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor, and the 394

U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, ILO Convention No. 29 was adopted

by decree and thus forced labor is prohibited under Moroccan law. Country Reports at 1153.

 Country Reports at 1152. 395

 Sudan has ratified ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor and the U.N. 396

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and

Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State Country Reports on

Human Rights Practices for 1994, Sudanese law prohibits forced or compulsory labor.

Country Reports at 253.

 Shyam Bhatia, "Sudan Revives the Slave Trade," in Sudan Human Rights Voice, vol. 397

4, issue 3 (March 1995) 4 [on file] [hereinafter Sudan Human Rights Voice article]; Sudan:

War, Slavery and Children, Anti-Slavery International submission to the U.N. Working

Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Seventeenth Session, 1992 [on file]. 

 The Tears of Orphans: No Future Without Human Rights (New York: Amnesty 398

International, 1995) 76-77 [hereinafter The Tears of Orphans]; World Labor Report 1993

at 11.

145

from rural areas place their daughters and in return receive a cash advance, sometimes

equivalent to a year's salary. In Brazil, there are cases where child domestics are 392

compelled to work -- often in the homes of fictitious relatives -- in order to pay off a debt

incurred by a parent. In Morocco, orphanages are party to the practice of adoptive 393 394

servitude, in which families adopt young girls who perform the duties of domestic servants

in their new homes.395

In Sudan, militias from the north kidnap children in the course of conducting raids 396

on tribal communities in the south of the country. Kidnapped children are considered by 397

some militia members to be legitimate war booty in the ongoing civil war. The children, 398

some as young as seven, are transported to the north where the militias either keep them for

their own use or sell them (for approximately $30 to $60 dollars each) into domestic
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 World Labor Report at 11. 399

 1994 Report of the Committee of Experts at 131, citing report of the U.N. Commission 400

on Human Rights Special Rapporteur on Sudan, February 1994 (U.N. Doc.

E/CN.4/1994/48). 

 Benin has ratified ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor; it has not ratified 401

the U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1994, the labor code prohibits forced or

compulsory labor. Country Reports at 12.

 Letter from the Benin Commission on Human Rights to the International Child Labor 402

Study (April 10, 1995) [on file].

 Testimony of WAO-Afrique, Anti-Slavery International submission to the U.N. 403

Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Twentieth Session, April 1995 [on file].

146

slavery. According to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Sudan, the kidnapping 399

and selling of Sudanese children seems to be an organized and politically motivated

practice. 400

 

Child domestic workers who live with their employer families are often subjected to

horrendous working conditions, extended work hours, and physical and sexual abuse. They

often wake up at dawn and do not go to sleep until after the rest of the family has retired.

They often work seven days a week with no holidays and little leisure time or rest. Many

are illiterate, and most are not permitted to go to school. In Benin, for example, one recent 401

study indicated that as many as 90 percent of child domestic workers, most of whom are

under 14, do not attend school.402

The daily tasks that child domestics are expected to perform are labor intensive and

often well beyond their physical capacity. Their work includes cleaning, washing, wiping

and polishing floors, cooking, shopping, taking care of younger children, tending the garden

and taking care of animals or pets. They are often isolated from other children and deprived

of human contact and affection. In some cases they are locked up while their employers 403

are out. In addition, they are separated from their families for long periods of time and often

not allowed visits.

Child domestic workers are usually paid little if anything; often their only
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Helen Rahman, Situation of Child Domestic Services (Dhaka, study commissioned by 404

UNICEF/Dhaka, 1992) 12 [on file] [hereinafter Rahman].

 Haiti has ratified both ILO Convention No. 29 Concerning Forced Labor, and the U.N. 405

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and

Practices Similar to Slavery. According to the U.S. Department of State Country Reports on

Human Rights Practices for 1994, the Labor Code prohibits forced or compulsory labor.

Country Reports at 430.

 1994 Report of the Committee of Experts at 104 citing Minnesota Lawyers 406

International Human Rights Committee submission to the U.N. Working Group on

Contemporary Forms of Slavery, August 1989.

 "At the Mercy of Dreadful Homes," The Statesman (Calcutta), June 7, 1993, cited in 407

My Name is Today, vol. 1, no. 1(New Delhi: Butterflies, n.d.) 82-83.

 The Situation of Women and Children in Lesotho 1991, (New York: UNICEF and the 408

Lesotho Ministry of Planning, Economic and Manpower Development, 1991) 129 [on file].

 Rahman at 10. 409

 Sudan Human Rights Voice article at 4-5; 410

147

remuneration is food and lodging. They eat after the rest of the family, and their meals,

which are often provided irregularly, generally consist of whatever leftovers remain.

Employers rarely provide for medical care and often attempt to medically treat child

domestics at home.404

The accommodations for child domestics are generally unpleasant. In Haiti, child 405

domestic workers, referred to as "restaveks," are sometimes housed in a separate shed. In 406

India, child domestic workers are often left to sleep in the bathroom, terrace, balcony or open

courtyard and generally are not given bedding. In other cases, such as in Lesotho, they 407

sometimes sleep without proper bedding in the same room as the children of their

employers. 408

Child domestic workers are often verbally or physically abused or sexually exploited.

A study on the situation of child domestic servants in Bangladesh states that they are the

recipient of abuses "at the smallest pretext" and live under the constant threat of being

thrown out to a vagrant life on the streets. In Sudan, there are reports of children being 409

beaten and branded; one young boy describes how his master punished children trying to 410
By the Sweat and Toil of Children (Volume II)

 Human Rights Report Sudan 1995 [video] (Washington: The Puebla Institute, 1995) 411

[on file].

 American Embassy-Port-au-Prince, unclassified telegram no. 3579, May 20, 1995. 412

 1994 Report of the Committee of Experts at 128. 413

 Goonesekere at 111. 414

 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1993 (U.S. Department of State, 415

February 1994) 1257.

 Mohammed Hanif, "Camel Kids are Still Riding," Anti-Slavery Reporter (London: 416

Anti-Slavery International, 1994) 72-75 [hereinafter Hanif].

 Country Reports 1994 at 1192. 417

 Country Reports 1994 at 1192. 418

148

escape by cutting their achilles tendons. In Haiti, the Ministry of Social Affairs has 411

estimated that about one-fifth of "restaveks" are badly mistreated. Some are sexually

abused. The ILO has noted that the Police Department in Sri Lanka has received over 412

1000 complaints during the past few years involving the inhumane treatment of child

domestics. Cases of such abuse in Sri Lanka have involved children being starved, 413

battered, burned or tortured to death. In Morocco, several cases involving the physical 414

abuse of child domestics by their employers were brought before Moroccan courts in 1994.

The girls had suffered severe beatings, torture and starvation. One had died from her

wounds.415

3. Camel Jockeys

Camel racing is a popular sport in the Persian Gulf States, including the United Arab

Emirates (UAE). Many children -- particularly from South Asia -- are reported to be

employed as camel jockeys. In 1993, the Government of the UAE prohibited the 416

employment of children as camel jockeys and the use of jockeys weighing less than 45

kilograms. The Camel Racing Association of the UAE enforces these rules. The Indian, 417 418

Pakistani, and Sri Lankan embassies in the UAE report no recent complaints of child abuse
Forced and Bonded Child Labor

 Unclassified memorandum from U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Near Eastern and 419

Arabian Peninsula Affairs, to the International Child Labor Study (August 31, 1995).

 Newsletter of Women and Children International (Dedham, Massachusetts: Women 420

and Children International, n.d.) [on file].

 Goonesekere at 16. 421

 Goonesekere at 16. See also "Children sold as Camel Jockeys to the Emirs," Journal 422

de Genève, January 26, 1995.

 Goonesekere at 17. 423

 "Camel Jockeys are Coming Home, but..." in Shishu Adhikar Newsletter on the Rights 424

of the Child, vol. 1, no. 3 (Dhaka: Shishu Adhikar, May 1993) 1 [on file].

 Goonesekere at 17. 425

 "The Cruel Fate of Camel Jockeys" (editorial), Boston Globe, July 14, 1992. 426

 Hanif at 74; Goonesekere at 17. 427

149

lined to camel racing since the 1993 prohibition.419

Some reports persist that young boys between four and ten years of age have

reportedly been abducted or recruited from countries such as Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka,

Pakistan and Mauritania are smuggled into the Gulf States to work as camel jockeys.420

Parents are sometimes promised that their children will be employed as companions for

children of wealthy families or will take part in ceremonial events. Organized recruitment 421

networks falsify immigration documents and escort the young boys across borders. 422

Young boys are preferred because they are light and their cries propel the camel to

run faster. Some reports cite repeated accidents, including deaths, prompted camel owners 423

to strap the boys to the backs of the camels. Sometimes the boys are glued onto the 424

camels. The ropes that are used to bind the children to the camel sometimes become loose, 425

and the boys can be thrown off the camel or dragged between the camel's legs over stones

and sand. The boys are often underfed so as to reduce the burden on the camel and are 426

sometimes subjected to bullying and physical harassment. 427
V. Appendices

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Appendix A: ILO Convention 138

International Labor Organization

C138 Convention Concerning Minimum Age

 for Admission to Employment, 1973

PREAMBLE

The General Conference of the International Labour Organisation,

Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the International Labour Office,

and having met in its Fifty-eighth Session on 6 June 1973, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to minimum age for

admission to employment, which is the fourth item on the agenda of the session, and

Noting the terms of the Minimum Age (Industry) Convention, 1919, the Minimum Age (Sea)

Convention, 1920, the Minimum Age (Agriculture) Convention, 1921, the Minimum Age

(Trimmers and Stokers) Convention, 1921, the Minimum Age (Non-Industrial Employment)

Convention, 1932, the Minimum Age (Sea) Convention (Revised), 1936, the Minimum Age

(Industry) Convention (Revised), 1937, the Minimum Age (Non-Industrial Employment)

Convention (Revised), 1937, the Minimum Age (Fishermen) Convention, 1959, and the

Minimum Age (Underground Work) Convention, 1965, and

Considering that the time has come to establish a general instrument on the subject, which

would gradually replace the existing ones applicable to limited economic sectors, with a view

to achieving the total abolition of child labour, and

Having determined that this instrument shall take the form of an international Convention,

adopts the twenty-sixth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred and seventy-three,

the following convention, which may be cited as the Minimum Age Convention, 1973:
Appendix A: ILO Convention 138

153

Article 1

Each Member for which this Convention is in force undertakes to pursue a national policy

designed to ensure the effective abolition of child labour and to raise progressively the

minimum age for admission to employment or work to a level consistent with the fullest

physical and mental development of young persons.

Article 2

1. Each Member which ratifies this Convention shall specify, in a declaration appended

to its ratification, a minimum age for admission to employment or work within its territory

and on means of transport registered in its territory; subject to Articles 4 to 8 of this

Convention, no one under that age shall be admitted to employment or work in any

occupation.

2. Each Member which has ratified this Convention may subsequently notify the

Director-General of the International Labour Office, by further declarations, that it specifies

a minimum age higher than that previously specified.

 

3. The minimum age specified in pursuance of paragraph 1 of this Article shall not be

less than the age of completion of compulsory schooling and, in any case, shall not be less

than 15 years.

4. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph 3 of this Article, a Member whose

economy and educational facilities are insufficiently developed may, after consultation with

the organisations of employers and workers concerned, where such exist, initially specify a

minimum age of 14 years.

5. Each Member which has specified a minimum age of 14 years in pursuance of the

provisions of the preceding paragraph shall include in its reports on the application of this

Convention submitted under article 22 of the Constitution of the International Labour

Organisation a statement --

(a) that its reason for doing so subsists; or

(b) that it renounces its right to avail itself of the provisions in question as from a

stated date.
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Article 3

1. The minimum age for admission to any type of employment or work which by its

nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out is likely to jeopardise the health, safety

or morals of young persons shall not be less than 18 years.

2. The types of employment or work to which paragraph 1 of this Article, applies shall

be determined by national laws or regulations or by the competent authority, after

consultation with the organisations of employers and workers concerned, where such exist.

3. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article national laws or

regulations or the competent authority may, after consultation with the organisations of

employers and workers concerned, where such exist, authorise employment or work as from

the age of 16 years on condition that the health, safety and morals of the young persons

concerned are fully protected and that the young persons have received adequate specific

instruction or vocational training in the relevant branch of activity.

Article 4

1. In so far as necessary, the competent authority, after consultation with the

organisations of employers and workers concerned, where such exist, may exclude from the

application of this Convention limited categories of employment or work in respect of which

special and substantial problems of application arise.

2. Each Member which ratifies this Convention shall list in its first report on the

application of the Convention submitted under article 22 of the Constitution of the

International Labour Organisation any categories which may have been excluded in

pursuance of paragraph 1 of this Article, giving the reasons for such exclusion, and shall

state in subsequent reports the position of its law and practice in respect of the categories

excluded and the extent to which effect has been given or is proposed to be given to the

Convention in respect of such categories.

3. Employment or work covered by Article 3 of this Convention shall not be excluded

from the application of the Convention in pursuance of this Article.

Article 5
Appendix A: ILO Convention 138

155

1. A Member whose economy and administrative facilities are insufficiently developed

may, after consultation with the organisations of employers and workers concerned, where

such exist initially limit the scope of application of this Convention.

2. Each Member which avails itself of the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article shall

specify, in a declaration appended to its ratification, the branches of economic activity or

types of undertakings to which it will apply the provisions of the Convention.

3. The provisions of the Convention shall be applicable as a minimum to the following:

mining and quarrying; manufacturing; construction; electricity, gas and water; sanitary

services; transport, storage and communication; and plantations and other agricultural

undertakings mainly producing for commercial purposes, but excluding family and smallscale holdings producing for local consumption and not regularly employing hired workers.

4. Any Member which has limited the scope of application of this Convention in

pursuance of this Article--

(a) shall indicate in its reports under article 22 of the Constitution of the International

Labour Organisation the general position as regards the employment or work of young

persons and children in the branches of activity which are excluded from the scope of

application of this Convention and any progress which may have been made towards wider

application of the provisions of the Convention;

(b) may at any time formally extend the scope of application by a declaration

addressed to the Director-General of the International Labour Office.

Article 6

This Convention does not apply to work done by children and young persons in schools for

general, vocational or technical education or in other training institutions, or to work done

by persons at least 14 years of age in undertakings, where such work is carried out in

accordance with conditions prescribed by the competent authority after consultation with the

organisations of employers and workers concerned, where such exist, and is an integral part

of

(a) a course of education or training for which a school or training institution is

primarily responsible;

(b) a programme of training mainly or entirely in an undertaking which programme

has been approved by the competent authority; or

(c) a programme of guidance or orientation designed to facilitate the choice of an

occupation or of a line of training.
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Article 7

1. National laws or regulations may permit the employment or work of persons 13 to 15

years of age on light work which is--

(a) not likely to be harmful to their health or development; and

(b) not such as to prejudice their attendance at school, their participation in vocational

orientation or training programmes approved by the competent authority or their capacity to

benefit from the instruction received.

 2. National laws or regulations may also permit the employment or work of persons who

are at least 15 years of age but have not yet completed their compulsory schooling on work

which meets the requirements set forth in sub-paragraphs (a) and (b) of paragraph 1 of this

Article.

3. The competent authority shall determine the activities in which employment or work

may be permitted under paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article and shall prescribe the number of

hours during which and the conditions in which such employment or work may be

undertaken.

4. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article, a Member which

has availed itself of the provisions of paragraph 4 of Article 2 may, for as long as it continues

to do so, substitute the ages 12 and 14 for the ages 13 and 15 in paragraph 1 and the age 14

for the age 15 in paragraph 2 of this Article.

Article 8

1. After consultation with the organisations of employers and workers concerned, where

such exist, the competent authority may, by permits granted in individual cases, allow

exceptions to the prohibition of employment or work provided for in Article 2 of this

Convention, for such purposes as participation in artistic performances.

2. Permits so granted shall limit the number of hours during which and prescribe the

conditions in which employment or work is allowed.

Article 9

1. All necessary measures, including the provision of appropriate penalties, shall be

taken by the competent authority to ensure the effective enforcement of the provisions of this

Convention.
Appendix A: ILO Convention 138

157

2. National laws or regulations or the competent authority shall define the persons

responsible for compliance with the provisions giving effect to the Convention.

3. National laws or regulations or the competent authority shall prescribe the registers

or other documents which shall be kept and made available by the employer; such registers

or documents shall contain the names and ages or dates of birth, duly certified wherever

possible, of persons whom he employs or who work for him and who are less than 18 years

of age.

Article 10

1. This Convention revises, on the terms set forth in this Article the Minimum Age

(Industry) Convention, 1919, the Minimum Age (Sea) Convention, 1920, the Minimum Age

(Agriculture) Convention, 1921, the Minimum Age (Trimmers and Stokers) Convention,

1921, the Minimum Age (Non-Industrial Employment) Convention, 1932, the Minimum Age

(Sea) Convention (Revised), 1936, the Minimum Age (Industry) Convention (Revised),

1937, the Minimum Age (Non-Industrial Employment) Convention (Revised), 1937, the

Minimum Age (Fishermen) Convention, 1959, and the Minimum Age (Underground Work)

Convention, 1965. 

2. The coming into force of this Convention shall not close the Minimum Age (Sea)

Convention (Revised), 1936, the Minimum Age (Industry) Convention (Revised), 1937, the

Minimum Age (Non-Industrial Employment) Convention (Revised), 1937, the Minimum Age

(Fishermen) Convention, 1959, or the Minimum Age (Underground Work) Convention,

1965, to further ratification.

3. The Minimum Age (Industry) Convention, 1919, the Minimum Age (Sea) Convention,

1920, the Minimum Age (Agriculture) Convention 1921, and the Minimum Age (Trimmers

and Stokers) Convention, 1921 shall be closed to further ratification when all the parties

thereto have consented to such closing by ratification of this Convention or by a declaration

communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office.

4. When the obligations of this Convention are accepted--

(a) by a Member which is a party to the Minimum Age (Industry) Convention

(Revised), 1937, and a minimum age of not less than 15 years is specified in pursuance of

Article 2 of this Convention this shall ipso jure involve the immediate denunciation of that

Convention,

(b) in respect of non-industrial employment as defined in the Minimum Age (NonIndustrial Employment) Convention, 1932, by a Member which is a party to that Convention,
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this shall ipso jure involve the immediate denunciation of that Convention, (c) in respect of

non-industrial employment as defined in the Minimum Age (Non-Industrial Employment)

Convention (Revised), 1937 by a Member which is a party to that Convention, and a

minimum age of not less than 15 years is specified in pursuance of Article 2 of this

Convention, this shall ipso jure involve the immediate denunciation of that Convention,

(d) in respect of maritime employment, by a Member which is a party to the Minimum

Age (Sea) Convention (Revised), 1936, and a minimum age of not less than 15 years is

specified in pursuance of Article 2 of this Convention or the Member specifies that Article

3 of this convention applies to maritime employment, this shall ipso jure involve the

immediate denunciation of that Convention,

(e) in respect of employment in maritime fishing, by a Member which is a party to the

Minimum Age (Fishermen) Convention, 1959, and a minimum age of not less than 15 years

is specified in pursuance of Article 2 of this Convention or the Member specifies that Article

3 of this Convention applies to employment in maritime fishing, this shall ipso jure involve

the immediate denunciation of that Convention,

(f) by a Member which is a party to the Minimum Age (Underground Work)

Convention, 1965, and a minimum age of not less than the age specified in pursuance of that

Convention is specified in pursuance of Article 2 of this Convention or the Member specifies

that such an age applies to employment underground in mines in virtue of Article 3 of this

Convention, this shall ipso jure involve the immediate denunciation of that Convention, if

and when this Convention shall have come into force.

5. Acceptance of the obligations of this Convention--

(a) shall involve the denunciation of the Minimum Age (Industry) Convention, 1919,

in accordance with Article 12 thereof,

(b) in respect of agriculture shall involve the denunciation of the Minimum Age

(Agriculture) Convention, 1921, in accordance with Article 9 thereof,

(c) in respect of maritime employment shall involve the denunciation of the Minimum

Age (Sea) Convention, 1920, in accordance with Article 10 thereof, and of t h e

Minimum Age (Trimmers and Stokers) Convention, 1921, in accordance with Article 12

thereof, if and when this Convention shall have come into force.

Article 11

The formal ratifications of this Convention shall be communicated to the Director-General

of the International Labour office for registration.

Article 12
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159

 1. This Convention shall be binding only upon those Members of the International

Labour Organisation whose ratifications have been registered with the Director-General.

 2. It shall come into force twelve months after the date on which the ratifications of two

Members have been registered with the Director-General.

 3. Thereafter, this Convention shall come into force for any Member twelve months after

the date on which its ratifications has been registered.

Article 13

 1. A Member which has ratified this Convention may denounce it after the expiration

of ten years from the date on which the Convention first comes into force, by an Act

communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office for registration.

Such denunciation should not take effect until one year after the date on which it is

registered.

 2. Each Member which has ratified this Convention and which does not, within the year

following the expiration of the period of ten years mentioned in the preceding paragraph,

exercise the right of denunciation provided for in this Article, will be bound for another

period of ten years and, thereafter, may denounce this Convention at the expiration of each

period of ten years under the terms provided for in this Article.

Article 14

 1. The Director-General of the International Labour Office shall notify all Members of

the International Labour Organisation of the registration of all ratifications and denunciations

communicated to him by the Members of the Organisation.

 2. When notifying the Members of the Organisation of the registration of the second

ratification communicated to him, the Director-General shall draw the attention of the

Members of the Organisation to the date upon which the Convention will come into force.

Article 15

The Director-General of the International Labour Office shall communicate to the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations for registration in accordance with Article 102 of the Charter

of the United Nations full particulars of all ratifications and acts of denunciation registered
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by him in accordance with the provisions of the preceding Articles.

Article 16

At such times as it may consider necessary the Governing Body of the International Labour

Office shall present to the General Conference a report on the working of this Convention

and shall examine the desirability of placing on the agenda of the Conference the question

of its revision in whole or in part.

Article 17

 1. Should the Conference adopt a new Convention revising this Convention in whole or

in part, then, unless the new Convention otherwise provides:

(a) the ratification by a Member of the new revising convention shall ipso jure involve

the immediate denunciation of this Convention notwithstanding the provisions of Article 13

above, if and when the new revising Convention shall have come into force;

(b) as from the date when the new revising Convention comes into force this

Convention shall cease to be open to ratification by the Members.

 2. This Convention shall in any case remain in force in its actual form and content for

those Members which have ratified it but have not ratified the revising Convention.

Article 18

The English and French versions of the text of this Convention are equally authoritative.

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Appendix B: ILO Recommendation No. 146

 

ILO Recommendation No. 146

Recommendation Concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment

The General Conference of the International Labour Organization,

Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the International Labour Office,

and having met in its Fifty-eighth Session on 6 June 1973, and

Recognizing that the effective abolition of child labour and the progressive raising of the

minimum age for admission to employment constitute only one aspect of the protection and

advancement of children and young persons, and

Noting the concern of the whole United Nations system with such protection and

advancement, and

Having adopted the Minimum Age Convention, 1973, and

Desirous to define further certain elements of policy which are the concern of the

International Labour Organization, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals regarding minimum age for admission

to employment, which is the fourth item on the agenda of the session, and

Having determined that these proposals shall take the form of a Recommendation

supplementing the Minimum Age Convention, 1973,

Adopts this twenty-sixth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred and seventythree, the following Recommendation, which may be cited as the Minimum Age

Recommendation, 1973:

I. NATIONAL POLICY

1. To ensure the success of the national policy provided for in Article 1 of the Minimum

Age Convention, 1973, high priority should be given to planning for and meeting the needs
Appendix B: ILO Recommendation 146

163

of children and youth in national development policies and programs and to the progressive

extension of the inter-related measures necessary to provide the best possible conditions of

physical and mental growth for children and young persons.

2. In this connection special attention should be given to such areas of planning and

policy as the following:

(a) firm national commitment to full employment, in accordance with the

Employment Policy Convention and Recommendation, 1964, and the taking

of measures designed to promote employment-oriented development in rural

and urban areas;

(b) the progressive extension of other economic and social measures to alleviate

poverty wherever it exists and to ensure family living standards and income

which are such as to make it unnecessary to have recourse to the economic

activity of children;

(c) the development and progressive extension, without any discrimination, of

social security and family welfare measures aimed at ensuring child

maintenance, including children's allowances;

(d) the development and progressive extension of appropriate facilities for

education and vocational orientation and training appropriate in form and

content to the needs of children and young persons concerned;

(e) the development and progressive extension of adequate facilities for the

protection and welfare of children and young persons, including employed

young persons, and for the promotion of their development.

3. Particular account should as necessary be taken of the needs of children and young

persons who do not have families or do not live with their own families and of migrant

children and young persons who live and travel with their families. Measures taken to that

end should include the provision of fellowships and vocational training.

4. Full-time attendance at school or participation in approved vocational orientation or

training programs should be required and effectively ensured up to an age at least equal to

that specified for admission to employment in accordance with Article 2 of the Minimum

Age Convention, 1973.
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5. (1) Consideration should be given to measures such as preparatory training, not

involving hazards, for types of employment or work in respect of which the minimum age

prescribed in accordance with Article 3 of the Minimum Age Convention, 1973, is higher

than the age of completion of compulsory full-time schooling.

(2) Analogous measures should be envisaged where the professional exigencies of a

particular occupation include a minimum age for admission which is higher than the age of

completion of compulsory full-time schooling.

II. MINIMUM AGE

6. The minimum age should be fixed at the same level for all sectors of economic

activity.

7. (1) Members should take as their objective the progressive raising to 16 years of the

minimum age for admission to employment or work specified in pursuance of Article 2 of

the Minimum Age Convention, 1973.

(2) Where the minimum age for employment or work covered by Article 2 of the

Minimum Age Convention, 1973, is still below 15 years, urgent steps should be taken to

raise it to that level.

8. Where it is not immediately feasible to fix a minimum age for all employment in

agriculture and in related activities in rural areas, a minimum age should be fixed at least for

employment on plantations and, in the other agricultural undertakings referred to in Article

5, paragraph 3, of the Minimum Age Convention, 1973.

III. HAZARDOUS EMPLOYMENT OR WORK

9. Where the minimum age for admission to types of employment or work which are

likely to jeopardize the health, safety or morals of young persons is still below 18 years,

immediate steps should be taken to raise it to that level.

10. (1) In determining the types of employment or work to which Article 3 of the

Minimum Age Convention, 1973, applies, full account should be taken of relevant

international labour standards, such as those concerning dangerous substances, agents or

processes (including ionizing radiations), the lifting of heavy weights and underground work.
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(2) The list of the types of employment or work in question should be re-examined

periodically and revised as necessary, particularly in the light of advancing scientific and

technological knowledge.

11. Where, by reference to Article 5 of the Minimum Age Convention, 1973, a minimum

age is not immediately fixed for certain branches of economic activity or types of

undertakings, appropriate minimum age provisions should be made applicable therein to

types of employment or work presenting hazards for young persons.

IV. CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT

12. (1) Measures should be taken to ensure that the conditions in which children and

young persons under the age of 18 years are employed or work reach and are maintained at

a satisfactory standard. These conditions should be supervised closely.

(2) Measures should likewise be taken to safeguard and supervise the conditions in

which children and young persons undergo vocational orientation and training within

undertakings, training institutions and schools for vocational or technical education and to

formulate standards for their protection and development.

13. (1) In connection with the application of the preceding Paragraph, as well as in giving

effect to Article 7, paragraph 3, of the Minimum Age Convention, 1973, special attention

should be given to --

(a) the provision of fair remuneration and its protection, bearing in mind the

principle of equal pay for equal work;

(b) the strict limitation of the hours spent at work in a day and in a week, and the

prohibition of overtime, so as to allow enough time for education and training

(including the time needed for homework related thereto), for rest during the

day and for leisure activities;

(c) the granting, without possibility of exception, save in genuine emergency, of

a minimum consecutive period of 12 hours night rest, and of customary weekly

rest days;

(d) the granting of an annual holiday with pay of at least four weeks and, in any

case, not shorter than that granted to adults;
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(e) coverage by social security schemes, including employment injury, medical

care and sickness benefit schemes, whatever the conditions of employment or

work may be;

(f) the maintenance of satisfactory standards of safety and health and appropriate

instruction and supervision.

(2) Subparagraph (1) of this Paragraph applies to young seafarers in so far as they are

not covered in respect of the matters dealt with therein by international labour Conventions

or Recommendations specifically concerned with maritime employment.

V. ENFORCEMENT

14. (1) Measures to ensure the effective application of the Minimum Age Convention,

1973, and of this Recommendation should include --

(a) the strengthening as necessary of labour inspection and related services, for

instance by the special training of inspectors to detect abuses in the

employment or work of children and young persons and to correct such

abuses; and

(b) the strengthening of services for the improvement and inspection of training

in undertakings.

(2) Emphasis should be placed on the role which can be played by inspectors in

supplying information and advice on effective means of complying with relevant provisions

as well as in securing their enforcement.

(3) Labour inspection and inspection of training in undertakings should be closely

co-ordinated to provide the greatest economic efficiency and, generally, the labour

administration services should work in close co-operation with the services responsible for

the education, training, welfare and guidance of children and young persons.

15. Special attention should be paid --

(a) to the enforcement of provisions concerning employment in hazardous types

of employment or work; and

(b) in so far as education or training is compulsory, to the prevention of the
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employment or work of children and young persons during the hours when

instruction is available.

16. The following measures should be taken to facilitate the verification of ages:

(a) The public authorities should maintain an effective system of birth registration,

which should include the issue of birth certificates;

(b) employers should be required to keep and to make available to the competent

authority registers or other documents indicating the names and ages or dates

of birth, duly certified wherever possible, not only of children and young

persons employed by them but also of those receiving vocational orientation

or training in their undertakings;

(c) children and young persons working in the streets, in outside stalls, in public

places, in itinerant occupations or in other circumstances which make the

checking of employers records impracticable should be issued licenses or other

documents indicating their eligibility for such work.
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Appendix C: ILO Convention 29

International Labour Organization

C29 Convention Concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour, 1930

The General Conference of the International Labour Organization,

Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the International Labour

Office, and having met in its Fourteenth Session on 10 June 1930, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to forced or

compulsory labour, which is included in the first item on the agenda of the Session, and

Having determined that these proposals shall take the form of an international

Convention,

adopts this twenty-eighth day of June of the ear one thousand nine hundred and thirty the

following Convention, which may be cited as the Forced Labour Convention, 1930, for

ratification by the Members of the International Labour Organization in accordance with the

provisions of the Constitution of the International Labour Organization:

Article 1

1. Each Member of the International Labour Organization which ratifies this Convention

undertakes to suppress the use of forced or compulsory labour in all its forms within the

shortest possible period.

2. With a view to this complete suppression, recourse to forced or compulsory labour

may be had, during the transitional period, for public purposes only and as an exceptional

measure, subject to the conditions and guarantees hereinafter provided.

3. At the expiration of a period of five years after the coming into force of this

Convention, and when the Governing Body of the International Labour Office prepares the

report provided for in Article 31 below, the said Governing Body shall consider the
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possibility of the suppression of forced or compulsory labour in all its forms without a

further transitional period and desirability of placing this question on the agenda of the

Conference.

Article 2

1. For the purposes of this Convention the term "forced or compulsory labour" shall

mean all work or service which is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty

and for which the said person has not offered himself voluntarily.

2. Nevertheless, for the purposes of this Convention, the term "forced or compulsory

labour" shall not include;

(a) any work or service exacted in virtue of compulsory military service laws for work

of a purely military character;

(b) any work or service which forms part of the normal civic obligations of the citizens

of a fully self-governing country;

(c) any work or service exacted from any person as a consequence of a conviction in a

court of law, provided that the said work or service is carried out under the supervision and

control of a public authority and that the said person is not hired to or placed at the disposal

of private individuals, companies or associations;

(d) any work or service exacted in cases of emergency, that is to say, in the event of war

or of a calamity or threatened calamity, such as fire, flood, famine, earthquake, violent

epidemic or epizootic diseases, invasion by animal, insect or vegetable pests, and in general

any circumstance that would endanger the existence or the well-being of the whole or part

of the population:

(e) minor communal services of a kind which, being performed by the members of the

community in the direct interest of the said community, can therefore be considered as

normal civic obligations incumbent upon the members of the community, provided that the

members of the community or their direct representatives shall have the right to be consulted

in regard to the need for such services.
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Article 3

For the purposes of this Convention the term "competent authority" shall mean either an

authority of the metropolitan country or the highest central authority in the territory

concerned.

Article 4

1. The competent authority shall not impose or permit the imposition of forced or

compulsory labour for the benefit of private individuals, companies or associations.

2. Where such forced or compulsory labour for the benefit of private individuals,

companies or associations exists at the date on which a Member's ratification of this

Convention is registered by the Director-General of the International Labour Office, the

Member shall completely suppress such forced or compulsory labour from the date on which

this Convention comes into force for that Member.

Article 5

1. No concession granted to private individuals, companies or associations shall involve

any form of forced or compulsory labour for the production or the collection of products

which such private individuals, companies or associations utilize or in which they trade.

2. Where concessions exist containing provisions involving such forced or compulsory

labour, such provisions shall be rescinded as soon as possible, in order to comply with

Article 1 of this Convention.

Article 6

Officials of the administration, even when they have the duty of encouraging the populations

under their charge to engage in some form of labour, shall not put constraint upon the said

populations or upon any individual members thereof to work for private individuals,

companies or associations.

Article 7

1. Chiefs who do not exercise administrative functions shall not have recourse to forced

or compulsory labour.
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2. Chiefs who exercise administrative functions may with the express permission of the

competent authority, have recourse to forced or compulsory labour, subject to the provisions

of Article 10 of this Convention.

3. Chiefs who are duly recognized and who do not receive adequate remuneration in

other forms may have the enjoyment of personal services, subject to due regulation and

provided that all necessary measures are taken to prevent abuses.

Article 8

1. The responsibility for every decision to have recourse to forced or compulsory labor

shall rest with the highest civil authority in the territory concerned.

2. Nevertheless, that authority may delegate powers to the highest local authorities to

exact forced or compulsory labour which does not involve the removal of the workers from

their place of habitual residence. That authority may also delegate, for such periods and

subject to such conditions as may be laid down in the regulations provided for in Article 23

of this Convention, powers to the highest local authorities to exact forced or compulsory

labour which involves the removal of the workers from their place of habitual residence for

the purpose of facilitating the movement of officials of the administration, when on duty, and

for the transport of government stores.

Article 9

Except as otherwise provided for in Article 10 of this Convention, any authority competent

to exact forced or compulsory labour shall, before deciding to have recourse to such labour,

satisfy itself:

(a) that the work to be done or the service to be rendered is of important direct interest

for the community called upon to do the work or render the service;

(b) that the work or service is of present or imminent necessity;

(c) that it has been impossible to obtain voluntary labour for carrying out the work or

rendering the service by the offer of rates of wages and conditions of labour not less

favorably than those prevailing in the area concerned for similar work or service; and

(d) that the work or service will not lay too heavy a burden upon the present population,

having regard to the labour available and its capacity to undertake the work.
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Article 10

1. Forced or compulsory labour exacted as a tax and forced or compulsory labour to

which recourse is had for the execution of public works by chiefs who exercise

administrative functions shall be progressively abolished.

2. Meanwhile, where forced or compulsory labour is exacted as a tax, and where

recourse is had to forced or compulsory labour for the execution of public works by chiefs

who exercise administrative functions, the authority concerned shall first satisfy itself:

(a) that the work to be done or the service to be rendered is of important direct interest

for the community called upon to do the work or render the service;

(b) that the work or the service is of present or imminent necessity;

(c) that the work or service will not lay too heavy a burden upon the present population,

having regard to the labour available and its capacity to undertake the work;

(d) that the work or service will not entail the removal of the workers from their place of

habitual residence;

(e) that the execution of the work or the rendering of the service will be directed in

accordance with the exigencies of religion, social life and agriculture.

Article 11

1. Only adult able-bodied males who are of an apparent age of not less than 18 and not

more than 45 years may be called upon for forced or compulsory labour. Except in respect

of the kinds of labour provided for in Article 10 of this Convention, the following limitations

and conditions shall apply;

(a) whenever possible prior determination by a medical officer appointed by the

administration that the persons concerned are not suffering from any infectious or contagious

disease and that they are physically fit for the work required and for the conditions under

which it is to be carried out;

(b) exemption of school teachers and pupils and of officials of the administration in

general;
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(c) the maintenance in each community of the number of adult able-bodied me

indispensable for family and social life;

(d) respect for conjugal and family ties.

2. For the purposes of subparagraph (c) of the preceding paragraph, the regulations

provided for in Article 23 of this Convention shall fix the proportion of the resident adult

able-bodied males who may be taken at any one time for forced or compulsory labour,

provided always that this proportion shall in no case exceed 25 per cent. In fixing this

proportion the competent authority shall take account of the density of the population, of its

social and physical development, of the seasons, and of the work which must be done by the

persons concerned on their own behalf in their locality, and, generally, shall have regard to

the economic and social necessities of the normal life of the community concerned.

Article 12

1. The maximum period for which any person may be taken for forced or compulsory

labour of all kinds in any one period of 12 months shall not exceed 60 days, including the

time spent in going to and from the place of work.

2. Every person from whom forced or compulsory labour is exacted shall be furnished

with a certificate indicating the periods of such labour which he has completed.

Article 13

1. The normal working hours of any person from whom forced or compulsory labour is

exacted shall be the same as those prevailing in the case of voluntary labour, and the hours

worked in excess of the normal working hours shall be remunerated at the rates prevailing

in the case of overtime for voluntary labour.

2. A weekly day of rest shall be granted to all persons from whom forced or compulsory

labour of any kind is exacted and this day shall coincide as far as possible with the day fixed

by tradition or custom in the territories or regions concerned.

Article 14

1. With the exception of the forced or compulsory labour provided for in Article 10 of

this Convention, forced or compulsory labour of all kinds shall be remunerated in cash at

rates not less than those prevailing for similar kinds of work either in the district in which

the labour is employed or in the district from which the labour is recruited, whichever may
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be the higher.

2. In the case of labour to which recourse is had by chiefs in the exercise of their

administrative functions, payment of wages in accordance with the provisions of the

preceding paragraph shall be introduced as soon as possible.

3. The wages shall be paid to each worker individually and not to his tribal chief or to

any other authority.

4. For the purpose of payment of wages the days spent in travelling to and from the place

of work shall be counted as working days.

5. Nothing in this Article shall prevent ordinary rations being given as a part of wages,

such rations to be at least equivalent in value to the money payment they are taken to

represent, but deductions from wages shall not be made either for the payment of taxes or

for special food, clothing or accommodation supplied to a worker for the purpose of

maintaining him in a fit condition to carry on his work under the special conditions of any

employment, or for the supply of tools.

Article 15

1. Any laws or regulations relating to workmen's compensation for accidents or sickness

arising out of the employment of the worker and any laws or regulations providing

compensation for the dependents of deceased or incapacitated workers which are or shall be

in force in the territory concerned shall be equally applicable to persons from whom forced

or compulsory labour is exacted and to voluntary workers.

2. In any case it shall be an obligation on any authority employing any worker on forced

or compulsory labour to ensure the subsistence of any such worker who, by accident or

sickness arising out of his employment, is rendered wholly or partially incapable of providing

for himself, and to take measures to ensure the maintenance of any persons actually

dependent upon such a worker in the event of his incapacity or decease arising out of his

employment.

Article 16

1. Except in cases of special necessity, persons from whom forced or compulsory labour

is exacted shall not be transferred to districts where the food and climate differ so

considerably from those to which they have been accustomed as to endanger their health.
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2. In no case shall the transfer of such workers be permitted unless all measures relating

to hygiene and accommodate which are necessary to adapt such workers to the conditions

and to safeguard their health can be strictly applied.

3. When such transfer cannot be avoided, measures of gradual habituation to the new

conditions of diet and of climate shall be adopted on competent medical advice.

4. In cases where such workers are required to perform regular work to which they are

not accustomed, measures shall be taken to ensure their habituation to it, especially as

regards progressive training, the hours of work and the provision of rest intervals, and any

increase or amelioration of diet which may be necessary.

Article 17

Before permitting recourse to forced or compulsory labour for works of construction or

maintenance which entail the workers remaining at the workplace for considerable periods,

the competent authority shall satisfy itself;

(1) that all necessary measures are taken to safeguard the health of the workers and to

guarantee the necessary medical care, and, in particular, (a) that the workers are medically

examined before commencing the work and at fixed intervals during the period of service,

(b) that there is an adequate medical staff, provided with the dispensaries, infirmaries,

hospitals and equipment necessary to meet all requirements, and (c) that the sanitary

conditions of the workplaces, the supply of drinking water, food, fuel, and cooking utensils,

and, where necessary, of housing and clothing, are satisfactory;

(2) that definite arrangements are made to ensure the subsistence of the families of the

workers, in particular by facilitating the remittance, by a safe method, of part of the wages

to the family, at the request or with the consent of the workers;

(3) that the journeys of the workers to and from the workplaces are made at the expense

and under the responsibility of the administration, which shall facilitate such journeys by

making the fullest use of all available means of transport;

(4) that, in case of illness or accident causing incapacity to work of a certain duration, the

worker is repatriated at the expense of the administration;

(5) that any worker who may wish to remain as a voluntary worker at the end of his

period of forced or compulsory labour is permitted to do so without, for a period of two
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years, losing his right to repatriation free of expense to himself.

Article 18

1. Forced or compulsory labour for the transport of persons or goods, such as the labour

of porters or boatmen, shall be abolished within the shortest possible period. Meanwhile the

competent authority shall promulgate regulations determining, inter alia, (a) that such labour

shall only be employed for the purpose of facilitating the movement of officials of the

administration, when on duty, or for the transport of government stores, or, in cases of very

urgent necessity, the transport of persons other than officials, (b) that the workers so

employed shall be medically certified to be physically fit, where medical examination is

possible, and that where such medical examination is not practicable the person employing

such workers shall be held responsible for ensuring that they are physically fit and not

suffering from any infectious or contagious disease, (c) the maximum load which these

workers may carry, (d) the maximum distance from their homes to which they may be taken,

(e) the maximum number of days per month or other period for which they may be taken,

including the days spent in returning to their homes, and (f) the persons entitled to demand

this form of forced or compulsory labour and the extent to which they are entitled to demand

it.

2. In fixing the maxima referred to under (c), (d) and (e) in the foregoing paragraph, the

competent authority shall have regard to all relevant factors, including the physical

development of the population from which the workers are recruited, the nature of the

country through which they must travel and the climatic conditions.

3. The competent authority shall further provide that the normal daily journey of such

workers shall not exceed a distance corresponding to an average working day of eight hours,

it being understood that account shall be taken not only of the weight to be carried and the

distance to be covered, but also of the nature of the road, the season and all other relevant

factors, and that, where hours of journey in excess of the normal daily journey are exacted,

they shall be remunerated at rates higher than the normal rates.

Article 19

1. The competent authority shall only authorize recourse to compulsory cultivation ad

a method of precaution against famine or a deficiency of food supplies and always under the

condition that the food or produce shall remain the property of the individuals or the

community producing it.
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2. Nothing in this Article shall be construed as abrogating the obligation on members of

a community, where production is organized on a communal basis by virtue of law or custom

and where the produce or any profit accruing from the sale thereof remain the property of

the community, to perform the work demanded by the community by virtue of law or custom.

Article 20

Collective punishment laws under which a community may be punished for crimes

committed by any of its members shall not contain provisions for forced or compulsory

labour by the community as one of the methods of punishment.

Article 21

Forced or compulsory labour shall not be used for work underground in mines.

Article 22

The annual reports that Members which ratify this Convention agree to make to the

International Labour Office, pursuant to the provisions of Article 22 of the Constitution of

the International Labour Organization, on the measures they have taken to give effect to

possible, in respect of each territory concerned, regarding the extent to which recourse has

been had to force or compulsory labour in that territory, the purposes for which it has been

employed, the sickness and death rates, hours of work, methods of payment of wages and

rates of wages, and any other relevant information.

Article 23

1. To give effect to the provisions of this Convention the competent authority shall issue

complete and precise regulations governing the use of forced or compulsory labour.

2. These regulations shall contain, inter alia, rules permitting any person from whom

forced or compulsory labour is exacted to forward all complaints relative to the conditions

of labour to the authorities and ensuring that such complaints will be examined and taken

into consideration.

Article 24

Adequate measures shall in all cases be taken to ensure that the regulations governing the
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employment of forced or compulsory labour are strictly applied, either by extending the

duties of any existing labour inspectorate which has been established for the inspection of

voluntary labour to cover the inspection of forced or compulsory labour or in some other

appropriate manner. Measures shall also be taken to ensure that the regulations are brought

to the knowledge of persons from whom such labour is exacted.

Article 25

The illegal exaction of forced or compulsory labour shall be punishable as a penal offence,

and it shall be an obligation on any Member ratifying this Convention to ensure that the

penalties imposed by law are really adequate and are strictly enforced.

Article 26

1. Each Member of the International Labour Organization which ratifies this Convention

undertakes to apply it to the territories placed under its sovereignty, jurisdiction, protection,

suzerainty, tutelage or authority, so far as it has the right to accept obligations affecting

matters of internal jurisdiction; provided that, if such Member may desire to take advantage

of the provisions of Article 35 of the Constitution of the International Labour Organization,

it shall append to its ratification a declaration stating-

(1) the territories to which it intends to apply the provisions of this Convention without

modification;

(2) the territories to which it intends to apply the provisions of this Convention with

modifications, together with details of the said modifications;

(3) the territories in respect of which it reserves its decision.

2. The aforesaid declaration shall be deemed to be an integral part of the ratification and

shall have the force of ratification. It shall be open to any Member, by a subsequent

declaration, to cancel in whole or in part the reservations made, in pursuance of the

provisions of subparagraphs (2) and (3) of this Article, in the original declaration.

Article 27

The formal ratifications of this Convention under the conditions set forth in the Constitution
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of the International Labour Organization shall be communicated to the Director-General of

the International Labour Office for registration.

Article 28

1. This Convention shall be binding only upon those Members whose ratifications have

been registered with the International Labour Office.

2. It shall come into force twelve months after the date on which the ratifications of two

Members of the International Labour Organization have been registered with the DirectorGeneral.

3. Thereafter, this Convention shall come into force for any Member twelve months after

the date on which the ratification has been registered.

Article 29

As soon as the ratifications of two Members of the International Labour Organization have

been registered with the International Labour Office, the Director-General of the

International Labour Office shall so notify all the Members of the International Labour

Organization. He shall likewise notify them of the registration of ratifications which may

be communicated subsequently by other Members of the Organization.

Article 30

1. A Member which has ratified this Convention may denounce it after the expiration

of ten years from the date on which the Convention first comes into force, by an act

communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office for registration.

Such denunciation shall not take effect until one year after the date on which it is registered

with the International Labour Office.

2. Each Member which has ratified this Convention and which does not, within the year

following the expiration of the period of ten years mentioned in the preceding paragraph,

exercise the right of denunciation provided for in this Article, will be bound for another

period of five years and, thereafter, may denounce this Convention at the expiration of each

period of five years under the terms provided for in this Article.

Article 31
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At the expiration of each period of five years after the coming into force of this Convention,

the Governing Body of the International Labour Office shall present to the General

Conference a report on the working of this Convention and shall consider the desirability of

placing on the agenda of the Conference the question of its revision in whole or in part.

Article 32

1. Should the Conference adopt a new Convention revising this Convention in whole or

in part, the ratification by a Member of the new revising Convention shall ipso jure involve

denunciation of this Convention without any requirement of delay, notwithstanding the

provisions of Article 30 above, if and when the new revising Convention shall have come

into force.

2. As from the date of coming into force of the new revising Convention, the present

Convention shall cease to be open to ratification by the Members.

3. Nevertheless, this Convention shall remain in force in its actual form and content for

those Members which have ratified it but have not ratified the revising Convention.

Article 33

The French and English texts of this Convention shall both be authentic.

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Appendix D: UN Convention on the Rights of the Child

United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

Preamble

The States Parties to the present Convention,

Considering that, in accordance with the principles proclaimed in the Charter of the United

Nations, recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all

members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,

Bearing in mind that the peoples of the United Nations have, in the Charter, reaffirmed their

faith in fundamental human rights and in the dignity and worth of the human person, and

have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

Recognizing that the United Nations has, in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and

in the International Covenants on Human Rights, proclaimed and agreed that everyone is

entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth therein, without distinction

of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national

or social origin, property, birth or other status,

Recalling that, in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations has

proclaimed that childhood is entitled to special care and assistance,

Convinced that the family, as the fundamental group of society and the natural environment

for the growth and well-being of all its members and particularly children, should be

afforded the necessary protection and assistance so that it can fully assume its

responsibilities within the community,

Recognizing that the child, for the full and harmonious development of his or her personality,

should grow up in a family environment, in an atmosphere of happiness, love and

understanding,

Considering that the child should be fully prepared to live an individual life in society, and

brought up in the spirit of the ideals proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, and in

particular in the spirit of peace, dignity, tolerance, freedom, equality and solidarity,

Bearing in mind that the need to extend particular care to the child has been stated in the

Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child of 1924 and in the Declaration of the Rights
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of the Child adopted by the General Assembly on 20 November 1959 and recognized in the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in the International Covenant on Civil and Political

Rights (in particular in articles 23 and 24), in the International Covenant on Economic,

Social and Cultural Rights (in particular in article 10) and in the statutes and relevant

instruments of specialized agencies and international organizations concerned with the

welfare of children,

Bearing in mind that, as indicated in the Declaration of the Rights of the Child, "the child,

by reason of his physical and mental immaturity, needs special safeguards and care,

including appropriate legal protection, before as well as after birth,"

Recalling the provisions of the Declaration on Social and Legal Principles relating to the

Protection and Welfare of Children, with Special Reference to Foster Placement and

Adoption Nationally and Internationally; the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for

the Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules); and the Declaration on the

Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict,

Recognizing that, in all countries in the world, there are children living in exceptionally

difficult conditions, and that such children need special consideration,

Taking due account of the importance of the traditions and cultural values of each people for

the protection and harmonious development of the child,

Recognizing the importance of international co-operation for improving the living conditions

of children in every country, in particular in the developing countries,

Have agreed as follows:

PART I

Article 1

For the purposes of the present Convention, a child means every human being below the age

of 18 years unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. 

Article 2
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1. States Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present Convention to

each child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the

child's or his or her parent's or legal guardian's race, color, sex, language, religion,

political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other

status.

2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that the child is protected

against all forms of discrimination or punishment on the basis of the status, activities,

expressed opinions, or beliefs of the child's parents, legal guardians, or family members. 

Article 3

1. In all actions concerning children, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare

institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best interests

of the child shall be a primary consideration.

2. States Parties undertake to ensure the child such protection and care as is necessary for

his or her well-being, taking into account the rights and duties of his or her parents, legal

guardians, or other individuals legally responsible for him or her, and, to this end,

shall take all appropriate legislative and administrative measures.

3. States Parties shall ensure that the institutions, services and facilities responsible for the

care or protection of children shall conform with the standards established by competent

authorities, particularly in the areas of safety, health, in the number and

suitability of their staff, as well as competent supervision.

Article 4

States Parties shall undertake all appropriate legislative, administrative, and other measures

for the implementation of the rights recognized in the present Convention. With regard to

economic, social and cultural rights, States Parties shall undertake such measures to the

maximum extent of their available resources and, where needed, within the framework of

international co-operation.

Article 5

States Parties shall respect the responsibilities, rights and duties of parents or, where

applicable, the members of the extended family or community as provided for by local

custom, legal guardians or other persons legally responsible for the child, to provide, in a

manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the child, appropriate direction and

guidance in the exercise by the child of the rights recognized in the present convention.
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Article 6

1. States Parties recognize that every child has the inherent right to life.

2. States Parties shall ensure to the maximum extent possible the survival and development

of the child.

Article 7

1. The child shall be registered immediately after birth and shall have the right from birth

to a name, the right to acquire a nationality and, as far as possible, the right to know and be

cared for by his or her parents.

2. States Parties shall ensure the implementation of these rights in accordance with their

national law and their obligations under the relevant international instruments in this field,

in particular where the child would otherwise be stateless.

Article 8

1. States Parties undertake to respect the right of the child to preserve his or her identity,

including nationality, name and family relations as recognized by law without unlawful

interference.

2. Where a child is illegally deprived of some or all of the elements of his or her identity,

States Parties shall provide appropriate assistance and protection, with a view to speedily

reestablishing his or her identity.

Article 9

1. States Parties shall ensure that a child shall not be separated from his or her parents

against their will, except when competent authorities subject to judicial review determine,

in accordance with applicable law and procedures, that such separation is necessary for

the best interests of the child. Such determination may be necessary in a particular case such

as one involving abuse or neglect of the child by the parents, or one where the parents are

living separately and a decision must be made as to the child's place of residence.

2. In any proceedings pursuant to paragraph 1 of the present article, all interested parties

shall be given an opportunity to participate in the proceedings and make their views known.

3. States Parties shall respect the right of the child who is separated from one or both parents
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to maintain personal relations and direct contact with both parents on a regular basis, except

if it is contrary to the child's best interests.

4. Where such separation results from any action initiated by a State Party, such as the

detention, imprisonment, exile, deportation or death (including death arising from any cause

while the person is in the custody of the State) of one or both parents or of the child, that

State Party shall, upon request, provide the parents, the child or, if appropriate, another

member of the family with the essential information concerning the whereabouts of the

absent member(s) of the family unless the provision of the information

would be detrimental to the well-being of the child. States Parties shall further ensure that

the submission of such a request shall of itself entail no adverse consequences for the

person(s) concerned.

Article 10

1. In accordance with the obligation of States Parties under article 9, paragraph 1,

applications by a child or his or her parents to enter or leave a State Party for the purpose of

family reunification shall be dealt with by States Parties in a positive, humane and

expeditious manner. States Parties shall further ensure that the submission of such a request

shall entail no adverse consequences for the applicants and for the members of their family.

2. A child whose parents reside in different States shall have the right to maintain on a

regular basis, save in exceptional circumstances personal relations and direct contacts with

both parents. 

Towards that end and in accordance with the obligation of States Parties under article 9,

paragraph 1, States Parties shall respect the right of the child and his or her parents to leave

any country, including their own, and to enter their own country. The right to leave any

country shall be subject only to such restrictions as are prescribed by law and which are

necessary to protect the national security, public order (ordre public), public health or morals

or the rights and freedoms of others and are consistent with the other rights recognized in the

present Convention.

Article 11

1. States Parties shall take measures to combat the illicit transfer and non-return of children

abroad.

2. To this end, States Parties shall promote the conclusion of bilateral or multilateral

agreements or accession to existing agreements.
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Article 12

1. States Parties shall assure to the child who is capable of forming his or her own views the

right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child

being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child.

2. For this purpose, the child shall in particular be provided the opportunity to be heard in

any judicial and administrative proceedings affecting the child, either directly, or through a

representative or an appropriate body, in a manner consistent with the procedural rules of

national law.

Article 13

1. The child shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom

to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either

orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of the child's

choice.

2. The exercise of this right may be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be

such as are provided by law and are necessary:

(a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others; or

(b) For the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public

health or morals. 

Article 14

1. States Parties shall respect the right of the child to freedom of thought, conscience and

religion.

2. States Parties shall respect the rights and duties of the parents and, when applicable, legal

guardians, to provide direction to the child in the exercise of his or her right in a manner

consistent with the evolving capacities of the child.

3. Freedom to manifest one's religion or beliefs may be subject only to such limitations as

are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health or morals, or

the fundamental rights and freedoms of others.

Article 15
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1. States Parties recognize the rights of the child to freedom of association and to freedom

of peaceful assembly.

2. No restrictions may be placed on the exercise of these rights other than those imposed in

conformity with the law and which are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of

national security or public safety, public order (ordre public), the protection of public health

or morals or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.

Article 16

1. No child shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy,

family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his or her honor and reputation.

2. The child has the right to protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

Article 17

States Parties recognize the important function performed by the mass media and shall ensure

that the child has access to information and material from a diversity of national and

international sources, especially those aimed at the promotion of his or her social,

spiritual and moral well-being and physical and mental health. To this end, States Parties

shall:

(a) Encourage the mass media to disseminate information and material of social and

cultural benefit to the child and in accordance with the spirit of article 29;

(b) Encourage international co-operation in the production, exchange and

dissemination of such information and material from a diversity of cultural, national and

international sources;

(c) Encourage the production and dissemination of children's books;

(d) Encourage the mass media to have a particular regard to the linguistic needs of

the child who belongs to a minority group or who is indigenous;

(e) Encourage the development of appropriate guidelines for the protection of the

child from information and material injurious to his or her well-being, bearing in mind the

provisions of articles 13 and 18.

Article 18

1. States Parties shall use their best efforts to ensure recognition of the principle that both

parents have common responsibilities for the upbringing and development of the child.

Parents or, as the case may be, legal guardians, have the primary responsibility for
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the upbringing and development of the child. The best interests of the child will be their

basic concern.

2. For the purpose of guaranteeing and promoting the rights set forth in the present

Convention, States Parties shall render appropriate assistance to parents and legal guardians

in the performance of their child-rearing responsibilities and shall ensure the development

of institutions, facilities and services for the care of children.

3. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that children of working

parents have the right to benefit from child-care services and facilities for which they are

eligible.

Article 19

1. States Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational

measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse,

neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while

in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s), or any other person

who has the care of the child.

2. Such protective measures should, as appropriate, include effective procedures for the

establishment of social programs to provide necessary support for the child and for those

who have the care of the child, as well as for other forms of prevention and for identification,

reporting, referral, investigation, treatment and follow-up of instances of child maltreatment

described heretofore, and, as appropriate, for judicial involvement. 

Article 20

1. A child temporarily or permanently deprived of his or her family environment, or in

whose own best interests cannot be allowed to remain in that environment, shall be entitled

to special protection and assistance provided by the State.

2. States Parties shall in accordance with their national laws ensure alternative care for such

a child. 

3. Such care could include, inter alia, foster placement, Kafala of Islamic law, adoption, or

if necessary placement in suitable institutions for the care of children. When considering

solutions, due regard shall be paid to the desirability of continuity in a child's upbringing and

to the child's ethnic, religious, cultural and linguistic background.

Article 21
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States Parties that recognize and/or permit the system of adoption shall ensure that the best

interests of the child shall be the paramount consideration and they shall:

(a) Ensure that the adoption of a child is authorized only by competent authorities

who determine, in accordance with applicable law and procedures and on the basis of all

pertinent and reliable information, that the adoption is permissible in the view of the child's

status concerning parents, relatives and legal guardians and that, if required, the persons

concerned have given their informed consent to the adoption on the basis of such counseling

as may be necessary;

(b) Recognize that inter-country adoption may be considered as an alternative means

of child's care, if the child cannot be placed in a foster or an adoptive family or cannot in any

suitable manner be cared for in the child's country of origin;

(c) Ensure that the child concerned by inter-country adoption enjoys safeguards and

standards equivalent to those existing in the case of national adoption;

(d) Take all appropriate measures to ensure that, in inter-country adoption, the

placement does not result in improper financial gain for those involved in it;

(e) Promote, where appropriate, the objectives of the present article by concluding

bilateral or multilateral arrangements or agreements, and endeavor, within this framework,

to ensure that the placement of the child in another country is carried out by competent

authorities or organs.

Article 22

1. States Parties shall take appropriate measures to ensure that a child who is seeking refugee

status or who is considered a refugee in accordance with applicable international or domestic

law and procedures shall, whether unaccompanied or accompanied by his or her parents or

by any other person, receive appropriate protection and humanitarian assistance in the

enjoyment of applicable rights set forth in the present Convention and in other international

human rights or humanitarian instruments to which the said States are Parties.

2. For this purpose, States Parties shall provide, as they consider appropriate, co-operation

in any efforts by the United Nations and other competent intergovernmental organizations

or non-governmental organizations co-operating with the United Nations to protect and assist

such a child and to trace the parents or other members of the family of any refugee child in

order to obtain information necessary for reunification with his or her family. In cases where

no parents or other members of the family can be found, the child shall be accorded the same

protection as any other child permanently or temporarily deprived of his or her family

environment for any reason, as set forth in the present Convention.
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Article 23

1. States Parties recognize that a mentally or physically disabled child should enjoy a full

and decent life, in conditions which ensure dignity, promote self-reliance, and facilitate the

child's active participation in the community.

2. States Parties recognize the right of the disabled child to special care and shall encourage

and ensure the extension, subject to available resources, to the eligible child and those

responsible for his or her care, of assistance for which application is made and which is

appropriate to the child's condition and to the circumstances of the parents or others caring

for the child. 

3. Recognizing the special needs of a disabled child, assistance extended in accordance with

paragraph 2 of the present article shall be provided free of charge, whenever possible, taking

into account the financial resources of the parents or others caring for the child, and shall be

designed to ensure that the disabled child has effective access to and receives education,

training, health care services, rehabilitation services, preparation for

employment and recreation opportunities in a manner conducive to the child's achieving the

fullest possible social integration and individual development, including his or her cultural

and spiritual development.

4. States Parties shall promote, in the spirit of international co-operation, the exchange of

appropriate information in the field of preventative health care and of medical, psychological

and functional treatment of disabled children, including dissemination of and access to

information concerning methods of rehabilitation, education and vocational services, with

the aim of enabling States Parties to improve their capabilities and skills and to widen their

experience in these areas. In this regard, particular account shall be taken of the needs of

developing countries. 

Article 24

1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable

standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health.

States Parties shall strive to ensure that no child is deprived of his or her right of access to

such health care services.

2. States Parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take

appropriate measures:

a. To diminish infant and child mortality;

b. To ensure the provision of necessary medical assistance and health care to all
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children with emphasis on the development of primary health care;

c. To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary

health care, through inter alia, the application of readily available technology and

through the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking-water, taking

into consideration the dangers and risks of environmental pollution;

d. To ensure appropriate pre-natal and post-natal health care for mothers;

e. To ensure that all segments of society, in particular parents and children, are

informed, have access to education and are supported in the use of basic knowledge

of child health and nutrition, the advantages of breast-feeding, hygiene and

environmental sanitation and the prevention of accidents;

f. To develop preventative health care, guidance for parents and family planning

education and services.

3. States Parties shall take all effective and appropriate measures with a view to abolishing

traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children.

4. States Parties undertake to promote and encourage international co-operation with a view

to achieving progressively the full realization of the right recognized in the present article.

In this regard, particular account shall be taken of the needs of developing countries. 

Article 25

States Parties recognize the right of a child who has been placed by the competent authorities

for the purposes of care, protection or treatment of his or her physical or mental health, to

a periodic review of the treatment provided to the child and all other circumstances relevant

to his or her placement.

Article 26

1. States Parties shall recognize for every child the right to benefit from social security,

including social insurance, and shall take the necessary measures to achieve the full

realization of this right in accordance with their national law.

2. The benefits should, where appropriate, be granted, taking into account the resources and

the circumstances of the child and persons having responsibility for the maintenance of the

child, as well as any other consideration relevant to an application for benefits made by or

on behalf of the child. 

Article 27

1. States Parties recognize the right of every child to a standard of living adequate for the
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child's physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development.

2. The parent(s) or others responsible for the child have the primary responsibility to secure,

within their abilities and financial capacities, the conditions of living necessary for the child's

development.

3. States Parties, in accordance with national conditions and within their means, shall take

appropriate measures to assist parents and others responsible for the child to implement this

right and shall in case of need provide material assistance and support programs, particularly

with regard to nutrition, clothing and housing.

4. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to secure the recovery of maintenance

for the child from the parents or other persons having financial responsibility for the child,

both within the State Party and from abroad. In particular, where the person having financial

responsibility for the child lives in a State different from that of the child, States Parties shall

promote the accession to international agreements or the conclusion of such agreements, as

well as the making of other appropriate arrangements.

Article 28

1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to education, and with a view to achieving

this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in particular:

(a) Make primary education compulsory and available free to all; 

(b) Encourage the development of different forms of secondary education, including

general and vocational education, make them available and accessible to every child, and

take appropriate measures such as the introduction of free education and offering financial

assistance in case of need;

(c) Make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by every

appropriate means;

(d) Make educational and vocational information and guidance available and

accessible to all children;

(e) Take measures to encourage regular attendance at schools and the reduction of

drop-out rates.

2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school discipline is

administered in a manner consistent with the child's human dignity and in conformity with

the present Convention.

3. States Parties shall promote and encourage international co-operation in matters relating

to education, in particular with a view to contributing to the elimination of ignorance and

illiteracy throughout the world and facilitating access to scientific and technical knowledge
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and modern teaching methods. In this regard, particular account shall be taken of the needs

of developing countries.

Article 29

1. States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to:

(a) The development of the child's personality, talents and mental and physical

abilities to their fullest potential;

(b) The development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and for

the principles enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations; 

(c) The development of respect for the child's parents, his or her own cultural

identity, language and values, for the national values of the country in which the child is

living, the country from which he or she may originate, and for civilizations different from

his or her own;

(d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of

understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples, ethnic,

national and religious groups and persons of indigenous origin;

(e) The development of respect for the natural environment.

2. No part of the present article or article 28 shall be construed so as to interfere with the

liberty of individuals and bodies to establish and direct educational institutions, subject

always to the observance of the principles set forth in paragraph 1 of the present article and

to the requirements that the education given in such institutions shall conform to such

minimum standards as may be laid down by the State. 

Article 30

In those states in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities or persons of indigenous

origin exist, a child belonging to such a minority or who is indigenous shall not be denied

the right, in community with other members of his or her group, to enjoy his or her own

culture, to profess and practice his own her own religion, or to use his or her own language.

Article 31

1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to rest and leisure, to engage in play and

recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural

life and the arts.

2. States Parties shall respect and promote the right of the child to participate fully in

cultural and artistic life and shall encourage the provision of appropriate and equal
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opportunities for cultural, recreational and leisure activity.

Article 32

1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic

exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with

the child's education, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual,

moral or social development.

2. States Parties shall take legislative, administrative, social and educational measures

to ensure the implementation of the present article. To this end, and having regard to the

relevant provisions of other international instruments, States Parties shall in particular:

(a) Provide for a minimum age or minimum ages for admission to employment;

(b) Provide for appropriate regulation of the hours and conditions of employment;

(c) Provide for appropriate penalties or other sanctions to ensure the effective

enforcement of the present article.

Article 33

States Parties shall take all appropriate measures, including legislative, administrative, social

and educational measures, to protect children from the illicit use of narcotic drugs and

psychotropic substances as defined in the relevant international treaties, and to prevent the

use of children in the illicit production and trafficking of such substances.

Article 34

States Parties undertake to protect the child from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual

abuse. For these purposes, States Parties shall in particular take all appropriate national,

bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent:

(a) The inducement or coercion of a child to engage in any unlawful sexual activity;

(b) The exploitative use of children in prostitution or other unlawful sexual practices;

(c) The exploitative use of children in pornographic performances and materials.

Article 35

States Parties shall take all appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to

prevent the abduction of, the sale of or traffic in children for any purpose or in any form.

Article 36
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States Parties shall protect the child against all other forms of exploitation prejudicial to any

aspects of the child's welfare.

Article 37

States Parties shall ensure that:

(a) No child shall be subjected to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading

treatment or punishment. Neither capital punishment nor life imprisonment without

possibility of release shall be imposed for offenses committed by persons below eighteen

years of age;

(b) No child shall be deprived of his or her liberty unlawfully or arbitrarily. The

arrest, detention or imprisonment of a child shall be in conformity with the law and shall be

used only as a measure of last resort and for the shortest appropriate period of time;

(c) Every child deprived of liberty shall be treated with humanity and respect for the

inherent dignity of the human person, and in a manner which takes into account the needs

of persons of his or her age. In particular, every child deprived of liberty shall be separated

from adults unless it is considered in the child's best interest not to do so and shall have the

right to maintain contact with his or her family through correspondence and visits, save in

exceptional circumstances;

(d) Every child deprived of his or her liberty shall have the right to prompt access to

legal and other appropriate assistance, as well as the right to challenge the legality of the

deprivation of his or her liberty before a court or other competent, independent and impartial

authority, and to a prompt decision on any such action.

Article 38

1. States Parties undertake to respect and to ensure respect for rules of international

humanitarian law applicable to them in armed conflicts which are relevant to the child.

2. States Parties shall take all feasible measures to ensure that persons who have not attained

the age of fifteen years do not take a direct part in hostilities.

3. States Parties shall refrain from recruiting any person who has not attained the age of

fifteen years into their armed forces. In recruiting among those persons who have attained

the age of fifteen years but who have not attained the age of eighteen years, States Parties

shall endeavor to give priority to those who are oldest.

4. In accordance with their obligations under international humanitarian law to protect the

civilian population in armed conflicts, States Parties shall take all feasible measures to ensure

protection and care of children who are affected by an armed conflict.
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Article 39

States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to promote physical and psychological

recovery and social reintegration of a child victim of any form of neglect, exploitation, or

abuse; torture or any other form of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; or

armed conflicts. Such recovery and reintegration shall take place in an environment which

fosters the health, self-respect and dignity of the child.

Article 40

1. States Parties recognize the right of every child alleged as, accused of, or recognized as

having infringed the penal law to be treated in manner consistent with the promotion of the

child's sense of dignity and worth, which reinforces the child's respect for the human rights

and fundamental freedoms of others and which takes into account the child's age and

desirability of promoting the child's reintegration and the child's assuming a constructive role

in society.

2. To this end, and having regard to the relevant provisions of international instruments,

States Parties shall, in particular, ensure that:

(a) No child shall be alleged as, be accused of, or recognized as having infringed the

penal law by reason of acts or omissions that were not prohibited by national or international

law at the time they were committed;

(b) Every child alleged as or accused of having infringed the penal law has at least

the following guarantees:

(i) To be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law;

(ii) To be informed promptly and directly of the charges against him or her, and, if

appropriate, through his or her parents or legal guardians, and to have legal or other

appropriate assistance in the preparation and presentation of his or her defence;

(iii) To have the matter determined without delay by a competent, independent and

impartial authority or judicial body in a fair hearing according to law, in the presence of legal

or other appropriate assistance and, unless it is considered not to be in the best interest of the

child, in particular, taking into account his or her age or situation, his or her parents or legal

guardians;

(iv) Not to be compelled to give testimony or to confess guilt; to examine or have

examined adverse witnesses and to obtain the participation and examination of witnesses on

his or her behalf under conditions of equality;

(v) If considered to have infringed the penal law, to have this decision and any

measures imposed in consequence thereof reviewed by a higher competent, independent and

impartial authority or judicial body according to law;

(vi) To have the free assistance of an interpreter if the child cannot understand or
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speak the language used;

(vii) To have his or her privacy fully respected at all stages of the proceedings.

3. States Parties shall seek to promote the establishment of laws, procedures, authorities and

institutions specifically applicable to children alleged as, accused of, or recognized as having

infringed the penal law, and, in particular:

(a) The establishment of a minimum age below which children shall be presumed not

to have the capacity to infringe the penal law;

(b) Whenever appropriate and desirable, measures for dealing with such children

without resorting to judicial proceedings, providing that human rights and legal safeguards

are fully respected.

4. A variety of dispositions, such as care, guidance and supervision orders; counselling;

probation; foster care; education and vocational training programmer and other alternatives

to institutional care shall be available to ensure that children are dealt with in a manner

appropriate to their well-being and proportionate both to their circumstances and the offence.

Article 41

Nothing in the present Convention shall affect any provisions which are more conducive to

the realization of the rights of the child and which may be contained in:

(a) The law of a State Party; or 

(b) International law in force for that State.

PART II

Article 42

 

States Parties undertake to make the principles and provisions of the Convention widely

known, by appropriate and active means, to adults and children alike.

Article 43

1. For the purpose of examining the progress made by States Parties in achieving the

realization of the obligations undertaken in the present Convention, there shall be established

a Committee on the Rights of the Child, which shall carry out the functions hereinafter

provided.

2. The Committee shall consist of ten experts of high moral standing and recognized

competence in the field covered by this Convention. The members of the Committee shall
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be elected by States Parties from among their nationals and shall serve in their personal

capacity, consideration being given to equitable geographical distribution, as well as to the

principal legal systems.

3. The members of the Committee shall be elected by secret ballot from a list of persons

nominated by States Parties. Each State Party may nominate one person from among its own

nationals.

4. The initial election to the Committee shall be held no later than six months after the date

of the entry into force of the present Convention and thereafter every second year. At least

four months before the date of each election, the Secretary-General of the United Nations

shall address a letter to States Parties inviting them to submit their nominations within two

months. The Secretary-General shall subsequently prepare a list in alphabetical order of all

persons thus nominated, indicating States Parties which have nominated them, and shall

submit it to the States Parties to the present Convention.

5. The elections shall be held at meetings of States Parties convened by the SecretaryGeneral at United Nations Headquarters. At those meetings, for which two thirds of States

Parties shall constitute a quorum, the persons elected to the Committee shall be those who

obtain the largest number of votes and an absolute majority of the votes of the representatives

of States Parties present and voting.

6. The members of the Committee shall be elected for a term of four years. They shall be

eligible for re-election if renominated. The term of five of the members elected at the first

election shall expire at the end of two years; immediately after the first election, the names

of these five members shall be chosen by lot by the Chairman of the meeting.

7. If a member of the Committee dies or resigns or declares that for any other cause he or

she can no longer perform the duties of the Committee, the State Party which nominated the

member shall appoint another expert from among its nationals to serve for the remainder of

the term, subject to the approval of the Committee. 

8. The Committee shall establish its own rules of procedure.

9. The Committee shall elect its officers for a period of two years.

10. The meetings of the Committee shall normally be held at United Nations Headquarters

or at any other convenient place as determined by the Committee. The Committee shall

normally meet annually. The duration of the meetings of the Committee shall be determined,

and reviewed, if necessary, by a meeting of the States Parties to the present Convention,

subject to the approval of the General Assembly.
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200

11. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall provide the necessary staff and

facilities for the effective performance of the functions of the Committee under the present

Convention.

12. With the approval of the General Assembly, the members of the Committee established

under the present Convention shall receive emoluments from United Nations resources on

such terms and conditions as the Assembly may decide.

Article 44

1. States Parties undertake to submit to the Committee, through the Secretary-General of the

United Nations, reports on the measures they have adopted which give effect to the rights

recognized herein and on the progress made on the enjoyment of those rights:

(a) Within two years of the entry into force of the Convention for the State Party

 concerned;

(b) Thereafter every five years.

2. Reports made under the present article shall indicate factors and difficulties, if any,

affecting the degree of fulfillment of the obligations under the present Convention. Reports

shall also contain sufficient information to provide the Committee with a comprehensive

understanding of the implementation of the Convention in the country concerned.

3. A State Party which has submitted a comprehensive initial report to the Committee need

not, in its subsequent reports submitted in accordance with paragraph 1 (b) of the present

article, repeat basic information previously provided.

4. The Committee may request from States Parties further information relevant to the

implementation of the Convention.

5. The Committee shall submit to the General Assembly, through the Economic and Social

Council, every two years, reports on its activities.

6. States Parties shall make their reports widely available to the public in their own

countries.

Article 45

In order to foster the effective implementation of the Convention and to encourage

international co-operation in the field covered by the Convention:

(a) The specialized agencies, the United Nations Children's Fund, and other United
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201

Nations organs shall be entitled to be represented at the consideration of the implementation

of such provisions of the present Convention as fall within the scope of their mandate. The

Committee may invite the specialized agencies, the United Nations Children's Fund, and

other competent bodies as it may consider appropriate to provide expert advice on the

implementation of the Convention in areas falling within the scope of their respective

mandates. The Committee may invite the specialized agencies, the United Nations Children's

Fund, and other United Nations organs to submit reports on the implementation of the

Convention in areas falling within the scope of their activities;

(b) The Committee shall transmit, as it may consider appropriate, to the specialized

agencies, the United Nations Children's Fund and other competent bodies, any reports from

States Parties that contain a request, or indicate a need, for technical advice or assistance,

along with the Committee's observations and suggestions, if any, on these requests or

indications;

(c) The Committee may recommend to the General Assembly to request the

Secretary-General to undertake on its behalf studies on specific issues relating to the rights

of the child;

(d) The Committee may make suggestions and general recommendations based on

information received pursuant to articles 44 and 45 of the present Convention. Such

suggestions and general recommendations shall be transmitted to any State Party concerned

and reported to the General Assembly, together with comments, if any, from States Parties.

PART III

Article 46

The present Convention shall be open for signature by all States.

Article 47

The present Convention is subject to ratification. Instruments of ratification shall be

deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Article 48

The present Convention shall remain open for accession by any State. The instruments of

accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Article 49

1. The present Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of
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202

deposit with Secretary-General of the United Nations of the twentieth instrument of

ratification or accession.

2. For each State ratifying or acceding to the Convention after the deposit of the twentieth

instrument of ratification or accession, the Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth

day after the deposit by such State of its instrument of ratification or accession.

Article 50

1. Any State Party may purpose an amendment and file it with the Secretary-General of the

United Nations. The Secretary-General shall thereupon communicate the proposed

amendment to States Parties, with a request that they indicate whether they favor a

conference of States Parties for the purpose of considering and voting upon the proposals.

In the event that, within four months from the date of such communication, at least one third

of the States Parties favor such a conference, the Secretary-General shall convene the

conference under the auspices of the United Nations. Any amendment adopted by majority

of States Parties present and voting at the conference shall be submitted to the General

Assembly for approval.

2. An amendment adopted in accordance with paragraph 1 of the present article shall enter

into force when it has been approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations and

accepted by a two-thirds majority of States Parties.

3. When an amendment enters into force, it shall be binding on those States Parties which

have accepted it, other States Parties still being bound by the provisions of the present

Convention and any earlier amendments which they have accepted.

Article 51

1. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall receive and circulate to all States the

text of reservations made by States at the time of ratification or accession.

2. A reservation incompatible with the object and purpose of the present Convention shall

not be permitted.

3. Reservations may be withdrawn at any time by notification to that effect addressed to the

Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall then inform all states. Such notification

shall take effect on the date on which it is received by the Secretary-General.

Article 52
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203

A State Party may denounce the present Convention by written notification to the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations. Denunciation becomes effective one year after the date of

receipt of the notification by the Secretary-General.

Article 53

The Secretary-General of the United Nations is designed as the depositary of the present

Convention.

Article 54

The original of the present Convention, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French,

Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the SecretaryGeneral of the Nations.
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204

Appendix E: Delhi Declaration (1995) (excerpt)

DELHI DECLARATION

PREAMBLE

1.0 We, the Labour Ministers of Non-Aligned and other Developing Countries, have

gathered in this Fifth Conference hosted by the Government of India at New Delhi from the

19th to the 23rd of January, 1995 at a very momentous juncture when the United Nations is

celebrating its 50th anniversary and the International Labor Organization its 75th.

THE WORLD ECONOMIC SCENARIO AND DEVELOPING ECONOMIES

Elimination of Child Labour

5.8 We are aware and hold that the practice of exploitative child labour wherever it

is practised is a moral outrage and an affront to human dignity. It has serious adverse

implication for the human capital development amongst the rising generations. Therefore,

we should commit ourselves to implementing the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.

We too are pro-actively committed to eliminate this practice in terms of the resolution of the

International Labour conference, 1979, particularly keeping in view the ground reality that

it is poverty and distress combined with inadequate access to good quality relevant education

that compel parents to send their children for work; and we resolve to fulfill this commitment

in a time-bound manner, giving immediate priority for total and de facto elimination of child

labour in hazardous employments; and, for the purpose, we should implement a package of

legislative and developmental measures with adequate allocation of resources and fully

involving the social partners, apart from learning from country-experiences in tackling this

problem.

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VI. Country Index

Argentina ................................................. 14, 29, 62, 64

Australia ................................................... 12, 134, 136

Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 12, 14-17, 46, 55, 61, 138, 148, 150

Benin ......................................................... 14, 147

Bolivia ......................................................... 14, 64

Brazil . . . . . . . 1, 3, 12, 14-16, 18, 29, 62-64, 67-72, 74, 75, 78, 117-119, 125, 135, 138,

 146

Burkina Faso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Burma .................................................. 54, 116, 136, 139

Cambodia ..................................................... 135, 136

Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Chad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

China .................................................. 16, 110, 117, 136

Colombia ................................................. 12, 14, 16, 19

Costa Rica ....................................................... 29, 63

Cote D'Ivoire ............................................ 16, 39, 41, 43, 145

Dominican Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Ecuador ......................................................... 14, 64

Egypt ....................................................... 14, 16, 41

El Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Ethiopia ........................................................ 14, 36

Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Guatemala ......................................... 16, 62, 63, 65, 66, 74, 76

Guinea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Haiti ......................................................... 148, 149

Honduras ............................................... 12, 63, 66-68, 125

India . . . . . . . 1, 3, 5, 12, 14-17, 24, 26, 27, 29, 34, 35, 45, 47-49, 55, 57, 58, 62, 77-79,

 84-87, 89, 90, 92, 94-104, 106, 108, 109, 125-128, 135, 139, 141-143,

 145, 148, 150, 205

Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 14, 16, 28, 46, 52, 55, 56, 62, 78, 125

Kenya .............................................. 12, 14, 38, 39, 42, 137

Kuwait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Laos ......................................................... 116, 136

Lesotho ..................................................... 16, 40, 148

Liberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Country Index

207

Madagascar ................................................ 14, 39, 44, 45

Country Index (cont'd)

Malaysia .......................................... 12, 27, 29, 46, 50-52, 62

Mauritania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Mexico ................................................ 16, 62, 65, 67, 137

Morocco ................................................... 16, 146, 149

Mozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Nepal . . . . . . 5, 14, 16, 18, 46, 85, 86, 90, 92-94, 125, 128-130, 138, 139, 141-143, 145

New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Nicaragua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Pakistan . . . . . . . . 1, 5, 12, 14, 16, 18, 29, 45, 46, 55, 60, 78, 85, 86, 90-92, 96, 104-108,

 125, 131, 132, 138, 150

Paraguay ........................................................ 14, 64

Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 5, 14, 64, 65, 120, 123, 124

Philippines . . . . . . 3, 5, 12, 14-16, 35, 47, 49, 50, 52, 55, 58-61, 78, 110-114, 125, 137,

 138, 141-143

Rwanda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Senegal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 12, 36-38, 40, 41, 44, 125, 138

Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 46, 55-57, 78, 125, 137, 141, 144, 145, 149, 150

Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 83, 146-149

Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Thailand . . . . . . 3, 5, 12, 14-16, 27, 29, 47, 53, 55, 78, 110, 114-116, 134-141, 143, 144

Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Uganda ......................................................... 14, 39

United Arab Emirates ............................................. 12, 149

Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Vietnam ...................................................... 135, 136
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VII. Product Index

Bananas ........................................................ 25, 64

Beedis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 108-110

Brassware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 100, 101

Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 1, 11, 90, 104-108

Broccoli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Cardamom .................................................... 45, 62, 76

Carpet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 17, 18, 85-94, 127

Cashew Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Charcoal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 117-119

Cheese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Chili peppers .................................................... 63, 132

Cinchona ........................................................ 25, 45

Citrus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Cocoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 25, 36, 46, 62

Coconuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 25

Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 25, 31, 36, 38, 39, 45, 62, 63, 65-67

Copra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 25, 36, 37, 39, 40, 62, 131

Crab ........................................................... 53, 54

Fibers ....................................................... 25, 42, 70

Fireworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 102-104

Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 3, 45, 53-60, 112

Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 36, 40, 41, 62, 64, 65, 67

Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 1, 51, 94-96

Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 1, 120-124

Grape juice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Grapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 37, 67, 68

Groundnuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Hemp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Jasmine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 41

Jute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 99, 100

Macadamia Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Match ........................................................ 102, 103
Product Index

209

Melon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Product Index (cont'd)

Mussels ......................................................... 53, 54

Onions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Oranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Palm Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 25, 27, 50

Pineapple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Rattan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 61, 78, 125

Resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 63, 69

Rice ................................................... 25, 36, 47, 61, 69

Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 25, 27, 29, 36, 41, 45-47, 50-52, 72, 75, 76, 78, 125

Sardine ....................................................... 111, 112

Seafood .................................................... 53-55, 57, 58

Shrimp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 53-55, 57, 58

Silk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 98, 99

Sisal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 1-3, 25, 36, 41, 42, 63, 69, 70

Snow peas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Squid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 96-98

Strawberries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Sugar Cane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 25, 29, 30, 37, 43, 47, 53, 62, 63, 70-73, 78, 125, 131

Tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 1-3, 24, 25, 27, 31, 34, 36, 43, 45-49, 63, 64, 74, 76, 101

Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 1, 2, 25, 31, 37, 44-46, 61-65, 75, 109

Tomatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Vanilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 36, 44, 45

Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 2, 36, 37, 40, 41, 49, 50, 64, 65, 67, 125, 126

Watermelon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68