br- PARK SCIENCE 

A RESOURCE MANAGEMENT BULLETIN 

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

VOLUME 2 -NUMBER 2 WINTER 1982 
I 

PARK 

SCIENCE 

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 

WINTER 1982 

In This Issue 

Atlantic Rrdley Turtle Rerntroduced 

Feedback 

Research Notes 

Digital Cartography 

Management of Gray Squrrrels 

Apostle Islands Conference 

Controlling Dutch Elm Disease 

Pinpointing Interpretation Needs 

Parks as Islands 

lnfornration Crossfile 

Isle Royale Wolf Study 

Crater Lake Peregrines 

SupenntendenIs Corner 

Regional Highlights 

Mab Notes 

Photo Librarian Comes up with 

Mrssrng Names 

Park Animal Study Available 

Wilderness Research in Yosemite 

People Pressures Threaten Values 

of Wilderness 

Acid Ram Manual Readied 

Exotic Plants in Hawaii’s 

National Parks 

Management Workshops Slated 

Resource Management Ranks 

Due for Boost 

(page 3) 

(page 5) 

(page 5) 

(page 6) 

(page 8) 

(page 9) 

(page 10) 

(page 11) 

(page 11) 

(page 12) 

(page 13) 

(page 14) 

(page 14) 

(page 14) 

(page 15) 

(page 16) 

We 16) 

bw 16) 

bw 17) 

(Page 17) 

(page 18) 

(page 20) 

(page 20) 

Buckley Addresses Genetics Conference (page 20) Editorial Board: 

Daniel J. IJim) Tobin. Regional Director, and 

Coverphoto: Al/antic Ridley turtles tumble outofthek 

shells and into Padre Islandsand. (See story page 31. 

Donald R. Field, Asswiate Regional Director for Scia&e and Technology, Pacific Northwest Region; 

Roland C. Wauer, Chief, Natural Resources Management, and 

In The Next Issue: John Dennis, biologist, Washington Office; 

“Channel Island Monitoring of Living Marine Resources.” Gary Davis: “Gambusia Hang On at Big 

Ben,“Gerard Hoddenbach; “Tree Survivabilityandthe 

Urban Landscape, Philadelphia,“Paul Meyer and Ann 

Rhoads. 

Supt. William M. Lukens, Padre Island National Seashore, and 

Asst. Supt. Dale Et Engquist, Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. 

Jean Matthews, Editor: Oregon State University NPSICPSU, Room 126 Forestry Sciences Lab, 

3200 Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331 (503) 757.4579; 8-420-4579 

A report to park managers of recent and ongoing research in parks with emphasis on its 

implications for planning and management 

From the EdItor. 

In the interests of shortenrng, sharpenrng. causrng words to conform to edrtorial pol~ws regarding length, relevancv, etc.. Rav Herrmann’s Letter to the Editor (p. 5) now reads brrskly to the point made by James 6. Thompson I” 

thep~iorissue~theneedforasc~encelmanagementd~aloguethat wrlfworktowardsynthesisofthesehvoessential 

efforts on behalf of the National Park System. 

What fell under the edrtorial pencil were three paragraphs from the letter-paragraphs that seemed peripheral at 

the time of editing, but that in retrospect seem absolutely essenbal to the whole rationale for holding a dialogue in 

the first place. They are three paragraphs that deal with “information.’ 

Almost no one argues with the idea that decisions are best when they are infomwd. Take apart the word ‘information’ and you lind it has to do with the meanmg - the relevance -of something the observer discerns “in form.” 

Thus, the scientist discovers in the form of his subject matter certain meaningful in-form-ation that is relevant to 

management. The dialogue therefore, consists of communrcating and agreeing upon that relevancy. 

The shortest way to remedy what probably was an ill-advised excrsion of Herrmann’s letter IS srmply to restore 

those paragraphs,and here they are: 

“One miaht attemol usino modem orincioles. to answer the qu.est~onspei%eininqto tbe requfrements forswivaf 

of the black bear inihe G&t Smoki Mou&ains: but who can identify the larger requirements for the su~ival and 

natural successton of the diverse fauna and flora of the Great Smoky Mountains? 

“Preservation of the ‘naturalarea ‘requires active management of the total resource. Undersome pdstfne c&flions, it is best that an area be left completeiyalone, but when protective management is required It @l/be to a /esser degree than thatpractfcedon lands dedicated to commercial enterpdses. The problems of today are detennining whatmanagementpracticesareactuallynecessa~ whatmanagement toolsshouldbe utikzed, whatdegreeof 

management controlshould be exerted, and what timing is proper for management actIons. 

“We iack up-to-date research. As managers begin to employ ecosystem concepts which involveentirearenasof 

hypotheses, researchpdodt;esmustbeset to encompass thesenewdimenaons. Ournewperceptions havegiven 

us the ability to setpriontes and the direction to attempt to obtain answers. ’ 

Eve” in days of shrinking budgets-perhaps especially in such days-these paragraphs suggest alternative 

ways-to-go that deserve careful attention. 

RUSSELL E. DICKENSON. Director 

National Park Service 

US. Department of the fnterior 

Please address requests for information to appropriate Regional Chief Scientists: 

Anderson, William H. 

NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION 

1100 Ohro Drive, S.W. 

Washington, D.C. 20242 

8426.6660 (202) 426.6660 

Buckley, Paul A. 

NORTH ATLANTIC REGION 

15 State Street 

Boston, MA 02109 

8223.7765 (617) 223.7765 

Fenn, Dennis B. 

WESTERN REGION 

450 Golden Gate Avenue 

P.O. Box 36063 

San Francisco, CA 94102 

8.5564968 (415) 556.4968 

Larson, James W. 

PACIFIC NORTHWEST REGION 

Room 1920 Westin Building 

9001 Sixth Avenue 

SeaWe, WA98121 

8-399-4176 (206) 442.4176 

Fleet, Harvey 

Chief, Science Center 

DENVER SERVICE CENTER 

P.0. Box 25287 

Denver, CO 80225 

(303) 234.4527 

Fletcher, Milford F. 

SOUTHWEST REGION 

P.O. Box 728 

Santa Fe, NM 87501 

8476.6412 (505) 988.6412 

Gogue, G. Jay 

SOUTHEAST REGION 

75 Spring St. S.W. 

Atlanta, GA 30303 

8-242-3643 (404) 221-3643 

I Karfsh, John R. 

I MID ATLANTIC REGION 

Furoerson Blda.. Room 209-B 

_I~ 

Pennsylvania State University 

University Park, PA 16802 

8 (814) 865.7974 

Lovaas, Allan L. 

ALASKA REGION 

540 W. Fdth Avenue, Room 202 

Anchorage, AK 99501 

8 (907) 271.4212 

Reid, Nail J. (Jim) 

ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION 

P.0. BOX 25827 

Denver, CO 80225 

8-234-2764 (303) 234-2764 

Larson, Gary 

MIDWESTREGION 

1709 Jackson St 

Omaha, NE 68102 

8-864-3438 (402) 221-3438 

2 
Atlantic Ridley 

Turtle Reintroduced 

At Padre Island 

By Milford R. Fletcher 

The Atlantic Rldley Turtle(Lepidochelys kemp,) has 

long been recognized asan endangered species. possibly the most endangered of all sea tullles. Ii was formally listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

(USFWS) in 1970 as evidence accumulated showmg 

an alarmmgpopulaiion dec1ine.A 1947ftlm madefrom 

aircraft showed a nesting aggregation of approximately 40,000 females on an Isolated Mexican beach. 

Esbmates in the 1970s were conslderably less than 

this number, and by 1981 indwbons were that there 

may be no more than 1,000 individuals of this species 

on the planet earth. 

In 1977, a joint effort befween the Audubon Society, 

the State of Texas. the National Marine Fisheries 

Service, the USFWS, the U.S. Coast Guard and a 

number of other private, Stale and Federal agenaes, 

includmg the National Park Service and the Republic 

of Mexico, met to explore avenues to help this animal 

make a comeback. 

In meetings with the world’s leading tultle authorities it soon became evident that IiHle was known 

about the biology of the Atlantic Ridlay; obviously we 

were exploring new ground. However, ofhc~als of 

Mexico were eager to assist the tultle in its plight as 

were all contacted in the U.S.A. Thus, the Atlantic Ridley tullle restoration prolect began. 

We began with several assumptions that are yet to 

be tested in a satisfactory manner. Some of these 

were: 

1. It would be desirable to have a breeding population of the turtle in an area in the United Slates where 

they had been knownto nest in historlctimes. The logical area was Padre Island National Seashore (NS) in 

south Texas where the animal was known to nest m 

the past, although inlrequently. In addibon. the NPS 

would be able to afford $ome protection I” the event 

that a new breeding population became established. 

The animal IS parlicularly susceptible to predation by 

humans since it IS one of the few tutiles to lay its eggs 

during the daytime. 

2. Although the mechanism is unknown to us, even 

afferfour yearsof research, we believethat the turtles, 

in some way, imprint to the beach where they hatch 

and to which they return as adults to lay their eggs. We 

feel that this imprinting may be olfactory, as in salmon, 

which return to spawn in the stream where they 

hatched. 

3. Mortality of hatchling turtles isquite high in other 

species studled. We assumed this would be soforthe 

Atlantic Fbdleys as well. It appeared that mortality 

would be greatly decreased if we could release turlles 

somewhat largerthan hatchlings(whichareabaut 1% 

Inches in diameter.) Hatchlingturtlesareavidly sought 

by predators such as crabs and sea bwds; mortality of 

yearling tultles appears to be primarily by sharks. 

Also, the eggs are highly prized; adult turlles are used 

as meat and their shells for jewelry. 

With these things in mmd. we began the project 

Rather than enumerate the trustrabons, lost tempers, 

late permits, and other problemswefacedandsolved. 

I wtll outlme the stepswe nowgo through to raise aturtie to approximately one year of age. 

First, Styrofoam boxes are filled with sand from 

Padre Island and relocated to the only known nesting 

beach which, in the Mexican State of Tamuallpas, is 

called Ranch0 Nuevo. Wafeltthat lftheimpdnting process is oltactory, then the eggs should not be exposed 

to sand other than that from Padre Island. The tutile 

eggs are gathered in plastlc bags from a laying turtle. 

The eggs are then transferred to the boxesof Padre Island sand and flown to Padre Island where they are 

placed in an insect- and predator-proof hatching facilIty. They are Incubated in the Styrofoam boxes for approxtmately 50 days until they hatch. 

The haichlings then aretransported ashortdistance 

to an isolated beach where they are released and allowed to make their way down the beach and a short 

distance Into the surf This IS done to approximate the 

conditions that would exist 11 the animals actually had 

hatched on the Padre Island beach. As soon as they 

enter the surf, the young tultles are caught, placed in 

boxes, and flown to the National Marme Fisheries 

Service in Galveston, Texas. The U.S. Coast Guard 

has been most helpful in the transportation phase of 

this operation. The catching of the turtles in the surf is 

always attended by the news m&a and a host of vlsitars whoappeartoenjoy theactivitiwmmensely. The 

publicity has been favorable and thevisiting public has 

been vary supportive. The tultles are held at the laboratory in Galveston for approximately one year, during 

which time they reach dinner plate we. 

Because of a conflict between the turtles and 

theTexas shrimping industry the first two releases of 

yearling tultles were made off the west coast of 

Florida. Shrimp trawlersoperating off theTexas coast 

had frequently caught adult sea tudles, which subHafchling turtles be;ng released on Padre Island 

beach to make their way to the surf 

stantiallyinterfered withtheroperations. Recently,the 

National Marine Fisheries Service and the Texas Department of Parks and Wildlife. working with shrimping 

industry, has tested ~excluder nets” that allow shrimp 

but not sea turtles to enter. Because of the progress 

and thegoodfa!thevidenced~nth~seffort,yearllngturties were released in the spring of 1981 off Padre Island. The University of Texas Marine Station at Pod 

Aransas provided use of its research vessel for this release. 

To date, nearly 5,000 yearling turtles have been released in the Gulf of Mexico. Each turtle is tagged for 

identification purposes, in the event of future recovery 

Numerous turtles have been w-caught. tram the east 

coast ot Florida to Chesapeake Bay. The followlng 

table indicates the number of eggs received and 

hatching succass: 
Yeal 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

SUMMARY OF ATLANTIC RIDLEY TURTLE PROJECT 

Number of Eggs Hatching Percent NumberofHatchlings 

Received from Mexico at Padrelsland Released 

2191 88.1 2019 

2053 05.7 1439 

2976 84.1 1530 

2284 83.3 

The many unknowns that still exist in this project 

may influence our actions in the bture. For example, 

we are still not sure at what age these tultles reach 

sexual maturity Speculations range from 8 to 14 

years. We are far from we that the animals will return 

to Padre Island NS to nest and, if they do, whether we 

will be able to protect them. The Stale of Texas has an 

open beach law, andonevery popular pastime isdnv- 

~ng 4.wheel drive vehicles on the beach at Padre Island. It is conceivable that we may have to close the 

beach to vehicles for a period of two or three months, 

which is certain to cause some controversy, although 

1 

That’s enough for now, say these NPSemployees as 

they catch the halchl!ng and transfer if lo lhe Gaiveston-bound box. 

After their f&e of ocean, these hafchlings are on 

their way to /he Galveston laboratory for a year of 

gKl”“g up. 

the public has been very suppoltw? of the project to 

date. 

Research on Green and Pacific Ridley turtles indtcates that the temperature at whtch the eggs are mcubated greatly influences the sax of the hatchllngs. It 

appears that the early part of the mlddle third of Ihe incubation period is critical in determining the hatchlmgs‘ sex. If the temperature at this critical time exceeds 29.5 degrees Celsius (85 degrees F.), there 

seams to be a preponderance of females hatched. If 

thetemperature ~sless than29,5degreesCelsiusduring thls crillcal period, the preponderance of hatchlings wll be males. Sometime in the future, if this 

proves true of Atlantic Rldleys, we may decide to take 

advantage of this phenomenon. On the surface, it 

seems that adding females lo the weld population 

would be advantageous. but this must be approached 

withgreatcare sinceso littleisknown abautthe breeding biology of Atlantic Ridleys. In the wild, females 

seem to nest hvice each season with an average of 

about 100 eggs per clutch Males do not coma ashore 

during the breedlog season, so little isknown about 

their behavioral role in the breeding process. 

Outstanding cooperabon and support of numero”~ 

agenws and indiwduals has spelled the success so 

far of this project. Four National Park Service regional 

directors and three Padre Island supenntendents 

have staunchly suppo~edtheretntroductlon. Republic 

of Mexico offlclals and U.S. Federal. Slate and private 

arganizatlons have shown a splrlt of cooperailon that 

IS astonishing, with so many agencies involved. The 

Southwest Parks and Monuments Association has 

generously donated funds to suppori travel of officials 

from Mexico to the U.S.forstralegy meetings. Without 

the continuing support of all these organizallons, the 

project would have failed. 

Numerous agencies are commtited to continue this 

project but fundmg is always uncertain. indications are 

that the NatIonal Marine Fisheries Service may undergo budget cuts which could reduce the ‘head star? 

program.TheUSFWSandNPSareundertlght budget 

constraints which also could affect the program. Ultimately, our objective is to reintroduce enoughturtlesto 

establish another breeding population of the animals 

and provide another habitat in which they can breed 

and reproduce. 

Dinnerplate size, lhese year-old Atlanlfct3dley turfiesare now big enough. rla hoped, to keep from wmdingupas 

the ma,” cowse on some iarger ciiners dwxrplale. Here they are releasedi” the wild. 

4 
feedback 

(Letters may be siightly t-d&d to fit space requremenls.) 

To the Editor: 

I very much enjoyed the arlicle by Jim Thompson in the Fall issue of ParkScience, 

and it stirred me to rummage around for some thoughts I had been moved towrite on 

thesamesubject. I beganto set down thesethoughtsaboutthe bmeihe National Enwonmental Policy Act (NEPA) presented science and management with a whole 

new set of demands. My ideas may be encapsulated by the title “From Wildlife to 

Ecosystem Management.” 

New interests and new knowledge require that managers respond to new pressures and new kinds of problems, previously unsuspected and not readily solvable 

by old methods (viz., encroaching exotic species, changing habitats due to low level 

pollulants. the effects of global pollutants. the need to better understand the processesolnatural change, natural succession, andsoforth.) Inthelnterestsofcontinuing 

Jim Thompson’s proposal that we maintain a science/management dialogue, here 

are my observations. 

Five subject areas bear directly upon our understanding of preserved land management. They are 1) parks as preserves, with the attendant question as to whether 

a park can be treated as an isolated preserve; 2) the maintenance of species diversity; 3) the required representation and classification of preserve lands; 4) the protectionof humanklndanditsenvironment(What istheaccepfablemanagementblendof 

socio-economic and blological concerns?); and 5) the employment of ecosystem 

management-the integrated approach to management or non-management of the 

total park environment. 

Many of the crucial issues are only partially understood, given today’s state of 

knowledge. Such questions as habitat requirements for rare and endangered or 

unique species, control of nuisance and destructive exotics, Indicator species, 

habitat degradation or modification, the effects of air and water pollution (both shortand long-term), reswrces carrying capacity, boundary pressures, visitor pressuresthe fact that we are even aware of these questions is due to research. If we want 

answers, then we must do more research. 

The performance of resouce management functions reqwes some minimal data 

base, usually acquired withverylimited funding and on extremelyshortnotice. A helter skelter response to unheeded problems that are suddenly presenling overdue 

bills does no1 meet the requirements placed upon us as a Service to protectthe System with which we have been entrusted. Constraints placed on researchers by time, 

budget and an emphasis that urgency dictates shall be mostly managementortented, is not conducive to the kind of professional research that our mission requires. Solutions that are predetermmed by the hurry-up nature of the research are 

to&often the outcome. 

The mdependence needed by research personnel is not well understood by management, probably because managers and scientists have such inherently different 

functions, operations, and goals. The qualities that go into making for excellence in 

an mquirmg scienbst are almost diametncally opposed to those that make for asuccessful manager. The association of these two fields could almost ba viewed as a 

preordained arena for conflict. The saentist, doggedly determined to do his job. 

often comes through as uncompromising, arrogant, apolitical, dogmatic-attributes 

not generally admlred by management. 

So what can we do to solve this dilemma? Probably facing up to it is the most important first step. Beyond that, there are a number of solutions we might try. I agree 

with Jim Thompsonthat regular communication between research and management 

~samust. I suggest regularly scheduled meetingsforthepresentationof research results, discussion of current problems, and the developing and planning of cooperative efforts for acquiring the information that both management and science can 

agree is needed. 

Out of such meetings should come 1) a management commitment to acquiring the 

best quality data, through research, to serve operational and planning needs; 2) the 

development of a research program commitment to prowde timely management 

alternat~vesand thedataforsolutlonofchronicproblems;3)thecapability torespond 

to emergency requests; 4) the development of a long-term research program aimed 

at solving future problematic needs before they become present crises; and 5) a 

mutually acceptable process for evaluating and updating ongoing resources management activities relative to data supplied by the research program. 

Today’s ecosystem managers are called upon to deal with complex and esoteric 

questions,theanswersta which, in truth. may not beavailable. We havejustbegunto 

work on the Gordian Knot. Ambiguities resulting from natural systems studies often 

contribute to complicated problems for managers of preserved lands. Social, technological, physical, and biological variables, whenviewedasinteracting, havecause 

and effect relationships whlchInfluencetheratlonaleof natvralresourcestudies,and 

which have ramifications for new posslbillties for planning and programming. Camplacated solutions often are indicated, and the preserve manager is the integrator. 

I hope that what I am saying is a recognition that management’s job is not an easy 

one. I have admitted to the qualibes of scientists fhat tend to make it an even more 

pnckly affair. But I seegreat benelitsifwecan come to recognizeeachother’snecessarv input into the preservation of our resource base, and I see areat hope that such 

re&gr&n is dawning -on both sides. 

_ 

Rav Hermann. Chief 

NPS Water Resources Lab 

107-C Natural Resources 

Colorado State University 

Fort Collins, CO 80523 

research 

notes 

NPS managers and scientists, as well as planners 

and interpreters. may be interested in obtatning a copy 

of Testimony on Acid Rain: Its Causes and Consequences in the Environment, presented to the 

House of Representatives Subcommittee on Health 

and the Enwnment in Washington. D.C., during an 

October 2, 1981 hearing on Congressional reaulhorization of the Clean Air Act. Hs author, Ellis B. Cowling, 

IS chairman of the Nabonal Atmospheric Deposition 

Program. This mimeographed document contains 

background descriptions of the acid rain phenomenon 

and references on the changing chemistry of atmospheric deposition and iis effects on terrestrial and 

aquatic ecosystems, human health, and materials. It 

also includes Dr. Cowling’s recommendations to the 

Congress on a proposed natlonal acid deposition 

management plan. Copies of this memo are avatlable 

from Jim Wood, Natural Science and Research Dlvision, SERO, 75 Spring St., S.W.. Atlanta, GA 30303. 

NPS-SER Research/Resources Management Report No. 33, Reports on Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Vascular Plants: Discussion and Guide 

lines, authored by botanist Peter S. White at Great 

Smoky Mountains National Park, IS now available. 

White’s publication dwusses problems associated 

with the determlnatlon of species rarity and endangerment, and proposesguidelines toassist NPSfield personnel in their efforts to classify the rare or endangered plant in a systematic way. Copies may be 

had from White at Uplands Field Research Laboratory, 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Twin Creeks 

Area, Gatlingburg, TN 37738. 

# 

Black Bear-Human Interactions in Yosemite National Park, 1978-1980, by Bruce C. Hastings and 

Barrie K. Gilbert of the WildlIfe Science Department. 

Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, is available 

from the NPS Western Regional Office in San Francisco. The two major problem areas studied were (1) 

human-bear mterac0ons examined largely through 

observatIonal and interviewing approaches, and (2) 

aversive condltloning. studted experlmentally. More 

than 35,000 responses of bears and humans to 2,800 

encounters were recorded, and detailed results are 

presented in Hastings’1981 Master of Sciencethesis. 

5 

Biomass of Coniferous Understory Trees in Crater Lake National Park, Oregon IS the title of 

Cooperative Park Studies Uni6Unwersity of Washington Bulletin No. 82-1, published Fall 1981 and written 

by James K. Agee. The 29.page report investigates 

the biomass of five common understory trees in southern Oregon, with two study objectives: to determine 

biomass of several species by diameter size classes. 

and to relate the measured biomass values to easily 

measured tree characteristics. 

# 

Impacts of Backcountly Recreation: Site Management and Rehabilitation -An Annotated Bibliographyisihetltleof GeneralTechnical ReportINT121, compiled by David N. Cole, U.S. Forest Service, 

and Edward G.S. Schwner, biologist, Olympic NP, 

published September 1981 by the Intermountain 

Forest and Range Experiment Station, USFS. 

Over 300 references on recreational impacts, impact management, and rehabilitatlonof impacted sites 

are briefly reviewed and their implications for backcountry management are assessed. About 75 percent 

01 the referenced materials are on file in the park. 

Schreiner can be contacted at (FTS) 396.4244 or 

(Comm) (206) 452.4501. 
Digital Cartography at the Denver Service Center 

Editor’s Note: In fhe May ;ssue of Park Snence 

Maury Nyqurst introduced readers to the Natural Resources Information System (NRIS) that he and his 

colleague, Harfey Reef, are building at the Denver 

Serwe Center. In response to requests for additional 

detab DC Fleet has provided the followmg descuption 

of his actfvfty in dig&t cartographic information management, work that forms an integral half of the NRIS. 

Fleet is Chief, Branch of Science, at the Denver Serv 

tee Center. 

By Harvey Fleet 

I have long been convinced of the immense value of 

maps as communicators of information. They are the 

only medium I know that at once conveys both spatial 

(= geographic) and thematic (= substantive) information. To the investigator interesled in relationships and 

synthesis. their immense utility is severely hampered, 

however, by their static nature: the data they contain 

are neither manipulable, analyzable, nor synthwzable; they may not be readily available orreproducible; 

and they are almost never easy to revise (with more 

current or correct iniormatlon), particularly where 

propagation of the revised data is desired. The techniques - or more properly, the technology-of digital 

cartography and digital cartographic information management overcome these deficiencies, although I 

would be the first toacknowledgethatthey introducea 

new, unique set of their own. But as I will describe 

here, these shortcomings are being overcome. 

Digital cartography IS not new to the Park Service. 

Activities during the ’70s involved effolls in the Great 

Smokies, Yosemite, Delaware Water Gap, and John 

D. Rockefeller Parkway to build and use digital caltographic data bases. For a variety of reasons I described in a paper in the Proceedings of the Second 

Conference of Research in National Parks these efforts were not very successful. My own work started 

about three years ago when I learned of the system 

and capabilities being developed by the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Serwe’s Western Energy and Land Use 

Team (WELUT) in Fort Collins, Colorado. Since the 

early ’70s WELUT has had a full-scale commitment 

(as has the Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management) to the development and utilization of contemporary techniques for managing and analyzing information. It is principally these techniques that I have 

adopted and adapted for use as pail of the NRIS 

Digital Cartography 

Not Remote Sensing 

Digital cartography IS not remote sensing. As in the 

bassoon and oboe. both of which use double reeds, 

there is a familial relationship, but each producesquite 

different results (sounds) from the other. Similarly, remotesensing anddigifalcartography both handledigilal data, but, like the bassoon and the oboe, each produces quite different results: remote sensing gathers 

information, while digital callography manages and 

manipulates It (and not all-or any-of it necessarily 

from remotely sensed sources). Although both deal 

with digital data, remote sensing handles digital multispectral data; digital cartography handles digital cartographic data. In the NRIS we are attempting to exploit the common blood between these two technolog1es. 

I conceive of digital cartography as consisting of 

three distinct but essential components: data entry, 

data analysis and management, and production of 

output. 

Each component has its own hardware and so% 

ware requirements. The oldtools and techniques, with 

REMOTE SENSING GATHERS INFORMATION, 

DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHY MANAGES, ANALYZES AND DISPLAYS IT 

REMOTE 

SENSING 

~~waphs, 4 

Analog Images 

DIGITAL 

CARTOGRAPHY 

4-- ” r; ;: :: 

6 

which somany peoplearecomfortable, havevery little 

place in digital cartography. Felt tip pens, draffing 

tools, lettering sets, and writing implements are out; 

CRT’s (cathode ray tubes),’ digitizing tablets, computers, computer program (= software), disc and tape 

storage devices, and plotters are in. Before afunctioning digital caltographic information management system can be established, the front end commitment is 

heavy: each of the three components-entry analysis 

and management, and output-must be carefully and 

accurately installed. Failure of any one will cause failure of all. 

Data Entry Capability 

Our data entry capabllity consists of Tales and Tektronixdigitizingtablets, aTektronix4054GraphicsDisplay Computer, and MAPDRAW, a sophisticated 

package for compiling line segments, or “arcs,’ into 

finished mapflies. (An arc is a node-to-node line.) The 

digitizing tablets transform the mapped information 

into digital form. lists of X,Y points in an KY plane. 

Using homemade software, we capture these data on 

the tape cartridge in the 4054 and then sh!p them over 

to a powerful mainframe machine (a CDC CYBER 

730) that we timeshare at the Bureau of Reclamation. 

After an appropriate format transformation we use 

MAPDRAW to compile each line segment, or arc, one 

by one, into meaningful polygons or lines. The resulting ~draft” mapfile is checked for digitizing errors and 

corrected. The finlshed mapfile is then ready for 

analysis. 

‘How long does this process take?” The task time is 

dependent on the complexity of the map to be digitized. The number of line segments. or arcs, determines the labor involved. The relationship is cuwilinear or even logarithmic: as the number of arcs to be 

digitized goes up, the time-todigitize each arc also increases. The following rule-of-thumb can serve as a 

general guide to the total time required for this process: 30 to 40 seconds of digibzlng per arc for a map 

contaimng several hundred arcs to 2 to 3 minutes per 

arc for a map containing several thousands of arcs. 

Other Data Input Considerations. 

No single issue I” the whole of the process of digital 

cartographic inform&on management IS more important than quality of the data base. Should the data be 

inaccurate, imprecise, misregistered, inadequate in 

resolution, or s~nlply Irrelevant to the questions at 

hand, the entire process will fail. Investigators will 

quicklydiscard asystemwhichyieldsunfruitful results. 

So no eflorl must be spared in deciding which data 

themes to enter into the system, the precise content of 

those themes, the resolution of the data elements. the 

digital data density desired, the organization of 

themes into mapfiles. subjects, and categories, and 

the geographic regstration of the mapcomponents, if 

any. The computer is utterly indifferent to deficienctes 

in any of these items, and, unltke a human analyst or 

draftsperson, WIII not make Oadjustments’ for deviations in reglstratlon. duplication of data, or data voids. 

Beware: what you put in is what you get out! 

Analysis Described 

Having built the mapflle, the Investigator can begin 

lo use it to answer questions and discover relationships. The questions one can ask and the answers 

one can obtain deoend on three critical factors: the 
THE THREE PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF DIGITAL CARTOGRAPHY 

quality of the data base (as dtscussed above), the 

capability of the software used in analyzing at, and the 

capabilities of the hardware on which the software wlil 

run. In Denver we have two very powerful, analytical 

software packages available. They are MOSS (Map 

Overlay and Statistical System) and SAGIS (Systems 

Application Group Information System). Important 

capabilities of these systems include: displaying plots 

on the graphics screen; shading plots: merging maps; 

overlaying polygon sets (I& flnding polygon intersections); performIng proximdy searches; generat!ng 

walers around lines, points, or polygons; finding contiguous edges; calculating distances and lengths of 

,ines; windowing and blowing up; cornpositing (arithmetic and @Cal); searching by we criteria; palygonlo-cell conversion; calculating areas and other stalisiI tics; generating acontourmapfrom agrldsutiace: and / I locating UTM coordinates of any point on the display 

%WSl. 

One more important pomt: MOSS and SAGIS, unIke manypackagesforanalyzing geographicinforma- 

: ’ ion, can perform their analyses on polygons or lines, 

wtjust on cells.Thechd benefit of thismethodisprewan: calculations are performed on data sets that 

nest faithfully conform lo reality. A line WIII be a line, a 

)olygon a polygon, rather than an approximate collecion of like cells. 01 course, one must pay the price for 

uch power. Compared lo cellular computations, the 

:alculations for polygonal data are more complex, relure more computer processing, and, If one IS timeFeel free to write or phone me for a complete list of 

capabilltles. MOSS and SAGIS are products of the 

Fish and Wildlife Service’s WELUT group and are still 

under development. I estimate the packages represenl between $1 and $2 million dollars worth of effort. 

Like many of you, I am aware of the many powerful 

geographic information systems in addition to MOSS 

and SAGIS. Why did we choose these? Because: 

(1) acquiring them involved nofront-end expenditures 

(uptotensofthousandsof dollars; the packagesarein 

the public domain); (2) the systems are operating on 

hardwareaccesslbletous(aControl DataCorporation 

CYBER-730, operated by the Bureau of Reclamation); 

and (3) they work. 

MOSS and SAGIS are Polygonal. 

sharing, they cost more. The benefits of this method, 

however, make the price well worth paying. 

Output Hardware. 

Of course, all these good things going on in the 

machine areof now? unlessonecanvlewtheresults. 

The workhorse of the output end is the graphics dlsplay screen - m our case elther a Tektronix 4054 

Graphics Desktop Computer or a Tektronix 4014 

Graphics Display Terminal. These relatively largescreen monochromedevices (l$diagonal) havevery 

high resolution dlsplayscreens(4096x4096 addressable points). Forcomplexcatiographicdata, thisresolutlon IS essential. Any Plot-10 compatible device can 

be driven by MOSS or SAGIS. 

Instructions are issued from the keyboard of the 

4054 or 4014 to the host computer, and results (varlous kinds of plots, with shading and labeling, if desired) are drawn on the screen for inspection. A working copy of the screen contents can be made, if 

desired. 

For more formal purposes, we have three available 

plotters: a Teklronix, a Xynetics, and a Gerber. We are 

just now bringlngourownTektronix into full production 

as our primary plotling device. We are using it 1o produce high quality plots of the material generated by 

MOSS and SAGIS. Various line thicknesses, line 

styles. and ink colors, coupled with the 4054s capability to store MOSS plots oft-line. yields enoonous flexibllity in the scale, style, format, and content of maps. 

The Tektronix IS restricted to a plotting surface no 

larger than 22.75 1”. x 17.5 in. (one USGSquadsheei), 

so for larger plots we either piece together the smaller 

sections or use the Xyneticsor Gerber flatbed plotters. 

The Xynetics is compatible with SAGIS mapflIes; so 

far we have used thls device only for proofing MAPDRAW mapflIes (MAPDRAW is a SAGIS package). 

The Gerber plotter IS operated by the USGS’s 

Rocky Mountain Mappmg Center. This very high 

speed, high precision machlneproducesplotsuptoalmost fivefeetwde bytenfeet long! Usmgourownconversion software, wedwe It with output from MOSS. 

ltsprinclpal useforusnowisproducingsingle-piece 

plots of large maps. In the future wewould like touseit 

to produce, with its llghl pen or scribing point 

capabilities, color separation plates for four-color 

7 

printing. For now we are concentrating on exploiting 

the full range of capabilitles of our Tektronix plotter, 

which IS much cheaper and easier for us to run. 

Exciting Developments. 

Several exciting developments have recently appeared on our horizon. We are exploring the possibilibes of aulomated digitizing with the Geological 

Survey. Using an elaborate. and expensive, insirumenl (originally deslgned for scanning wallpaper designs), the Survey WIII Iry digitizing some of our maps 

as pati of its research program into this technique. If 

we can use the Survey’s software for automatically 

complling the digitized arcs Into polygons, the technique will eliminate perhaps as much as 80 percent of 

the trne and expense of our current data entry procedure. 

Also, NASA is loaning us use of a V&n minicomputer system, principally for multlspectral analysis. 

Putting MOSS up on this machine, if possible. would 

eliminate our complete dependence on the CYBER 

mainframelordigitalcadography. Inaddition, if ware 

able lo blend its ELAS software (for classdying and 

manipulating multispectral data) with MOSS’s poly 

gonalcapabllities,wecould haveoneofthe most powerful packages for collecting, managing, analyzing, 

and displaying geographic information in the natlon. 

This will not be an easy task, and we do not expect immediate success. 

Lastly, I am attempting to we a very powerful inleractwe graphics library into MOSS (and, possibly, 

SAGIS). This rewton should vastly expand the 

capabilities of our Tektronix plotter. 

We are just beginning to show applications of the 

capabilibes I have descrlbed. For most, I nol allofyou, 

this IS what ll’s all about-and rightfully so. The Park 

Service has no place fortechnologylor technology’s 

sake alone. Unless these tools can be shown to help 

usmanageourresourcesbener,wedonot needthem. 

Developmg this program has been an immensely 

challenging, frustrating, exhausting, and rewarding 

activity, and it is with great excitement that I look forward 10 harnewng for management the tremendous 

potential of this technology. 
Management of Gray Squirrels and People 

In a Downtown National Park 

By David A. Manski 

Wtldllfe in urban areas are often mixed blessings to 

park management. On the one hand, they present 

many educational and recreational opportunities because of their high wbilityand habituation to man. Yet 

fhese same species also can damage park vegetation 

and structures and may even be health hazards lo the 

visitor. Unfortunately, practical strategies to encourage or discourage wildlife in cities are not widely available AddItionally, thefactorsthatcanaffecldowntawn 

wildlife programs and policies are not well known lo 

urban land managers. 

This lack of inlormation became apparent to the 

managers of Lafayette Park, a national park in downtown Washington, DC., after unsuccessful attempts 

had been made to resolve a gray squirrel problem. For 

a number of years gray squirrels at the park had damaged vegetabon. While economic losses were important, the aesthetic decline of the park vegetahon was 

01 almost concern. since many people wt the park for 

its hIstorical significance and proximity lo the White 

House. In the past, squirrels were relocated to areas 

outside the city with the goal of reducing the damage. 

However this relocation program eventually was 

halted because of adverse criticism from local citizens 

and animal protection groups and the subsequent 

news coverage. 

In an effolt to help resolve this problem, the University of Maryland and State University of New York, 

Syracuse, jomed forces with the NPS Ecological Sew 

ices Lab in D.C. to investigate the activities and pop 

ulation dynamics of the park squirrels. This arbcle 

summarizes our initial results lrom March-November 

1980, and discusses some of the social and biological 

constraints governing urban squirrel management. 

Lafayette Park is an 8.2 acre park across Pennsylvania Avenue from the White House. Sidewalks 

around the perimeter and in the park compnse 34 peicent of the area, while nearly 50 percent of the park is 

manlcured turf and a few flower beds. The 191 trees 

and shrubs rn the park consist of 30 native and exotic 

spews such as willow oak, American elm, magnolia, 

glngko and horsechestnut. 

Using the largest number of squirrels seen and recorded during counts withln a month, the squirrel density at Lafayette Park ranged from 9 squirrelslacre in 

March to 20 squirrels/acre I” November. These gray 

squirrel densities are the highest reported in the literature, probablyasa result01 thetremendousquantityaf 

food distributed to the squirrels by the public and the 

large number of altificial squirrel nest boxes in the 

park. 

Despite diverse types of human activity in and 

around Lafayette Park (joggers, police sirens, demonstrations, etc.) there was no apparent difference in the 

squirrels’ actnity patterns from those reported in more 

natural areas. During spring and summer, squrrels 

were most active in the early morning and late afternoon, resting during midday. In the lall, peaks of 

actwlty were mcreasingly moved toward midday. 

No previous studies of gray squrrrel food habits re 

waled a population as dependent on foods obtatned 

from the public, referred to as supplemental food. as 

the Lafayette Park squrrels. Peanuts, a supplemental 

load, were the most important food between March 

and November, comprising 35 percent of all items 

eaten. Other supplemental foods included English 

walnuts, chicken bones, oak acorns, and peach pits. 

However, none of these and the other 26 different 

items eaten by the squirrels dung this perlod accounted for more than 4 percent of the diet. 

All four streets bordering Lafayette Park were 

crossed by gray squirrels. Movements to and from the 

park appeared to be of two types. Most commonly 

squirrels living adjacent to Lafayette Park entered the 

park for daily use of its rasourcas, such as to obtain 

peanuts. The other kind of movement seemed related 

to the dispersal or emigration of squirrels from surrounding areas. 

Squirrels were responsible for some of the damage 

to park vegetation between April and November. After 

leaf emergence, squrrels constantly pruned trees in 

order to construct and malnlarn the large number of 

leaf nests in the park. Consequently, many park trees 

showed visible signs of stress. such as defoliated 

crowns and sparse canopies. Squirrels also damaged 

trees by gnawrng on bark. Damage to tulips and 

geraniums was not as severa as reported in past 

years. 

One of the most important rnteradions between 

park wtors and the squirrels, was public feeding. We 

differentiated between two types of people that fed 

squirrels, using the analogy of “zoo visItor” and “zoo 

keeper’todescribethem. ~Zoov~~ttors’werecommuta 

ers or tourists who forluitously fed squirrels. They us”- 

ally only fed squirrels that moved near them and typltally watched the squirrels eat the food thrown to 

them. ContrastIngly, the %o keepers” routinely visited the park specifically lo feed the squirrels. They 

placed foodthroughout the park, whetherornotsquirrels werevisible and usuallydidnot watchthesquirrels 

eat. We documented at least SIX lndlviduals who fit the 

“zoo keeper” category Approximately 90 percent of 

the squirrels’ supplemental food was attributed to 

these six people 

Two “LOO keepers” activities merit description, to 

~Ilustrate the tremendous commitment of these people 

toward the park squirrels. These two distributed food 

at least six days a week in the winter and five days a 

week during other seasons. During warmer months 

they placed a total of nearly eight pounds of raw 

peanuts in the park each visit, and during the winter, 

they doubled this amount. Thusovera year,thesehvo 

‘zoo keepers”togetherdistributed nearly3000pounds 

of peanuts for the squrrels. At the July 1980. 

wholesale cost of peanuts, each “zoo keeper” spent 

$855.00 on the park squirrels. 

Peanuts distributed in the park for squirrels were 

generally in surplus and were consumed by other park 

wildlife. For example, in July and August, pigeons and 

common grackles ate approximately 20 percent of the 

peanuts intended for squirrels. Rats also have been 

observed eating peanuts put out for squirrels. Thus 

park “zoo keepers” not only supported squirrels but 

also some species considered pests in urban areas. 

Most peopleustngtheparkdid notcomespecifically 

to seethesqu~rrels. Nevertheless, afterarriwng, many 

of these people photographed the squirrels and enjoyed their presence. It was our impression that when 

squirrels were active and wsible in the park they were 

the third most popular sight afterthe White Houseand 

park statues. 

Management Implications 

Based on these and other results, we can assume 

several factors that can influence management effolts 

to malntw a healthy park. Reducing the number of 

park squirrels is one strategy that may help minimize 

damage to vegetation. However, removal of park 

squirrels will have no lasting effect on lowermy the 

htgh squirrel densrty. Conbnual reproduction by the remaining squirrels and movement of squirrels into the 

park from adjacent areas, eventually will Increase the 

populatton to the carrying capacity of the park. The 

carrying capacity at Lafayette Park is higher for gray 

squirrels than in other similar wed areas because of 

the large quanbty 01 supplemental foods. For removal 

alone to be effective, acontinulng effort would haveto 

be carrred out at least twice a year. A more efficient 

and long lastlng method would be stmultaneous r2- 

moval of squirrels and reduction 01 supplemental 

foods. 

Prohibition of publrc feeding in the park would lower 

the park carrying capacity for squrrels, rats and 

plgeons, but also probably would cause an Initial increase in squirrel damage to park vegetabon. Sudden 

elimination of peanuts mtght cause squirrels to compensate for the absence of this food by feeding on 

trees, shrubs and flowers. Park visitors who feed 
squirrels for enjoyment would be denied an important 

component of their park experience. This policy also 

would be very difficult lo enforce. 

The keen interest and concern for the squirrels by 

some of the public may at times interfere with other !nterests in the park. Programs perceived as harmful to 

sqwels, such as relocation and prohibition of public 

feeding, would be intensely opposed if not legallychallenged. Thus park management should be aware that 

strategies to reduce squirrel-park conflicts will be 

continually scrutmizec by the public and may prove 

difficult to implement. 

At this point in our study, the following management 

approaches seem to hold the most promise for reducing future damage to park vegetation, improving re 

lationships behveen park management and the public, 

and enhancing a healthy park ecosystem: 

1. Since damage to park vegetation rather than the 

presence of squirrels is the major concern, the greatest effort should be dlrected at minimizing damage. 

This may be accomplished by not planling cerlain 

flowers, such as geraniums, known to be damaged by 

squirrels. Effortsalso can be made to spray repellents 

on flowers to dwourage their use by squirrels. Preliminary results at the park suggest that a mixture of 

hot chili sauce, water and a sticking agent IS sometimes effective in reducing flower damage. Metal 

guards can beplacedaroundthetrunksof theisolated 

trees to prevent squirrel movements intothe branches 

where most bark and twig damage occurs. 

2. Efforts should be initiated to reduce the surplus 

peanuts in the park. This might be accomplished by 

meeting with those zoo keepers who dally feed sqwrels large quantltlas of peanuts and informing them 

thatdistrlbutionof peanutsonly whensquirrelsarevisible and at least one hour before sunset will mcwase 

the probability that they will be eaten by squirrels and 

not by other animals. Waste also would be reduced if 

squirrels were fed individually, rather than by placing 

food at the base of trees. These efforts not only could 

reduce the amount of food available lo rats and pigeons, but also would save the squirrel benefactors’ 

money. 

3. A tong range management goal of the park 

could betoenhance wildlife habitat.Treesthatareval- 

“able to squirrels as well as park aesthetics should be 

planted. so that in the future they could possibly replace peanuts as important squirrel food. A smaller 

number of squirrel nest boxeswould be required in the 

park, if dead tree limbs that contain cavities ware 

routinely cut or pruned only if dangerousto the public. 

4. If vegetation damage continues and management decides to reduce squirrel numbers, euthanizing 

the removed animals should be considered. This 

would be we humane than releasing them into 

areas, where they may have lknle chance for suwival. 

Bark damage on beech tree in Lafayette Park, caused by squirrels gnawing and sometimes eating the moist, 

spongy, lwsety cellular cambrum on bolh the inner bark and exposed wood of stripped trees. 

9 

However, regardless of how ‘humane” this may be, 

squirrel benefactorsandothets may criticizetheSew 

ice severely for killing squirrels. Whenever squirrels 

are removed, there must be a concurrent reduction of 

supplemental foods. 

5. Because squirrels are of great interest and concern to the public and park management, the development of an interpretive program at the parkwould beof 

value. Brochures and/or bulletin boards could present 

information on the park squirrels’ habits and how they 

compare to squirrels in more natural areas. The best 

lime of the day in each season in which to observe. 

photograph andfeedthesquirrelscouldbediscussed. 

People also could be informed of the safe, proper 

ways of feeding squirrels, and the role of public feeding in the parkecosystem. Parkmanagerscouldvoice 

thev concerns about past and future squirrel prob 

lems, as well as promote their efforts to improve park 

conditions for the squirrels. These actions would help 

demonstrate to thepublicthattheparkmanagement is 

concerned with squirrels not only as pests, but as a 

valuable park rasource. 

Manski is a Park Technician/Utian Wildlife at the 

Eco/ogica/ Services Lab, National Capital Region. 

This article is taken from a paper by Manski, L. W Van 

Oruh: and V. Flyger, presentedat the46th Noflh Amer. 

ican Wi/d/ife and Natural Resources Conference in 

March 1981 and now available in Transactions of the 

Conference, Vol. 46, pp. 439-454, 1981. 

Apostle Islands 

Conference Held 

By Merry11 Bailey 

On November 6, 1961, the Apostle Islands National 

Lakeshore hosted its Third Annual Research Conference at Park Headquarters in Bayfield, Wisconsin. 

The general areas of research investigations cwered 

by this ye& reports were: environmental hIstory and 

ecological surveys; water resources; archeologIcal 

and historical research; background studies for park 

planning and development. 

The meeting gave professionals as diverse as Soil 

scientists, fisheries biologists, plant ecologists and 

cultural geographersthechancetoexchangeinformalion on their Apostle Islands research projects. It also 

affordedanopporiunityfor interestedarearesidentsto 

learn what the current and future research and devalopment plans are for the park. 

From a total of 16 research papers presented at the 

conference, such varied subjects as OForest History of 

the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore based on Pollen and Charcoal Analysts,’ “Electra-fishing Survey of 

Several Apostle Islands Shorelines, 1981,’ ‘Contexl 

and Background for Early Agriculture on the Apostle 

Islands” and “Social Cartying Capacity at Apostle Islands National Lakeshore” generated particular Interest. 

Some 63 registrants represented a cross section of 

academia and the general public. Press andtelevision 

coverage was provided by local papers and Station 

WDIO, Duluth. Supt. Pat H. Miller, Regional Chief Scientist Gary Larson and Regional Chief Historian Andy 

Ketterson welcomed conferees. 

Plans are to abstract and publish the conference 

papers. The publication will be available through the 

park and the Midwest RegIonal Ofbce. 

Mr Bailey is an EC&gist at Apostie /s/and National 

Lakeshore. 
Science and Management Work Together 

In Controlling Dutch Elm Disease in NCR 

More than 3000 elms have long played a significant 

role in lending grace and conlinulty to the federal core 

of our Nation’s Capital. The American elm Ulmus 

americana, the predominant spews, was selected 

undoubtedly because of its “n~que archmg habit. its 

rapid growlh, and its toleranceof u&n stress. Unfortunately, m addition toils many goodqual~ties. theelm 

IS susceptible to Dutch elm disease (DED). a vascular 

wilt disorder caused by the lungus Ceratocyst~s u/m!. 

The first case of DED in Washington. D.C. was recorded on the grounds of the Lincoln Memorial in 1947 

by Horace V. Water of the National Capital Region 

(NCR). Although many elms have succumbed to the 

disease since then. yearly losses have been kept 

below 3 percent which indicates a good management 

program. In communities where little or no DED control has been exercised, elm populatwxns were decimated shortly after the onset ot the dwase. 

By James L. Sherald and Richard S. Hammerschlag 

Successful DED management in NCR is credited to 

an evolving integrated management program coordinated by NCRs Ecological Services Laboratory 

(ESL). The ESL provides a link between technology 

and management through literature review, contact 

and cooperation with researchers and other profess~onals, resource monitoring, training, and applied research. All of these avenues are being used by the 

ESL in directing DED management m NCR. 

In Washington, D.C., DED is spread almost exclusively by the European elm bark beetle, Scolyi”s 

mulfistratus. The beetle is attracted to stressed and 

dying elms where It lays 11s eggs beneath the bark. 

Smce dying elms are often infected wth DED. beetles 

emerging from these trees are covered with fungal 

spores. In the process of feedIng in twig crotches of 

healthy elms, beetles Introduce these spores into the 

tree’s water conducting tissues initiating new infecAmerican elm tree branches are lopped& near fhe Jefferson Memorial NI Washington. D C as the fnf sfep n 

deslroying Ihe lree. infecled wfh Dutch e/m disease USDA Photo 

10 

tions. Disease control relies primarily on reducing the 

beetle population through sanitation, which involves 

scouting, detection, and rapid destruction of brood 

trees. 

Monitoring trees for DED symptoms and beetle 

broods is a joint responsibility of tree maintenance 

workers and the ESL pathologist. Tree workers, who 

are trained by ESL staff in disease detection and management, scout the elm population throughout the 

summer for symptoms. Twig samples are collected 

from suspected trees and brought to the ESL for culture of the pathogen to confirm infection. Laboratory 

confirmation is parlicularly important for trees exhibiting questionable symptoms and for documenting the 

disease mcidence. 

Most infected trees are removed immediately; however, some trees with early, localized infections may 

be treated. A three-year cooperative research project 

between the USDA Forest Service and the ESL demonstrated thatthecombmationof radicalpruningcoupled 

with fungicide injections into the trunk and infected 

lamb wll save about 50 percent of the trees treated. 

Such therapy is extremely important when elms of histow or stgnificant landscape imporlance are infected. 

Although sanitation has been practiced rigorously in 

cultivated elm populations, naturalized elms along 

Rock Creek as well as the Potomac and Anacostia 

estuaries have generally gone unmanaged. These 

natural stands are adtacent to cultivated plantings, 

and serve as beetle reservoirs. Since natural elms 

cannot be removed without considerable dwptton of 

surrounding vegetation, other measures must be 

explored. 

A pIlot project is being conducted to evaluatethe arb&de (tree killing) cacodylic acid as a treatment for 

trees Infected with DED. These trees, upon being injected with the chemical, dry out rapidly, killing the tree 

and all beetlesdeveloping beneath the bark. Thetechnique is effectwe. inexpensive, and can be applied in 

areas where tree removal IS not possible or m cultivated plantings where constraints prohibit tree removal before beetle emergency. Cacodyltc acid m]ections may soon become part of the DED management 

program. The pllot protect IS being conducted by Dr. 

Jerry Laxer of the College of Forestry and Environmental Sciences at the State University 01 New York - 

Syracuse, in cooperation with the ESL and maintenance staff m several NCR parks. 

Another taCtic used I” DED management is the 

spraying of elms with the msecticlde methoxychlor to 

protect twig crotches from beetle lading. The ESL 

has cooperated with the USDA Forest Service !n colletting twigs from sprayed trees for beetle feeding 

studies. 

Tree workerswere interested to learn from thestudy 

that only the lower limbs were being adequately protected and that coverage would have to be improved. 

Previously, two applications of methoxychlor were 

made, one in the early spring and the other in late 

June. Beetle feedmg studies showed that the spring 

application remaIned effective throughout the period 

when the beetles were active. Because 01 the long resldual effecilveness of methoxychlor the summer 

spray has been ellmmated. As sanltabon improves in 

the natural areas and the surrounding urban commu- 
nity, beetle populations will decline and methoxychlor 

may no longer be necessary Consideration is currently being given lo lkmiting methoxychlor treatment 

to the most highly valued h!storlc elms. 

A bIological approach lo beetle populahon reduction 

that has been explored IS the use of sticky traps bailed 

with the elm bark beetle pheromone “multilure’ - an 

aggregating phenerome that attracts both male and 

female beetles. Multilure is composed of three chemicals -one produced by the host (the tree) and two produced by the virgin female beetle. Although research 

has not shown trappmg to be effective in reducing the 

incidence of DED, the ESL has used “multilure~ baited 

traps in monitoring the timing and number of beetle 

emergence periods. 

BIological control of the fungal pathogen is also 

bemg investtgated. Isolates of the bacterium Pseudomonas syr,flgae are known to kill the DED fungus in 

laboratorycuitures. Injectionsoftheselsolates into the 

water conducting tissues of elms may establish the 

bacterial antagonists as permanent residents in the 

tree’s vascular tissue and provide “immunity’ to DED 

infections. Unfortunately, lnllial studies at the ESL nursery have notshownfhetreatmentto beeffective. This 

approach is new and more research is required for full 

evaluation of its efficacy. 

The most promwng approach to long term management of DED IS through the use of DED resistant elm 

species and culfivars. American, Asiatic, and Euro. 

pean elms from many sources have been screened 

and evaluated for rwstance in NCR parks and at the 

ESL nursery Some of the best selections are being 

propagated and grown for NCR by the ESL and several commercial nurseries. The elm is still the predominant landscape tree within NCR urban parks and in 

.some areas. such as the Mall where most of the original planting remains, the elm population will be perpetuated. In other areas where the elm does not play 

as slgruficant a role it will be replaced with other tree 

species. The ESL IS working with the Regional Tree 

Advisory Commitlee to determine those areas where 

elms should continue to be the dominant tree and 

those areas where other species can be Introduced. 

By reducing the size and increastng the resistance 

of the elm population, DED will become less of a threat 

to the NCR urban forest. 

Forfhefirst fewyearsfollowing theoutbreakof DED 

m Washington, D.C.. acooperafivesanilationprogram 

existed throughout the city. Krecenf years controls 

have slackened I” surrounding areas and the disease 

incldenca IS beginning lo rise. Since the NCR elm resource depends on effective DED management in the 

surrounding community, the ESL has Initiated a Save 

the Elms Task Force to coordinaie and encourage a 

community approach to DED management. The Task 

Force IS under the auspices of the NatIonal Capdal 

Planning Commission. A comprehensive DED management strategy stressing sanitation pracbces for all 

elms wilhtn the District of Columbia is being developed. Soon the Task Force WIII seek a commitment 

from city jurisdictions to adhere to the program. The 

ESL WIII conttnue to particlpafe in the Task Force by 

monitoring the eHectiveness of the program and by 

providing recommendations as new weapons and 

techniques aradevelopedfordealing withlhedisease 

and its carriers. 

Like so many other resource management problems, Dutch Elm disease requires continual technical 

direction from ascient~ficstaHcloselyallied with fheresource and with those who manage ii. 

Hammerschag IS chief of fhe MCR Ecological Serv. 

ices Lab. Sheraid is the tab B plantpatho/~M 

EdMs Note: On pages 56-66 of the August t98t 

issue of Scientific American. “Dutch Elm Disease” by 

Gary A. Strobe/ and Gerald N. Lanier describes II) SC;- 

entific d&t/ the techniques dkxssed here. The artrcie IS dhtrated with maps, drawmgs, and scanning 

electron micrographfi showing the beet/e (two 

species), the character& patterns that the disease 

etches on elm sapwood, and the molecular structure 

of the t0.w substance from cultures of the Dutch elm 

disease fungus. 

,.l. 

The December 29,1981 issue of WallStreetJoumal 

carnes on page 1 a story about an incurable disease 

that has killed 8,288 palm trees- more thanoneoulof 

five-in the Palm Beach, Florida, area. The disease is 

called “lethal yellowing” and it was first reporled in 

Jamaica at the turn of the last century The malady 

struck Miami’s palms in 1971, then moved north, havmg killed so far an estimated 1.5 mullion South Florida 

palms, or about 80 percent of those trees. 

The Journal describes the controversy that has 

erupted overfreatmenl. A Miami nurseryman asserts 

thalihespray hedeveloped-amixfureoffertlizerand 

msecticide - controls the disease 98 percent of the 

time. Scientists have been unable to duplicate his suecess with the mixture. 

One Californian, according to the Wall Street Jour. 

nai ‘contIded that he knew of the three remaining IOcalions of ‘earth dust’ - the dust from which God 

created man. For plane fare, he said, he would deliver 

the healing substance. Sprinkling the palm trees with 

it. he satd, would rid them of what he called their leprosy virus. His offer was spurned.” 

Investigatorsare blaming spreadofthedlseaseon a 

mycoplasma - a microorganism smaller than a baclerlum and larger than a virus and spread by the quarler-inch leaf hopper-a tiny green Insect that feeds on 

the trees’ circulatory systems. In this respect, lethal 

yellowmg follows the pattern of Dutch elm disease wth 

Its bark beetle vectors. 

University of Floridasctenfists havedewed acounterattack. their ma,” weapon being tetracycline, an 

antibiotic. Healthy trees injected with It seem to show 

dtmlnished chances of catching the disease. 

11 

Injection of a nursery elm with a suspension of an 

so/ate ofPseudomonassyringae, which!santagomst/c to the Dutch elm disease fungus. 

Research Helps Pinpoint 

Interpretation Needs 

SociologIcal research does pay OH! 

Ron Watiield, chlei Interpreter at Crater Lake Nabona1 Park, took note of the research on visitor traffic 

flows at Crater Lake done by Oregon Stale Universtfy 

sociologist Bo Shelby I” conjunction wlh the OSU/ 

CPSU. Warfield began having his people slop by at a 

lake view turnout that Shelby’s research showed was 

a ‘natural” gathering place for wtors, and he $00” 

found his staH was giving impromptu talks to 20 to 30 

people at a ttme. 

As a result, a proposed development WIII increase 

the safetyofihe stopand will provide the klndoforientation there that the research study showed was 

needed and appreciated by visitors. 

Parks as Islands 

There IS growngawareness thatthe unitsofthe National Park Syslem are becoming more island-like, as 

landscape alteratmn progresses oufslde their boundaries. This process, caused by human activity. is proceeding for many types of natural areas in this country 

and abroad. What the long-term impacts of wxular~zatlon will be on the rwdeni biota of these natural sites IS 

poorly understood. 

The WAS0 Natural Science Division is in the process of formulating a research program to study this 

situation. Such research IS needed to prowde a better 

predictive ability as to thefutureof parksand reserves 

biota, as well as what management options may be 

available to reduceany negatlveshotiorlong term impacts. Coordinator of this activity is Craig Shafer, Natural Science Division, WASO, 523.5139. 
Information Crossfile 

Miami Herald Science Writer Mike Toner did a 

January round-up story detailing the economic benefits that have accrued and lhat yet may accw from 

successful efforts to save endangered plant species. 

Hedescribed”stunted, misshapenslalksofsomething 

that vaguely resembled corn plants, growing on an inconspicuous hillside in Mexico’ that turned out to be 

the last few thousand stalks of one of the mosl ancient 

and remarkable ancestors of the modern corn plant. 

This newly dkscovered plant, unlike modern varieties 

of corn, is a perennial. If can sumive high altitude and 

resist at least eight different diseases that regularly 

decimate modern varielies of corn. Eventually, the 

benefits of hybridization and cross breeding may save 

U.S. farmers as much as $4 billion in plowing costs 

alone. 

Dr. Norman Famswolth, University of Illinois pharmacolooisl. ~souobd: “Fewoeoolerealizethat 25pw 

cent of”all ‘pr&cripfion drugs dispensed in Ihe U.S. 

contain active ingredients that are exlracted from 

higher plants. And since less than 5,000 plant species 

have been thoroughly investigated for the presence of 

useful drugs. we ought to ask ourselves how many 

new drugs remar to be discovered.” 

The guyauk plant. considered little more than a 

weed in the Soulhwest, may someday provide such a 

rich source of natural rubber. The Toner article says 

‘that the U.S. could be significantly less dependent on 

the oil it now uses to make synthetic rubber.” 

Undersecretary of Stale James Buckley’s November 1981 address toa Washington, D.C. conferenceis 

quoted tm:“Basedon whatwe know, theneedlessextinction of a single species is an act of recklessness. 

The process is tantamount 1o book burnlng, but It is 

worse m that It involves books yet to be deciphered 

and read.” 

* 

A new book, published*Lintly by the Pacific Notthwest Forest and Range Experiment Station in Portland, Oregon, and the Bureau of Land Management, 

entailed “Natural History of Oregon Coast Mammals,” 

presents detailed information on the 96 species of 

mammals found along Oregon’s coast. In addition to 

identifying and describing the 65 terrestrial and 31 

mawe species, their habtls and habitats, the book includes personal observations and anecdotes by the 

authors and an extensive bibliography. Wildlife BialogistChrisMaserof BLM wrotethesectionon terrestrial 

animals; Bruce Mate, marine mammalogist at the 

Marine Sciences Center of Oregon State University 

wrote the section on marine mammals; Jerry Franklin 

and Ted Dymess wrotethe sectionson vegetation and 

habitats, and geology and soils. Single copies are 

available from Publications, PNW Station. 809 N.E. 

Sixth Ave., Portland, OR 97232. 

Donald R. Field, P&c Northwest Regional Associate Director for ScienceandTechnoloav. is theauest 

editor of Leisure Sciences 1981 Vol.4, No. 3 - a 

thematic issue devoted lo Social Relations in Park 

Settings. A majority of the papers for this issue of the 

inter-disciplinary journal were presented at the Second Annual Conference on Scientific Research in the 

National Parks, San Francisco, 1979. 

An introduction by Field, Gary E. Machlis of the University of IdahoCPSU, and Fred L. Campbell, University 01 Washington, explores a human ecological 

approach to the study of people and parks. A human 

ecological perspective is outlined, a lheoretical framework is developed, and several ecological processes 

are discussed, including adaptation, competition, and 

succession. The inlroducbon concludes with an outlkne of lmporiant research questions stemming from 

the concept. 

* 

A Dec. 7, 1981 editor;;, in the Washington Post 

comments on the reported scientific “creation-there 

is no better word” of a new bacterium capable of 

metabolizing the toxic herbicide 2.4.5-T. Possibly this 

organism will be able to decontaminale waste dumps 

and agricultural areas where the herbicide has been 

heavily sprayed. ‘It should be possible,” the Post 

notes, ‘IO use lhisneworganismlcgetherwith the herbicide togaintheweed kille~suseful impactwithout Its 

harmful side effects. And the method for waling the 

bacterium should be usable in creating any number of 

others with equally unique appetites.” The achwement. the Post notes, illustrates why it is so important 

to slap the world’s accelerating loss of species. ‘Scientists can find genes in nature’s extraordinary diversify that are capable of doing almost anyihing.‘says 

the editorial. “Using the techniques of genetic engineering, these can be selected and combwc into 

useful new organisms. But scientists cannot design 

the genes themselves: Ior this they have to rely on nature. Nature’s raw material-the 5 million lo 10 millloo 

plant, animal and microbial species that inhabit the 

earth-is being lost at a ruinous rate.” 

*** 

Synthesis, the Forestry Wildlife, and Range SCIences Newsletter at the Unwersity of Idaho, Moscow, 

carries in its October 1981 issue news of a new book, 

Public R&lions and Communications for Natural Resource Managers, by James R. Fazio. head of the UI 

Wildland Recreation Management Depaltment, and 

the late Douglas L. Gilbert who headed the Departmentof Fishery and Wildkfe Biology at Colorado State 

University The 375.page book, publIshed by the Kendall-Hunt Publishing Company ol Dubuque, Iowa. and 

Toronto, Ontario, presents examples of natural wsources public relations activities, delineates guidelines to public relations planning, and includes a chap 

tet of “biowlitics.” coverina the oolibcal aswts of 

publicrelaiions. _ 

A lE+oaae Station Bulletin. “Vascular Plant 

Species oi Concern in Idaho.” has’been published by 

the Forest, Wildlife, and Range Experiment Station, 

Universily of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83843. This Station 

Bulletin 34 replaces and updates Bulletin 27, ‘Endangered and Threatened Plants of Idaho,” and is available from the Station editor for $7.50. Included are 

scientific nomenclature, location, land ownership, 

vegetation type, habitat, hazards, herbariumdata, and 

recommendations for keeping or changing status. 

*** 

The February 1981 Journalof Forestry contains an 

article by David N. Cole entitled “Managing Ecological 

Impacts at Wilderness Campsites: An Evaluation of 

Techniques.’ As Jim Larson pointed out when he dlstributed copies to Pacific Northwest Region scientists, 

‘The article challenges someof our established camp 

site and campground management beliefs and prac12 

tices. and also includes recommendations lo reduce 

impacts. The author notes that this review is largely 

confined 1o the ecological consequences of wilderness campsIte management with a primary goal to 

provoke dwxssion.” 

*** 

“Ecosystem Responses to Acid Precipitation” at 

Isle Royale National Park is the title of an alticle by J. 

Robert Stonlemyer, in the Autumn 1981 issue of the 

George Wright Forum. Stonlemyer, a research s&ntlst with the NPS Great Lakes Area Research Studlas 

Unit based at Michigan Technological Universify, 

writes that “Despite past information limitations, as 

new data are obtained scientists are in general agreement that the problem (of acid rain) is worsening, that 

man is responsible for putting up some of the precursors to acid precipitalion, and that the effects of these 

increasedatmosphericdepositionswill beverydifficult 

to define due to the lack of baseline data.” 

f 

Three comprehensive summaries, couched in 

non-technical language, describe old-growth forests, 

Great Basin desert research, and southweslern riparian ecosystems-all from thepointofviewof management - in the September 1981 issue of Forestry Research West. The publication is available without 

charge by wriiing to Forestry Research West, 240 

West Prospect Skeet, Fort Collins, CO 80526. 

*** 

Two new reports now available from the Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station (UT). 

507 25th St., Ogden, UT 84401, are “Growing Colorado Plants from Seed: A State of the Art,’ General 

Technical Report INT-93.FR27, and “Measuring and 

Interpreting Fire Behavior for Correlation with Fire Effects,” General Technical Report INT-93.FR27. Although the lormer report emphasizes plants in Colorado, manyofthespeciesdiscussed occuralsoinlhe 

Intermountain and Rocky Mountain regions and in 

parts of the Pacific Northwest. In the latter, two Forest 

Service scientists have proposed a way to describe 

fire behavior in measurable, standardized terms. The 

description is wdffen for scienhsts not usually involved 

in fire studies, who will be designing and conducting 

experiments, and for researchers who need a system 

for predicting fire effects. 

*** 

The December 1981 issue of Smfthsonian 

magazine carries an account of the establishment of 

West Africa’s first national park, with the blessing of 

the local chlafs, the government of Northern Sierra 

Leone, and a $213,000 pledge from World Wildlife 

FundUS. The adicle describes “a mosaic of savannabs. woodlands and riverine fowls” that rise from 

the Guinea plateaussand house forest elephants, 

leopards, common and pygmy hippopotamuses, 

zebra duikers, colobus monkeys, and the largest 

single population of the West African sub-species of 

chimpanzees-Pan troglodytes verus. Up 10 100 jobs 

will becreated by establishment ofthepark. in anarea 

where %cal people don’t often see any return on their 

resourcesortheirwildlife.“Theparkwillmakepossible 

establishment of a graduate program with spec~al~zations in wildlife biology and applrad ecology at Nfala 

University College, according to the Smithsonian 

piece. 
*** 

Two articles dealing with monitonng and management of natural areas-one specific to Great Smoky 

Mountains NP (GRSM) and the other a generalized 

treatment of thesubject-appear in Vol. 1. No. 2 (April 

1961) althenewJournal otthe Natural Areas Association. 

Published quarterly by The Natural Areas Assow- 

[ion, 320 S. Third St.. Rockford, IL 61106, the Journal 

comes with membership (individual dues, $10) and 

speaks for this national non-profit organizationof “indlvidualsactively involved inidentification,preservalion, 

protection and management of natural areas and elementsof our natural diversity.’ 

“Standardized Ecological Measurements in Natural 

Areas,” by Thomas V. Armentano of the Institute of 

Ecology, Indianapolis, IN 46206, sets forth in precise 

tabular form the basic functions central to ecosystem 

activity (the capture, transfer and expenditure of 

energy, the interception, cycling and loss of nutrients, 

and the life cycle activities of the biota), and the set of 

~core”measurementsthat, if monitored, would provide 

a moving picture of the integrated response of biotic 

proCa$ses. 

The latter table is, in effect, a blueprint for a stringently cost-effective monitoring system that would 

allow resource managersto detect even gradual, subwibledeteriorationeflects. An exampleof such aneffeet is drawn from GRSM. where it was found that 

white pine in an apparently ‘clean’ area was suffering 

growth reduction and increased mortality (from a 1980 

study by J.M. Skelly of the Pacific Southwest Forest 

and Range Experiment Station, Gen. Tech. Rpt. PSW43). The losses are attributed to air toxicities, especially ozone. 

In addition to detailing the biotic data necessary for 

minlmum monitoring, Armentano recommendssampling frequency intervals and considers methods and 

reasons for achieving standardization of sampling and 

analytical methods, documentation (for retrlevabilily 

and management usefulness), sample archiving, and 

collection continuity over the years. 

Thecompanion article, “How Do WelnsureOur Natural Area Parks Function to Provide Species and Natural Systems?, is by Peter S. White, stationed at the 

NPS Uplands Field Research Laboratory at GRSM. 

White describes briefly the major changes that have 

continued to occur -even after legal protection of 

habitat,’ and pinpoints ‘?he single most important obstacletoassessingchange: thatbaselinedataisetther 

lacking or ambiguous.” Successional change and loss 

of rare species (in this case, loss of grassy balds and 

many rare plants) are cited as examples familiar to 

natural area managers everywhere. 

While then takes his own cut at outlining a monitoring program. listing six stages applicable to any preserve and giving with these listings his assessment of 

the current state of the work wthin that item at GRSM. 

White concludes with a paragraph on the future. 

“We cannot, of course. ever predict all the Information 

needs of the future. We cannot afford to collect 

baselinedataatevery biologicalorphysical parameter 

of interest. But clearly, good stewardship of consewed 

land requires more than passive guardianshlp. Data 

gathering, storage, and retrieval areessentialta judge 

our effectiveness and Ihe results of our decisions on 

management, whether active or passive, bpdget-limited or not.” 

Isle Royale Wolf Study 

The accompanying chart on population fluciualions of wolves and moose at Isle Royale National Park over the 

last 23 years is a graphic illustratton (literally) of the need to continue research until meaningful timeframes for the 

particular research have been established. 

In an article entitled “Long-Term Research: An Answer to ‘When Are You Going To Quit?‘,” Roll Peterson describes in the Autumn 1961 issue of the George Wright Society FORUM, the totally different understandings (and 

their attendant implications for wise management) that have emerged in the latter years of research into wolf. 

moose relationships al Isle Royale. Whereas the early research showed a wolf population of remarkable stability, 

the 1970sresearchwas, in Peterson’swords,“arealeye-opener.”Theapparentstabilltyofwolfand moosepopulations was replaced by drastic fluctuations, dramaticaily underlining the essentiality of long-term research for true 

scientific understanding of wolf-prey interaction and population regulation. 

In addition to describing the long-term research, Peterson’s altlcle makes a strong caselor the preservation of 

pristine areas such as national parks and for the use of these areas ‘lo improve our imperfect knowledge’ of how 

best to manage these trusts. 

Peterson. who succeeded Dr. Dward Allen as the project director in 1975, is assistant professor in the biological sciences department of Michigan Technological Unwerslty, Houghton, MI 49931, 
Female falcon, pholographed a/ the USFWS Witdtife Research Center; Patuxent, Maryland, displays the 

aerodynamrcallyperfectphysique forheriightningm;d-air captures, andlhe formidable talons fhaf ciose Into a 719” 

for striking her prey on the w’“g. 

Crater Lake Peregrines Story in NPS Courier 

The story of the daring and successful transplant of 

two lledglmg peregrine falcons at a Crater Lake NP 

nest site in 1981, complete with details about the resuperin tendent’s 

corner 

From William M. Lukens. Supenntendent of Padre 

Island NS (and a member of Park Scw?nce editorial 

board), comes the suggestion that we ask, in these 

columns. for readers to wte in and tell us what they 

would kke to see. 

“Forinstance,‘saysSupt. Lukens, ‘I haveaproblem 

with iamarisk -does anyone know how to control or 

eradicate it? 

Sod you have an an?w?r to Lukens question, write 

him: if you have suggestions about stories Park SC/. 

ence might carry, write the editor. 

moval of three eggs and subsequent hatching of two, 

(one embryo was already dead) at the University of 

California, Santa Cruz, Predatory Bard Research 

Group laboratory, is camed in the February issue of 

the NPS Cour;er Supt. Jim Rouse and his resource 

management specialist, Mark Forbes, made the declsion to carry out the operation after it was discovered 

that the only known nesting pair of peregrines in Oregon had failed to hatch any young I” 1980. 

The rescue effort, which eventually involved 14 persons, Including two pilots, plus one small private 

plane, one hellcopter, snowmobiles, motorcycles, skis 

and mountaneering gear and expertise, was a joint 

operation of the NPS, the U.S. Fish and WildlIfe Sew 

ice, the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, and 

the Predatory Bird Group at Santa Cruz. 

Supt. Rouse has ndlcated his intentIon to continue 

this resource management operation this year 1 the 

pair returns to the sate and produces eggs. 

14 

regional 

highlights 

Southeast Region 

A Survey of Ecological Inventory. MonGoring and 

Research m U. S. NatnonalParkService Biosphere Reserves (NPS-SER ResearchResources Management Report No. 49). by Alison Mack, WIIliam P. 

Gregg, Jr.. Susan Bration and Peter White was published by the Southeast RegIonal OHice m August, 

1981. If deals with a systemwide survey of all 14 BIOsphere Reserve unItsof the Nal~onal Park System and 

discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the reserves’ baseline resource mventorles and long-term 

ecological monitoring and research programs. Persms interested in obtaning copes should contact Jim 

Wood, SERO, 75 Spring St., S.W., Atlanta, GA 30303. 

lnferpreling Dynamics oi Aquatic Resources: A Perspective for Resource Managers (NPS-SER Research!Resources Management Report No. 34). by 

Gary L. Larson, IS an 18.page publication expressly 

written to help park managers understand complex 

aquatic ecosytems. The report points out the need lor 

managing park resources on the ecosystem level (as 

recommended by the 1963 Leopold Report). In many 

instances, however, management programs have 

continued to focus on individual resource problems 

w~tfwut apparent concern for the ecological consequews on ecosystems. Without knowledge olthe interrelationships of ecosystem components, solwng 

one problem may result in other resource problems 

Larson’s reporttakestheaquattcecosystem asanexample and presents graphic approaches designed to 

help the resource manager YI~W these complex relationships. Copies are available from Jim Wood, 

SERO, 75 Spring St., S.W.. Allanla. GA 30303. 

Southwest Region 

Biologist Robert A. King is replactng Biologist Jim 

Woods at Padre Island National Seashore (PAIS), as 

Jim transfers to Big Thicket. King comes from the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Set-ace’s National Fishery Research 

Center in Seanle, Wash. Heformerlyservedfouryears 

with the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric 

Admimstration, on east coast oceanographic surveys 

aboard the ship Ferrel. King’s main responsibilities ai 

PAIS will be ‘enhancement and restoratIon of Kem$s 

Ridley sea turtle population. Rancho Nuevo. Mexico 

and Padre Island, Texas, and envIronmental management of 011 and gas development within the national 

seashore.’ 

JaneTate.& is leaving her PAISpoaiion, to bereplaced by park technician (resources management) 

Anne Anderson, formerly stationed at Great Smoky 

Mountains NP. Tale IS transferring to White Sands NM 

in New Mexico. Anderson will be involved in law enforcement from October to March, and will assist 

blologlsts on resources management projects from 

May to September. 

A fire sympowm, jointly sponsored by the NPS and 

the SW Fire Council at the Los Alamos National LaboratoryinOctober1981,explaredfouryearsoldatacol- 
lected following the man-caused wildfire that ignited in 

the Santa Fe National Forest near Los Alamos. N.M. 

on June 16, 1977. The fire ultrmately burned about 

15,000 acres of Band&r NM, Santa Fe NF and Los 

Alamos laboratory land. Before the fire, much of this 

area had been subject lo ecological studies, which 

provided baseline data for post-fire studies, related lo 

the effects of wildfire on vegetation and animal life. 

Other siudtes after the fire investrgated its effects on 

soils, water quality, archeology, and geomorphrsm. 

Copies of the Symposium Proceedfngs are available from Milford Fletcher, Chief, Natural Resources 

Management, NPS, P.O. Box 726, Santa Fe, NM 

67501. 

Mid-Atlantic Region 

John Karish, Regional Chief Scientist for the MidAtlantic Region, sends word of a one-day symposrum 

on research at Assateague Island National Seashore, 

to be held March 20 at the Pennsylvania State University’s Mont Alto campus. The symposium leader IS Dr. 

Ronald Keiper. PSU associate professor of zoology, a 

contract researcher for NPS and conductor of the last 

five years of pony research on Assateague Island. 

North Atlantic Region 

P.A. Buckley, North Atlantic Chief Scientist and outgoing president of the Colonial Waterbird Group, calls 

anention to the new journal of the CWB entitled Colonial Waferbrds. Its first issue as a refereed journal, 

Vol. 4, appeared in December 1960 and continues the 

previous three years‘ Proceedings of CWG annual 

meetings (hence Vol. 4). 

The ]ournal contains paper on management as well 

as the basic biology of those waterbirds that prefer to 

nest communally. Buckley also calls attention to a 

‘state-of-the-art publication, again the result of a conference, entitled The Use of Mulfivariate SfaLlics in 

Sludies of Wild/lie Habitat, published as General 

,Technrcal Report RM-67oftheRockyMountain Forest 

and Range Experiment Station, U.S. Forest Sewice. It 

,is obtainable from them at 240 W. Prospect St., Fort 

Collms, CO 80526. 

Finallv. Bucklev notes that for nonoareil Statistical 

‘assrstance. the second edition of Sokal and Rohlfs 

Bivmtry is now available. 

The Effecp of Off-Road Vehicles on Beach and 

I Dune Systems, Fire /s/and Nafional Seashore is the 

j title of the Final Report (NO. 50) by Fred J. Anders and 

I Stephen P. Leatherman for the NPSiCPSU at the Uni- 

/varsity of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, pubi lished November 1981. 

The 176page document is the result of three years 

i of investigation, usrng an experimental approach and 

I specially developed instrumentation to measure the 

/direct displacement of sand by vehicles on a daily 

) basis. The changes described included “increased 

/ (beach sand) mobility (that) could lead to accelerated 

i erosion,” and rapid destrucbon of foredunevegetation 

I by low level ORV impacts, whtch resulted in “a marked 

1 alteration tn the cross-sectional profile in the dune 

j zone.’ The changes noted “signal increased dune ini stability durmg storm atlack.” the report states. 

j Rocky Mountain Region 

f Drck Knight, team leader of the Interagency Gnzzly 

: Bear Study; Cliff Maninka. research biologist at 

: Glacier NP. and Gary Brown, who heads the Yel- 

: lowstone NP grizzly bear program, all made the front 

page of the Wa//SfreelJoumalon January6 1982, as 

part of an Eric Morgenthaler story, *Gnzzly, Monarch 

of the Wild, Rules a Waning Kingdom.” A subhead 

reads “Bear’s Natural Fury Prows No Match for 

Civilization; Only 1,000 Remain in West.” Madinka is 

quoted assayrng:“Thegrrzzlyis the typeof animal that 

just can’t take human pressure. And its problems are 

an indfcatron of excessive human pressure-not just 

on the animal, but on its entire ecosystem” 

Pacific Northwest Region 

Carl Key, research technician stationed at Glacier 

NP, is mapping the ripanan plant communities and different land usesalong the North Forkandmainstemof 

the Flathead River. The effort involves production of 

mylar maps-fivedifferent nestedoverlaysfor each of 

the 1:24,000 topographic maps. The information includes: 1) river and floodplain boundanes; 2) forest 

and natural non-forest areas; 3) roads, cabins, tributary streams and water bodies; 4) forest clearings,, 

clearcuts, select cuts, agricultural areas, residentfal 

areas and mines; and 5) a differentiation of forest and 

non-forest habftat. 

The entire program, covering four topographic 

maps of the North Fork and six covenng the maln?Sem 

were slated for January 1962 completion. Information 

is available from R. Gerald Wright, NPS research 

brologistwiththe Universityof IdahoNPS’CPSU, MOSCOW, ID 83643. 

A final report dealing with pocket gopher activrty at 

Whitman Mission National Hrstoric Site and potential 

measures tocontrol them isnowavailableasCPSU B61.6. Authors are R. Gerald Wright and Phil Grabmiller. 

Wildlife Biologist Leonard Ruggiero has been 

named manager for the new research and development program, Old-Growth Forest Wildlife Habitats, 

headquartered at the U.S. Forest Service’s Pacific 

Northwest Olympia Lab in Washington. The new 

progam will coordinate research and administrative 

studies on old-growth ecology andwildlifehabitat west 

of the Cascades rn Washington, Oregon, and northern 

California. Other federal and state agencres. universfties, private conservabon groups and forestry associatrons and companres will participate through 

cooperative agreements. 

Western Region 

Gary Davis, research scientist at Channel Islands 

NP, spent the fall of 1961 in Egypt and Sudan doing a 

feasibility study for a marine national park at Sanganeb Atoll in the Red SeaTheprojectwasfunded by 

the World Wildlife Fund andthe International Unronfor 

the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. All 

this followed a strenuous summer season at Channel 

Islands, the research effort of which will be featured rn 

the Spring issue of Park Science. 

Bruce Kilgore, former NPS Western Region Assocrate Regional Directorfor Resources Management, is 

now project leader for a fire application program at the 

Northern Forest Fire Laboratory, U.S. Forest Service 

Forest and Range Experiment Station, M~ssoula, MT. 

National Capital Region 

The Urban Forest Soils Workshop announced on 

page 11 of the Fall 1961 issue of Park Science was 

postponed at the last minute and will now be held April 

26 through 26, 1962. The format will be the same as 

outitned in the previous issue. Co-sponsors, with the 

NPS National Capital Region, are the U.S. Forest 

Service and the College 01 Environmental Sciences 

and Forestry at Syracuse University A ‘I-chapter 

workbook is being drstributed toanendantspriorto the 

workshop. The focus is on urban soils, theircharacteristrcs, management techniques, and specrfic applications toward effective long term management. All fnquiries should be drrected to Dean, School of Continuing Education; SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210. 

WAS0 

The Washington, D.C. ChapteroftheGeorge Wright 

Society met on Dec. 8, 1961, and elected Ro Wauer, 

president; Destry Jarvie, we-president; Clay Peters, 

secretary, and Diane Gelbrud, treasurer. Members 

were unanimous in their praise of the program-a film 

entitled “Land of Lost Borders,” produced by the 

Chihuahuan Desert Research Institute at Alpine, TX, 

and available for rental or purchase through Adams 

and Adams Films, 706 Wayside Drive, Austin, TX 

76703. The film, narrated by Burgess Meredith, is a 

generalovewiew ofthechihuahuan Desert Asequel. 

focusing on water and the desert, already IS in production; athird film, built around man and the desert tsstill 

rn the scnptrng stage. 

ma6 notes 

The Man and the Biosphere Program completed its 

10th year in the summer of 1961. and a special Scientific ConferenceExhib;i and International Coordrnating Council (ICC) meebng were held rn Paris in Sep 

tember to mark the occasion. Attendees from U.S. 

MAB were Bill Gregg, Frank Galley, Ariel Lugo, Paul 

Baker, Ed Fernald. Bill Roseborough, Don King and 

Jay Blowers 

At the same time, an informal meeting was held on 

preparation for the 1963 Biosphere Reserve Congress, to be convened by UNESCO and jointly sponsored by UNEP and UNESCO rn Minsk, in the Soviet 

Union, The main theme will belhe conservation of natural areas and the genetic material they contain (MAB 

Project 6). Major emphasis wtll be given to eCO.SyStem 

conservation, baseline research, and their implementation in the international network of biosphere reserves. More detailed information can be had from Bill 

15 

Gregg, MAB Program Coordinator for NPS, Office of 

Science and Technologyl496. National Park Service, 

Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20240. 

MAB 8 Paper Delivered 

At the 32nd Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Biological Sciences at Bloomington, Indiana, in 

August 1961, Gregg and Vernon C. Gilbert presented 

a paper on “Development of the Biosphere Reserve 

Network Under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere 

Program.” The paper describes the purpose of MAB 

Project 6 -to promote the conservation of the world’s 

brological and genetic diversity by providing the wentrfic basis for establishrng and managing protected 

natural areas. “a key part of which is the establishment ofaglobal networkof biosphere reserves, toprovide secure protection for self-sustaining ecosystems 

representative of each of the worlds biomes and 

equally sacura sites for long-term ecosystem research 

and related education, demonstrabon, andtratnrng activities.” The network presently consists of 193 areas 

in 50 countries. 
Photo Librarian 

Comes Up With 

Missing Names 

The George Wrlghl Sowty story in the last %“e (p. 

14) was accompanied by a photograph 01 the U.S.- 

Mexican Border Commission, three of whose memberswereunnamed. Thecaptionasked”Doesanyone 

knowthe “amesoftheotherthree me” in theplcture? 

To the rescue rode Tom Durant, picture librarian for 

the Branchof Graphics Research, Harpers Ferry Interpret~ve Design Center, Springfield, VA. Dora”1 has 

been sifting through 80,000 nitrate-based negalwes 

-part of the historic photograph collection in his care 

al the Sprmgfield facility, and when he saw the Park 

Science story he recognizedthe picture as one he had 

recently Seen. 

The original nitrate negative, in his files, lists the 

three “missmg me”‘(lefttorlghtin thephato)asDaniel 

Gal& Santos Ibarra, and Juan Trevino. All three 

were Mewan membersof the Border Commission. 

The photo is listed as part of the Roger Toll collecTao”, but since Toll is in the picture, Durant opined that 

the photograph probably was taken by George Grant, 

oniclal NPS photographer at Big Bend when the group 

was there. Btg Bend was authorized as a National 

Park on June 20, 1935; the photo was snapped an 

Feb. 16, 1936. 

Grant became one of the first official NPS photographers I” the 1920s. With stout backing from then 

Director Horace Albright, the Idea of making a photographicrecordoftheSystemfi”ally received a” appropriation, and Grant worked until his retirement I” 1354 

as a tireless recorder of the System’s back country. 

Durant reports that 1,000ofthe60,000nilrate”egatlves have been selected for conversion to safety film 

and WIII form the basis of a permanent pictorial record 

of much of the National Park Service’s history 

Park Animal Study 

Available Through 

Geo. Wright Forum 

The George Wright FORUM, in its Autumn 1981 

ISSUB. tames m its entirety the Report to Secretary of 

the lnterlor James G. Watt - A Review and Recommendatlons on Animal Problems and Related Management Needs in Units of the National Park System, 

prepared by Duward L. Allen. Larry Enckson, E. 

Raymond Hall. and Walter M. Schirra. 

The report consists of summary and recommendatlons on five selected management problems (wild 

boars in Great Smoky Mountains NP, protection of 

grizzly bears in the Yellowstone ecosystem, feral burros I” three areas of the National Park System, interpretation 01 the National Environmental Policy Act, 

and protection and restoration of the gray wolf), and 

complete sclentlfic updates on all five problem areas. 

Inaddit~on,there~sasect~ono”w~ldl~fefuturesinthe 

parks, and a chronology of landmark documents concerning wlldlife resowes in U.S. National Parks. 

Reprints of the illustrated report may be purchased 

from The George Wright Society P.O. Box 65, Hancock, Ml 49930-0065 for $1 each, postpaid, or two or 

more for 50 cents each plus postage. 

Wilderness Research in Yosemite 

By Jan Van Wagtendonk 

When Yosemite NP was established, few people 

visited it. Fewer still ventured into the trackless backcountry. Since that time use has increased dramaticallyand by1972. itwas not unusualtofind 200 people 

camping around one of Yosemite’s high country lakes. 

Such high levels of use caused resource damage and 

degraded the wlderness experience. 

Recognizing the problem, the Park staff initiated a 

research and management program to provide a system for keeping use within acceptable limits. The programconsistedoffoursteps. Thefirststepwastoget a 

handle on current condihons. What is current use? 

What problems result from it? Next it wasnecessaryto 

determine what the optimum level of use should be, 

based on managerial as well as ecologIcal and 

sociological constramts. How many should use it?The 

third step was to develop, test, and Sekct a management strategy that would achieve the acceptable level 

of use. HOW do we go about It? Finally, the management strategy was implemented and monitored to see 

whether 01 not the objectives had been met. How will 

we do? 

Determining Current Use 

Wilderness permits provided the data base for determvwg use levels. Smce permits were first issued in 

Yosemite in 1972. several yearsofdatawereavailable 

for establishing trends and patterns (Van Wagtendonk 

1960). Actual counts by back country personnel provided good information for specific areas on a llmited 

“umber of days. This inlormatlon was essential for 

verifying permit data. In addition, exit interviews were 

used to determine travel behavior for backcountry 

users whodidnotget permitsandtodeterminethevalidity of the data for users who had permits (Van Wag 

tendonk and Benedlct 1960a). Questionnaires were 

used to develop visitor profiles of summer and winter 

backcountry users (Lee 1975, Gilbert 1960). From 

these data sources, visitor characteristics and tempo 

ral and spatial peaking problems were identified. 

Determining Optimum Use 

The determination of optimum use, also called Carryingcapacity, isoften the hardest nuttocrack. Itisdefined as the character of use that can be supported 

over a specified time by anareadevelopedat acellain 

level without causing excesswe damage to either the 

enwronmenl or the experience of the visitor. Since any 

usecausessomedamage. the problem becomesone 

of defining excessive use. What is acceptable change 

to either the resource or the expewnce IS a management decision. 

A conceptual model for making carrymg capacity 

determinations was developed by Van Wagtendonk 

(1979a). Figure 1 depicts a slmplllied version of the 

model, which is currently being computewzed. The 

model showsthatasthenumberof usersgoesup, resource condition and satisfaction go down. By monitoring the number of users, user satisfaction, and resource conditioning, and comparing them to acceptable levels. management can decide to expend efforts 

to directly control the “umber of users, increase s&sfactlo” through education and Information, or mitigate 

resource Impacts. 

Many of the relatmnships belween users, satisfaction and resouze condition were studled in the park I” 

16 

order to quantity the model. Lee (1975, 1977) and 

Abshera”dLee(1976)gathereddataontheeffectson 

visitor satisfaction levels of the numbers of users and 

resource condition. Fain (1977) and Foin eta/ (1977) 

studied visitor impacts on numerous ecological variables while Lemons (1979, 1960) focused his attention on meadow impacts. Other vegetation studies included cultural influences (Holmes 1979a, 1979b) and 

trampling and urine (Holmes and Dobson 1976, 

Holmes 1979b). 

The effect of human use on microclimates was 

studied by Hecht (1976), a” subalpine soils by Mali” 

and Parker (1976), and on bacteria in subalpine and 

alpine waters by Holmes (1976). Palmer (1979) experimented with various methods to revegetate impacted trails. Studies concerning impacts on animal 

populations were fewer in number. Keay and Van 

Wagtendonk (1961) related visitoruse levelswith incidents with black bears, and Weston and Weston 

(1979) studied the role of veltebrates in reducing 

backcountry garbage. 

Once the various relationships were graphed, a 

point on each curve was identified wh!ch signified the 

limit toacceptabiechange. Agam, thlswasa management decision based on the consequences of that decision. For Instance, in figure 2. which relates use to 

bear incidents, it could be decided that 20 incidents 

per year in a zone was the maximum number acceptable. That decision might be based on public safety 

concerns, impacts on the bear population al higher incident levels.or(we hopenot)the”umberofcomplaint 

letters which would be received if more incidents occured. In any event, based on bear Incidents alone, a 

capacity of 60 people per night would be acceptable. 

The use of such deliberations for all data sets permitted the senlingofamaximum use limitforeach zonein 

the backcountry. 

CONDITION 

Developing and Testing 

Management Strategies 

If current use levels are greater than optimum 

levels, a decision must be made to solve the conflict. 

Numerous mdwect methodsforrationinguseareava~lable but eventually therecomesatime whenuselimlts 

must be Imposed. The manager must then have a 

means todistrlbuteuse I” accordance withthedesired 

capaat~es. Several methodsareava!lable,fromdesignating flxed itinerariesandcampsltestoallowlng a set 

number of par% to enter each day. 

The effectiveness of each method should be tested. 

This tesllng could be done by tmplementlng a different 
{ 40,-, 

\ 

k30 

9 

\ 

v) 20 ----_-_---- 

E 

0) 

5 10 

5 

m” 

;ij 0 

0 i_.Ld 20 40 60 60 100 

Visitors/ Night /Zone 

FigweE Relationship ofBearlncidents to Ksitor Use. 

method each year and comparing the results. This approach, of course, would take too much time and the 

results, such as long-lasting rasourca damage might 

not be desirable. As an alternative, computer simulation of backcountry use could be conducted with considerable time savmgs (Van Wagtendonk 1979b). 

A stmulation model developed for the Forest Sew 

ice was applied to the Yosemite data to estimate use 

patterns in the future under alternative management 

strategies. Input to the model included trail network 

descriptions, user characterisbcs, and user-trail interactions. Maps, wilderness pa&s, and special 

studies were used to derive the input data (Van Wag 

tendonk 1976, Van Wagtendonk and Benedict 1960b). 

Output from the simulator listed visitor use and encounter levelsforeach trail segmentandcamparea by 

day of the simulation. By changing the input variables 

the effect of varying trailhead entry volumes was 

tested to determine a distribution of use which would 

not exceed the capacities set for the internal zones. 

These were then translated mto trailhead quotas 

through another computer program. 

Implementing and Monitoring 

The System 

The traIlhead quota figures derived from the research program were presented to the backcountry 

management team. This group made adjustments to 

the quotas based on experience, judgment. and other 

management considerations. Following these adjustments, trailhead quotas were Instituted in the Yosemite backcountry in 1976. Now that the system has 

been Implemented. visitors no longer are required to 

tell the park where they are going to hike and camp, 

nor how long they plan to stay. 

Another part of the program that has been implemented is increased visttor information. One of Lee’s 

(1975) majorconclusionswasthatvisitorexpectations 

played an important role in satisfaction. For mstance, 

on a trail with many wars, a person expected to encounter a lot of people probably would not be asdtsappointed as one who expected to see no one. To insure 

accurate expectations, maps are available at permit 

issuing points to show visitors where they might expect high use levels, slack an the trail, and incidents 

with black bears. With these expectations, visitorscan 

plan their trips accordingly. Addillon.? Information also 

IS available on trail distances and travel times (Benedict 1960), and on planning trips using various guide 

books. 

The program has been monitored continually smce 

its inception. Each year the quotas are adjusted I” response to the past yea<s experience. The effect of 

quotas on overall use trends also has been cribcally 

reviewed (Van Wagtendonk 1981). In addition, the 

park has recognized that the effect of backcountry use 

on the wilderness resource must be monitored and 

has proposed several methods of accomplishing that 

end (Holmes 1961). 

Successful implementationof the backcountry management system was dependent on sound scientific 

research in cooperation with parkoperational personnel. The major beneficiary of the system is the backcountry user who now has the maximum freedom possible consistent wth management’s responsibilttiesto 

resources and experiences. 

An extensive LMature Cited for this paper is availabie from the authq a research scient,st at Yosemite 

NP 

People Pressures Threaten 

Values Of Wilderness 

NPS Director Russell E. Dickenson, in a November 

1961 Distinguished Lecture at the University of Idaho 

Wilderness Center, described the wilderness management dilemma, laying particular emphasis on the 

management of human beings. “The regulation of 

human use,” he said, depends in the long run on -informed public support”. 

Dickenson described wilderness parks, once protected by their solitude, as now locked into a struggle 

not only against the encroachments of the spoilers but 

against the embraces of would-be worshippers. The 

U.S. population in Thoreau’s 1650 America was only 

23 million, he said. In 1900, M&America had but 76 

million. “For every Muir, we now have three; for every 

Thoreau, ten. Is it any wonder,” he asked, “that there IS 

more pressure for “se of our wild lands?’ 

DIckenson made a strong case for the role of wilderness awas in the preservabon of genetic diversity. He 

noted the disappearance of the lush resources that 

were in place when the first European settlers arrived 

- the forests and prairies, the passenger pigeon, the 

Carolina parakeet and the ivory-billed woodpecker. 

‘The variety of animal life and plants that have become 

history are uncounted,” he satd. 

At the same time, he noted there is stall wealth to be 

hoarded and preserved “rare and unique species 

(that) can bevital toourfuture. It isourcharge,‘hetold 

hislisteners, “toprotect whatwe have. Intheperpetualion of the strange, the unusual, the little understood, 

we may hold the key to the perpetuation of our own 

kind. For all that we have managed to control, ourdestiny is still bed to the land and the sea of this planet.’ 

Dickensan cautioned that “We should not casually 

throw away any life form. We should study it, protect it, 

find its usefulness, or failing that, leave it for our descendents to assess anew.’ 

01 the approximately 60,000 edible varieties of 

plants on earth, only 150 varieties have ever been culAcid Rain 

Manual Readied 

A working manual on the status of acid rain work 

throughout the National Park System is being prapared by Jill Baron, biologist with the NPS Water Resources Laboratory. NREL-105 Grassland Lab, Colorado State Umversity. Fort Collins, CO 60523. 

The report which will be the first in a Management 

Series out of the Water Resources Lab, will contain 

site informationand alistofsiteoperators. regionalcoordinators. and national informatIon sourcas. Baron 

plansto havethe manual readylorpublicationin June. 

17 

tlvated on a large scale, with fewer than 20 producing 

90 percent of the worlds food. Dickenson described 

the relatively recent development of such modern 

staples as corn, peanuts and soy beans and related 

these improvements to the wild strains that make hybridized plants possible. A recent discovery !n the foothills of Central Mexico ‘holds great pronwe for improved food supplies the world over,” he satd. This nawa avergreen corn plant could easily have been lost 

_ 

Quotedby DirectorDickensoofn his Nov. 

12, 1981 Wilderness Lecture: “Protection 

and preservation of the physical memorials of our natural and historic origins is 

primary, of course. And I suppose a good 

case could be made for the mere lockingop of our most important treasures - the 

fragile and the irreplaceable and the ‘bank 

deposits’ of study in future years - because they are arks of our covenant and 

awn when not seen are an inspiration 

through the feeling that they exisf and are 

safe. 

But fortunately, saw in rare hstances, 

this is not atallrquired. Wa can use these 

precious resources, so long as we do not 

use them up. Put it this way: Weshouldnot 

dissipate our capita/, but we should zealously dispense the interest. ” 

Freeman Tifden, 

in “fnterpreting Our Heritage” 

forever to the world, had not a Texas botamst found it 

in a forest destmed for clearcutting to make way for 

cattle to graze. 

‘7he natural storehouses of parks may someday 

prove invaluable,” Dickenson said. *We must remember that the purple foxglove of Europe IS the 

source for digItalis, a common heart compound to 

which m~lkons can credit their lives. And who would 

care to go back to a time when the infamous bread 

mold, penicillin. was just a common nuisance?’ 

Dickenson stressed the need for acquisition of 

baseline InformatIon. -Few parks,” he said shave an 

adequate inventory of thes natural resources. Few 

parks possess adequate inform&on to implement enlightened management strategies. Good knowledge 

of the identity and locabon of park resources IS prerequnte to wise stewardship. Improving the parIs 

database will require that priority be gwen to conducting field studies on all types of phywal and blologtcal 

WOUlCeS." 
Exotic Plants in Hawaii’s National Parks: 

A Major Challenge 

By Donald E. Gardner 

Exotic plants and the problems they cause are a 

familiar concern for managers 01 native areas. Such 

plants. however, are of pall~cular importance in nailve 

ecosystems of islands. In such habitats some exotic 

species. Isolated from those of continental landmasses. released from natural population controls 

and flnding an “empty” niche, may become aggressive 

weeds. This is a common situatton in thecharacteristitally ~depauperate” island communlbes. Because the 

Hawan Islands are regarded as a popularvacaiionland and have become easily accessible to witors 

from all over the world, it is hard to realizethatihese islands are the most geographically remote of the 

world’s mayor island groups. 

The species of llora and fauna now found in Hawaii 

can be categorized into three rather clearly defined 

groups: 

1. Endemic-those species that evolved in Hawaii 

from naturally Introduced (without human mtervention) 

ancestral forms and which are now distinct from those 

forms. It has been said that hadCharles Daruin‘svoyage on H.M.S. Beagle brought him tothe Hawaiian Islands rather than the Galapagos. he would have found 

even more supportive evidence for his work On the 

Origin of Specks. 

2. indigenous- thosespec~esnaturallyoccurring m 

Hawaii as well as elsewhere, having arrived in Hawaii 

by means other than human mtroductlon. 

3. Exotic - those species brought by European 

civilizatmn beglnning wth the dIscovery of the 

HawaiIan Islands by Captain Cook m 1778. Species 

brought prior to thls date from other Pacific islands by 

early Polynesian colonizers may also be considered 

exotic in a strict sense, although these usually are acceptable in practice due to their association with 

aborlglnal cultures. 

In general, endemic species are those that originated from life forms adapted for long distance travel 

or dispersal, whereas it IS likely that only a very few of 

the exotic plants and animals now m Hawaii would 

have become naturally established there without purposefuloraccidental introducbon by recent humanactnity For example, insect species whose ancestors, 

while in flight, could have been camed long distances 

by high altitude winds comprise a major portion of 

Hawaii’s endemic fauna. The only endemic mammals 

are a fur seal and a bat, both now rare, whose prodecessors’ means 01 reaching the islands are apparent. In comparison, the probability that strtctly terrestrial mammals could have coma without the ald of humans is slight. Likewise, plants that colonized Hawaii 

were those whose propagules were camed long distances by birds or wind, or whose seeds were capable 

of withstanding long exposures lo sea water. 

During the process of evolution, many endemic 

Hawaiian spews lost the ability by nonselectton, to 

ward off or avoid the natural predators or other 

enemies they left behlnd in their locality of orlgln. Although insularecosystems may be notedfortheirrw 

Ikent internal stabikty, they are particularly vulnerable 

to deleterious outslde Influences. such as the introducton of aggreswe plants and animals. 

Public awareness of these eHects was lacking in 

the early days of colonization, when many species 

were freely brought lo Hawail. European immigrants, 

homwckfor thelrformersurroundlngs, broughtfavorate plants and animals. Other spews were introduced 

inadvertently due to a lack of proper quarantine inspection procedures. Restrictions on Importation of 

nonnative species have been imposed only relatively 

recently and are still not completely effective. 

Certain exof~c plant spew in Hawaii (such as the 

liretree which is an important forest tree in its native 

enwonment, the Azores, M&era, and the Canary Islands), are aggreswe and unwelcome encroachers 

mlo native Hawwan habitats. Firetree currently occup~es extenwe forest and other land use areas 

throughout the state. In Hawall Volcanoes NP it occurs 

on hundreds of acres and is spreading at an alarming 

rate. Differences of professional op,n,on exist regarding the extent to which this species IS capable of actually lnvading undisturbed native ecosystems and replacing component species. However, 11s explosive 

population growth m areasdisturbed by fw orvolcan~c 

eruptions has led managers to consider this tree one 

01 the greatest overall threats to the p&s Integrity. 

Several other species 01 small trees or shrubs, 

grasses, and vlne_lIke plants also are regarded as 

equal or more serious threats in both Hawaii Volcanoes and Haleakala NPs. Although it is difhcult lo 

reach a consensus ragardlng the relative dangers 

posed by each exotic plant species when the “top” 10 

10 15 spwas are considered, managers and researchers generally agree as to the problems created 

by the “super exotics’ I” this category. 

Conlrol efforts have involved widescale mechanical 

removal of young plants and chemical treatment 01 

older plants. However, m the case of well-establlshed 

grasses, the general disturbance that would result 

from such efforts tends actually to encourage further 

establishment of exotics Managers are increasingly 

aware that in many instances there is insufflclent manpowerto keepup withcontrolofexotics,someol which 

become reestablished faster than they M” be eliminated. Prolific seed production and successful dispersal mechanisms, often not yet fully understood but 

suspected m some cases to involve exotic birds, are 

characteristic 01 many of the species. The ability of 

exotic grasses, such as broomsedge to become 

rapldly and densely establlshed on burned sites disrupts the native successional sequence and creates 

an abnormally great fire hazard. 

Although the use ot chemical pesticides is discour- 
a 

aged in NPS areas if other means of control are avatlable, herbicidescontinuetarepresenttheonlyrealistic 

approach, aside from mechanical removal. Herbrcidal 

treatment has resulted in some partial successes. and 

managers have no apparent alternative at present. No 

single approach currently shows promise of controlling the problem or even of keeping up with it. 

In view of this reality, resources managers have 

been compelled to set priorities. based on the probabllity of success, concentrating first on eradication of 

new waders, next on containment of recently established populations, and finally on control of existlog 

exotics in small, well defined sites designated for the 

natural regeneration of endangered species. Except 

for “cosmetic” removal of exotic plants, such as along 

roadsides or in campgrounds, well-established populations cannot be contained through present methods 

and are therefore placed near the bonomof the priority 

list. 

Public awareness and opinion also play a role. The 

general public is not yet fully sensitive to the NPS misslon of preserving environmental processes and features III their native condibon. Thus, visitors to 

Hawairs national parksexpecttoseeanabundanceof 

‘tropical’ plant life, a prollferatton of fragrant and 

showy flowers, colorful birds, and similar amemties 

commonly associated with Hawaii. 

Whilealtofthese canreadIly be found in Hawaii, frequently they do not represent Hawaii’s endemic flora 

and fauna, a fact rarely of much consequence to the 

average visitor. Unlike plants such as the nonnative 

spews of ginger, which grow in thick patches in rainforest area.s and produce attractive, aromatic flowers, 

few truly native Hawaiian plants have the expected 

large, showy or fragrant blooms. Native birds may be 

colorful, but they are small and not readily seen. Too 

often, visliors fall to appreciate the true ‘inner beauty’ 

of endemic species, which is the uniqueness of their 

origins, their adaptation to the environment in which 

they evolved, and their rarity among the world’s flora. 

Broomsedge and other exotic grasses covering extensive acreages of Hawan Volcanoes National Park. 

With the well-intentioned but misguided idea of 

“beautifying” Hawaii Volcanoes NP, several decades 

ago a number of colorful South American Fuschia sp. 

bushes were planted in the rain forest among the native tree ferns near a prominent visitor attraction. It is 

obvious from visitor comments and their photographic 

activities that Fuchsia now represent one of the most 

memorable ~Hawailan” flowers in the Park. Little regard is given to their exotic origin and great consternatlon would be expressed tf the bushes were removed. 

Other flowermg shrubs. such as glorybush (Tibouchkw urv~lieana), with large, bright purple flowers, 

may be Included in the Same category 

Vtsitors sometimes express surprise or concern at 

exotic plant eradication efforts and may leavethe Park 

still wondering why the “forest rang&found it necessary to remove a certain tree or shrub. In response to 

this problem, the visitor center at Hawaii Volcanoes 

NP now includes a drsplay explaining NPS policy with 

regard to exotic species. Public information leading to 

publrc awareness of the NPS mission is essential to 

provide support for NPS management in carrying out 

its increasingly complex functions. 

Insect predators and plant diseases have been 

and are bemg used m noxious weed control programs 

with varying degrees of success. Ideally, such bioloqical control approaches may provide good cost efleclive control wlthout the disadvantages of polluting residues or byproducts and other side effects. 

A biocontrol program may in theory integrate the effects of several beneficial predators and/or parasites 

which, once established rn the region where control IS 

desired, make contactwith the targetspeclesandcontinue to provide control indefinitely. In actual practice, 

several poientlal limitationsmust beconsidered.Complete eradication is not usually achievable through a 

biocontrol program. The expected result IS a reduction 

of the problem population to a manageable level al 

which its aggresweness is significantly mibgated. 

For biocontrot programs to be effective, the insect 

predators or disease agents must possess two important qualities: A high degree of virulence, sufficient to 

ktll or severely affect the host plant, and host specificity 

-that is, their destructive capability must be limited to 

the target species. Effective agents must display consistency and StabllIty in both these qualities under the 

19 

actual environmental condibons in which they will be 

used, not only in laboratory or greenhouse tests. 

In addition, once btomntrol agents have been released into the environment, they cannot be recalled; 

they are free to cross politw boundaries, such as 

thoseofanational park, and mayspreadtothe limitsof 

their potential ecological range. Their probable effect 

on target, as well as nontarget species throughout this 

range should therefore be ascerialned as accurately 

as possible prior to their release. 

In an effort to prevent lurther problems such as 

those created in the past by indiscriminate introduction 

of exotic species into Hawaii, the State of Hawaii has 

imposed stringent regulations for importation of insects or plant disease agents for any purpose. including testing for possible use in biocontrol programs. 

This cautious approach is understandable in view of 

the number of varying interests that must be considered and the prevalllng element of uncertainty regarding unforeseen predatory or parasitic relationshtps inherent in any such research program. 

In Hawaii other prominent interests. most notably 

those of agriculture, receive prime consideration in 

confects which may arise from nattve ecosystem preservation efforts. Some exotic plant species which 

constitute problems and are not al all dewable in NPS 

areas are widely cultivated or otherwise encouraged 

outside park boundaries for their ornamental value or 

their fruit, effectively ruling out biocontrol efforts. Other 

troublesome exotic spews are so closely related to 

agricultural crops as to severely restrict biocontrol 

methods. For example, certatn aggressive exotic 

grasses in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park are closely 

related tosugarcane, Hawaii’s most Important crop. 

Notwithstanding these difhculttes, some exotic 

species appear to be equally undesirable, outside, as 

well as wtthin NPS areas, presenting no serious conflicts. It is the hope of HawaIian NPS managers and 

scientists that these species may serve as the basis 

for a pilot biocontrol program supported by state as 

well as NPS concerns, and that such efforts, if suecessful, may eventually makeavailablemore timeand 

manpower to concentrate on the control of other exotics through more dtrect methods. 

Gardner is a research scienfisl with the NPSKPSU 

at fhe University of Ha@ Manoa. 
ul 

U