U.S. Department of Justice

Offi ce of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics November 2011, NCJ 236018

BJS

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

Annual Rates for 2009 and 2010

Alexia Cooper and Erica L. Smith, BJS Statisticians

Th is report contains a series of tables and fi gures that 

describe homicide patterns and trends in the United 

States from 1980 through 2008. It also includes overall 

homicide rates for 2009 and 2010 (for which detailed 

data are not yet available).

Data in this report are from the FBI’s Supplementary 

Homicide Reports (SHR), unless otherwise noted. Th e 

SHR Program of the FBI collects yearly supplementary 

homicide data regarding homicides committed in the 

United States. Statistics in this report detail homicide 

trends by age, sex, and race, including homicides of 

children under age 5 and of persons age 65 or older. It 

examines the relationship between the victim and the 

off ender, particularly in cases of intimate and family 

homicide. Th e report also examines multiple victim 

and off ender homicides, circumstances surrounding the 

death, justifi able homicides, law enforcement offi cers 

killed, homicides cleared, and homicide trends by city 

size and weapon use. 

Th ese data may diff er slightly from previously published 

versions because of updates to the data fi le, changes to 

the imputation methods used, and refi nements in the 

analyses. (See Methodology for more information on the 

imputation methods used in this report.) In addition, 

analyses presented here include data from 1980 through 

2008 only. Th is modifi cation was made, in part, to 

refl ect revisions in the SHR in 1980. 

Th e SHR are available at the National Archive of 

Criminal Justice Data. Spreadsheets used to generate the 

fi gures in this report are available on the BJS website.

Contents 

Overview 

 Long term trends and patterns 2 

 Demographic— 

 Trends by age 4 

– Children under age 5 6

– Elders age 65 or older 8 

 Trends by sex 9 

 Trends by race 11 

 Trends by age, sex, and race 14

 Victim/off ender relationship 16 

 Intimate homicide 18 

 Family homicide 21 

 Law enforcement offi cers killed 23 

 Multiple victims and off enders 24 

 Circumstances 26 

 Trends by weapon type 27 

 Trends by city size 29 

 Clearances 31 

 Justifi able homicides 32 

 Additional information about the data 34
2 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Long term trends and patterns

In the last decade (since 2000) the homicide rate declined to 

levels last seen in the mid-1960s 

  e homicide rate doubled from the early 1960s to the late 

1970s, increasing from 4.6 per 100,000 U.S. residents in 1962 

to 9.7 per 100,000 by 1979 ( gure 1). (See Methodology for 

information on rate calculations.)

 In 1980 the rate peaked at 10.2 per 100,000 and subsequently fell 

to 7.9 per 100,000 in 1984. 

  e rate rose again in the late 1980s and early 1990s to another 

peak in 1991 of 9.8 per 100,000.

  e homicide rate declined sharply from 9.3 homicides per 

100,000 in 1992 to 4.8 homicides per 100,000 in 2010. 

The number of homicides reached an all-time high of 24,703 

homicides in 1991 then fell rapidly to 15,522 homicides by 

1999

  e number of homicides increased steadily from the early 1950s 

until the mid-1970s ( gure 2).

 Between 1999 and 2008, the number of homicides remained 

relatively constant, ranging from a low of 15,552 homicides in 

1999 to a high of 17,030 homicides in 2006.  ese homicide 

numbers were still below those reported in the 1970s, when the 

number of reported homicides  rst rose above 20,000 (reaching 

20,710 in 1974).

FIGURE 1

Homicide victimization rates, 1950–2010

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

2010200019901980197019601950

Rate per 100,000 

Note: Data are based on annual estimates of homicide from 

previously published versions of Crime in the United States. Data 

for 1989 to 2008 re ect updated homicide estimates from Crime 

in the United States, 2008. Data for 2009 and 2010 re ect updated 

homicide estimates from Crime in the United States, 2010. 

Source: FBI, Uniform Crime Reports, 1950-2010.

FIGURE 2

Number of homicide victims, 1950–2010

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

2010200019901980197019601950

Number

Note: Data are based on annual estimates of homicide from 

previously published versions of Crime in the United States. Data 

for 1989 to 2008 re ect updated homicide estimates from Crime 

in the United States, 2008. Data for 2009 and 2010 re ect updated 

homicide estimates from Crime in the United States, 2010. 

Source: FBI, Uniform Crime Reports, 1950-2010.
NOVEMBER 2011 3

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

The demographic characteristics of homicide victims and 

o enders were di erent from the characteristics of the general 

population 

Based on available data from 1980 to 2008— 

 Blacks were disproportionately represented as both homicide 

victims and off enders. Th e victimization rate for blacks (27.8 

per 100,000) was 6 times higher than the rate for whites (4.5 per 

100,000). Th e off ending rate for blacks (34.4 per 100,000) was almost 

8 times higher than the rate for whites (4.5 per 100,000) (table 1).

 Males represented 77% of homicide victims and nearly 90% of 

off enders. Th e victimization rate for males (11.6 per 100,000) 

was 3 times higher than the rate for females (3.4 per 100,000). 

Th e off ending rate for males (15.1 per 100,000) was almost 9 

times higher than the rate for females (1.7 per 100,000).

 Approximately a third (34%) of murder victims and almost half 

(49%) of the off enders were under age 25. For both victims and 

off enders, the rate per 100,000 peaked in the 18 to 24 year-old 

age group at 17.1 victims per 100,000 and 29.3 off enders per 

100,000.

TABLE 1

Victims and o enders, by demographic group, 1980–2008

Percent of— Rate per 100,000

Victims O enders Population Victims O enders

Total 100% 100% 100% 7.4 8.3

Age

Under 14 4.8% 0.5% 20.0% 1.8 0.2

14-17 5.2 10.6 5.8 6.6 15.0

18-24 24.4 37.5 10.6 17.1 29.3

25-34 28.7 28.0 15.6 13.7 14.9

35-49 22.8 17.1 21.1 8.0 6.7

50-64 8.9 4.9 14.7 4.5 2.7

65 or older 5.1 1.6 12.3 3.1 1.1

Sex

Male 76.8% 89.5% 48.9% 11.6 15.1

Female 23.2 10.5 51.1 3.4 1.7

Race

White 50.3% 45.3% 82.9% 4.5 4.5

Black 47.4 52.5 12.6 27.8 34.4

Other* 2.3 2.2 4.4 3.8 4.1

*Other race includes American Indians, Native Alaskans, Asians, Native Hawaiians, and other Pacifi c 

Islanders.
4 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

FIGURE 3

Homicide victimization rates, by age, 

1980–2008

50 or older

35–49

25–34

18–24

14–17

Under 14

0

5

10

15

20

25

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 4

Homicide o ending rates, by age, 

1980–2008

Under 14

14–17

18–24

25–34

35–49

50 or older

0

10

20

30

40

50

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

Trends by age

Young adults had the highest homicide victimization and 

o ending rates 

 Homicide victimization rates for teens and young adults 

increased rapidly in the late 1980s and early 1990s, peaking in 

1993 at 12 homicides per 100,000 for teens and 24.8 homicides 

per 100,000 for young adults.

 Th e homicide victimization rate for children under age 14 was 

the lowest of all age groups, peaking in 1993 at a high of 2.2 

homicides per 100,000. By 2004, this rate had declined to the 

lowest level recorded—1.4 homicides per 100,000—and remained 

stable through 2008 at 1.5 homicides per 100,000 ( gure 3).

 Th e homicide victimization rate for teens (14 to 17 years old) 

increased almost 150% from 4.9 homicides per 100,000 in 

1985 to 12.0 homicides per 100,000 in 1993. Since 1993, the 

victimization rate for teens has declined to 5.1 homicides per 

100,000.

 In 2008, young adults (18 to 24 years old) experienced the highest 

homicide victimization rate (13.4 homicides per 100,000). 

 In the early 1980s, 25 to 34 year-olds had the highest homicide 

victimization rate—18.6 homicides per 100,000. By 2008, this 

rate had fallen to 10.7 homicides per 100,000, a 42% reduction. 

 Homicide victimization rates for adults ages 35 to 49 and 50 or 

older have remained stable since 1999 at between 5.7 and 5.9 

homicides per 100,000 for adults ages 35 to 49 and between 2.5 

and 2.7 homicides per 100,000 for adults ages 50 or older.

Homicide o ending rates followed a pattern similar to 

victimization rates 

 Th e off ending rates for teens (14 to 17 years old) and young 

adults (18 to 24 years old) increased dramatically in the late 

1980s while the rates for older age groups declined ( gure 4).

 From 1980 to 2008, young adults (18 to 24 years old) have 

consistently had the highest off ending rate. Th is rate nearly 

doubled from 1985 to 1993, going from 22.1 off enders per 

100,000 young adults to 43.1 off enders per 100,000.

 Since 1993, the off ending rate for 18 to 24 year-olds has declined 

to 24.6 off enders per 100,000 in 2008.

 Th e off ending rate for teens (14 to 17 years old) increased 

substantially from 10.4 off enders per 100,000 in 1985 to 30.7 

off enders per 100,000 by 1993. Aft er 1993, the rate fell so much 

that by 2000, the off ending rate for teens was near its 1985 level, 

at 9.5 off enders per 100,000.

 Th e off ending rates for adults ages 35 to 49 and 50 or older have 

remained relatively stable since 2000, at between 4.8 and 5.1 

off enders per 100,000 for adults age 35 to 49 and between 1.3 

and 1.5 off enders per 100,000 for adults age 50 or older. 
NOVEMBER 2011 5

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

After many years of decline, the average age of both victims 

and o enders has leveled o 

Th e average age of—

 victims fell from 34.1 years in 1980 to 31.3 years in 1994, then 

increased to 32.7 years by 2008 ( gure 5)

 off enders fell from 29.6 years in 1980 to 26.4 years in 1994, then 

increased to 28.8 years in 2008

 both off enders and victims increased slightly in recent years, yet 

remained lower than they were prior to the late 1980s.

The age distribution of homicide victims and o enders 

di ered by type of homicide

From 1980 to 2008—

 A quarter of the victims (24%) of gang-related homicides were 

under age 18. Juveniles were also a fi ft h (19%) of persons killed 

by family members, and they represented more than a quarter 

(28%) of persons killed by arson or by poison (table 2).

 Victims age 50 or older were 39% of workplace homicide victims 

and 34% of victims of homicide by poison.

Younger victims were more likely than older victims to know 

the o ender ( gure 6)

TABLE 2

Homicide type, by age, 1980–2008

Victims O enders

Total Under 18 18–34 35–49 50 or older Total Under 18 18–34 35–49 50 or older

All homicides 100% 10.0% 53.2% 22.8% 14.0% 100% 11.0% 65.5% 17.1% 6.5%

Victim/o ender 

relationship

Intimate 100% 1.3% 48.5% 33.6% 16.6% 100% 1.0% 47.0% 34.7% 17.2%

Family 100% 19.3 32.8 26.0 21.9 100% 6.1 50.5 27.5 15.9

Infants 100% 100 100% 7.4 81.2 10.2 1.1

Elders 100% 100 100% 9.4 47.8 20.7 22.1

Circumstances

Felony murder 100% 7.5% 48.2% 22.2% 22.1% 100% 14.6% 72.7% 10.7% 2.0%

Sex related 100% 18.4 45.3 18.2 18.1 100% 9.7 73.1 15.2 1.9

Drug related 100% 5.4 70.9 20.2 3.6 100% 10.8 76.4 11.5 1.3

Gang related 100% 23.7 68.8 6.2 1.3 100% 28.0 70.2 1.6 0.2

Argument 100% 5.7 56.2 26.3 11.8 100% 7.0 60.7 23.0 9.2

Workplace 100% 0.5 26.7 33.5 39.3 100% 2.8 53.6 28.0 15.6

Weapon

Gun homicide 100% 8.1% 59.7% 22.0% 10.3% 100% 12.2% 65.9% 15.1% 6.9%

Arson 100% 27.9 26.4 20.4 25.2 100% 10.6 57.0 24.9 7.5

Poison 100% 28.6 20.8 16.8 33.8 100% 3.5 48.8 29.8 17.8

Multiple victims or 

o enders

Multiple victims 100% 17.9% 47.0% 19.3% 15.8% 100% 9.5% 66.3% 18.3% 5.9%

Multiple off enders 100% 10.4 58.4 19.2 12.0 100% 17.9 73.1 7.7 1.3

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. The percentages of victim/off ender relationships are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 through 2008 for which the 

victim/off ender relationships were known. The percentages of homicides involving multiple victims or off enders were known for 69.1% of incidents.

FIGURE 5

Average age of homicide victims and 

o enders, 1980–2008

FIGURE 6

Percent of homicides in which o ender was 

known to victim, by age of victim, 1980–2008

Oenders

Victims

0

10

20

30

40

2008200520001995199019851980

Mean age

0

20

40

60

80

100

96+9080706050403020100

Percent

Age of victim
6 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

FIGURE 9

Homicides of children under age 5, by age of 

victim, 1980–2008

Under 1

1 yr old

2 yrs old

3 yrs old

4 yrs old

0

2

4

6

8

10

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

CHILDREN UNDER AGE 5

The homicide rate for children under age 5 has remained 

stable or declined for all racial groups

 Th e number of homicides of children under age 5 declined 

between 1993 and 2006, but increased in 2007 and 2008 ( gure 7).

Homicide rates for—

 black children under age 5 declined 36% between 1993 and 

2008, dropping from 11.3 homicides per 100,000 in 1993 to 7.2 

homicides per 100,000 in 2008 ( gure 8). 

 black children under age 5 have remained substantially higher 

than rates for white children or children of other races.

 white children under age 5 remained relatively stable between 

1980 and 1990, with an average rate of 2.4 homicides per 

100,000. Th e rate rose to 2.8 homicides per 100,000 by 1996, then 

dropped down to 2.1 homicides per 100,000 in 2006. Since 2006 

the rate has risen slightly to 2.3 homicides per 100,000 in 2008.

In general, the younger the child, the greater the risk for being 

the victim of a homicide ( gure 9)

 Th roughout the 28-year period from 1980 to 2008, infants under 

1 year of age had the highest homicide victimization rate of all 

children under age 5.

FIGURE 7

Number of homicides of children under age 

5, by race of victim, 1980–2008

Other*

Black

White

0

100

200

300

400

500

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

*Other race includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, 

Hawaiians, and other Pacifi c Islanders.

FIGURE 8

Homicide victimization rates for children 

under age 5, by race of victim, 1980–2008

Rate per 100,000

0

5

10

15

20

Other*

Black

White

2008200520001995199019851980

*Other race includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, 

Hawaiians, and other Pacifi c Islanders.
NOVEMBER 2011 7

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

A parent was the perpetrator in the majority of homicides of 

children under age 5 ( gure 10)

Of all children under age 5 murdered from 1980 through 2008— 

 63% were killed by a parent—33% were killed by their fathers 

and 30% were killed by their mothers (table 3)

 23% were killed by male acquaintances

 5% were killed by female acquaintances

 7% were killed by other relatives

 3% were killed by strangers.

Of children under age 5 killed by someone other than their parent, 

80% were killed by males (not shown). 

TABLE 3

O ender relationship to child victim under age 5, 1980–2008

Sex of o ender

All 

relationships Parent Other family

Friend/

acquaintance Stranger

 All o enders 100% 63% 7% 28% 3%

Male 63% 33% 4% 23% 3%

Female 38 30 3 5 0

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. Percentages are based on the 63.1% of 

homicides from 1980 through 2008 for which the victim/off ender relationships were known. 

Most of the victims and o enders of homicides involving 

children under age 5 were male

Since 1980, the number of homicides involving male children under 

age 5—

 killed by male off enders increased dramatically in the early 

1990s before dropping in 1997 ( gure 11)

 followed a similar pattern for female victims killed by male 

off enders, although the changes were less pronounced.

For additional information on this topic, see the BJS publication 

Child Victimizers: Violent O enders and  eir Victims (NCJ 153258, 

BJS Web, March 1996).

Parent

Other family

Friend/acquaintance

Stranger

0

20

40

60

80

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

FIGURE 10

Homicides of children under age 5, by 

relationship with the o ender, 1980–2008

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which the victim/off ender relationships were 

known. 

Number

0

100

200

300

Male victim/male oender

Female victim/male oender

Male victim/female oender

Female victim/female oender

2008200520001995199019851980

FIGURE 11

Number of homicides of children under age 

5, by sex of victim and o ender, 1980–2008

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which the victim/off ender relationships were 

known. 
8 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

FIGURE 12

Number of homicides of persons age 65 or 

older, by sex of victim, 1980–2008

Male

Female

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

FIGURE 13

Homicide victimization and o ending rates 

for persons age 65 or older, 1980–2008

Victimization

Oending 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 14

Percent of homicides committed during a 

felony, by age of victim, 1980–2008

Age of victim

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

90+8070605040302010Under 

age 1

Percent

ELDERS AGE 65 OR OLDER

For the elderly (65 or older), both the number of homicides 

and the homicide victimization rate declined from 1980 to 

2000 and then stabilized

 About 5% of all homicide victims between 1980 and 2008 were 

elderly. 

 Between 1980 and 2008, males accounted for nearly 6 out of 10 

homicide victims age 65 or older.

 Since 2000 the number of homicides involving elderly males (age 

65 or older) has increased slightly, while the number involving 

elderly females has decreased ( gure 12).

 Th e homicide victimization and off ending rates for persons age 65 

or older have been relatively stable since 2001, ranging from a high 

of 2.1 victims and 0.8 off enders per 100,000 in 2003 to a low of 1.7 

victims and 0.6 off enders in 2007.

 In 2008, both victimization and off ending rates for persons age 65 

or older remained low at 1.9 victims and 0.7 off enders per 100,000 

( gure 13).

Older homicide victims were more likely to have been killed 

during a felony than younger victims ( gure 14)

Homicides committed during a felony were those that occurred in 

conjunction with a serious crime, usually punishable by at least one 

year in prison, such as rape, robbery, burglary, or arson.

 Between 1980 and 2008, the percentage of homicides that 

occurred during a felony was higher for elderly homicide victims 

age 65 or older than for homicide victims of other ages. 

 Among murder victims ages 20 to 40, the percentage of 

homicides committed during a felony was relatively stable, 

ranging from 17.7% to 19.3% of all homicide victims in this age 

group.

 Among murder victims age 40 or older, the proportion of 

homicides committed during a felony began increasing, 

accounting for 32.8% of homicides of 64-year-old victims and 

40.3% of homicides of 76-year-old victims.
NOVEMBER 2011 9

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

FIGURE 15

Homicide victimization rates, by sex, 

1980–2008

Male

Female

0

5

10

15

20

25

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 16

Homicide o ending rates, by sex, 1980–2008

Male

Female

0

5

10

15

20

25

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000 

Trends by sex

Most victims and perpetrators in homicides were male (table 4)

TABLE 4

Homicide o enders and victims, by sex, 1980–2008

Victim/o ender relationship Percent

Total 100%

Male off ender/male victim 67.8%

Male off ender/female victim 21.0

Female off ender/male victim 9.0

Female off ender/female victim 2.2

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 through 2008 for which the 

victim/off ender relationships were known. 

Victimization rates for both males and females have been 

relatively stable since 2000

 Males were nearly 4 times more likely than females to be 

murdered in 2008 ( gure 15).

 Th e homicide victimization rate for both males and females was 

at its highest in 1980—16.1 homicides per 100,000 for males 

and 4.5 homicides per 100,000 for females. By 2008, the rates for 

both groups had fallen, reaching 8.5 homicides per 100,000 for 

males and 2.3 homicides per 100,000 for females.

Homicide o ending rates for both males and females followed 

the same general pattern as homicide victimization rates 

 Males were 7 times more likely than females to commit murder 

in 2008 ( gure 16).

 Th e off ending rate for females has declined from 3.1 off enders 

per 100,000 in 1980 to 1.6 off enders per 100,000 in 2008.

 Th e off ending rate for males peaked in 1991 at 20.8 per 100,000, 

then fell to a low of 11.3 per 100,000 in 2008.
10 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

The sex distribution of homicide victims and o enders 

di ered by type of homicide

From 1980 to 2008, among all homicide victims—

 Females were more likely than males to be the victim of intimate 

killings (63.7%) and sex-related homicides (81.7%) (table 5). 

 Males were more likely to be involved in drug- (90.5%) and 

gang-related homicides (94.6%). 

The relationship between the victim and the o ender di ered 

for female and male victims

 Female murder victims (41.5%) were almost 6 times more likely 

than male murder victims (7.1%) to have been killed by an 

intimate (table 6). 

 More than half (56.4%) of male murder victims were killed by 

an acquaintance; another quarter (25.5%) were murdered by a 

stranger.

TABLE 5

Homicide type, by sex, 1980–2008

Victims O enders

Types of homicide Total Male Female Total Male Female

All homicides 100% 76.8% 23.2% 100% 89.5% 10.5%

Victim/o ender 

relationship

Intimate 100% 36.3% 63.7% 100% 70.3% 29.7%

Family 100% 54.7 45.3 100% 74.4 25.6

Infants 100% 54.7 45.3 100% 62.5 37.5

Elders 100% 57.2 42.8 100% 84.8 15.2

Circumstances

Felony murder 100% 79.2% 20.8% 100% 93.2% 6.8%

Sex related 100% 18.3 81.7 100% 93.7 6.3

Drug related 100% 90.5 9.5 100% 95.5 4.5

Gang related 100% 94.6 5.4 100% 98.3 1.7

Argument 100% 77.2 22.8 100% 86.6 13.4

Workplace 100% 79.1 20.9 100% 91.3 8.7

Weapon

Gun homicide 100% 82.6% 17.4% 100% 92.1% 7.9%

Arson 100% 54.7 45.3 100% 78.8 21.2

Poison 100% 56.1 43.9 100% 60.5 39.5

Multiple victims or 

o enders

Multiple victims 100% 64.4% 35.6% 100% 93.6% 6.4%

Multiple off enders 100 88.0 12.0 100 91.6 8.4

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. The percentages of victim/off ender 

relationships are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 through 2008 for which the victim/

off ender relationships were known. The percentages of homicides involving multiple victims or 

off enders were known for 69.1% of incidents.

TABLE 6

Victim/o ender relationship, by victim sex, 

1980–2008

Victim/o ender relationship Male Female

Total 100% 100%

Intimate 7.1% 41.5%

Spouse 4.0 24.1

Ex-spouse 0.2 1.9

Boyfriend/girlfriend 3.0 15.5

Other family 10.9% 16.7%

Parent 2.0 4.1

Child 3.6 7.5

Sibling 1.8 1.2

Other family 3.5 3.9

Acquaintance/known 56.4% 29.9%

Neighbor 1.6 1.7

Employee/employer 0.2 0.2

Friend/acquaintance 46.2 22.8

Other known 8.3 5.2

Stranger 25.5% 11.9%

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. The percentages of 

victim/off ender relationships are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 

1980 through 2008 for which the victim/off ender relationships were known. 

The percentages of homicides involving multiple victims or off enders were 

known for 69.1% of incidents.
NOVEMBER 2011 11

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Trends by race

Blacks were disproportionately represented among homicide 

victims and o enders 

 In 2008, the homicide victimization rate for blacks (19.6 

homicides per 100,000) was 6 times higher than the rate for 

whites (3.3 homicides per 100,000).

 Th e victimization rate for blacks peaked in the early 1990s, 

reaching a high of 39.4 homicides per 100,000 in 1991 ( gure 17). 

 Aft er 1991, the victimization rate for blacks fell until 1999, when 

it stabilized near 20 homicides per 100,000.

 In 2008, the off ending rate for blacks (24.7 off enders per 

100,000) was 7 times higher than the rate for whites (3.4 

off enders per 100,000) ( gure 18).

 Th e off ending rate for blacks showed a similar pattern to the 

victimization rate, peaking in the early 1990s at a high of 51.1 

off enders per 100,000 in 1991.

 Aft er 1991, the off ending rate for blacks declined until it reached 

24 per 100,000 in 2004. Th e rate has since fl uctuated, increasing 

to 28.4 off enders per 100,000 in 2006 before falling again to 24.7 

off enders per 100,000 in 2008. 

White

Black

0

10

20

30

40

50

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 17

Homicide victimization rates, by race, 

1980–2008

White

Black

0

20

40

60

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 18

Homicide o ending rates, by race, 1980–2008
12 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

The race distribution of homicide victims and o enders 

di ered by type of homicide

From 1980 to 2008—

 Black victims were over-represented in homicides involving 

drugs, with 62.1% of all drug-related homicides involving black 

victims. By comparison, 36.9% of drug-related homicide victims 

were white and 1% were victims of other races. 

 Compared with the overall percentage of murder victims who 

were black (47.4%), blacks were less likely to be victims of 

sex-related homicides (30.4%), workplace killings (12.5%), or 

homicides of elders age 65 or older (28.6%) (table 7).

 While two-thirds of drug-related homicides were committed by 

black off enders (65.6%), black off enders were less likely to be 

involved in sex-related killings (43.4%), workplace homicides, 

(25.8%) or homicides of elders age 65 or older (41.9%) compared 

to their overall involvement as homicide off enders (52.5%).

TABLE 7

Homicide type, by race, 1980–2008

Victims O enders

Total White Black Other Total White Black Other

All homicides 100% 50.3% 47.4% 2.3% 100% 45.3% 52.5% 2.2%

Victim/o ender relationship

Intimate 100% 55.0% 42.7% 2.4% 100% 54.2% 43.5% 2.3%

Family 100% 59.2 38.2 2.0 100% 59.2 38.3 2.5

Infants 100% 56.2 41.0 2.8 100% 55.8 41.6 2.6

Elders 100% 69.6 28.6 1.8 100% 56.3 41.9 1.8

Circumstances

Felony murder 100% 53.1% 44.1% 2.8% 100% 38.4% 59.9% 1.7%

Sex related 100% 66.8 30.4 2.8 100% 54.4 43.4 2.2

Drug related 100% 36.9 62.1 1.0 100% 33.2 65.6 1.2

Gang related 100% 56.5 40.0 3.5 100% 53.3 42.2 4.6

Argument 100% 49.5 48.1 2.4 100% 47.5 50.2 2.4

Workplace 100% 83.9 12.5 3.6 100% 70.8 25.8 3.3

Weapon

Gun homicide 100% 46.5% 51.4% 2.0% 100% 41.2% 56.9% 1.9%

Arson 100% 57.9 38.8 3.3 100% 55.6 41.7 2.7

Poison 100% 80.5 16.8 2.8 100% 80.6 16.8 2.6

Multiple victims or o enders

Multiple victims 100% 61.7% 34.7% 3.6% 100% 53.9% 42.4% 3.6%

Multiple off enders 100% 51.5 45.7 2.8 100% 43.2 54.3 2.5

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. The percentages of victim/off ender relationships are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 through 2008 for which the 

victim/off ender relationships were known. The percentages of homicides involving multiple victims or off enders were known for 69.1% of incidents.
NOVEMBER 2011 13

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

FIGURE 19

Homicides, by race of o ender and victim, 

1980–2008

White on white

Black on white

White on black

Black on black

0

20

40

60

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

FIGURE 20b 

Friend/acquaintance homicides, by race of 

o ender and victim, 1980–2008

White on white

Black on white

White on black

Black on black

0

20

40

60

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides for which 

the victim/off ender relationships were known.

FIGURE 20a

Stranger homicides, by race of o ender and 

victim, 1980–2008

0

20

40

60

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

White on white

Black on white

White on black

Black on black

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides for which 

the victim/off ender relationships were known.

Most murders were intraracial

From 1980 through 2008— 

 84% of white victims were killed by whites ( gure 19).

 93% of black victims were killed by blacks.

Stranger homicides were more likely to cross racial lines than 

homicides involving friends or acquaintances

For homicides committed by—

 a stranger to the victim, 26.7% were interracial ( gure 20a)

 a friend or acquaintance of the victim, 9.7% were interracial 

( gure 20b).
14 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Trends by age, sex, and race

Patterns of victimization and o ending varied by age, sex, and 

racial group

 During the late 1990s, homicide victimization rates dropped for 

all groups. In recent years, rates for most groups have stabilized.

 In 2008, young adults (18 to 24 years old) had the highest 

victimization rate in each racial and sex group. 

 Aft er increases in the early 1990s, the victimization rates for 

both white and black male teens (14 to 17 years old) peaked in 

1993 at 9.4 homicides per 100,000 for whites and 79 homicides 

per 100,000 for blacks ( gures 21a and 21b).

 Since 1993, the victimization rates for both white and black male 

teens (14 to 17 years old) have declined. By 2008, the rates for both 

groups were similar to the rates in the mid-1980s, at 4.5 homicides 

per 100,000 for whites and 31.4 homicides per 100,000 for blacks.

 In 2008, black males age 18 to 24 years-old had the highest 

homicide victimization rate (91.1 homicides per 100,000). Th at 

rate was more than double the rate for black males age 25 or 

older (38.4 homicides per 100,000) and almost triple the rate for 

black males age 14 to 17 (31.4 homicides per 100,000).

 Among black males age 18 to 24, the homicide victimization rate 

was much lower in 2008 (91.1 homicides per 100,000) than in 

the late 1980s and early 1990s, when it reached a high of 195.9 

homicides per 100,000 in 1993.

 For white females of all ages, homicide victimization rates have 

declined. Among white women age 18 to 24, the rate declined 

from 5.5 homicides per 100,000 in 1980 to 2.6 per 100,000 in 

2008 ( gure 21c).

 Since 1993, the victimization rate for black females has declined 

across all age groups. Girls age 14 to 17 experienced the largest 

victimization rate decline, dropping from 13.1 homicides per 

100,000 in 1993 to 4.6 per 100,000 in 2008 ( gure 21d).

FIGURE 21a 

White male homicide victimization rates, by 

age, 1980–2008

25 or older

18–24

14–17

0

5

10

15

20

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 21b

Black male homicide victimization rates, by 

age, 1980–2008

25 or older

18–24

14–17

0

50

100

150

200

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 21c

White female homicide victimization rates, 

by age, 1980–2008

25 or older

18–24

14–17

0

2

4

6

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 21d 

Black female homicide victimization rates, 

by age, 1980–2008

25 or older

18–24

14–17

0

10

20

30

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000
NOVEMBER 2011 15

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Homicide o ending patterns were generally similar to 

victimization patterns

 Young adults (18 to 24 years old) had the highest off ending rate 

in each racial and sex category. 

 Th e off ending rate for white male young adults (18 to 24 years 

old) was 20.4 off enders per 100,000 in 2007 and 2008, which was 

an all-time low ( gure 22a).

 Between 1980 and 2008, young adult black males had the highest 

homicide off ending rate compared to off enders in other racial 

and sex categories.

 Th e off ending rate for black male teens peaked in 1993 at 246.9 

off enders per 100,000 before declining. In recent years, the black 

male teen off ending rate has increased from 54.3 off enders per 

100,000 in 2002 to 64.8 off enders per 100,000 in 2008.

Th e off ending rate for black male young adults —

 increased from 205.2 off enders per 100,000 in 1980 to a high of 

365.0 off enders per 100,000 in 1993

 dropped by more than half from 1993 to 2008, when it reached 

an all-time low of 175.8 off enders per 100,000

 remained more than double the rate of black male teens (64.8 

off enders per 100,000) and 4 times the rate of black males age 25 

or older (37.8 off enders per 100,000) ( gure 22b). 

Homicide off ending rates among females show—

 White females of all ages had the lowest off ending rates of any 

racial or age groups ( gure 22c).

 Th e off ending rates for black females of all ages has declined 

since the early 1990s. Black female teens experienced the largest 

decline in off ending, dropping from 11 off enders per 100,000 in 

1992 to 3 off enders per 100,000 in 2008 ( gure 22d).

FIGURE 22a

White male homicide o ending rates, by age, 

1980–2008

25 or older

18–24

14–17

0

10

20

30

40

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 22b

Black male homicide o ending rates, by age, 

1980–2008

25 or older

18–24

14–17

0

100

200

300

400

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 22c

White female homicide o ending rates, by 

age, 1980–2008

25 or older

18-24

14-17

0

2

4

6

8

10

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 22d

Black female homicide o ending rates, by 

age, 1980–2008

25 or older 18–24

14–17

0

10

20

30

40

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000
16 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Young males (14 to 24 years-old), particularly young black 

males, were disproportionately involved in homicide 

compared to their proportion of the population

 Since 2000, young white males have accounted for about 6% 

of the population and about 10% of homicide victims. Th eir 

proportion of off enders has declined slightly from 18% in 2000 

to 16% by 2008 ( gure 23a).

 While young black males have accounted for about 1% of the 

population from 1980 to 2008, they have made up an increasing 

proportion of homicide victims, going from 9% of all homicide 

victims in 1980 to 18% in 1994. Aft er 1994, their proportion of 

homicide victims has remained relatively stable at about 16%.

 Th e percentage of young black male homicide off enders also 

increased rapidly from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s, going 

from 17% in 1985 to 35% by 1993 before declining. By 2008, 

young black males made up about a quarter of all homicide 

off enders (27%) ( gure 23b).

Victim/o ender relationship

Most homicides with known victim/o ender relationships 

involved people who knew each other

 Since the early 1990s, homicides for which the victim/off ender 

relationships were unknown constituted the largest category of 

homicides ( gure 24).

 Th e proportion of homicides in which the victim/off ender 

relationships were unknown increased from 36% of all 

homicides in 1980 to 44% in 2008.

Among homicides for which the victim/o ender relationships 

were known, 22% of victims were killed by strangers

 More than half (56%) of victims were acquaintances of the 

assailant (table 8).

 Another 22% of victims were killed by a spouse or other family 

member.

TABLE 8

Victim/o ender relationship, 1980–2008

Percent of homicides with 

known victim/o ender relationship

Total 100% 

Stranger 21.9% 

Nonstranger 78.1%

Spouse 10.0% 

Other family 12.4

Boyfriend/girlfriend 6.3

Other acquaintance 49.4

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 through 2008 for which the 

victim/off ender relationships were known.

FIGURE 23b 

Black males age 14 to 24 who were homicide 

victims or o enders, 1980–2008

Oenders

Victims

All black males ages 14 to 24

0

10

20

30

40

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

FIGURE 23a 

White males age 14 to 24 who were homicide 

victims or o enders, 1980–2008

Oenders

Victims

All white males ages 14 to 24

0

5

10

15

20

25

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

FIGURE 24 

Number of homicides, by victim/o ender 

relationship, 1980–2008

Undetermined

Stranger

Friend/acquaintance

Other family

Intimate

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

Note: Intimate includes spouses, ex-spouses, boyfriends, girlfriends, 

and same-sex relationships. Friend/acquaintance includes 

neighbors, employees, employers, and other known persons.

These data are grouped from the original categories. For detailed 

categories, see appendix table 24a and appendix table 24b for 

weighted and unweighted data.
NOVEMBER 2011 17

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Homicides by a friend/acquaintance or a stranger were more 

likely to involve a gun than those committed by an intimate or 

family member ( gures 25a, 25b, 25c, and 25d)

 Across the 28-year period, the percentage of homicides 

committed by intimate partners that involved a gun declined 

from 69% of all intimate homicides in 1980 to 51% in 2008, a 

26% decline.

 Compared to homicides committed by intimates, friends/

acquaintances, or strangers, homicides committed by a nonintimate family member were more likely to involve weapons other 

than guns (such as knives, blunt objects, or personal weapons). 

 Among homicides for which the victim/off ender relationships 

were unknown, the percentage of homicides involving a gun 

increased 33%, from 59% in 1980 to 78% in 2008 ( gure 25e).

FIGURE 25a 

Homicides, by intimate and weapon use, 

1980–2008

Unknown weapon

Other weapon

Gun

0

20

40

60

80

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent 

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which the victim/off ender relationships were 

known.

FIGURE 25b 

Homicides, by other family and weapon use, 

1980–2008

Unknown weapon

Other weapon

Gun

0

20

40

60

80

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which the victim/off ender relationships were 

known.

FIGURE 25c 

Homicides, by friend/acquaintance and 

weapon use, 1980–2008

Unknown weapon

Other weapon

Gun

0

20

40

60

80

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which the victim/off ender relationships were 

known.

FIGURE 25d 

Homicides, by stranger and weapon use, 

1980–2008

Unknown weapon

Other weapon

Gun

0

20

40

60

80

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which the victim/off ender relationships were 

known.

Unknown weapon

Other weapon

Gun

0

20

40

60

80

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

FIGURE 25e

Homicides, by unknown o ender and 

weapon use, 1980–2008

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which the victim/off ender relationships were 

known.
18 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Intimate homicide

Female victims were substantially more likely than male 

victims to have been killed by an intimate

Among homicides with known victim/off ender relationships—

 Nearly 1 out of 5 murder victims (16.3%) were killed by an 

intimate (table 9).

 2 out of 5 female murder victims were killed by an intimate.

 Th e percentage of males killed by an intimate fell from 10.4% in 

1980 to 4.9% in 2008, a 53% drop. For females, the percentage 

killed by an intimate increased 5% across the same period 

( gure 26).

 Th e percentage of females killed by an intimate declined 

from 43% in 1980 to 38% in 1995. Aft er 1995, that percentage 

gradually increased, reaching 45% in 2008.

TABLE 9

Intimate homicides, 1980–2008

Percent of all homicides

Total 100%

Intimate 16.3

Nonintimate 83.7

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 through 2008 for which victim/

off ender relationships were known. 

For additional details, see section on victim/off ender relationship.

The proportion of black males killed by an intimate has 

declined

Among homicides with known victim/off ender relationships—

 Th e percentage of black male murder victims killed by an 

intimate declined steadily from 13% in 1980 to a low of 5% in 

2008 ( gure 27).

 Th e percentages of white males and black males killed by an 

intimate have been relatively similar since 2002, at about 5% for 

both groups.

 Intimate homicides of white women fl uctuated slightly between 

1980 and 2008, averaging 44% of all white female homicides 

across that period.

 Intimate homicides of black women decreased from 43% of all 

black female homicides in 1980 to a low of 33% in 1995. Aft er 

1995, that percentage increased to 43% of all homicides of black 

females in 2008.

FIGURE 26 

Homicides of intimates, by sex of victim, 

1980–2008

Female

Male

0

10

20

30

40

50

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known.

Intimate includes spouses, ex-spouses, boyfriends, girlfriends, and 

same-sex relationships. Friend/acquaintance includes neighbors, 

employees, employers, and other known persons.

FIGURE 27 

Homicides of intimates, by sex and race of 

victim, 1980–2008

Black female

Black male

White female

White male

0

10

20

30

40

50

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known.
NOVEMBER 2011 19

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

In every age group, female victims were more likely than male 

victims to have been killed by an intimate (table 10)

TABLE 10

Age of intimate and nonintimate homicide victims, by sex, 

1980–2008

Male victims killed by — Female victim killed by —

Age Intimate Non-intimate Intimate Non-intimate

12–17 0.5% 99.5% 17.5% 82.5%

18–24 2.8 97.2 42.9 57.1

25–29 6.3 93.7 52.4 47.6

30–34 8.9 91.1 57.1 42.9

35–39 11.0 89.0 57.8 42.2

40–44 12.2 87.8 55.6 44.4

45–49 13.4 86.6 52.3 47.7

50–59 13.3 86.7 42.1 57.9

60 or older 9.5 90.5 29.4 70.6

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 through 2008 for which the victim/

off ender relationships were known. 

See Methodology section for additional information about the data for weighting and imputation 

procedures used.

The proportion of intimate homicides by a spouse has 

decreased since 1980, while the proportion committed by a 

boyfriend or girlfriend has increased ( gure 28)

 In 1980, the majority (69.1%) of all intimate homicides were 

committed by a spouse while a quarter of intimate homicides 

were committed by a boyfriend or girlfriend (26.8%).

 Aft er 1980, the proportion of intimate homicides involving a 

spouse began decreasing while those involving a boyfriend or 

girlfriend began increasing.

 By 2008, the proportion of intimate homicides committed by a 

spouse (46.7%) was nearly equal to the proportion committed by 

a boyfriend or girlfriend (48.6%).

The proportion of male and female intimate homicide victims 

killed with guns has decreased ( gures 29a and 29b)

 In 1980, the majority (68.9%) of male intimate homicide victims 

were killed with guns and a third (30.5%) were killed with other 

weapons (knives, blunt objects, or personal weapons).

 Aft er 1980, the proportion of male intimate homicide victims 

killed with guns gradually declined while the proportion killed 

with other weapons increased. Since 2000, guns have been less 

prevalent than other weapons in intimate homicides against 

male victims.

 By 2008, a higher proportion of male intimate homicide victims 

were killed with weapons other than guns (54.6%) than with 

guns (41.9%).

FIGURE 28 

Homicides of intimates, by relationship of 

victim to o ender, 1980–2008

Boyfriend/girlfriend

Ex-spouse

Spouse

0

20

40

60

80

100

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known.

FIGURE 29a 

Male victims of intimate homicide, by type of 

weapon, 1980–2008

Other weapon

Gun

0

20

40

60

80

100

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

Male victims

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known.

FIGURE 29b

Female victims of intimate homicide, by type 

of weapon, 1980–2008

Other weapon

Gun

0

20

40

60

80

100

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known.
20 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

 Female intimate homicide victims showed a similar pattern. In 

1980, two-thirds were killed by guns (69.5%) and less than a 

third were killed with other weapons (28.9%).

 Aft er 1980, the proportion of female intimate homicide victims 

killed by guns decreased while the proportion killed by other 

weapons increased, although guns were still the most prevalent 

weapon used by intimate off enders against female victims.

 In 2008, 53% of all female intimate homicide victims were killed 

with guns while 41% were killed with other weapons.

Guns were the most frequently used type of weapon in 

intimate homicides, but weapon type varied by relationship

From 1980 through 2008—

 Overall, over two-thirds of victims murdered by a spouse or 

ex-spouse were killed by guns (table 11).

 Boyfriends were more likely to be killed by knives than any other 

group of intimates.

 Girlfriends were more likely to be killed by force than any other 

group of intimates.

TABLE 11

Homicides, by intimate relationship and type of weapon, 

1980–2008

Victim’s relationship 

to o ender Total Gun Knife

Blunt 

object Force*

Other 

weapon

Unknown 

weapon

Husband 100% 66.1% 27.6% 2.1% 1.0% 1.3% 1.8%

Ex-husband 100% 83.6 10.9 1.6 0.4 1.3 2.2

Wife 100% 66.7 14.5 4.7 10.3 1.1 2.7

Ex-wife 100% 75.0 13.2 2.7 6.4 0.7 2.1

Boyfriend 100% 44.8 49.7 1.2 1.3 0.9 2.1

Girlfriend 100% 54.5 20.4 5.0 15.2 1.1 3.8

Same-sex

 relationship 100% 30.8 41.1 10.3 14.1 1.4 2.4

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 through 2008 for which the victim/

off ender relationships were known. See section on intimate partner violence.

*Includes hands, fi sts, or feet.
NOVEMBER 2011 21

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

FIGURE 31b

Black victims of family homicides, by 

relationship, 1980–2008

Percent

0

20

40

60

80

Other family

Child

Sibling

Parent

Spouse/ex-spouse

2008200520001995199019851980

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known. 

For additional details on spousal homicides, see section on intimate 

homicides.

FIGURE 30 

Family homicides, by relationship, 1980–

2008

Percent

0

20

40

60

80

Other family

Child

Sibling

Parent

Spouse/ex-spouse

2008200520001995199019851980

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known. 

For additional details on spousal homicides, see section on intimate 

homicides.

Figure 31a

White victims of family homicides, by 

relationship, 1980–2008

Percent

0

20

40

60

80

Other family

Child

Sibling

Parent

Spouse/ex-spouse

2008200520001995199019851980

Note: Percentages are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known. 

For additional details on spousal homicides, see section on intimate 

homicides.

Family homicide 

Family homicides most often involved spouses or ex-spouses

 Homicides by a spouse or ex-spouse were an increasingly smaller 

proportion of all family homicides from 1980 through 2008. In 

1980, they made up half (52%) of all family homicides. By 2008, 

they accounted for just over a third (37%) ( gure 30).

 Children killed by their parents were the second most frequent 

type of family homicide. Th ese homicides increased from 15% of all 

family homicides in 1980 to 25% of all family homicides in 2008.

 Parents killed by one of their children have been an increasing 

proportion of family homicides, rising steadily from 9.7% of all 

family homicides in 1980 to 13% in 2008.

The proportion of family homicides that involved a spouse has 

decreased for both blacks and whites

 Murders of children by a parent accounted for an increasing 

percentage of family homicides, regardless of race.

 In 1980, 16.1% of white family homicides and 13.4% of black 

family homicides involved a parent who murdered a child.

 By 2008, 23.5% of white family homicides and 30% of black family 

homicides involved a child killed by a parent ( gures 31a and 31b).
22 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Fathers were more likely than mothers to be killed by their 

children

 Teenage sons (16 to 19 years-old) were most oft en the 

perpetrators in parental killings ( gures 32a and 32b).

Brothers were more likely than sisters to be killed by a sibling

 About half of brothers who killed their own brother were 

between 16 and 30 years-old ( gure 33a). Relatively few sisters 

killed their own brother.

 Sisters killed by a sibling were more likely to be murdered by a 

brother than a sister ( gure 33b). A quarter of all murders of 

sisters by a sibling were committed by a teenage sibling between 

13 and 18 years-old.

FIGURE 32a 

Fathers killed by children, by sex and age of 

o ender, 1980–2008

Number

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

8070605040302010

Killed by son

Killed by daughter

Age of oender

Note: Estimates are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known.

FIGURE 32b

Mothers killed by children, by sex and age of 

o ender, 1980–2008

Number

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

8070605040302010

Killed by son

Killed by daughter

Age of oender

Note: Estimates are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known.

FIGURE 33a 

Brothers killed by sibling, by sex and age of 

o ender, 1980–2008

Number

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

858070605040302010

Killed by brother

Killed by sister

Age of oender

Note: Estimates are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known.

FIGURE 33b 

Sisters killed by sibling, by sex and age of 

o ender, 1980–2008

Number

0

10

20

30

40

50

858070605040302010

Killed by brother

Killed by sister

Age of oender

Note: Estimates are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which victim/off ender relationships were known.
NOVEMBER 2011 23

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

FIGURE 35 

Law enforcement o cers killed in the line of 

duty by weapon type, 1980–2010

0

20

40

60

80

Other methods

Other guns

Handguns

2010200520001995199019851980

Number

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement O cers Killed and Assaulted, 1980–2010.

FIGURE 34 

Law enforcement o cers killed in the line of 

duty, 1980–2010

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Number 

2010200520001995199019851980

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement O cers Killed and Assaulted, 1980–2010.

Law enforcement o cers killed

The number of law enforcement o cers killed in the line of 

duty has declined since the early 1980s ( gure 34)

Information on the number of law enforcement o cers killed in 

the line of duty comes from the FBI’s Law Enforcement O cers 

Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA). For these data, the FBI reports 

circumstance information for the most recent 10 years of data.

 From 1980 to 2010, the number of reported law enforcement 

o cers killed in the line of duty dropped by 46%, from a 

reported 104 law enforcement o cers killed in 1980 to 56 

reported law enforcement deaths in 2010.

Of the 541 o cers killed from 2001 to 2010—

 23% were in arrest situations

 22% were in ambush situations

 18% were making tra c pursuits/stops

 14% were on disturbance calls

 11% were investigating suspicious persons/circumstances 

 12% were in other situations.

Of the 587 assailants identi ed in the killing of law enforcement 

o cers from 2001 through 2010—

 64% had a prior conviction

 82% had a prior arrest for any type of crime; 43% had a prior 

arrest for a crime of violence.

Most law enforcement o cers were killed with  rearms, 

particularly handguns

  e recent overall decline in murders of law enforcement o cers 

may be attributed to the decline in law enforcement o cers 

killed by a handgun ( gure 35).
24 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Multiple victims and o enders

1 in 5 homicides in 2008 involved multiple o enders 

 Homicides were more likely to involve multiple off enders than 

multiple victims ( gure 36).

 Th e proportion of all homicides committed by two or more 

off enders increased from 11.3% of all homicides in 1980 to 

a high of 20.7% of all homicides in 2006. In 2008, homicides 

involving multiple off enders accounted for 19.8% of all murders.

Most homicides involving multiple o enders were perpetrated 

against a single victim

 Of all homicides from 1980 through 2008, 15% involved the 

killing of a single victim by multiple off enders, and 1% involved 

multiple off enders killing multiple victims (table 12).

TABLE 12

Homicides involving single or multiple victims or o enders, 

1980–2008

O enders

Single Multiple

Victims Number Percent Number Percent

Single 437,289 81% 82,013 15%

Multiple 15,601 3 4,929 1

Note: Of the 539,832 homicide incidents from 1980 through 2008, data on the number of victims and 

the number of off enders involved were known for 69.1% of incidents.

The proportion of homicides involving two or more victims 

has remained relatively stable at 4.5% since 2000

 Th e proportion of homicide incidents involving two victims has 

increased slightly from 2.7% in 1980 to 3.7% in 2008 ( gure 37).

 Homicide incidents involving three or more victims have also 

increased during this same period, but have remained less than 

1% of all homicides each year.

FIGURE 36 

Homicides involving multiple o enders or 

multiple victims, 1980–2008

0

5

10

15

20

25

Multiple oenders

Multiple victims

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

FIGURE 37 

Homicides involving multiple victims, by 

number of victims, 1980–2008

0

1

2

3

4

5

3 or more victims

2 victims

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent
NOVEMBER 2011 25

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

FIGURE 38 

Percent of homicides involving multiple 

o enders, by age of o ender, 1980–2008

0

20

40

60

80

100

25 or older

18–24

14–17

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

FIGURE 39 

Percent of homicides involving guns, by 

number of victims, 1980–2008

0

20

40

60

80

100

2 or more victims

1 victim

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

In 2008, of all homicide incidents—

 3.7% involved two victims

 0.5% involved three victims

 0.2% involved four victims

 0.1% involved fi ve or more victims.

Older o enders were less likely than younger o enders to be 

involved in multiple o ender homicides ( gure 38)

Th e proportion of homicides involving multiple off enders 

decreased with off ender age:

 In 2008, of the homicides committed by off enders 14 to 17 yearsold, 37.5% involved multiple off enders.

 During this same period, slightly more than one-fourth ( 27.5%) 

of the homicides committed by off enders 18 to 24 years-old 

involved multiple off enders while around one-seventh (13.7%) of 

the homicides committed by off enders age 25 or older involved 

multiple off enders.

Multiple victim homicides were more likely to involve guns 

than single victim homicides ( gure 39)

 In 2008, three-quarters (77.2%) of multiple victim homicides 

involved guns while two-thirds (65.7%) of single victim 

homicides involved guns.
26 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Circumstances

The mix of circumstances surrounding homicides has changed 

over the last two decades

Th e number of homicides— 

 for which the circumstances were unknown was greater in 2008 

than any known category of circumstances ( gure 40)

 resulting from arguments declined by nearly half from 10,300 

homicides in 1980 to 4,696 homicides in 2008, but as of 2008 

remained the most frequently cited circumstance of the known 

circumstances

 that occurred during the commission of another felony, such as 

a robbery or burglary, declined from about 5,300 homicides in 

1991 to 2,600 homicides in 2000, then stabilized 

 involving adult or juvenile gang violence increased from 

about 220 homicides in 1980 to 960 homicides in 2008. Gang 

violence accounted for 1% of all homicides in 1980 and 6% of all 

homicides in 2008.

The proportion of homicides involving guns di ered by 

circumstance

Gun involvement—

 in gang related homicides increased from 73% in 1980 to 92% in 

2008 ( gure 41)

 in homicides that occurred during the commission of a felony 

increased from 59% in 1980 to 74% in 2008

 in homicides resulting from arguments remained relatively stable 

from 2000 through 2008; about 60% of homicides resulting from 

arguments involved guns during this period.

FIGURE 41 

Homicides involving guns, by circumstance, 

1980–2008

Unknown

Other

Gang

Argument

Felony

0

20

40

60

80

100

2008200520001995199019851980

Percent

Note: For 5.0% of homicides from 1980 through 2008, the type of 

weapon used was unknown.

FIGURE 40 

Number of homicides, by circumstance, 

1980–2008

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

Unknown

Other

Gang

Argument

Felony

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

Note: Arguments include brawls due to the infl uence of narcotics 

or alcohol, disagreements about money or property, and other 

arguments. Felony types include homicides committed during a 

rape, robbery, theft, motor vehicle theft, arson, and violations of 

prostitution and commercial vice laws, other sex off enses, narcotic 

drug laws, and gambling laws. Gang homicides include gangland 

killings and juvenile gang killings. 
NOVEMBER 2011 27

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Trends by weapon type

Homicides were most often committed with handguns

 Handgun-involved incidents increased sharply in the late 1980s 

and early 1990s before falling to a low in 2008.

 Homicides committed with guns other than handguns hit a low 

point in 1999, but have increased since then.

 From 1980 through 2008, homicides involving weapons other 

than fi rearms have declined slightly or remained steady 

( gure 42).

Homicides of teens and young adults were more likely to be 

committed with a gun than homicides of persons of other ages

 Th e percentage of homicide victims killed with a gun increased 

with age of the victim until age 17, where it peaked at 79%, and 

declined thereaft er ( gure 43).

FIGURE 42 

Homicides, by weapon type, 1980–2008

Handguns

Other guns

Knives

Blunt objects

Other weapons

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

Note: For 5.0% of homicides from 1980 through 2008, the type of 

weapon used was unknown.

FIGURE 43

Homicides involving guns, by age of victim, 

1980–2008

0

20

40

60

80

90+8070605040302010Under 

age 1

Percent

Age of victim

Note: For 5.0% of homicides from 1980 through 2008, the type of 

weapon used was unknown.
28 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Gun homicides by teens and young adults increased sharply 

beginning in the mid-1980s and fell after the early 1990s

 Th e trend in homicides involving weapons other than guns 

showed little change over this period, declining or fl uctuating 

slightly for all age groups ( gures 44a, 44b, and 44c).

 Gun homicides by persons age 18 to 24 peaked at about 8,600 

in 1993 then declined to about 5,300 in 2008. Th e number of 

gun homicides in 2008 was still higher than the number of gun 

homicides in the early and mid-1980s.

 Gun homicides involving adult off enders age 25 or older 

declined from over 10,000 in 1980 to 4,660 in 1999, and 

increased since then to 5,460 in 2008.

 Th e sharp increase in homicides from the mid-1980s through 

the early 1990s, and much of the subsequent decline, is 

attributable to gun violence by teens and young adults.

FIGURE 44c

Homicide o enders age 25 or older, by 

weapon type, 1980–2008

Gun

Other weapon

0

3,000

6,000

9,000

12,000

2008200520001995199019851980

Number 

Note: Weapon type was unknown for 4.1% of homicides involving 

off enders age 25 or older.

FIGURE 44a

Homicide o enders age 14 to 17, by weapon 

type, 1980–2008

Gun

Other weapon

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

Note: Weapon type was unknown for 2.6% of homicides involving 

off enders ages 14 to 17.

FIGURE 44b

Homicide o enders age 18 to 24, by weapon 

type, 1980–2008

Gun

Other weapon

0

2,500

5,000

7,500

10,000

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

Note: Weapon type was unknown for 3.1% of homicides involving 

off enders ages 18 to 24.
NOVEMBER 2011 29

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Trends by city size

Changes in homicide trends have been driven by changes in 

the number of homicides in large American cities

From 1980 to 2008—

 Over half of homicides (57.7%) occurred in cities with a 

population of 100,000 or more ( gure 45).

 More than a third of all homicides in large cities occurred in the 

biggest cities (those with a population of 1 million or more) (not 

shown).

In large cities of all sizes, the homicide victimization rate has 

declined steadily since the early 1990s

Th e homicide victimization rate—

 in cities with a population of 1 million or more dropped 

dramatically from 35.5 homicides per 100,000 U.S. residents 

in 1991 to an all-time low of 11.9 homicides per 100,000 U.S. 

residents in 2008 ( gure 46)

 in cities with a population of 100,000 to 249,999 was the lowest 

among large cities, ranging from a high of 15.0 homicides per 

100,000 in 1994 to a low of 8.8 homicides per 100,000 in 2008.

As with the victimization rate in large cities, the homicide 

o ending rate has also declined since the early 1990s

Th e homicide off ending rate in cities with a population of—

 1 million or more dropped from 45 off enders per 100,000 U.S. 

residents in 1991 to an all-time low of 12 off enders per 100,000 

U.S. residents in 2008 ( gure 47)

 500,000 to 999,999 increased between 2004 (14.5 off enders per 

100,000) and 2008 (17.8 off enders per 100,000), but remained 

below the off ending rates from the late 1980s and early 1990s, 

which averaged around 22 off enders per 100,000.

FIGURE 45

Number of homicides in urban, suburban, 

and rural areas, 1980–2008

Large cities

Small cities

Suburban areas

Rural areas

0

4,000

8,000

12,000

16,000

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

Note: Large cities have a population of 100,000 or more, while small 

cities have a population of less than 100,000.

FIGURE 46

Homicide victimization rates for cities with a 

population of 100,000 or more, 1980–2008

One million +

500,000–999,000

250,000–499,000

100,000–249,000

0

10

20

30

40

50

2008200520001995199019851980

Rate per 100,000

FIGURE 47

Homicide o ending rates for cities with a 

population of 100,000 or more, 1980–2008

Rate per 100,000

0

10

20

30

40

50 100,000–249,000

250,000–499,000

500,000–999,000

One million+

2008200520001995199019851980
30 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Certain homicide types varied by city size 

From 1980 to 2008—

 the majority of all drug-related (67.4%) and gang-related (69.6%) 

killings took place in large cities (table 13)

 relatively fewer family (44.8%) or workplace (30.8%) homicides 

occurred in large cities compared to the overall percentage of 

homicides in large cities (57.7%). 

TABLE 13

Characteristics of homicide, by city size, 1980–2008

Percent of all homicides

Total Large city Small city Suburban area Rural area

All homicides 100% 57.7% 13.6% 21.3% 7.5%

Victim/o ender 

relationship

Intimate 100% 46.7% 16.0% 27.1% 10.2%

Family 100% 44.8 14.9 28.5 11.8

Infants 100% 47.3 18.5 26.2 8.0

Elders 100% 45.8 17.0 25.4 11.8

Circumstance

Felony murder 100% 60.8% 12.6% 20.8% 5.8%

Sex related 100% 48.4 14.9 27.3 9.4

Drug related 100% 67.4 10.8 18.1 3.7

Gang related 100% 69.6 13.3 16.6 0.5

Argument 100% 53.5 15.5 21.6 9.4

Workplace 100% 30.8 16.3 38.3 14.6

Weapon

Gun homicide 100% 59.6% 12.4% 20.3% 7.7%

Arson 100% 53.0 16.1 22.7 8.2

Poison 100% 38.0 18.3 31.0 12.7

Multiple victims or 

o enders

Multiple victims 100% 47.6% 14.1% 27.2% 11.1%

Multiple off enders 100% 65.5 10.8 18.0 5.7

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. Percentages of victim/off ender relationships are 

based on the 63.1% of homicides for which victim/off ender relationships were known. The percentages 

of homicides involving multiple victims or off enders were known for 69.1% of incidents.

The proportion of intimate homicides di ered by place and 

city size

Since the mid-1980s, the percentage of homicides committed by an 

intimate (spouses, ex-spouses, boyfriends, girlfriends, and same-sex 

relationships) was larger in rural areas than in suburban or urban 

areas ( gure 48).

Homicides for which the off ender was known to be an intimate 

have declined in cities of all sizes and types. From 1980 through 

2008, the number of known intimate murders—

 in large cities fell by more than half (52%) from about 1,150 

homicides in 1980 to 550 homicides in 2008, while the number 

of known nonintimate murders dropped approximately 40% 

from an estimated 6,145 homicides to 3,662 homicides.

FIGURE 48 

Percent of all homicides involving intimates 

by urban, suburban, and rural areas, 

1980–2008

Percent

0

10

20

30

Rural areas

Suburban areas

Small cities

Large cities

2008200520001995199019851980

Note: Large cities have a population of 100,000 or more, while small 

cities have a population of less than 100,000. Percent of homicides 

by an intimate are based on the 63.1% of homicides from 1980 

through 2008 for which the victim/off ender relationships were 

known.
NOVEMBER 2011 31

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

 in small cities dropped by 43% from 500 homicides in 1980 to 

290 homicides in 2008, while the number of known nonintimate 

homicides dropped by a third (35%) from 1,900 homicides in 

1980 to 1,250 homicides in 2008

 in suburban areas declined by 26% from 670 homicides in 1980 

to 490 homicides in 2008, while known nonintimate homicides 

declined by 15% from 2,460 homicides in 1980 to 2,090 

homicides in 2008

 in rural areas dropped by 50% from 390 homicides in 1980 to 

200 homicides in 2008, while known nonintimate homicides 

dropped by 63% from 1,570 homicides in 1980 to 580 homicides 

in 2008.

Clearances

The percentage of homicides cleared by arrest or other 

exceptional means has declined 

 In 2008, 64% of all homicides were cleared, compared to 72% in 

1980 ( gure 49).

 Homicide has the highest clearance rate of all serious crimes.

Police were more likely to identify a suspect when the victim 

was a child ( gure 50)

 A suspect was most likely to be identifi ed when the victim was a 

child under age 5 (89%).

 Th e percentage of homicides in which a suspect was identifi ed 

dropped sharply aft er age 5, declining to 63.5% of homicides 

for victims age 20. Aft er age 20, the percentage of homicides in 

which an off ender was identifi ed remained relatively stable.

FIGURE 49

Homicides cleared by arrest or exceptional 

means, 1980–2008

0

20

40

60

80

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 20082005

Percent

Note: Law enforcement agencies clear or solve an off ense when 

at least one person is arrested, charged with the commission of 

the off ense, and turned over to the court for prosecution. Law 

enforcement agencies may also clear a crime by exceptional means, 

such as when an identifi ed off ender is killed during apprehension or 

commits suicide.

Source: FBI, Uniform Crime Reports, 1980–2008.

FIGURE 50

Homicides where suspect was identi ed, by 

age of victim, 1980–2008

0

25

50

75

100

96+9080706050403020100

Percent

Age of victim

Note: The FBI’s Supplementary Homicide Reports data do not include 

information on arrest of homicide off enders. For the above fi gure, a 

suspect was determined to be identifi ed if police knew and recorded 

two or more demographic characteristics of the off ender.
32 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Justi able homicides

The number of justi able homicides declined through 2000 and 

has seen slight increases since then

 Th e number of justifi able homicides of felons committed by 

police exceeded the number committed by citizens ( gure 51).

 In the last 10 years, the number of justifi able homicides has 

increased by 25.4% from 500 in 1999 to 630 in 2008.

The circumstances surrounding justi able homicides di ered 

for those committed by police than those committed by citizens

 Most justifi able homicides by police were the result of attacks on 

offi cers, accounting for 64% of justifi able homicides by police in 

2008 ( gure 52a).

 Th e most frequent circumstances cited for justifi able homicides 

by citizens were the disruption a crime in progress (55% of 

justifi able homicides by a citizen in 2008) or when a citizen 

was attacked (41% of justifi able homicides by a citizen in 2008) 

( gure 52b).

FIGURE 51

Number of justi able homicides, by police 

and citizens, 1980–2008

By police

By citizens

0

100

200

300

400

500

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

Note: Justifi able homicides are defi ned as the killing of a felon by a 

law enforcement offi cer in the line of duty or the killing of a felon 

during the commission of a felony by a private citizen. Numbers 

are based on only justifi able homicides reported to the FBI’s 

Supplementary Homicide Reports Program from 1980 through 2008.

FIGURE 52a

Number of justi able homicides by police, 

by circumstance, 1980–2008

Attacked police

Attacked citizen

Fled or resisted

Disrupted crime

Undetermined

0

100

200

300

400

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

Note: Justifi able homicides are defi ned as the killing of a felon by a 

law enforcement offi cer in the line of duty or the killing of a felon 

during the commission of a felony by a private citizen. Numbers 

are based on only justifi able homicides reported to the FBI’s 

Supplementary Homicide Reports Program from 1980 through 2008.

FIGURE 52b

Number of justi able homicides by citizens, 

by circumstance, 1980–2008

Attacked police

Attacked citizen

Fled or resisted

Disrupted crime

Undetermined

0

100

200

300

400

2008200520001995199019851980

Number

Note: Justifi able homicides are defi ned as the killing of a felon by a 

law enforcement offi cer in the line of duty or the killing of a felon 

during the commission of a felony by a private citizen. Numbers 

are based on only justifi able homicides reported to the FBI’s 

Supplementary Homicide Reports Program from 1980 through 2008.
NOVEMBER 2011 33

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Most justi able homicides were intraracial

 In incidents involving citizens, three-quarters involved citizens 

and felons of the same race (table 14).

 In incidents involving police, two-thirds involved police offi cers 

and felons of the same race.

TABLE 14

Percent of justi able homicides 

Race of felon

Race of citizen who killed felon Race of o cer who killed felon

Total White Black Other* Total White Black Other*

Total 100% 55% 42% 3% 100% 86% 13% 1%

White 41% 37% 3% 1% 60% 56% 3% 1%

Black 57 17 39 2 38 27 11 --

Other 2 1 -- 1 3 2 -- --

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding.

-- Less than 0.5%.

*Other race includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Hawaiians, and other Pacifi c Islanders.

The age distribution of felons killed by police was slightly 

older than that of felons killed by citizens ( gure 53)

FIGURE 53

Number of justi able homicides by police 

and citizens, by age of victim, 1980–2008

By police

By citizens

0

100

200

300

400

500

96+908070605040302011

Number

Age of victim

Note: Justifi able homicides are defi ned as the killing of a felon by a 

law enforcement offi cer in the line of duty or the killing of a felon 

during the commission of a felony by a private citizen. Numbers 

are based on only justifi able homicides reported to the FBI’s 

Supplementary Homicide Reports Program from 1980 through 2008.
34 Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

Additional information about the data

Data Sources

The FBI’s Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program 

Launched over 70 years ago, the UCR program 

collects and publishes criminal off ense, arrest, and 

law enforcement personnel statistics. Under the UCR 

program, law enforcement agencies submit information 

to the FBI monthly. Off ense information is collected on 

the eight Part I off enses: homicide, forcible rape, robbery, 

aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft , motor vehicle 

theft , and arson. Information on the number of persons 

arrested includes many additional crime types, such as 

drug abuse violations and driving under the infl uence. 

Th e FBI annually publishes data from the UCR in Crime 

in the United States, available online at: http://www.fb i.

gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/ucr#ucr_cius. Th e UCR is one of 

two major national indicators about crime. For more 

information about these two indicators, see  e Nation’s 

Two Crime Measures (NCJ 122705, BJS Web, October 

2004).

Th e UCR program collects data on only those crimes that 

come to the attention of law enforcement through victim 

reports or observation. Of all the crimes included in the 

UCR, homicide is the most completely reported. Homicide 

counts suff er from a minimal level of underreporting. In 

addition, the number of crimes for which law enforcement 

makes an arrest or clears the off ense is the highest for 

homicide compared to the other serious off enses collected 

by the UCR. Other off enses, including forcible rape, 

robbery, and aggravated assault, are currently available 

only in summary count form without details about the 

incident, victims, or off enders. Homicide information—

through the Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR) 

data—is available in incident form. 

FBI’s Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR)

Most of the data used here are from the SHR, which is a part 

of the UCR Program. Supplemental data about homicide 

incidents are submitted monthly with details on location, 

victim, and off ender characteristics. Th ese reports include 

information on the reporting agency and its residential 

population, county and Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) 

codes, geographic division, and population group; on the 

age, race, and sex of victims and off enders; and on the 

victim/off ender relationship, weapon use, and circumstance 

of the crime. From 1980 to 2008, contributing agencies 

provided supplemental data for 508,568 of the estimated 

565,636 murders.

Law Enforcement O cers Killed and Assaulted 

(LEOKA)

Also a part of the FBI’s UCR Program, the Law 

Enforcement Offi cers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) 

utilizes data from several sources, including the UCR. 

Once notifi ed of a line-of-duty death, the FBI contacts 

the employing agency to obtain additional details. 

LEOKA includes data about federal, state, and local 

law enforcement offi cers who were killed feloniously or 

accidentally or who were assaulted. An annual report is 

published by the FBI, available online at: http://www.fb i.

gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/ucr#ucr_leoka.

Methodology

Homicide as defi ned here includes murder and 

nonnegligent manslaughter, which is the willful killing 

of one human being by another. Th e general analyses 

excluded deaths caused by negligence, suicide, or 

accident; justifi able homicides; and attempts to murder. 

Justifi able homicides based on the reports of law 

enforcement agencies are analyzed separately. Deaths 

from the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, are not 

included in any of the analyses. Th ese homicide data are 

based solely on police investigation, as opposed to the 

determination of a court, medical examiner, coroner, 

jury, or other judicial body.

Not all agencies that report off ense information to the 

FBI also submit supplemental data on homicides. About 

91% of homicides reported in the UCR are included in 

the SHR. To account for the total number of homicides, 

this analysis weighted the total number of homicide 

victims included in the SHR data to match national and 

state estimates of the total number of homicide victims 

prepared by the FBI. All victim-based analyses are 

adjusted in this manner.

While many agencies report supplemental data on 

homicides, much of the data concerning off enders may 

not be reported because no suspects were identifi ed or 

the agency chose not to report the information. Th e most 

signifi cant problem in using SHR data to analyze off ender 

characteristics is the sizable and growing number 

of homicides in the data fi le for which no off ender 

information is reported. Ignoring these homicides with 

no off ender information would understate calculated 

rates of off ending by particular subgroups of the 

population, distort trends over time among these same 

subgroups, and bias observed patterns of off ending to the 

extent that the rate of missing off ender data is associated 

with off ender characteristics. 
NOVEMBER 2011 35

PAT TERNS & TRENDS

To adjust for homicides with no off ender information, 

a method for off ender imputation was devised that uses 

available information about murder victims for which 

corresponding off ender information was provided as well 

as those with missing off ender information. Th rough this 

imputation algorithm, the demographic characteristics 

of unidentifi ed off enders were inferred on the basis of 

similar homicide cases—similar in terms of the victim’s 

demographic profi le, circumstances of the homicide such 

as felony or argument, location of the homicide (region 

and urban), gun involvement, and year of the off ense—

for which off ender data were provided. In other words, 

unknown off ender profi les were estimated based on the 

off ender profi les in off ender-known cases, matched on 

victim age, sex, and race; circumstances of the homicide; 

location of the homicide; gun involvement; and year. 

Off ender-based estimates in this report were imputed 

using this procedure. Other estimates in this report 

were based on homicides with known attributes, unless 

otherwise indicated. 

An estimated 30.8% of homicides involved an unknown 

number of off enders. For these homicides, the off ender 

imputation method conservatively assumed the number 

of off enders to be one, likely resulting in an undercount 

of the number of homicides involving multiple off enders.

All rates were calculated using the estimated number 

of homicide victims or off enders as the numerator and 

dividing by the U.S. resident population estimates for 

the appropriate groups or subgroups. Th is report used 

bridged-race population estimates developed by the 

National Center for Health Statistics and the U.S. Census 

Bureau. All rates were per 100,000 U.S. residents unless 

otherwise specifi ed.

Homicide victim/off ender relationships were calculated 

based on the attributes of the fi rst off ender in the incident 

record for which the relationship was known. Other 

estimates in this report were based on homicides with 

known attributes, unless otherwise indicated. 

Th e National Archive of Criminal Justice Data (NACJD) 

provided the data fi le analyzed in this report. Th e NACJD 

is available online at: www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/

NACJD.

To analyze these data online, please visit the NACJD Data 

Analysis System at: www.icpsr.umich.edu.

Related references

U.S. Census Bureau and National Center for Health 

Statistics. (2010). Postcensal Estimates of the Resident 

Population of the United States for July 1, 2000-July 

1, 2009, by Year, County, Age, Bridged Race, Hispanic 

Origin, and Sex (Vintage 2009) [Data fi le]. Retrieved 

from www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/bridged_race.htm

U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 

(1999). Bridging Gaps in Police Crime Data

(NCJ 176365). Retrieved from BJS website: www.bjs.gov/

index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=405

U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 

(1996). Child Victimizers: Violent O enders and  eir 

Victims (NCJ 153258). Retrieved from BJS website: 

www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=552

U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 

(2001). Policing and Homicide, 1976-98: Justi able 

Homicide of Felons by Police and Murder of Police by 

Felons (NCJ 180987). Retrieved from BJS website: 

www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=829

U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 

(1997). Trends in Juvenile Violence (NCJ 170379 & 

170377). Retrieved from BJS website: www.bjs.gov/index.

cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=1100

U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports [Data fi le]. 

Retrieved from FBI website: www.fb i.gov/about-us/cjis/

ucr/ucr

U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports Data Tool 

[Data tool]. Retrieved from www.ucrdatatool.gov

U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. 

(1997). A Study of Homicide in Eight U.S. Cities

(NCJ 167263). Retrieved from NIJ website: www.ncjrs.

gov/pdffi les/167263.pdf

University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research. 

National Archive of Criminal Justice Data [Data fi le]. 

Retrieved from www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/NACJD

University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research. 

National Archive of Criminal Justice Data Analysis System 

[Data tool]. Retrieved from www.icpsr.umich.edu
Office of Justice Programs • Innovation • Partnerships • Safer Neighborhoods • http://www.ojp.gov

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Washington, DC 20531

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use $300

NCJ236018 PRESORTED 

STANDARD

POSTAGE & FEES PAID

DOJ/BJS

Permit No. G-91

The Bureau of Justice Statistics is the statistical agency of the U.S. Department of 

Justice. James P. Lynch is the director.

This report was written by Alexia Cooper and Erica L. Smith. Ron Malega and 

Kyle Harbacek provided statistical review and verification of the report.

Morgan Young and Jill Thomas edited the report, Barbara Quinn and Tina Dorsey 

produced the report, and Jayne E. Robinson prepared the report for final printing 

under the supervision of Doris J. James.

November 2011, NCJ 236018

The full text of each report is available in PDF and ASCII formats on the BJS 

website at www.bjs.gov.  Tables are also available in PDF and CSV formats. Related 

datasets are made available on the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data 

website at http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/NACJD/index.jsp.