U.S. Department of Education

Institute of Education Sciences

NCES 2006-040

Participation in

Adult Education for

Work-Related Reasons:

2002–03

Statistical Analysis Report

U.S. Department of Education

Institute of Education Sciences

NCES 2006-040

Participation in

Adult Education for

Work-Related Reasons:

2002–03

Statistical Analysis Report

November 2005

Brian Kleiner

Priscilla Carver

Mary Hagedorn

Westat

Christopher Chapman

National Center for

Education Statistics
U.S. Department of Education

Margaret Spellings

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences

Grover J. Whitehurst

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Mark Schneider

Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing,

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National Center for Education Statistics

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November 2005

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Suggested Citation

Kleiner, B., Carver, P., Hagedorn, M., Chapman, C. (2005). Participation in Adult Education for Work-Related

Reasons: 2002–03 (NCES 2006-040). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

For ordering information on this report, write to

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Content Contact

Christopher Chapman

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nhes@ed.gov

http://nces.ed.gov/nhes
iii 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

This report provides general findings from the Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons 

(AEWR) survey of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES). The survey was 

conducted by random-digit-dial telephone interviewing of the civilian, noninstitutionalized population 

ages 16 and older who were not enrolled in elementary or secondary school at the time of the survey. 

NHES is a system of surveys developed to address important educational issues, and surveys on a variety 

of educational topics have been administered from 1991 through 2003. 

Adults were asked about their work-related educational activities and experiences over the 

previous 12-month period. The survey defined work-related activities in terms of formal and informal 

learning activities that are done for reasons related to work. Formal types of work-related adult education 

are defined by the presence of an instructor, whereas informal adult learning activities are defined by the 

absence of an instructor. The tests of significance used in this report are based on Student’s t statistic for 

the comparison of individual estimates and for bivariate relationships, as well as multivariate analysis 

using logistic regression. An alpha level of .05 was employed for all tests of significance.1

 

Findings from the survey reveal that 40 percent of adults in the nation participated in some type 

of formal adult education for work-related reasons during a 12-month period in 2002–03 (table 1). 

Thirty-three percent participated in work-related courses, 9 percent were in a college degree program, 

2 percent were in a vocational degree/diploma program, and 1 percent had an apprenticeship.2

 

Fifty-eight percent of adults participated in informal work-related learning activities (table 6). 

Among adults who were employed in the past year, 56 percent participated in on-the-job demonstrations, 

and 43 percent received supervised training or mentoring. Among all adults (i.e., employed or not in the 

past year), 31 percent did self-paced study using books, manuals, audiotapes, or videos; 23 percent 

attended conferences, trade shows, or conventions; 21 percent attended brown-bag or informal 

presentations; and 21 percent did self-paced study using computer-based software tutorials.3

 Seventyfive percent of adults who were employed in the past year participated in some type of informal learning 

activity; and across each of the informal activities measured, those adults who were employed in the past 

year were more likely to participate than those who were unemployed in the past year (table 7). 

 

1

 See the Technical Notes section for more information on the statistical tests used for this report. 2

 See the Technical Notes section for more information on the statistical tests used for this report. 3

 Adults could have participated in more than one type of informal work-related activity.
iv 

Research on adult education participation rates during the 1990s (Creighton and Hudson 2002) 

found that participation in adult education during this period varied by level of education, race/ethnicity, 

occupational group, and employment status. For example, adults with lower education levels, Hispanics, 

adults in trade occupations, and part-time employees had lower rates of participation in work-related 

coursetaking. Darkenwald, Kim, and Stowe (1998) reported that adults with higher education levels were 

more likely to participate in work-related courses than adults with lower education levels. 

The findings of this report show similar patterns of participation. Adults with lower education 

levels were generally less likely than those with more education to participate in various types of formal 

and informal work-related educational activities. This may be related to the fact that adults with a 

bachelor’s degree or more education are more likely than those with less education to be in professional 

or managerial occupations, which require higher levels of continuing education (Frazis et al. 1998). The 

data show that among adults employed in the past year, those in professional or managerial occupations 

were most likely, and those in the trades4

 were least likely, to have participated in formal or informal 

work-related learning activities. In addition, younger adults were generally more likely than older adults 

to participate in formal and informal work-related adult education. 

Both bivariate and multivariate analyses conducted for this report showed that younger adults 

were more likely than older adults to participate in formal and informal work-related adult education. 

Both types of analyses also suggested that among employed adults, professionals and managers were 

more likely than those in service, sales, or support occupations and those in the trades to have participated 

in some type of formal work-related adult education and informal work-related learning activities. Also, 

while the bivariate analyses indicated that female adults were more likely than male adults to participate 

in work-related informal learning, this difference was not detected when controlling for other adult 

characteristics in the multivariate analyses. 

The bivariate and multivariate analyses conducted for this report revealed that the various 

participation rates in formal and informal work-related adult education were affected by a complex 

interplay of factors, including age, education level, and types of occupation. Regression analyses are one 

relatively simple approach to teasing out these factors. Future analyses could use AEWR data to expand 

upon this analysis, focusing in greater detail on how participation in various types of work-related adult 

education is related to other factors, such as region and specific occupations (e.g., health professionals or 

educators). 

 

4

 Trades include mechanics, construction workers, transportation workers, etc. See the Technical Notes section of this report for a more complete 

definition of occupational groups.
v 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

We wish to thank the thousands of adults who participated in the Adult Education for WorkRelated Reasons survey that was fielded as part of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys 

Program. Without their cooperation, this analysis would not have been possible. Special thanks go to 

Shelley Burns, Robert Lerner, Val Plisko, Marilyn Seastrom, Jim Griffith, and Lisa Hudson of NCES, and 

Rachel Dinkes and Gerard Rainville of the Education Statistics Services Institute, American Institutes for 

Research, for their technical and substantive comments on drafts of this report. Jerry West reviewed the 

report while at NCES. He is now at Mathematic Policy Research, Inc. This report was also reviewed by 

Duc-Le To of the Institute of Education Sciences. 
vi 

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vii 

Contents 

Page 

Executive Summary........................................................................................................................... iii 

Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................................. v 

List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................... ix 

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 1 

Findings ............................................................................................................................................. 5 

Work-Related Formal Learning ............................................................................................... 5 

Participation in Work-Related Formal Adult Education, by Adult Characteristics ....... 5 

Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Formal Adult Education, 

by Adult Characteristics........................................................................................... 7 

Participation in Work-Related Formal Adult Education, by Employment Status and 

Occupational Group................................................................................................. 9 

Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Formal Adult Education, 

by Employment Status and Occupational Group..................................................... 9 

Multivariate Analysis of Participation in Any Work-Related Formal Education .......... 11 

Multivariate Analysis of Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related 

Formal Education..................................................................................................... 13 

Time Spent in Formal Work-Related Education ............................................................ 14 

Providers From Whom Adults Took Formal Work-Related Courses ............................ 15 

Work-Related Informal Learning............................................................................................. 16 

Participation in Work-Related Informal Learning, by Adult Characteristics................. 17 

Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Informal Learning, by Adult 

Characteristics.......................................................................................................... 20 

Participation in Work-Related Informal Learning, by Employment Status and 

Occupational Group................................................................................................. 22 

Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Informal Learning, by 

 Employment Status and Occupational Group.......................................................... 22 

Multivariate Analysis of Participation in Any Work-Related Informal Learning.......... 24 

Multivariate Analysis of Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Informal 

Learning................................................................................................................... 26 

Summary of Findings......................................................................................................................... 29 

Technical Notes ................................................................................................................................. 31 

Measuring Participation in Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons ................................ 31 

Measure of Participation in Any Work-Related Formal Adult Education ..................... 32 
viii 

Contents (continued) 

Page 

Measure of Participation in Any Work-Related Informal Learning............................... 32 

Definition of Occupational Groups.......................................................................................... 33 

Data Reliability ........................................................................................................................ 34 

Nonsampling Errors ...................................................................................................... 34 

Response Rates ............................................................................................................. 35 

Sampling Errors ............................................................................................................ 35 

Estimation Weights and Variance Estimation............................................................... 36 

References ........................................................................................................................................ 41 

Appendix A. Formal Adult Education Logistic Regression Tables.................................................. A1 

Appendix B. Informal Adult Education Logistic Regression Tables ............................................... B1 
ix 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

1 Participation in formal adult education for work-related reasons, by type of 

educational activity and adult characteristics: 2002–03................................................. 6 

2 Participation in formal adult education for work-related reasons, by type of 

educational activity, employment status, and occupational group: 2002–03 ................. 10 

3 Results of logistic regression analysis of participation in any formal adult education 

 for work-related reasons: 2002–03................................................................................. 12 

4 Number and percent of adults indicating total credit hours or classroom instructional 

hours in the past 12 months, by type of educational activity: 2002–03 ......................... 15 

5 Percent of adults taking formal work-related courses from selected types of 

instructional providers: 2002–03.................................................................................... 16 

6 Participation in informal learning related to a job or career, by type of educational 

activity and adult characteristics: 2002–03 .................................................................... 18 

7 Participation in informal learning related to a job or career, by type of educational 

 activity, employment status, and occupational group: 2002–03 .................................... 23 

8 Results of logistic regression analysis of participation in any work-related informal 

learning: 2002–03 .......................................................................................................... 25 

A1 Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

participation in college degree and post-degree certificate programs: 2002–03............ A-3 

A2 Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and participation in 

work-related courses: 2002–03 ...................................................................................... A-4 

A3 Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

participation in vocational programs: 2002–03.............................................................. A-5 

A4 Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

participation in apprenticeships: 2002–03...................................................................... A-6 

B1 Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

participation in on-the-job demonstrations: 2002–03 .................................................... B-3 

B2 Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

supervised training or mentoring: 2002–03 ................................................................... B-4 

B3 Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related participation 

in self-paced study using books, procedures manuals, audiotapes, or videos: 2002–03.......... B-5 
x 

List of Tables (continued) 

Table Page 

B4 Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

attendance at conferences, trade shows, or conventions: 2002–03 ................................ B-6 

B5 Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

attendance at brown-bag or informal presentations: 2002–03 ....................................... B-7 

B6 Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related participation 

in self-paced study using computer-based software tutorials: 2002–03................................ B-8
1 

INTRODUCTION 

Work-related adult education has become increasingly important in our nation’s economy and the 

lives of individuals in the workforce. The confluence of an aging workforce, declining job stability, and 

continuing industry demands for a more flexible workforce have resulted in considerable emphasis on the 

importance of the training of workers already in the labor force (Dougherty 2003). Many economists 

studying the labor market believe that new technology has had a very significant effect on the demand for 

highly educated workers (Bassi 1999). Out of necessity, workers are adapting their skills and knowledge 

to meet the needs of today’s changing workplace. The growth of knowledge and technology has meant 

that much of what adults learned 5 years ago is now obsolete or at least modified in content or meaning 

(McDonald 2001). These workers require training and education to achieve and maintain success in their 

career fields. Consequently, adult education for work-related reasons is a fast growing area of practice in 

the field of adult education. 

Examination of work-related learning has recently become an important component of several 

educational studies and increasingly the focus of important public policy, both in the United States and 

abroad (Lengermann 1996; Imel 1998). For example, data have been collected, examined, and reported on 

from the National Household Education Survey (NHES) of the United States, the Adult Education and 

Training Survey (AETS) of Canada, and Great Britain’s National Child Development Survey, addressing 

individual participation in work-related adult education and training. 

According to the report, Participation Trends and Patterns in Adult Education: 1991 to 1999

(Creighton and Hudson 2002), several factors have led to an increased demand for work-related adult 

learning, including the shift in the labor market from a manufacturing economy to a service- and 

information-based economy, the growth of technology, and a general increase in job-skills requirements. 

The same report documented the trend towards greater participation in any adult education throughout the 

1990s and for virtually all subgroups of adults identified by age, sex, race/ethnicity, education level, and 

income level. Findings from that report generally confirmed conclusions of previous research (e.g., Kay 

1982; Valentine 1997; Darkenwald, Kim, and Stowe 1998) that more highly educated adults and those in 

higher status occupational groups were more likely to participate in adult education activities, including 

those that are related to work. 

This report extends this body of research, focusing on work-related adult education that took 

place from early 2002 through early 2003. The report provides general findings from the Adult Education 

for Work-Related Reasons (AEWR) survey of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program 
2 

(NHES:2003). The survey was conducted by random-digit-dial telephone interviewing of the civilian, 

noninstitutionalized population ages 16 and older who were not enrolled in elementary or secondary 

school at the time of the survey.1

 For the NHES:2003, Screeners were completed with 32,049 households, 

with a weighted Screener unit response rate of 65 percent. For AEWR, 12,725 of the 16,004 sampled 

adults completed the AEWR survey, a weighted unit response rate of 76 percent. Thus, the overall unit 

response rate for the AEWR survey was 49 percent (the product of the Screener unit response rate and the 

AEWR unit response rate).2

 

Adults were asked about their work-related educational activities and experiences over the 

previous 12-month period. The survey divided work-related activities into two categories, formal and 

informal participation. Formal types of work-related adult education were defined by the presence of an 

instructor, whereas informal adult learning activities were defined by the absence of an instructor. 

For the purposes of the survey, formal adult education included: 

 A college degree or post-degree certificate program for work-related reasons; 

 A postsecondary vocational degree/diploma program for work-related reasons; 

 An apprenticeship program leading to journeyman status in a skilled trade or craft; and 

 Work-related courses (training, workshops, seminars, courses, or classes taken for workrelated reasons). 

Informal adult learning activities included: 

 On-the-job demonstrations of equipment, techniques, or procedures by a supervisor or 

coworker; 

 Receipt of other supervised training or mentoring on the job; 

 Self-paced study using books, procedures manuals, audiotapes, or videos; 

 Self-paced study using computer-based software tutorials, including CD-ROMs or from the 

Internet; 

 Attendance at brown-bag or informal presentations; and 

 

1

 For the purposes of this report, people ages 16 and 17 are referred to as “adults.” 2

 Due to this relatively low overall unit response rate, estimates from the NHES:2003 AEWR survey are subject to potential bias. However,

previous nonresponse bias analyses conducted for NHES:1999, which had similar response rates for the same population covered by NHES:2003, 

did not reveal significant bias (Nolin et al. 2000). A nonresponse bias analysis was also conducted for NHES:2003 (Hagedorn et al., 

forthcoming), which showed no evidence of bias in estimates from the AEWR survey. 
3 

 Attendance at conferences, trade shows, or conventions related to one’s work or career. 

This report addresses the following questions: 

To what extent do adults participate in work-related formal adult education? 

 In what types of work-related formal adult education are adults engaged? 

 How does participation in formal work-related adult education vary by adult 

characteristics, employment status, and occupation? 

 How many total hours do adults spend participating in formal adult education for workrelated reasons? 

 From what types of providers do adults take formal adult education for work-related 

reasons? 

To what extent do adults participate in work-related informal learning activities? 

 In what types of work-related informal learning activities are adults engaged? 

 How does participation in work-related informal learning activities vary by adult 

characteristics, employment status, and occupation? 

The next sections of the report focus on these questions and present survey findings related to 

participation in formal and informal adult education for work-related reasons. The Technical Notes 

section that follows describes the survey methodology, and appendixes A and B provide logistic 

regression tables. 
4 

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5 

FINDINGS 

Two types of analysis are presented in the sections that follow: bivariate analysis of 

crosstabulations and multivariate analysis using logistic regression. As a general guideline in this report, 

only statistically significant differences are discussed. Significance was determined using Student’s t

statistic. An alpha level of .05 was employed for all tests of significance. In addition, effect sizes were 

calculated for the logistic regression parameters using a method suggested by Chinn (2000). The purpose 

of presenting the effect size parameters is to provide readers with a sense of the magnitude of the 

relationship between variables in the regression results (Cohen 1988). See the Technical Notes section of 

this report for more detail on the statistical tests. 

Work-Related Formal Learning 

Adults were asked whether they had participated in various types of formal adult education for 

work-related reasons in the previous 12 months. In this study, formal work-related adult education 

includes college degree or post-degree certificate programs, postsecondary vocational degree/diploma 

programs, apprenticeship programs leading to journeyman status in a skilled trade or craft, and workrelated courses that have an instructor. Respondents who indicated that they participated in college or 

vocational programs were then asked whether those programs were taken for work-related reasons. 

Apprenticeships were assumed to be work-related based on the question asked in the survey (i.e., “...a 

formal apprenticeship program leading to journeyman status in a skilled trade or craft?”). Work-related 

courses were defined as training, workshops, seminars, courses, or classes that had an instructor and were 

taken for work-related reasons. Adults were also asked about the intensity of their adult education 

experiences, expressed in terms of number of credit hours or classroom hours, and about the instructional 

providers of their work-related courses. Findings related to these aspects of formal adult education for 

work-related reasons are presented in this section. 

Participation in Work-Related Formal Adult Education, by Adult Characteristics 

Forty percent of all adults participated in any formal adult education for work-related reasons 

(table 1). In terms of participation in specific activities, 33 percent of adults participated in work-related 

courses, 9 percent participated in a college degree or certificate program for work-related reasons, 
6 

Table 1. Participation in formal adult education for work-related reasons, by type of educational activity 

and adult characteristics: 2002–03 

Specific type of formal educational activity 

Any formal adult 

education for 

work-related 

reasons1

College degree 

program for workrelated reasons 

Vocational 

degree/diploma 

program for workrelated reasons Apprenticeship 

Work-related 

courses 

Adult characteristic 

Number of 

adults 

(thousands) 

Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. 

 

 Total....................................... 206,533 40 0.5 9 0.3 2 0.1 1 0.1 33 0.5 

 

Age 

 24 years or younger................. 24,053 59 2.1 37 1.9 3 0.6 2 0.5 31 1.9 

 25 to 44 years........................... 82,223 48 1.0 10 0.5 3 0.3 1 0.2 41 1.0 

 45 to 64 years........................... 66,447 39 1.0 2 0.2 1 0.2 # # 37 1.0 

 65 years or older ...................... 33,810 7 0.4 # # # # # # 7 0.4 

 

Sex 

 Male.......................................... 98,793 40 0.8 8 0.4 2 0.2 1 0.2 33 0.9 

 Female...................................... 107,740 40 0.7 10 0.4 2 0.2 # # 33 0.6 

 

Race/ethnicity 

 White, non-Hispanic ............... 149,135 41 0.6 9 0.3 2 0.2 1 0.1 35 0.6 

 Black, non-Hispanic................ 23,145 39 1.8 10 1.0 3 0.5 1 0.2 31 1.6 

 Hispanic ................................... 24,248 31 2.0 6 0.8 2 0.4 1 0.3 25 1.7 

Asian or Pacific Islander, 

non-Hispanic ......................... 6,330 49 3.4 16 2.6 1 0.4 # # 38 3.2 

 Other race, non-Hispanic ........ 3,675 43 5.0 15 3.2 3 1.0 2 1.2 31 3.9 

 

Highest education completed 

 Less than a high school 

 diploma/equivalent .............. 32,357 10 1.1 # # # # 1 0.4 9 1.1 

 High school diploma/ 

 equivalent............................. 61,194 28 0.9 5 0.4 2 0.3 1 0.2 23 0.9 

 Some college/vocational/ 

 associate’s degree ................ 58,055 49 1.1 16 0.8 3 0.3 1 0.2 36 1.1 

 Bachelor’s degree.................... 32,122 58 1.2 10 0.6 2 0.4 # # 52 1.3 

 Graduate or professional 

 degree ................................... 22,804 62 1.6 13 1.0 1 0.3 # # 58 1.6 

 

Household income 

 $25,000 or less......................... 53,796 21 1.0 8 0.6 1 0.2 1 0.1 14 0.8 

 $25,001 to $50,000.................. 55,435 38 1.0 9 0.6 3 0.3 1 0.2 31 1.0 

 $50,001 to $75,000.................. 43,189 48 1.3 10 0.7 2 0.3 1 0.3 40 1.3 

 $75,001 to $100,000................ 24,286 54 2.0 9 0.8 2 0.4 # # 49 1.8 

 $100,001 or more .................... 29,826 54 1.6 9 0.8 1 0.3 1 0.4 49 1.6 

# Estimate rounds to zero.

1

Participation in any adult education for work-related reasons includes college or university degree or certificate programs, technical diploma or degree 

programs, apprenticeships, or work-related courses. Adults could have participated in more than one type of formal work-related adult education activity. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 National Household 

Education Surveys Program. 
7 

2 percent were seeking a vocational degree or diploma for work-related reasons, and 1 percent 

participated in an apprenticeship program.3

 

The percentage of adults who participated in formal adult education varied by adult 

characteristics. Younger adults (24 or younger) were more likely than older ones to participate: 59 percent 

of adults 24 or younger participated in adult education for work-related reasons, compared to 48 percent 

of 25- to 44-year-olds, 39 percent of 45- to 64-year-olds, and 7 percent of adults 65 years old or older. 

No difference was detected between men and women in their rates of participation in formal adult 

education for work-related reasons (both at 40 percent). With respect to race/ethnicity, Asian and Pacific 

Islander, non-Hispanic adults (49 percent) were more likely than White, non-Hispanic adults (41 percent), 

Black, non-Hispanic adults (39 percent), and Hispanic adults (31 percent) to participate in formal adult 

education for work-related reasons.4

 Hispanic adults were the least likely to participate. 

The data suggest that the higher an adult’s level of education, the more likely he or she was to 

participate in adult education for work-related reasons. Sixty-two percent of adults with a graduate or 

professional degree participated in one or more of the formal adult education activities addressed in this 

study, compared to 58 percent of those with a bachelor’s degree, 49 percent of those with some college or 

a vocational or associate’s degree, 28 percent of those with a high school diploma or its equivalent, and 

10 percent of adults with less than a high school diploma or its equivalent. 

.Adults with higher annual household incomes were more likely than those with lower 

incomes to participate in formal adult education for work-related reasons. Specifically, 54 percent of 

adults with household incomes of $75,001 to $100,000 and $100,001 or more participated, compared with 

48 percent of those with incomes of $50,001 to $75,000, 38 percent of those with incomes of $25,001 to 

$50,000, and 21 percent of those with incomes of $25,000 or less. 

Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Formal Adult Education, by Adult 

 Characteristics 

Participation in the specific types of formal adult education for work-related reasons also varied 

by demographic characteristics (table 1). For example, 41 percent of 25- to 44-year-olds took work-

 

3

 In previous NHES reports focusing on adult education and lifelong learning, full-time participation in postsecondary programs was not 

considered an adult education activity and was excluded from the participation rate (e.g., Kim et al. 1995). This report is designed to document all 

participation for work-related reasons and includes both part-time and full-time postsecondary enrollment. 4

 Hereafter, persons of Asian and Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic origin are referred to as Asian. Persons of White, non-Hispanic origin are 

referred to as White, and persons of Black, non-Hispanic origin are referred to as Black.
8 

related courses, compared to 37 percent of 45- to 64-year-olds, 31 percent of adults 24 or younger, and 

7 percent of adults 65 or older.5

 Younger adults were more likely than older ones to have participated in a 

college degree or certificate program for work-related reasons: 37 percent of adults 24 or younger were in 

a college degree or certificate program, compared to 10 percent of 25- to 44-year-olds, 2 percent of 45- to 

64-year-olds, and less than 1 percent of adults ages 65 or older.6

 As for race/ethnicity, White, Black, and 

Asian adults were more likely than Hispanic adults to participate in formal work-related courses 

(35 percent, 31 percent, and 38 percent, respectively, versus 25 percent). Asian adults were more likely 

than White, Black, and Hispanic adults to be in a college degree or certificate program (16 percent versus 

9 percent, 10 percent, and 6 percent, respectively). 

Adults with higher education levels were more likely than those with lower education levels to 

participate in formal work-related courses: 58 percent of adults with a graduate or professional degree 

participated in such courses, compared to 52 percent of those with a bachelor’s degree, 36 percent of 

those with some college or a vocational or associate’s degree, 23 percent of those with a high school 

diploma or its equivalent, and 9 percent of adults with less than a high school diploma or its equivalent. 

Adults with some college, a vocational diploma, or associate’s degree were more likely to be in a college 

credential program for work-related reasons (16 percent) than adults whose highest educational 

attainment was a high school credential (5 percent) or less (less than 1 percent). 

Income was also associated with participation in specific types of formal work-related education. 

Adults with higher annual household incomes were more likely than those with lower incomes to 

participate in work-related courses. Forty-nine percent of adults with incomes of $75,001 to $100,000 and 

$100,001 or more in the past year participated, compared to 40 percent of those with incomes of $50,001 

to $75,000, 31 percent with incomes of $25,001 to $50,000, and 14 percent with incomes of $25,000 or 

less in the past year. 

 

5

 Work-related courses were defined as training, workshops, seminars, courses, or classes that had an instructor and were taken for work-related 

reasons. 

6

 Many of the adults 24 and younger may not yet have entered the workforce in their primary career field at the time of the survey, and one might 

distinguish this population from older adults already in the work force. However, since postsecondary education is noncompulsory, and since 

most college students consider their education to be for work-related reasons, the population of adults 24 and younger was included in these 

analyses. 
9 

Participation in Work-Related Formal Adult Education, by Employment Status and 

 Occupational Group 

Table 2 shows findings for participation in adult education for work-related reasons by 

employment status and occupational group.7

 Fifty-two percent of adults who were employed in the past 

year participated in formal adult education for work-related reasons, compared to 11 percent who were 

not employed in the past year. Adults who worked 12 months or 6 to 11 months in the past year were 

more likely than those who worked 1 to 5 months to have participated in any formal adult education for 

work-related reasons (52 percent each versus 44 percent, respectively). Professionals and managers 

(70 percent) were more likely to participate than those in service, sales, or support occupations 

(49 percent), who were in turn more likely than those employed in the trades (32 percent) to participate. 

Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Formal Adult Education, by Employment 

Status and Occupational Group 

Differences in participation rates for specific types of formal adult education taken for workrelated reasons were also detected by employment status and occupational group (table 2). For example, 

44 percent of adults who were employed in the past year participated in work-related courses, compared 

to 7 percent who were not employed in the past year. Eleven percent of adults who were employed in the 

past year were in a college degree or certificate program for work-related reasons, compared to 4 percent 

who were not employed in the past year. 

Adults who worked 12 months in the past year were more likely than those who worked 6 to 11 

months to have taken work-related courses (47 percent versus 42 percent, respectively). Adults who 

worked 1 to 5 months were least likely among employed adults to have taken work- related courses 

(26 percent). In contrast, adults who were employed 1 to 5 months in the past year were more likely than 

those who were employed 6 to 11 months or 12 months in the past year to be in a college credential 

program for work-related reasons (22 percent versus 14 and 9 percent, respectively). 

Adults in professional or managerial occupations were more likely to participate in work-related 

courses than those in service, sales, or support occupations (64 percent versus 40 percent, respectively), 

and those in the trades were least likely to have participated in work-related courses (26 percent). Those 

in trade occupations were also less likely than those in professional or managerial occupations and 

service, sales, or support occupations to be in a college degree program (5 percent versus 13 and 

12 percent, respectively), but were more likely among employed adults to have participated in an 

apprenticeship (3 percent versus 1 percent). 

 

7

See the Technical Notes section of this report for definition of occupational groups.
10 

Table 2. Participation in formal adult education for work-related reasons, by type of educational 

activity, employment status, and occupational group: 2002–03 

Specific type of formal educational activity 

Any formal adult 

education for workrelated reasons1

College degree 

program for 

work-related 

reasons 

Vocational 

degree/diploma 

program for workrelated reasons Apprenticeship 

Work-related 

courses 

Adult characteristic 

Number of 

adults 

(thousands) 

Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. 

 

 Total.......................................... 206,533 40 0.5 9 0.3 2 0.1 1 0.1 33 0.5 

 

Employed in past year 

 Yes .............................................. 146,030 52 0.6 11 0.4 2 0.2 1 0.1 44 0.6 

No ............................................... 60,503 11 0.6 4 0.4 1 0.1 # # 7 0.5 

 

Months worked in past year2 

 

 12 months.................................... 107,971 52 0.8 9 0.4 2 0.2 1 0.2 47 0.8 

 6 to 11 months ............................ 27,675 52 1.6 14 0.9 3 0.5 1 0.2 42 1.6 

 1 to 5 months............................... 10,383 44 2.7 22 2.3 4 1.0 1 0.4 26 2.8 

 

Occupation group2 

 

 Professional or managerial......... 45,292 70 1.2 13 0.7 1 0.2 1 0.1 64 1.3 

 Service, sales, or support............ 65,769 49 1.1 12 0.6 3 0.3 1 0.1 40 1.0 

 Trades.......................................... 34,969 32 1.4 5 0.6 2 0.4 3 0.5 26 1.4 

# Estimate rounds to zero.

1

Participation in any adult education for work-related reasons includes college or university degree or certificate programs, technical diploma or degree 

programs, apprenticeships, or work-related courses. Adults could have participated in more than one type of formal work-related adult education 

activity. 

2

Estimates pertain only to adults who reported working in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Details may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program. 
11 

 Multivariate Analysis of Participation in Any Work-Related Formal Education 

The preceding sections presented bivariate analyses of individual characteristics and participation 

in formal work-related adult education. A risk of relying exclusively on bivariate analyses is that 

associations may be observed that are actually due to interrelationships among the characteristics 

examined. For example, the fact that men are more likely than women to attend conferences, trade shows, 

or conventions may have more to do with the employment status and occupations of men and women and 

very little to do with sex per se. That is, that men are more likely than women to attend conferences, trade 

shows, or conventions may be better explained by the fact that men are more likely to be employed than 

women and are more likely to be in occupations that require such activities. In this way, logistic 

regression was used to examine the individual relationships between participation and adult 

characteristics, controlling for other adult characteristics. Table 3 provides logistic regression results that 

show the association of participation in any formal work-related adult education and each adult 

characteristic (age, sex, etc.) with all other adult characteristics held constant.8

 

The multivariate analysis of participation in any formal work-related adult education yielded 

findings consistent with the bivariate analysis for age, educational attainment, and occupational group. 

Specifically, the youngest adults (ages 24 or younger) were more likely than adults from the older age 

groups to participate in any formal work-related adult education. As in the bivariate analysis, adults with 

a graduate or professional degree were more likely than adults with less education to participate, although 

the effect size of the difference for adults with a bachelor’s degree was less than 0.2.9

 Those in 

professional or managerial positions were more likely to participate than those in services, sales, or 

support occupations, those employed in the trades, and those who were not employed in the previous 12 

months. 

The multivariate analysis did not yield findings completely consistent with the bivariate analysis 

for household income. In the bivariate analysis, households with income of $100,001 or more were more 

likely than those with income of $75,000 or less to participate in any formal work-related adult education, 

whereas the multivariate analysis showed those in the highest income bracket only to be more likely to 

participate than those in the lowest income bracket ($25,000 or less), when controlling for other adult 

characteristics. Also, once other factors were controlled, males were less likely to participate than 

females, although the effect size of the difference was less than 0.1. 

 

8

 For the sake of consistency, all of the logistic regression tables in this report used as reference categories subgroups for each adult characteristic 

(e.g., age, income) that had the highest participation rates in overall formal work-related adult education, with the exception of race/ethnicity. For 

policy-relevant reasons, White adults were used as the reference group for the race/ethnicity variable. 9 Effect sizes of less than 0.2 are sometimes considered to be negligible (Cohen 1988). However, few analyses of meaningful effect sizes for 

estimates of participation in adult education have been conducted. See the technical notes for a discussion of effect size calculations. 
12 

Unlike the bivariate analysis, the multivariate analysis indicated that Asian adults were no more 

likely, and Hispanic adults no less likely, than White adults to participate in work-related formal adult 

education, when controlling for other factors (such as education level, occupation, and household 

income). Contrary to the bivariate analysis where no differences were detected, in the multivariate 

analysis White adults were more likely than Black adults to participate, although the effect size of the 

difference was less than 0.2. 

Table 3. Results of logistic regression analysis of participation in any formal adult education 

for work-related reasons: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. 

Odds

ratio 

Effect 

Size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years........................................................................... -0.91* 0.117 0.40 -0.506 

 45 to 64 years........................................................................... -1.29* 0.126 0.27 -0.723 

 65 years or older ...................................................................... -2.39* 0.140 0.09 -1.330 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male.......................................................................................... -0.15* 0.067 0.86 -0.083 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, nonHispanic) 

Black, non-Hispanic ................................................................ -0.19* 0.096 0.82 -0.110 

Hispanic.................................................................................... 0.22 0.129 1.24 0.119 

Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic................................. 0.13 0.175 1.14 0.072 

Other race, non-Hispanic ........................................................ -0.33 0.240 0.72 -0.181 

Highest education completed (Reference category: 

Graduate or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent .......................... -1.96* 0.184 0.14 -1.086 

 High school diploma/equivalent............................................. -1.16* 0.108 0.31 -0.647 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree.......................... -0.47* 0.103 0.63 -0.255 

 Bachelor’s degree .................................................................... -0.29* 0.095 0.75 -0.159 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or 

more) 

 $25,000 or less ......................................................................... -0.58* 0.125 0.56 -0.320 

 $25,001 to $50,000.................................................................. -0.17 0.099 0.84 -0.096 

 $50,001 to $75,000.................................................................. 0.03 0.105 1.03 0.016 

 $75,001 to $100,000................................................................ 0.10 0.143 1.11 0.058 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 

12 months) 

 6 to 11 months.......................................................................... 0.00 0.084 1.00 0.000 

 Less than 6 months1

................................................................. -0.20 0.146 0.82 -0.110 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional 

or managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support......................................................... -0.47* 0.073 0.63 -0.255 

 Trades ....................................................................................... -0.84* 0.098 0.43 -0.466 

 Not employed within past 12 months..................................... -1.75* 0.167 0.17 -0.979 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program. 
13 

Multivariate Analysis of Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Formal 

 Education 

Logistic regressions were also performed individually for each type of formal work-related 

learning, with participation in the given type of activity as the dependent variable and adult characteristics 

as the independent variables in each regression. The tables appear in appendix A. This section presents 

the results of these regressions for participation in college and university degree programs and workrelated courses. Because only 1 to 2 percent of adults participated in vocational/technical and 

apprenticeship programs, the results for those types of adult education are not presented here, but are 

given in the appendix for the reader’s information. 

Findings from the multivariate analyses were consistent with the bivariate findings for age and 

occupation. With respect to age, the multivariate tests showed that adults 24 years old or younger were 

more likely than older adults to participate in college or certificate programs, and they were more likely 

than adults 65 years old or older to participate in work-related courses. Consistent with the bivariate 

findings, the multivariate analysis revealed that professionals and managers were generally more likely 

than those in the trades to participate in college degree or certificate programs. Also, they were more 

likely than those in the service, sales, or support occupations and the trades to participate in work-related 

courses. 

As in the bivariate findings, the multivariate analyses revealed that men were no more likely than 

women to participate in either college degree or certificate programs. Men were, however, less likely than 

women to participate in work-related courses, although the effect size of the difference was less than 0.1. 

In the bivariate analysis, White adults were less likely than Asian adults to have participated in college 

degree or certificate programs, whereas in the multivariate analysis no such differences were detected 

between these subgroups. While the bivariate analysis indicated that White adults were more likely than 

Hispanic adults to participate in work-related courses, the multivariate analysis showed no such 

difference in participation. Further, while no differences were detected in the bivariate analysis between 

White and Hispanic adults for participation in college degree and certificate programs, the multivariate 

analysis indicated that Hispanic adults were more likely than White adults to participate, when controlling 

for other factors. 

As for education level, the findings of the multivariate analyses were mixed. Unlike in the 

bivariate analysis, where no differences were detected between adults with a graduate or professional 

degree and those with a bachelor’s degree or some college, the regression showed that, when controlling 

for other factors, adults with a graduate or professional degree were more likely than adults at all other 
14 

education levels to participate in college degree or certificate programs. The bivariate finding that the 

most highly educated adults were most likely to participate in work-related courses held in the 

multivariate analyses, although the effect size of the difference for adults with a bachelor’s degree was 

less than 0.2. 

The multivariate findings were not completely consistent with the bivariate findings for 

household income. With respect to participation in college degree or certificate programs, the multivariate 

analysis showed differences between the highest income group and the two lowest income groups 

($25,000 or less and $25,001 to $50,000), although the effect sizes for these were less than 0.2. In the 

bivariate analysis, no differences were detected between the highest income group and other income 

groups for participation in college degree or certificate programs. As for work-related courses, in the 

bivariate findings adults in the highest income bracket were more likely than adults in households making 

$75,000 or less to participate in work-related courses. The multivariate analysis shows that adults in the 

highest income bracket were more likely than those in the two lowest income brackets to participate in 

work-related courses, although the effect size for those households earning $25,001 to $50,000 was less 

than 0.2. 

Time Spent in Formal Work-Related Education 

Adults committed varied amounts of time to work-related educational activities.10 Among adults 

who participated in a college degree or certificate program for work-related reasons, 35 percent took 12 or 

fewer credits hours in the previous 12 months, 33 percent took 13 to 24 credit hours, and 33 percent took 

25 or more credit hours (table 4).11 

Of those adults who took courses within a vocational degree/diploma program for work-related 

reasons, a majority took 12 or fewer credit hours (62 percent), whereas 27 percent took 13 to 24 credits 

hours, and 11 percent took 25 or more credit hours. Some adults who participated in educational activities 

for work-related reasons did not earn credit hours (within a semester or quarter/trimester system), but 

reported a total number of classroom hours. Of the adults who were in a vocational degree/diploma 

program and reported classroom hours, 30 percent took 8 hours or fewer, 31 percent took 9 to 24 hours, 

and 26 percent took 25 to 40 hours. The lowest percentage of adults (13 percent) took 41 classroom hours 

or more. 

 

10 Respondents reported either in semester hours or classroom hours, where the latter did not take place within the framework of a semester or quarter 

system.

11 All instructional hours reported in quarter or trimester hours were converted to semester hours by multiplying the quarter or trimester hours by 

0.67. 
15 

Table 4. Number and percent of adults indicating total credit hours or classroom 

instructional hours in the past 12 months, by type of educational activity: 2002–03 

College degree program for 

work-related reasons2 

Vocational degree/diploma 

program for work-related 

reasons2 Apprenticeship Work-related courses 

Instructional 

hours1 

Number of 

adults 

(thousands) Percent s.e. 

Number of 

adults 

(thousands) Percent s.e.

Number of 

adults 

(thousands) Percent s.e. 

Number of 

adults 

(thousands) Percent s.e. 

 

Semester 

credits3

 

 12 or fewer 5,895 35 1.7 1,040 62 4.6 † † † † † †

 13 to 24 5,556 33 1.9 456 27 4.4 † † † † † †

 25 or more 5,622 33 1.8 181 11 2.6 † † † † † †

 

Classroom 

hours 

 

 8 or fewer † † † 350 30 6.9 295 17 4.4 18,281 27 0.9

 9 to 24 † † † 373 31 7.1 491 28 5.7 20,460 30 0.8

 25 to 40 † † † 310 26 4.8 408 23 7.7 12,124 18 0.8

 41 or more † † † 152 13 3.5 591 33 6.6 17,635 26 0.9

† Not applicable. 

1

Respondents reported either in semester hours or classroom hours, where the latter did not take place within the framework of a semester or quarter system. 2

Estimates pertain only to time spent in the most advanced degree program in which a respondent had been enrolled. 3

All instructional hours reported as quarter or trimester hours were converted to semester hours by multiplying the number of quarter or trimester hours by 0.67. 

NOTE: Each participant reported either semester credits or classroom hours for each educational activity, but not both. s.e. is standard error. Detail may 

not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program. 

Of the adults who participated in an apprenticeship (all of whom reported classroom hours only), 

17 percent took 8 hours or fewer, 28 percent took 9 to 24 hours, 23 percent took 25 to 40 hours, and 

33 percent took 41 hours or more. For adults who took work-related courses (all of whom reported 

classroom hours only), 27 percent took 8 hours or fewer, 30 percent took 9 to 24 hours, 18 percent took 

25 to 40 hours, and 26 percent took 41 hours or more. 

Providers From Whom Adults Took Formal Work-Related Courses 

Work-related courses are provided by a variety of sources, and survey respondents reported 

taking courses from a wide range of instructional providers.12 As shown in table 5, business or industry 

 

12 The reader should bear in mind that the adult, and not the course or provider, is the unit of analysis. Therefore, the data reported here reflect 

the percentages of adults who took courses from various providers, and not the percentage of courses provided by various organizations. Some 

adults took multiple courses, and these may have been taken from the same provider or different providers. The figures here and in table 5 reflect 

the responses given for up to four courses for each adult. Thus, the percentages sum to more than 100. Respondents were asked only about 

providers for work-related courses because it was presumed that the providers for college degree programs and vocational degree/diploma 

programs were postsecondary institutions and that the providers for apprenticeships were employers. 
16 

was the most commonly reported provider of work-related courses—51 percent of adults took formal 

work-related courses from a business or industry. Twenty-one percent of adults took formal work-related 

courses from a college/university or a vocational/technical school, and 19 percent of adults took formal 

work-related courses from a government agency (federal, state, or local) or from a professional or labor 

association/organization. 

Table 5. Percent of adults taking formal work-related courses from selected types of instructional 

providers: 2002–03 

Instructional provider Percent s.e. 

 

Business or industry....................................................................................................................... 51 1.1 

College/university, vocational/ technical school.......................................................................... 21 0.9 

Government agency (federal, state, local).................................................................................... 19 0.8 

Professional or labor association/organization............................................................................. 19 0.8 

Other (religious or community organization, tutor, etc.) ............................................................ 8 0.5 

Elementary/secondary school........................................................................................................ 6 0.3 

NOTE: Percentages are based on the 68,499,000 adults participating in work-related courses. Some adults took courses from more

than one type of provider; therefore, percents sum to more than 100. s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons 

Survey of the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program. 

Work-Related Informal Learning 

In addition to formal work-related education, adults were asked whether they had participated in a 

variety of informal adult education activities for work-related reasons in the past year. Types of informal 

learning asked about in the survey included the following: on-the-job demonstrations of equipment, 

techniques, or procedures by a supervisor or coworker; receiving other supervised training or mentoring 

on the job; self-paced study using books, procedures manuals, audiotapes, or videos; self-paced study 

using computer-based software tutorials, including CD-ROMs or from the Internet; attendance at brownbag or informal presentations; and attendance at conferences, trade shows, or conventions related to one’s 

work or career. Only those adults employed in the past year were asked about on-the-job demonstrations 

and supervised training or mentoring on the job. All adults were asked about the other types of informal 

learning for work-related reasons. 
17 

Participation in Work-Related Informal Learning, by Adult Characteristics 

Fifty-eight percent of adults participated in at least one type of informal learning activity related 

to work (table 6).13 Some groups of adults were more likely to participate in work-related informal 

learning than others. Younger adults were more likely than older ones to participate. Seventythree percent of adults 24 or younger and 70 percent of 25- to 44-year-olds participated in work-related 

informal learning, compared to 59 percent of 45- to 64-year-olds and 17 percent of adults 65 years old or 

older. Men were more likely than women to participate in informal learning related to work (62 percent 

versus 55 percent). With respect to race/ethnicity, Asian adults (67 percent) were more likely than White 

adults (59 percent), Black adults (56 percent), and Hispanic adults (57 percent) to participate in informal 

learning related to work. 

Adults with higher education levels were more likely than those with lower education levels to 

participate in work-related informal learning; 78 percent of adults with a graduate or professional degree 

and 75 percent with a bachelor’s degree participated, compared to 65 percent of those with some college 

or a vocational or associate’s degree, 50 percent of those with a high school diploma or its equivalent, and 

31 percent of adults with less than a high school diploma or its equivalent. 

Similarly, adults with higher household income levels were more likely to participate in workrelated informal learning than those with lower income levels. Seventy-three percent of adults with 

household incomes of $75,001 to $100,000 and $100,001 or more participated in such activities, 

compared to 64 percent of those with household incomes of $50,001 to $75,000, 58 percent of those with 

incomes of $25,001 to $50,000, and 40 percent of those with incomes of $25,000 or less. 

 

13 This rate includes participation in one or more of the activities enumerated above. In developing the measure of any participation, responses to 

those items asked only of adults employed in the previous 12 months (on-the-job demonstrations and supervised training or mentoring on the job) 

were assumed to be “no” for those who had not been employed in the previous 12 months. 
18 

Table 6. Participation in informal learning related to a job or career, by type of educational 

activity and adult characteristics: 2002–03 

Specific type of informal learning activity: percent of all adults

Any informal 

learning related to 

work1

Self-paced study 

using books, manuals, 

audio/video 

Attendance at 

conferences, trade 

shows, or 

conventions 

Attendance at 

brown-bag or 

informal 

presentations 

Adult characteristic 

Total 

number of 

adults 

(thousands) 

Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. 

 

 Total............................................... 206,533 58 0.5 31 0.6 23 0.6 21 0.5 

 

Age 

 24 years or younger ......................... 24,053 73 1.7 36 1.8 20 1.7 18 1.8 

 25 to 44 years ................................... 82,223 70 1.1 37 1.1 28 0.9 26 0.8 

 45 to 64 years ................................... 66,447 59 1.0 32 0.9 27 0.9 26 1.0 

 65 years or older .............................. 33,810 17 0.8 10 0.6 7 0.6 5 0.4 

 

Sex 

 Male.................................................. 98,793 62 0.8 33 0.8 27 0.8 23 0.8 

 Female .............................................. 107,740 55 0.8 28 0.8 20 0.7 20 0.6 

 

Race/ethnicity 

 White, non-Hispanic........................ 149,135 59 0.6 30 0.6 24 0.7 23 0.6 

 Black, non-Hispanic ........................ 23,145 56 1.8 34 1.9 21 1.6 19 1.3 

 Hispanic............................................ 24,248 57 2.0 33 1.9 20 1.5 14 1.3 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, 

non-Hispanic............................. 6,330 67 3.6 44 3.6 34 3.5 32 3.2 

 Other race, non-Hispanic................. 3,675 55 4.6 29 4.3 21 3.4 18 2.7 

 

Highest education completed 

 Less than a high school 

 diploma/equivalent ...................... 32,357 31 1.6 17 1.4 8 1.3 5 0.8 

 High school diploma/ 

 equivalent ..................................... 61,194 50 1.1 26 1.0 15 0.9 13 0.8 

 Some college/vocational/ 

 associate’s degree......................... 58,055 65 1.0 35 1.1 24 1.1 23 0.9 

 Bachelor’s degree ............................ 32,122 75 1.4 38 1.4 35 1.2 34 1.3 

 Graduate or professional degree ..... 22,804 78 1.2 43 1.6 51 1.4 46 1.6 

 

Household income 

 $25,000 or less ................................. 53,796 40 1.4 22 1.1 12 0.9 9 0.6 

 $25,001 to $50,000 .......................... 55,435 58 1.2 32 1.2 20 1.0 19 1.0 

 $50,001 to $75,000 .......................... 43,189 64 1.3 32 1.2 24 1.3 24 1.1 

 $75,001 to $100,000........................ 24,286 73 1.7 36 1.6 33 1.6 32 1.7 

 $100,001 or more ............................. 29,826 73 1.2 38 1.6 41 1.4 36 1.5 

See notes at end of table. 
19 

Table 6. Participation in informal learning related to a job or career, by type of educational 

activity and adult characteristics: 2002–03—Continued 

Specific type of informal 

learning activity: 

Percent of all adults

Specific type of informal learning activity: 

Percent of employed adults

Self-paced study using 

computer-based software 

tutorials, including CDROMs or from the Internet 

On-the-job 

demonstrations2 

Supervised training or 

mentoring2 

Adult characteristic 

Number of 

adults 

(thousands) 

Percent s.e. 

Number of 

employed 

adults 

(thousands) Percent s.e. Percent s.e. 

 

 Total.......................................... 206,533 21 0.5 146,030 56 0.7 43 0.7 

 

Age 

 24 years or younger .................... 24,053 19 1.8 19,945 69 2.0 58 2.2 

 25 to 44 years.............................. 82,223 26 0.9 70,395 57 1.2 45 1.1 

 45 to 64 years.............................. 66,447 24 0.7 49,955 50 1.2 37 1.1 

 65 years or older ......................... 33,810 6 0.5 5,735 39 2.7 21 1.9 

 

Sex 

 Male............................................. 98,793 23 0.7 76,072 55 1.0 42 1.0 

 Female ......................................... 107,740 19 0.6 69,958 57 1.0 45 1.1 

 

Race/ethnicity 

 White, non-Hispanic................... 149,135 21 0.5 105,161 57 0.8 45 0.8 

 Black, non-Hispanic ................... 23,145 20 1.5 15,933 57 2.2 44 2.4 

 Hispanic....................................... 24,248 17 1.4 17,872 46 2.3 35 2.0 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, 

 non-Hispanic ........................... 6,330 39 3.3 4,607 51 4.3 40 3.9 

 Other race, non-Hispanic ........... 3,675 24 3.7 2,456 44 5.6 41 6.8 

 

Highest education completed 

 Less than a high school 

 diploma/equivalent ................. 32,357 7 0.9 15,601 43 2.8 25 2.7 

 High school diploma/ 

 equivalent ................................ 61,194 14 0.8 41,489 53 1.5 40 1.6 

 Some college/vocational/ 

 associate’s degree ................... 58,055 24 1.0 44,260 58 1.3 48 1.3 

 Bachelor’s degree ....................... 32,122 34 1.1 26,293 61 1.6 51 1.5 

 Graduate or professional 

 degree ...................................... 22,804 37 1.4 18,387 59 1.7 47 1.8 

 

Household income 

 $25,000 or less ............................ 53,796 10 0.7 27,407 50 1.8 35 2.0 

 $25,001 to $50,000..................... 55,435 19 0.9 40,129 55 1.6 43 1.4 

 $50,001 to $75,000..................... 43,189 24 1.2 34,556 56 1.4 46 1.4 

 $75,001 to $100,000................... 24,286 30 1.7 19,765 60 1.8 47 1.7 

 $100,001 or more........................ 29,826 34 1.3 24,173 59 1.9 47 1.8 1

Includes receiving on-the-job demonstrations of equipment, techniques, or procedures by a supervisor or coworker; receiving other 

supervised training or mentoring on the job; self-paced study using books, procedures manuals, audiotapes, or videos; self-paced study 

using computer-based software tutorials, including CD-ROMs or from the Internet; attending brown-bag or informal presentations; and 

attending conferences, trade shows, or conventions related to one’s work or career. Adults could have participated in more than one type of 

informal work-related adult education activity. 

2

Estimates pertain only to adults who reported working in the previous 12 months. Survey questions about on-the-job demonstrations and 

supervised training or mentoring were only asked of adults employed in the past year. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Details may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of 

the 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program. 
20 

Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Informal Learning, by Adult 

 Characteristics 

Regarding participation in specific informal learning activities, the survey found that 31 percent 

of all adults reported self-paced study using books, manuals, audiotapes, or videos (table 6). Fewer adults 

attended conferences, trade shows, or conventions (23 percent), did self-paced study using computerbased tutorials (21 percent), or attended brown-bag or informal presentations (21 percent). Among adults 

employed in the past year, 56 percent participated in on-the-job demonstrations and 43 percent received 

supervised training or mentoring. 

Participation in the particular types of work-related informal learning activities varied by adult 

characteristics. Thirty-six percent of adults ages 24 and younger and 37 percent of 25- to 44-year-olds did 

self-paced study using books, manuals, audiotapes, or videos, compared to 32 percent of 45- to 64-yearolds and 10 percent of adults ages 65 or older. Adults in the mid-age ranges (25- to 44-year-olds and 45- 

to 64-year-olds) were more likely than younger and older adults to attend conferences, trade shows, or 

conventions (28 and 27 percent versus 20 and 7 percent, respectively), attend brown-bag or informal 

presentations (26 percent each versus 18 and 5 percent), and do self-paced study using computer-based 

tutorials (26 and 24 percent versus 19 and 6 percent). 

Among adults employed in the past year, younger adults were more likely than older ones to have 

participated in on-the-job demonstrations. Sixty-nine percent of adults 24 and younger participated, 

compared to 57 percent of 25- to 44-year-olds, 50 percent of 45- to 64-year olds, and 39 percent of adults 

ages 65 and older. Similarly, 58 percent of employed adults ages 24 and younger received supervised 

training or mentoring on the job, compared to 45 percent of 25- to 44-year-olds, 37 percent of 45- to 64-

year-olds, and 21 percent of adults ages 65 and older. 

Men were more likely than women to participate in self-paced study using books, manuals, 

audiotapes, or videos (33 percent versus 28 percent), attend conferences, trade shows, or conventions 

(27 percent versus 20 percent), do self-paced study using computer-based tutorials (23 percent versus 

19 percent), and attend brown-bag or informal presentations (23 versus 20 percent). 

Variability in participation in some informal activities was also observed by race/ethnicity. Asian 

adults were more likely than White adults, Black adults, and Hispanic adults to have done self-paced 

study using books, manuals, audiotapes, or videos (44 percent versus 30, 34, and 33 percent, 

respectively), attended conferences, trade shows, or conventions (34 percent versus 24, 21, and 

20 percent, respectively), done self-paced study using computer-based tutorials (39 percent versus 21, 20, 
21 

and 17 percent, respectively), and attended brown-bag or informal presentations (32 percent versus 23, 

19, and 14 percent, respectively). Among adults who were employed in the past year, Hispanic adults 

were less likely than White and Black adults to participate in on-the-job demonstrations (46 percent 

versus 57 percent each) and supervised training or mentoring (35 percent versus 45 and 44 percent). 

Adults with higher education levels were more likely than those with lower education levels to 

participate in specific work-related informal learning activities. Those with a graduate or professional 

degree were more likely than adults at other education levels to do self-paced study using books, manuals, 

audiotapes, or videos (43 percent versus 17, 26, 35, and 38 percent, respectively), attend conferences, 

trade shows, or conventions (51 percent versus 8, 15, 24, and 35 percent, respectively), and attend brownbag or informal presentations (46 percent versus 5, 13, 23, and 34 percent, respectively). In addition, 

adults with a bachelor’s degree or higher were more likely than those adults with less than a bachelor’s 

degree to have done self-paced study using computer-based tutorials (34 and 37 percent versus 7, 14, and 

24 percent, respectively). 

Among adults employed in the past year, those with at least some postsecondary education 

(whether some college, vocational school, or associate’s, bachelor’s, or graduate/professional degree) 

were more likely than adults with a high school diploma/equivalent or less to have participated in on-thejob demonstrations (58, 61, and 59 percent versus 53 and 43 percent, respectively) and supervised 

training or mentoring (48, 51, and 47 percent versus 40 and 25 percent, respectively). 

Adults in households with incomes of $75,001 to $100,000 and $100,001 or more annually were 

more likely than those in households at lower income levels to do the following: participate in self-paced 

study using books, manuals, audiotapes, or videos (36 and 38 percent versus 22, 32, and 32 percent, 

respectively), attend conferences, trade shows, or conventions (33 and 41 percent versus 12, 20, and 

24 percent, respectively), do self-paced study using computer-based tutorials (30 and 34 percent versus 

10, 19, and 24 percent, respectively), and attend brown bag or informal presentations (32 and 36 percent 

versus 9, 19, and 24 percent, respectively). 
22 

Participation in Work-Related Informal Learning, by Employment Status and 

Occupational Group 

Findings for participation in informal work-related learning activities, by employment status and 

occupational group, are shown in table 7.14 Seventy-five percent of adults who were employed in the past 

year participated in work-related informal learning, compared to 17 percent who were not employed in 

the past year. Adults who worked 12 months or 6 to 11 months in the past year were more likely than 

those who worked 1 to 5 months to have participated in any informal learning activities related to work 

(76 and 78 percent versus 63 percent). Those in professional or managerial occupations (86 percent) were 

more likely than those in service, sales, or support occupations (73 percent) to participate in informal 

learning for work-related reasons. Adults in the trades were least likely among employed adults to 

participate (66 percent). 

Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Informal Learning, by Employment Status 

and Occupational Group 

Of those adults who were employed in the past year, 56 percent participated in on-the-job 

demonstrations, 43 percent received supervised training or mentoring, and 39 percent did self-paced study 

using books, manuals, audiotapes, or videos (table 7). Smaller percentages of adults who worked in the 

past year attended conferences, trade shows, or conventions (30 percent), attended brown-bag or informal 

presentations (28 percent), and did self-paced study using computer-based tutorials (26 percent). 

Among employed adults, those who worked all 12 months in the past year were more likely than 

those who worked 6 to 11 months and 1 to 5 months to have done self-paced study using books, manuals, 

audiotapes, or videos (41 percent versus 36 and 30 percent), attended conferences, trade shows, or 

conventions (32 percent versus 28 and 16 percent), attended brown-bag or informal presentations 

(30 percent versus 24 and 17 percent), and done self-paced study using computer-based tutorials 

(28 percent versus 22 and 17 percent). Adults who worked 6 to 11 months were more likely than adults 

who worked 12 months or 1 to 5 months to participate in on-the-job demonstrations (60 percent versus 55 

and 47 percent). 

 

14 See the Technical Notes section for definition of the three occupational groups described in this report. 
23

Table 7. Participation in informal learning related to a job or career, by type of educational activity, employment sta

occupational group: 2002–03 

Specific type of informal learning activity: 

Percent of all adults

Any informal 

learning related 

to work1

Self-paced study 

using books, 

manuals, audio/video

Attendance at 

conferences, trade 

shows, or 

conventions 

Attendance at 

brown-bag or 

informal 

presentations 

Self-paced study 

using computerbased software 

tutorials, including 

CD-ROMs or from 

the Internet 

Adult characteristic 

Number 

of adults 

(thousands) 

Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e.

Number of 

adults 

(thousands)

Total...................................... 206,533 58 0.5 31 0.6 23 0.6 21 0.5 21 0.5 146,030 

Employed in past year  Yes........................................... 146,030 75 0.7 39 0.8 30 0.7 28 0.6 26 0.7 146,030  No ............................................ 60,503 17 0.8 11 0.6 7 0.5 5 0.4 9 0.7 † Months worked in past year2  12 months................................ 107,971 76 0.7 41 0.9 32 0.9 30 0.7 28 0.8 107,971  6 to 11 months ........................ 27,675 78 1.6 36 1.5 28 1.5 24 1.4 22 1.2 27,675  1 to 5 months........................... 10,383 63 3.0 30 2.6 16 1.9 17 2.0 17 2.1 10,383 Occupational group2  Professional or managerial..... 45,292 86 0.8 47 1.2 49 1.1 46 1.0 39 1.2 45,292  Service, sales, or support........ 65,769 73 1.1 36 1.3 23 1.0 24 0.9 24 0.9 65,769  Trades...................................... 34,969 66 1.7 35 1.6 19 1.5 14 1.0 14 1.1 34,969 

† Not applicable.

1Includes receiving on-the-job demonstrations of equipment, techniques, or procedures by a supervisor or coworker; receiving other supervised training or mentoring on the 

procedures manuals, audiotapes, or videos; self-paced study using computer-based software tutorials, including CD-ROMs or from the Internet; attending brown-bag or infoconferences, trade shows, or conventions related to one’s work or career. Adults could have participated in more than one type of informal work-related adult education acti

2Estimates pertain only to adults who reported working in the previous 12 months. Survey questions about on-the-job demonstrations and supervised training or mentoring w

in the past year. NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 National Household Education Sur
24 

Employed adults in professional or managerial occupations were more likely than those in 

service, sales, or support and trade occupations to participate in several types of informal learning related 

to their jobs or careers. These activities include receiving supervised training or mentoring (48 percent 

versus 44 and 36 percent), self-paced study using books, manuals, audiotapes, or videos (47 percent 

versus 36 and 35 percent), attendance at conferences, trade shows, or conventions (49 percent versus 23 

and 19 percent), attendance at brown-bag or informal presentations (46 percent versus 24 and 14 percent), 

and self-paced study using computer-based tutorials (39 percent versus 24 and 14 percent). 

Multivariate Analysis of Participation in Any Work-Related Informal Learning 

A logistic regression was carried out to examine the association between participation in any 

informal learning activities (the dependent variable) and adult characteristics, when taking the various 

adult characteristics into account simultaneously (table 8). The multivariate analysis showed that 

consistent with bivariate findings, adults ages 24 or younger were more likely than adults ages 45 and 

older to participate in any work-related informal learning. As with the bivariate findings, education was 

associated with participation in informal learning, with highly educated adults (those with graduate or 

professional degrees) more likely to participate than those below the bachelor’s degree level. 

Some of the multivariate findings mirrored those of the bivariate analyses, but exhibited 

effect sizes below 0.2.15 For example, in the bivariate analysis, adults in households that earned $100,001 

or more were more likely to than adults in households that earned $75,000 or less to participate in any 

work-related informal learning. In the multivariate analysis, similar differences were observed, but the 

effect sizes associated with those in households making between $25,001 and $75,000 were about 0.14. 

Similarly, the bivariate analysis indicated that adults in professional and managerial occupations were 

more likely to participate in any work-related informal learning than adults in the service, sales, or 

support occupations and the trades. The multivariate analysis showed similar differences, but the effect 

size for the difference between those in professional and managerial occupations on the one hand and for 

those in service, sales, or support occupations was less than 0.2. 

 

15 Effect sizes of less than 0.2 are sometimes considered to be negligible (Cohen 1988). However, few analyses of meaningful effect sizes for 

estimates of participation in adult education have been conducted. See the technical notes for a discussion of effect size calculations. 
25 

Table 8. Results of logistic regression analysis of participation in any work-related informal 

learning: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect Size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years.......................................................................... -0.47* 0.115 0.62 -0.264 

 45 to 64 years.......................................................................... -0.89* 0.116 0.41 -0.493 

 65 years or older ..................................................................... -1.58* 0.123 0.21 -0.862 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male......................................................................................... 0.09 0.074 1.09 0.048 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, nonHispanic) 

 Black, non-Hispanic........................................................... -0.07 0.114 0.93 -0.040 

 Hispanic .............................................................................. -0.01 0.126 0.99 -0.006 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic ........................... 0.04 0.233 1.04 0.022 

 Other race, non-Hispanic ................................................... 0.07 0.276 1.07 0.037 

 

Highest education completed (Reference category: 

Graduate or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent ......................... -1.52* 0.141 0.22 -0.837 

 High school diploma/equivalent............................................ -1.05* 0.121 0.35 -0.580 

 Some college/vocational/ associate’s degree........................ -0.62* 0.114 0.54 -0.340 

 Bachelor’s degree ................................................................... -0.26 0.132 0.77 -0.144 

 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or 

more) 

 $25,000 or less ........................................................................ -0.42* 0.113 0.66 -0.230 

 $25,001 to $50,000................................................................. -0.25* 0.106 0.78 -0.137 

 $50,001 to $75,000................................................................. -0.25* 0.108 0.78 -0.137 

 $75,001 to $100,000............................................................... 0.08 0.125 1.09 0.048 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 

months) 

 6 to 11 months......................................................................... 0.13 0.104 1.14 0.072 

 Less than 6 months1

................................................................ -0.46* 0.166 0.63 -0.255 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional 

or managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support........................................................ -0.36* 0.099 0.70 -0.197 

 Trades ...................................................................................... -0.52* 0.114 0.60 -0.282 

 Not employed within past 12 months.................................... -2.02* 0.178 0.13 -1.127 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program. 
26 

Unlike the bivariate findings, the multivariate findings showed that female adults were no more 

likely than male adults, and Asian adults were no more likely than White adults to participate in workrelated informal learning, when taking other adult characteristics into account simultaneously. However, 

as with the bivariate findings, no statistically significant differences were detected between White adults 

and adults of other racial/ethnic subgroups for participation in any work-related informal learning. 

Multivariate Analysis of Participation in Specific Types of Work-Related Informal 

 Learning 

Separate logistic regression analyses were performed for each type of work-related informal 

learning. In each analysis, the dependent variable was participation in the given type of informal learning 

activity. Tables are presented in appendix B. 

Consistent with the bivariate findings, the youngest adults (24 years or younger) were more likely 

than adults from the older age categories to participate in on-the-job demonstrations and supervised 

training or mentoring, and were more likely than the oldest adults (65 years and older) to participate in 

each of the six types of work-related informal learning identified in the survey. Also consistent with the 

bivariate findings, the multivariate analyses showed that adults with a graduate or professional degree 

were more likely than adults with less than a high school diploma to participate in each type of workrelated informal learning. They were also more likely than adults at all other education levels to attend 

conferences or trade shows and brown-bag presentations, and to do self-paced study using books and 

manuals (although for self-paced study, the effect size of the difference was less than 0.2 for adults with a 

bachelor’s degree and some college/vocational/associate’s degree). 

The bivariate analyses indicated that Asian adults were more likely than White adults to attend 

conferences and trade shows, attend brown-bag presentations, participate in self-paced study using books 

and manuals, and participate in self-paced study using computer-based software. However, the 

multivariate analyses showed that while Asian adults were more likely than White adults to do self-paced 

study using computer-based software and books or manuals, they were no more likely to attend 

conferences or trade shows or to attend brown-bag presentations, controlling for other factors. Also, while 

the bivariate analyses showed no differences between White and Asian adults with respect to participation 

in on-the-job demonstrations and supervised training or mentoring, the multivariate analyses showed 

Asian adults to be less likely than White adults to participate in these two types of work-related informal 

learning. As in the bivariate analysis, Hispanic adults were less likely than White adults to participate in 
27 

on-the-job demonstrations and supervised training or mentoring, although for the latter activity the effect 

size of the difference was less than 0.2. 

In the bivariate analyses, adults in the highest income category ($100,001 or more) were more 

likely than those in the three lowest income categories ($75,000 or less) to attend conferences, trade 

shows, or conventions, to attend brown-bag presentations, and to participate in self-paced study using 

books and manuals. The multivariate analyses were consistent with these findings, although the effect 

sizes were below 0.2 in several cases (see tables B5 and B6). 

The bivariate analyses indicated that men were more likely than women to participate in selfpaced study using books, manuals, audiotapes, or videos; attend conferences, trade shows, or 

conventions; do self-paced study using computer-based tutorials; and attend brown-bag presentations; 

however, the multivariate analyses showed that men only more likely than women to attend conferences, 

trade shows, or conventions and to participate in self-paced study using computer-based software, 

although the effect sizes were less than 0.2 in both of these cases. 

Finally, bivariate findings showed that adults in professional or managerial occupations were 

more likely than those in service, sales, or support and in the trades to participate in five of the six types 

of work-related informal learning (excepting on-the-job presentations). Consistent with the bivariate 

findings, the multivariate findings suggest that adults in professional or managerial occupations were 

more likely than those in service, sales, or support occupations and in the trades to attend conferences, 

trade shows, or conventions, as well as brown-bag presentations, and to participate in self-paced study 

using books or manuals and computer-based software (although the effect sizes for these latter two 

activities was less than 0.2 in several cases—see tables B3 and B5). Further, they were more likely than 

those in the trades to participate in self-paced study using computer-based software. However, they were 

no more likely than those in service, sales, or support occupations and in the trades to participate in 

supervised training or mentoring. 
28 

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29 

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 

Findings from the Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 National 

Household Education Surveys Program reveal that 40 percent of adults in the nation participated in some 

type of formal adult education for work-related reasons during a 12-month period in 2002–03. Thirtythree percent participated in work-related courses, 9 percent were in a work-related college degree 

program, 2 percent were in a work-related vocational degree/diploma program, and 1 percent had an 

apprenticeship. 

Fifty-eight percent of adults participated in informal work-related learning activities. Among 

adults who were employed in the past year, 56 percent participated in on-the-job demonstrations, and 

43 percent received supervised training or mentoring. Among all adults (i.e., employed or not in the past 

year), 31 percent did self-paced study using books, manuals, audiotapes, or videos; 23 percent attended 

conferences, trade shows, or conventions; 21 percent attended brown-bag or informal presentations; and 

21 percent did self-paced study using computer-based software tutorials. Seventy-five percent of adults 

who were employed in the past year participated in some type of informal learning activity; and across 

each of the informal activities measured, those adults who were employed in the past year were more 

likely to participate than those who were unemployed in the past year. 

Research on adult education participation rates during the 1990s (Creighton and Hudson 2002) 

found that participation in adult education during this period varied by level of education, race/ethnicity, 

occupational group, and employment status. For example, adults with lower education levels, Hispanics, 

adults in trade occupations, and part-time employees had lower rates of participation in work-related 

coursetaking. Darkenwald, Kim, and Stowe (1998) reported that adults with higher education levels were 

more likely to participate in work-related courses than adults with lower levels of education. 

The findings of this report show similar patterns of participation. Adults with higher education 

levels were generally more likely than those with less education to participate in various types of formal 

and informal work-related educational activities. While this finding may be related to the fact that adults 

with a bachelor’s degree or more education are more likely than those with less education to be in 

professional or managerial occupations, which require higher levels of continuing education (Frazis et al. 

1998), multivariate analyses conducted for this report show that both education level and occupation have 

independent effects on participation in formal and informal work-related adult education. 
30 

Both bivariate and multivariate analyses conducted for this report showed that younger adults 

were more likely than older adults to participate in formal and informal work-related adult education. 

Both types of analyses also suggested that among employed adults, professionals and managers were 

more likely than those in service, sales, or support occupations and those in the trades to have participated 

in some type of formal work-related adult education and informal work-related learning activities. 

The bivariate analyses suggested that Asian adults were generally more likely than White, Black, 

or Hispanic adults to participate in any formal and informal work-related adult education. However, no 

differences between Asian and White adults were detected in the multivariate analyses when controlling 

for other adult characteristics, such as education level, income, and occupation.16 Also, while the bivariate 

analyses indicated that female adults were more likely than male adults to participate in work-related 

informal learning, this difference was not detected when controlling for other adult characteristics in the 

multivariate analyses. 

The bivariate and multivariate analyses conducted for this report revealed that the various 

participation rates in formal and informal work-related adult education were affected by a complex 

interplay of factors, including age, education level, and types of occupation. Regression analyses are one 

relatively simple approach to teasing out these factors. Future analyses could use AEWR data to expand 

upon this analysis, focusing in greater detail on how participation in various types of work-related adult 

education is related to other factors, such as region and specific occupations (e.g., health professionals or 

educators). 

 

16 The multivariate analyses used White adults as the reference group and therefore did not test for differences between Asian adults and Black 

adults, Hispanic adults, and adults of other racial/ethnic groups. Differences were detected between Asian and White adults for particular types

of informal work-related learning activities (see Appendix B). 
31 

TECHNICAL NOTES 

The 2003 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:2003) is a program of 

telephone surveys sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education 

Statistics (NCES). Data collection for NHES:2003 took place from January 2 through April 13, 2003. 

This report presents data from the Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons (AEWR) survey, fielded as 

part of NHES:2003. NHES surveys concerning adult education have been conducted in 1991, 1995, 1999, 

2001, and 2003. Prior to 2003, NHES adult education surveys focused on adult participation in a wide 

range of educational activities taken for any reason. AEWR is the first in this series to focus specifically 

on educational activities taken for work-related reasons. Earlier surveys of adult education fielded through 

NHES also included educational activities taken for personal interest or personal development and 

included separate categories for basic skills and English as a second language (ESL). This section 

provides a brief description of the study methodology; further details appear in Hagedorn et al. 

(forthcoming). 

The NHES:2003 sample was selected using random-digit-dial (RDD) methods, and the data were 

collected using computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) technology. A two-stage sampling 

approach was employed, involving an initial Screener to collect information on household composition 

and interview eligibility. The only person in the household eligible to participate in the AEWR interview 

was the sampled adult. In the AEWR interview, information was collected about demographic 

characteristics, participation in a range of educational activities taken for work-related reasons in the 

previous 12 months, and labor force participation. Multiple attempts were made to complete interviews 

with persons not available at the time of selection. Interviews were conducted in both English 

(97 percent) and Spanish (3 percent). The AEWR sample is nationally representative of all civilian, 

noninstitutionalized persons in the 50 states and the District of Columbia who are ages 16 and older and 

not enrolled in 12th grade or below. This report is based on final data, which included 12,725 interviews. 

Measuring Participation in Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons

Adult education is a diverse field defined in various ways (Cross 1984; Elias and Merriam 1984; 

Knowles 1980; Merriam and Caffarella 1999; Peters et al. 1991). The measurement of AEWR 

participation is dependent upon the specific definition of adult education used for the analysis. The 

approach to the study of adult education employed in the AEWR-NHES:2003 was based on prior work in 
32 

the field, including the conceptual model of Merriam and Caffarella (1999), as well as the extensive 

development and testing involved in prior NHES adult education cycles (1995, 2001). 

The order in which questions were asked may have affected responses. Specifically, respondents 

were asked about their participation in a set of specific educational activities in the following order: 

college or university degree or post-degree certificate programs taken for work-related reasons, vocational 

or technical diploma or degree programs taken for work-related reasons, apprenticeship programs, workrelated courses, and work-related informal learning activities. Respondents could not know the types of 

activities that would be addressed in later sections of the interview. As a result, they may have reported 

activities in early sections of the interview that may have been more appropriately reported in later 

sections. This phenomenon is known as an order effect. In this report, activities are classified according to 

the way in which they were reported. 

Measure of Participation in Any Work-Related Formal Adult Education 

The composite measure of participation in formal adult education includes those who took part in 

one or more of the following in the previous 12 months: college or university degree or certificate 

programs taken for work-related reasons, technical diploma or degree programs taken for work-related 

reasons, apprenticeships to earn journeyman status in a trade or craft, or work-related courses that had an 

instructor. 

Measure of Participation in Any Work-Related Informal Learning 

A composite measure of participation in work-related informal learning includes those who took 

part in one or more of the following in the previous 12 months: on-the-job demonstrations of equipment, 

techniques, or procedures by a supervisor or coworker; receiving other supervised training or mentoring 

on the job; self-paced study using books, procedures manuals, audiotapes, or videos; self-paced study 

using computer-based software tutorials, including CD-ROMs or from the Internet; attendance at brownbag or informal presentations; and attendance at conferences, trade shows, or conventions related to one’s 

work or career. Only those adults employed in the past year were asked about on-the-job demonstrations 

and supervised training or mentoring on the job. In creating the composite measure, those who did not 

work in the past 12 months were assumed to have negative response to those items. 
33 

Definition of Occupational Groups 

Occupational groups were derived from the NHES variable FSOC, the final NHES occupation 

coding scheme that uses a set of 22 categories aggregated from Standard Occupational Classification 

(SOC) categories (see Hagedorn et al. 2003 for information on FSOC and how it was coded). For this 

report, these 22 occupation categories were classified into three groups: 1) professional or managerial, 2) 

service, sales, or support, and 3) the trades. The professional or managerial group consisted of the 

following occupations: 

 executive, administrative, and managerial occupations 

 engineers, surveyors, and architects 

 natural scientists and mathematicians

 social scientists, social workers, religious workers, and lawyers

 teachers: college, university, and other postsecondary institutions; counselors, librarians, 

and archivists

 teachers, except postsecondary institutions

 health diagnosing and treating practitioners

 registered nurses, pharmacists, dietitians, therapists, and physician’s assistants

 writers, artists, entertainers, and athletes

 health technologists and technicians

The service, sales, or support group consisted of the following: 

 technologists and technicians, except health

 marketing and sales occupations

 administrative support occupations, including clerical

 service occupations

 miscellaneous occupations
34 

The trades consisted of the following: 

 agricultural, forestry, and fishing occupations

 mechanics and repairers

 construction and extractive occupations

 precision production occupations

 production working occupations

 transportation and material moving occupations

 handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers

Data Reliability

Estimates produced using data from NHES:2003 are subject to two types of error, sampling and 

nonsampling errors. Nonsampling errors are errors made in the collection and processing of data. 

Sampling errors occur because the data are collected from a sample rather than the whole population. 

Nonsampling Errors

Nonsampling error is the term used to describe variations in the estimates that may be caused by 

population coverage limitations and data collection, processing, and reporting procedures. The sources of 

nonsampling errors are typically problems like unit and item nonresponse, the differences in respondents' 

interpretations of the meaning of the questions, response differences related to the particular time the 

survey was conducted, and mistakes in data preparation. Efforts were made to minimize nonsampling 

error through cognitive testing in the survey design stage, a two-stage field test of the survey, and online 

data edits and post-interview edits. 

An important source of nonsampling error for a telephone survey is the failure to include persons 

who do not live in households with telephones. This is particularly problematic in RDD surveys because 

so little is known about the sampled telephone numbers with which contact has not been made. In 1999, 

95 percent of all adults ages 16 and older lived in households with telephones (U.S. Department of 
35 

Commerce 1999). As discussed below, estimation weights were used to help reduce the bias in the 

estimates associated with excluding the 5 percent of adults who do not live in households with telephones. 

Response Rates

In NHES:2003, Screeners were completed with 32,049 households, with a weighted Screener unit 

response rate of 65 percent. For AEWR-NHES:2003, 12,725 of the 16,004 sampled adults completed the 

AEWR survey, a weighted unit response rate of 76 percent. Thus, the overall unit response rate for the 

AEWR survey was 49 percent (the product of the Screener unit response rate and the AEWR unit 

response rate). Due to this relatively low overall unit response rate, estimates from the NHES:2003 

AEWR survey are subject to potential nonresponse bias. That is, the failure of some persons or 

households in the sample to respond to the survey leaves open the possibility that the population that did 

not respond might have different characteristics than the population that did respond. Previous 

nonresponse bias analyses conducted for NHES:1999, which had similar response rates for the same 

population covered by NHES:2003, did not reveal significant bias (Nolin et al. 2000). A unit nonresponse 

bias analysis was also undertaken for NHES:2003 (Hagedorn et al. forthcoming) and showed no evidence 

of bias in estimates from the AEWR survey. 

Item nonresponse (i.e., the failure to complete some items in an otherwise completed interview) 

was very low for most items in AEWR. The item response rates for most variables included in this report 

are 97 percent or higher. The exceptions are items associated with credit hours or classroom instruction 

hours (with item response rates of 71 to 90 percent), and household income (with an item response rate of 

80 percent). Items with missing data were imputed using a hot-deck procedure (Rao and Shao 1992) in 

which cells are formed that contain cases with similar characteristics (based on educational attainment, 

age, race/ethnicity, and household income range) and a donor value is used to impute the missing value. 

The estimates included in this report are based on the imputed data. 

Sampling Errors 

The sample of telephone households selected for NHES:2003 is just one of many possible 

samples that could have been selected. Therefore, estimates produced from this sample may differ from 

estimates that would have been produced from other samples. This type of variability is called sampling 

error because it arises from using a sample of households with telephones, rather than having surveyed all 

households with telephones. 
36 

The standard error is a measure of the variability due to sampling when estimating a statistic. 

Standard errors can be used as a measure of the precision expected from a particular sample. The 

probability that a sample estimate would differ from the population parameter obtained from a complete 

census count by less than 1 standard error is about 68 percent. The chance that the difference would be 

less than 1.65 standard errors is about 90 percent, and that the difference would be less than 1.96 standard 

errors, about 95 percent. 

Standard errors for all of the estimates are presented in the tables. These standard errors can be 

used to produce confidence intervals. For example, an estimated 40 percent of adults participated in some 

type of formal adult education for work-related reasons in the previous 12 months, and this figure has an 

estimated standard error of 0.5 percent. Therefore, the estimated 95 percent confidence interval for this 

statistic is approximately 39 to 41 percent (40 ± 1.96 (0.5)). If the processes of selecting a sample, 

collecting the data, and constructing the confidence interval were repeated, it would be expected that in 95 

out of 100 samples from the same population, the confidence interval would contain the true participation 

rate. 

Estimation Weights and Variance Estimation 

All of the estimates in this report are based on weighting the observations using the probabilities 

of selection of the respondents and other adjustments to partially account for nonresponse and coverage 

bias. Weights were developed to produce unbiased and consistent estimates of national totals. In 

accounting for the probabilities of selection, the weights account for the fact that a household with more 

than one telephone number has a greater chance of being selected than a household with a single 

telephone number. These selection weights are then adjusted for nonresponse; that is, the weights of 

persons who did not respond to the AEWR survey are redistributed (through a ratio adjustment) to 

persons with similar characteristics who did respond. The nonresponse adjustment reduces bias due to 

nonresponse to the AEWR survey. Finally, these nonresponse-adjusted weights are calibrated to external 

population totals from the Current Population Survey (CPS), using a raking adjustment. This raking 

adjustment aligns estimated totals from the AEWR survey to the CPS totals for the characteristics and 

categories used in the adjustment. It also reduces biases due to undercoverage (e.g., noncoverage of adults 

in households without telephones) and nonresponse. 

In addition to properly weighting the responses, special procedures for estimating the statistical 

significance of the estimates were employed because the NHES:2003 data were collected using a complex 
37 

sample design. Complex sample designs result in data that violate some of the assumptions that are 

normally made when assessing the statistical significance of results from a simple random sample. 

Frequently, the standard errors of the estimates from these surveys are larger than would be expected if 

the sample was a simple random sample and the observations were independent and identically 

distributed random variables. The estimates and standard errors presented in this report were produced 

using WesVar Complex Samples software and a jackknife replication procedure. WesVar computes 

estimates and replicate variance estimates that reflect complex sampling and estimation procedures. 

Statistical Tests for Bivariate Analyses. The tests of significance used in the bivariate analyses 

are based on Student’s t statistics for the comparison of subgroup characteristics. An alpha level of .05 

was employed for all tests of significance. To test the differences between estimates, standard errors 

derived by jackknife replication methods were used to appropriately reflect the complex sample design 

and estimation procedures. To test for a difference between two independent subgroups in the population 

in terms of the proportion having a particular characteristic, say P1 versus P2 , the test statistic is 

computed as: 

[ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) 2

2

2

1

2 1

s.e. p s.e. p

p p T

+

− = , 

where pi is the estimated proportion of subgroup i (i = 1, 2) having the particular characteristic and 

( ) pi s.e. is the standard error of that estimate. 

Statistical Tests for Multivariate Analyses. To determine the association between two 

variables, tests such as Student’s t can be used. However, when examining the associations among more 

than two variables, multivariate statistical tests must be employed. Multivariate tests allow researchers to 

examine the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable while controlling simultaneously 

for other variables. For instance, researchers can look at the effect of income on participation in adult 

education activities while controlling for education level and occupation. 

When the dependent variable is continuous, a common multiple regression technique is ordinary 

least squares (OLS) regression. However, when the dependent variable is dichotomous, a more 

appropriate technique is logistic regression (Gujarati 1988). In logistic regression, the binary nature of the 

dependent variable requires a different interpretation of results than is the case with OLS regression. 

Specifically, the regression coefficients for the independent variables indicate the change in the natural 
38 

log of the odds (the “log odds”) of the presence of the characteristic (event) being analyzed. The odds of 

any event is defined as the probability of the event divided by the probability of the absence of the event: 

1 ( )

( )

P event

P event

−

Odds can be computed for any proportion. For example, in table 2, the percentage of adults 

employed within the past year who participated in any formal work-related adult education was 

52 percent. The odds of participating in formal adult education for an adult who worked within the past 

year is computed as 0.52/(1-0.52) = 1.08. The odds of an adult not employed within the past year 

participating in any formal adult education was 0.11/([1-0.11)] = .12. 

A comparison of odds is often made using an “odds ratio.” The odds ratio of participation by 

adults employed within the past year vs. adults not employed within the past year is 1.08/.12 = 9. This 

means that the odds of participating in any formal adult education were 9 times higher for those adults 

who worked within the past year than for those who did not work within the past year. 

The results of logistic regression are often discussed in terms of the odds ratios. A logistic 

regression equation is often expressed as the natural log of the odds: 

X pXp P event

P event Log = β + β + + β − ] ... 1 ( )( ) [ 0 1 1

where the subscript p represents the number of independent variables. The equation can also be 

equivalently expressed as the odds: 

X pXp e

P event

P event β +β + +β = −

... 0 1 1

1 ( )

( )

In the analyses for this report, discussions focus on the direction of the associations between the 

independent and dependent variables, rather than the estimated odds ratio or log odds. Thus, in tables 3 

and 8 and in the tables of appendices A and B, the logistic regression coefficients are given. The 

interpretation of the direction of the association between the independent and dependent variables from 

logistic regression is similar to that for OLS regression. If a statistically significant logistic regression 

coefficient is greater than zero, the variable is associated with an increase of the odds of the event. If a 

statistically significant logistic regression coefficient is less than zero, the variable is associated with a 
39 

decrease in the odds of the event. If a regression coefficient is not statistically significantly different than 

zero, then no association with the odds of the event is observed. 

Interpreting the regression coefficients for a categorical independent variable is always done in 

contrast to the reference category. For example, in table 3, there are two categories for sex: Male and 

Female. Female adults are the reference category for this variable. That is, the regression coefficient for 

the Male category is meaningful in comparison to Female. Again, using the same example from table 3, 

the significant coefficient -0.15 for Male indicates that men were less likely to participate in any formal 

work-related adult education than were women. 

Also given in the tables with the regression parameters and odds ratios are effect sizes computed 

by dividing the natural log (ln) of the odds ratio by 1.81, the standard deviation of the standard logistic 

distribution. See Chinn (2000) for additional discussion of this procedure. As noted in the body of the 

report, general guidelines suggest that effect sizes of less than 0.2 are considered to be negligible (Cohen, 

1988, 1992). However, little research has been published on optimal effect size thresholds for logistic 

regression parameters, and substantively, it is unclear what would constitute a small effect in the context 

of adult education for work-related reasons. Effect sizes are presented for the purpose of providing 

readers with a rough sense of the magnitude of the relationships between the independent and dependent 

variables presented in the report. Consider the example above of a significant regression parameter of -

0.15 for Male—the effect size for this parameter is -0.083. While the finding meets the statistical 

significance threshold of .05, the effect size falls below what is generally considered to be a small effect 

(0.2). 

For this report, tolerance tests for the models were developed following Menard (1995), and no 

problems of multicolinearity were detected. For more detail about logistic regression analysis, see Agresti 

(1990), Menard (1995), and Hosmer and Lemeshow (1989). For specific information about the use of 

replication methods to fit logistic regression analysis to complex sample survey data, see Mohadjer, 

Yansaneh, and Brick (1996). 
40 

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41 

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Publishers. 

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Nolin, M.J., Montaquila, J., Nicchitta, P., Kim, K., Kleiner, B., Lennon, J., Chapman, C., Creighton, S., 

and Bielick, S. (2000). National Household Education Survey of 1999: Methodology Report (NCES 

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Rao, J.N.K., and Shao, J. (1992). Jackknife Variance Estimation with Survey Data Under Hot Deck 

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Learning? New York: Elsevier. 
 A-1

Appendix A 

Formal Adult Education 

Logistic Regression Tables 
 A-2

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 A-3

Table A1. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

participation in college degree and post-degree certificate programs: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years ............................................................................. -2.09* 0.109 0.12 -1.171 

 45 to 64 years ............................................................................. -3.62* 0.133 0.03 -1.937 

 65 years or older......................................................................... -6.49* 0.481 0.00 † 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male .............................................................................................. -0.18 0.100 0.84 -0.096 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, nonHispanic) 

 Black, non-Hispanic................................................................... -0.19 0.130 0.83 -0.103 

 Hispanic...................................................................................... 0.56* 0.180 1.75 0.309 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic................................... -0.11 0.215 0.90 -0.058 

 Other race, non-Hispanic........................................................... -0.58* 0.283 0.56 -0.320 

 

Highest education completed (Reference category: 

Graduate or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent ............................ -6.15* 1.759 0.00 † 

 High school diploma/equivalent ............................................... -1.80* 0.174 0.17 -0.979 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree ............................ -0.44* 0.159 0.65 -0.238 

 Bachelor’s degree....................................................................... -0.72* 0.156 0.48 -0.406 

 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or 

more) 

 $25,000 or less ........................................................................... 0.34* 0.158 1.40 0.186 

 $25,001 to $50,000 .................................................................... 0.31* 0.139 1.36 0.170 

 $50,001 to $75,000 .................................................................... 0.26 0.154 1.30 0.145 

 $75,001 to $100,000 .................................................................. 0.07 0.184 1.08 0.043 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 

months) 

 6 to 11 months............................................................................ 0.39* 0.112 1.48 0.217 

 Less than 6 months1

.................................................................... 1.02* 0.178 2.78 0.565 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional or 

managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support ........................................................... -0.30* 0.117 0.74 -0.166 

 Trades ......................................................................................... -0.76* 0.160 0.47 -0.417 

 Not employed within past 12 months....................................... -1.10* 0.218 0.33 -0.613 

* p < .05. 

† Not applicable. Effect size cannot be calculated for an odds ratio of 0.00. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 

2003 National Household Education Surveys Program. 
 A-4

Table A2. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and participation 

in work-related courses: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years ........................................................................... 0.11 0.115 1.12 0.063 

 45 to 64 years ........................................................................... 0.00 0.129 1.00 0.000 

 65 years or older....................................................................... -0.86* 0.138 0.42 -0.479 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male .......................................................................................... -0.18* 0.070 0.84 -0.096 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, nonHispanic) 

 Black, non-Hispanic................................................................. -0.13 0.094 0.88 -0.071 

 Hispanic.................................................................................... 0.05 0.134 1.06 0.032 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic................................. 0.25 0.174 1.28 0.136 

 Other race, non-Hispanic......................................................... -0.11 0.184 0.90 -0.058 

 

Highest education completed (Reference category: 

Graduate or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent .......................... -1.59* 0.181 0.20 -0.889 

 High school diploma/equivalent ............................................. -0.97* 0.102 0.38 -0.535 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree .......................... -0.61* 0.092 0.54 -0.340 

 Bachelor’s degree..................................................................... -0.24* 0.090 0.79 -0.130 

 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or 

more) 

 $25,000 or less ......................................................................... -0.73* 0.117 0.48 -0.406 

 $25,001 to $50,000 .................................................................. -0.25* 0.085 0.78 -0.137 

 $50,001 to $75,000 .................................................................. -0.05 0.095 0.95 -0.028 

 $75,001 to $100,000 ................................................................ 0.13 0.121 1.14 0.072 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 

months) 

 6 to 11 months.......................................................................... -0.10 0.080 0.90 -0.058 

 Less than 6 months1

.................................................................. -0.63* 0.176 0.53 -0.351 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional 

or managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support ......................................................... -0.46* 0.073 0.63 -0.255 

 Trades ....................................................................................... -0.88* 0.106 0.42 -0.479 

 Not employed within past 12 months..................................... -1.72* 0.203 0.18 -0.947 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 

2003 National Household Education Surveys Program. 
 A-5

Table A3. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

participation in vocational programs: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years ........................................................................... -0.02 0.203 0.98 -0.011 

 45 to 64 years ........................................................................... -0.55* 0.244 0.58 -0.301 

 65 years or older....................................................................... -2.27* 0.623 0.10 -1.272 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male .......................................................................................... 0.28 0.169 1.32 0.153 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, nonHispanic) 

 Black, non-Hispanic................................................................. -0.40 0.241 0.67 -0.221 

 Hispanic.................................................................................... -0.28 0.203 0.76 -0.152 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic................................. 0.67 0.472 1.96 0.372 

 Other race, non-Hispanic......................................................... -0.33 0.399 0.72 -0.181 

 

Highest education completed (Reference category: 

Graduate or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent .......................... -1.89* 0.597 0.15 -1.048 

 High school diploma/equivalent ............................................. 0.03 0.305 1.03 0.016 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree .......................... 0.54 0.275 1.72 0.300 

 Bachelor’s degree..................................................................... 0.18 0.345 1.20 0.101 

 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or 

more) 

 $25,000 or less ......................................................................... 0.09 0.322 1.09 0.048 

 $25,001 to $50,000 .................................................................. 0.57 0.314 1.78 0.319 

 $50,001 to $75,000 .................................................................. 0.32 0.266 1.38 0.178 

 $75,001 to $100,000 ................................................................ 0.32 0.326 1.38 0.178 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 

months) 

 6 to 11 months.......................................................................... 0.30 0.219 1.35 0.166 

 Less than 6 months1

.................................................................. 0.63* 0.283 1.88 0.349 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional 

or managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support ......................................................... 0.62* 0.233 1.87 0.346 

 Trades ....................................................................................... 0.39 0.242 1.48 0.217 

 Not employed within past 12 months..................................... -0.45 0.393 0.64 -0.247 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 

2003 National Household Education Surveys Program. 
 A-6

Table A4. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

participation in apprenticeships: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years ........................................................................... -0.62* 0.305 0.54 -0.340 

 45 to 64 years ........................................................................... -2.20* 0.362 0.11 -1.219 

 65 years or older....................................................................... -3.61 9.341 0.03 -1.937 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male .......................................................................................... 0.43 0.260 1.53 0.235 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White) 

 Black, non-Hispanic................................................................. -0.01 0.355 0.99 -0.006 

 Hispanic.................................................................................... -0.02 0.354 0.98 -0.011 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic................................. -0.67 1.450 0.51 -0.372 

 Other race, non-Hispanic......................................................... 0.95 0.638 2.59 0.526 

 

Highest education completed (Reference category: 

Graduate or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent .......................... 0.63 0.725 1.87 0.346 

 High school diploma/equivalent ............................................. 0.02 0.607 1.02 0.011 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree .......................... 0.65 0.532 1.91 0.358 

 Bachelor’s degree..................................................................... -0.35 0.579 0.71 -0.189 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or 

more) 

 $25,000 or less ......................................................................... -1.01 0.657 0.36 -0.564 

 $25,001 to $50,000 .................................................................. -0.42 0.626 0.66 -0.230 

 $50,001 to $75,000 .................................................................. 0.13 0.547 1.14 0.072 

 $75,001 to $100,000 ................................................................ -0.99 0.665 0.37 -0.549 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 

months) 

 6 to 11 months.......................................................................... -0.18 0.281 0.84 -0.096 

 Less than 6 months1

.................................................................. -0.55 0.592 0.58 -0.301 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional 

or managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support ......................................................... -0.13 0.438 0.88 -0.071 

 Trades ....................................................................................... 1.30* 0.502 3.66 0.717 

 Not employed within past 12 months..................................... 0.47 0.774 1.59 0.256 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 

2003 National Household Education Surveys Program. 
B-1

Appendix B 

Informal Adult Education 

Logistic Regression Tables
B-2

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B-3

Table B1. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

participation in on-the-job demonstrations: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years.................................................................................... -0.62* 0.108 0.54 -0.340 

 45 to 64 years.................................................................................... -0.97* 0.121 0.38 -0.535 

 65 years or older ............................................................................... -1.32* 0.148 0.27 -0.723 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male................................................................................................... -0.02 0.067 0.98 -0.011 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, non-Hispanic) 

 Black, non-Hispanic ......................................................................... 0.05 0.103 1.05 0.027 

 Hispanic............................................................................................. -0.42* 0.107 0.66 -0.230 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic.......................................... -0.42* 0.170 0.65 -0.238 

 Other race, non-Hispanic ................................................................. -0.52* 0.242 0.59 -0.292 

Highest education completed (Reference category: Graduate 

or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent ................................... -0.51* 0.156 0.60 -0.282 

 High school diploma/equivalent...................................................... -0.23* 0.112 0.79 -0.130 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree................................... -0.12 0.100 0.89 -0.064 

 Bachelor’s degree ............................................................................. 0.01 0.094 1.01 0.005 

 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or more) 

 $25,000 or less .................................................................................. -0.23 0.123 0.80 -0.123 

 $25,001 to $50,000........................................................................... -0.09 0.112 0.91 -0.052 

 $50,001 to $75,000........................................................................... -0.10 0.098 0.91 -0.052 

 $75,001 to $100,000......................................................................... 0.04 0.106 1.04 0.022 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 months) 

 6 to 11 months................................................................................... 0.15 0.083 1.16 0.082 

 Less than 6 months1

.......................................................................... -0.34* 0.144 0.71 -0.189 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional or 

managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support.................................................................. -0.02 0.079 0.98 -0.011 

 Trades ................................................................................................ -0.14 0.119 0.87 -0.077 

 Not employed within past 12 months.............................................. † † † † 

† Not applicable. 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program. 
B-4

Table B2. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

supervised training or mentoring: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years ......................................................................................... -0.66* 0.110 0.52 -0.361 

 45 to 64 years ......................................................................................... -1.04* 0.115 0.35 -0.580 

 65 years or older .................................................................................... -1.72* 0.138 0.18 -0.947

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male........................................................................................................ -0.04 0.066 0.96 -0.023 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, non-Hispanic) 

 Black, non-Hispanic .............................................................................. 0.06 0.107 1.05 0.032 

 Hispanic.................................................................................................. -0.29* 0.108 0.66 -0.159 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic............................................... -0.40* 0.163 0.65 -0.221 

 Other race, non-Hispanic....................................................................... -0.14 0.288 0.59 -0.077 

 

Highest education completed (Reference category: Graduate or 

professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent ........................................ -0.87* 0.186 0.42 -0.479 

 High school diploma/equivalent........................................................... -0.32* 0.118 0.72 -0.181 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree ........................................ -0.07 0.104 0.93 -0.040 

 Bachelor’s degree .................................................................................. 0.07 0.098 1.07 0.037 

 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or more) 

 $25,000 or less ....................................................................................... -0.27* 0.118 0.76 -0.152 

 $25,001 to $50,000 ................................................................................ -0.02 0.103 0.98 -0.011 

 $50,001 to $75,000 ................................................................................ 0.01 0.092 1.01 0.005 

 $75,001 to $100,000.............................................................................. 0.02 0.101 1.02 0.011 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 months) 

 6 to 11 months........................................................................................ 0.11 0.074 1.12 0.063 

 Less than 6 months1

............................................................................... -0.24 0.157 0.78 -0.137 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional or 

managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support....................................................................... -0.03 0.072 0.97 -0.017 

 Trades ..................................................................................................... -0.17 0.111 0.84 -0.096 

 Not employed within past 12 months................................................... † † † † 

† Not applicable. 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program. 
B-5

Table B3. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

participation in self-paced study using books, procedures manuals, audiotapes, or videos: 

2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years.................................................................................... -0.11 0.097 0.90 -0.058 

 45 to 64 years.................................................................................... -0.25* 0.095 0.78 -0.137 

 65 years or older ............................................................................... -0.91* 0.112 0.40 -0.506 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male................................................................................................... 0.11 0.058 1.12 0.063 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, non-Hispanic) 

 Black, non-Hispanic ......................................................................... 0.31* 0.105 1.37 0.174 

 Hispanic............................................................................................. 0.22* 0.102 1.25 0.123 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic.......................................... 0.46* 0.164 1.58 0.253 

 Other race, non-Hispanic ................................................................. 0.03 0.235 1.03 0.016 

 

Highest education completed (Reference category: Graduate 

or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent ................................... -0.78* 0.156 0.46 -0.429 

 High school diploma/equivalent...................................................... -0.49* 0.104 0.61 -0.273 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree................................... -0.22* 0.105 0.80 -0.123 

 Bachelor’s degree ............................................................................. -0.20* 0.095 0.81 -0.116 

 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or more) 

 $25,000 or less .................................................................................. -0.10 0.103 0.91 -0.052 

 $25,001 to $50,000........................................................................... 0.03 0.093 1.03 0.016 

 $50,001 to $75,000........................................................................... -0.10 0.094 0.91 -0.052 

 $75,001 to $100,000......................................................................... -0.04 0.109 0.96 -0.023 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 months) 

 6 to 11 months................................................................................... -0.17* 0.066 0.84 -0.096 

 Less than 6 months1

.......................................................................... -0.38* 0.136 0.68 -0.213 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional or 

managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support.................................................................. -0.25* 0.080 0.78 -0.137 

 Trades ................................................................................................ -0.26* 0.096 0.77 -0.144 

 Not employed within past 12 months.............................................. -1.09* 0.167 0.34 -0.596 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program. 
B-6

Table B4. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

attendance at conferences, trade shows, or conventions: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years.................................................................................... 0.06 0.124 1.06 0.032 

 45 to 64 years.................................................................................... 0.04 0.125 1.04 0.022 

 65 years or older ............................................................................... -0.54* 0.148 0.59 -0.292 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male................................................................................................... 0.31* 0.068 1.36 0.170 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, non-Hispanic) 

 Black, non-Hispanic ......................................................................... 0.10 0.126 1.11 0.058 

 Hispanic............................................................................................. 0.10 0.121 1.11 0.058 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic.......................................... 0.15 0.175 1.16 0.082 

 Other race, non-Hispanic ................................................................. 0.07 0.188 1.07 0.037 

 

Highest education completed (Reference category: Graduate 

or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent ................................... -1.43* 0.184 0.24 -0.788 

 High school diploma/equivalent...................................................... -1.12* 0.105 0.33 -0.613 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree................................... -0.76* 0.091 0.47 -0.417 

 Bachelor’s degree ............................................................................. -0.55* 0.084 0.58 -0.301 

 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or more) 

 $25,000 or less .................................................................................. -0.63* 0.105 0.54 -0.340 

 $25,001 to $50,000........................................................................... -0.49* 0.090 0.61 -0.273 

 $50,001 to $75,000........................................................................... -0.52* 0.097 0.60 -0.282 

 $75,001 to $100,000......................................................................... -0.26* 0.104 0.77 -0.144 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 months) 

 6 to 11 months................................................................................... -0.14 0.089 0.87 -0.077 

 Less than 6 months1

.......................................................................... -0.70* 0.153 0.50 -0.383 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional or 

managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support.................................................................. -0.63* 0.063 0.53 -0.351 

 Trades ................................................................................................ -0.81* 0.122 0.44 -0.454 

 Not employed within past 12 months.............................................. -1.09* 0.156 0.34 -0.596 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program. 
B-7

Table B5. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

attendance at brown-bag or informal presentations: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years.................................................................................... 0.12 0.135 1.13 0.068 

 45 to 64 years.................................................................................... 0.14 0.153 1.15 0.077 

 65 years or older ............................................................................... -0.70* 0.175 0.50 -0.383 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male................................................................................................... 0.09 0.064 1.10 0.053 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, non-Hispanic) 

 Black, non-Hispanic ......................................................................... 0.06 0.099 1.07 0.037 

 Hispanic............................................................................................. -0.23 0.131 0.79 -0.130 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic.......................................... 0.16 0.159 1.18 0.091 

 Other race, non-Hispanic ................................................................. -0.10 0.203 0.90 -0.058 

 

Highest education completed (Reference category: Graduate 

or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent ................................... -1.78* 0.239 0.17 -0.979 

 High school diploma/equivalent...................................................... -1.04* 0.112 0.35 -0.580 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree................................... -0.66* 0.088 0.52 -0.361 

 Bachelor’s degree ............................................................................. -0.41* 0.096 0.66 -0.230 

 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or more) 

 $25,000 or less .................................................................................. -0.56* 0.107 0.57 -0.311 

 $25,001 to $50,000........................................................................... -0.27* 0.103 0.77 -0.144 

 $50,001 to $75,000........................................................................... -0.26* 0.093 0.77 -0.144 

 $75,001 to $100,000......................................................................... -0.03 0.111 0.97 -0.017 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 months) 

 6 to 11 months................................................................................... -0.24* 0.089 0.79 -0.130 

 Less than 6 months1

.......................................................................... -0.48* 0.165 0.62 -0.264 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional or 

managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support.................................................................. -0.44* 0.077 0.64 -0.247 

 Trades ................................................................................................ -0.93* 0.108 0.40 -0.506 

 Not employed within past 12 months.............................................. -1.45* 0.184 0.24 -0.788 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program. 
B-8

Table B6. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and work-related 

participation in self-paced study using computer-based software tutorials: 2002–03 

Adult characteristic 

Parameter 

estimate s.e. Odds ratio Effect size 

 

Age (Reference category: 24 years or younger) 

 25 to 44 years.................................................................................... 0.12 0.122 1.13 0.068 

 45 to 64 years.................................................................................... 0.07 0.121 1.07 0.037 

 65 years or older ............................................................................... -0.95* 0.166 0.39 -0.520 

 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

 Male................................................................................................... 0.25* 0.063 1.29 0.141 

 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, non-Hispanic) 

 Black, non-Hispanic ......................................................................... 0.16 0.104 1.17 0.087 

 Hispanic............................................................................................. 0.07 0.110 1.07 0.037 

 Asian or Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic.......................................... 0.60* 0.149 1.83 0.334 

 Other race, non-Hispanic ................................................................. 0.38 0.207 1.46 0.209 

 

Highest education completed (Reference category: Graduate 

or professional degree) 

 Less than a high school diploma/equivalent ................................... -1.21* 0.166 0.30 -0.665 

 High school diploma/equivalent...................................................... -0.75* 0.092 0.47 -0.417 

 Some college/vocational/associate’s degree................................... -0.28* 0.087 0.76 -0.152 

 Bachelor’s degree ............................................................................. -0.05 0.084 0.95 -0.028 

 

Household income (Reference category: $100,001 or more) 

 $25,000 or less .................................................................................. -0.63* 0.100 0.53 -0.351 

 $25,001 to $50,000........................................................................... -0.36* 0.086 0.70 -0.197 

 $50,001 to $75,000........................................................................... -0.21* 0.083 0.81 -0.116 

 $75,001 to $100,000......................................................................... -0.09 0.100 0.91 -0.052 

 

Months worked in past year(Reference category: 12 months) 

 6 to 11 months................................................................................... -0.23* 0.076 0.80 -0.123 

 Less than 6 months1

.......................................................................... -0.35* 0.155 0.71 -0.189 

 

Occupational group (Reference category: Professional or 

managerial) 

 Service, sales, or support.................................................................. -0.23* 0.083 0.79 -0.130 

 Trades ................................................................................................ -0.82* 0.126 0.44 -0.454 

 Not employed within past 12 months.............................................. -0.61* 0.185 0.55 -0.330 

* p < .05. 

1

Includes adults not employed in the previous 12 months. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education for Work-Related Reasons Survey of the 2003 

National Household Education Surveys Program.