The Container Tree Nursery Manual

Volume One Planning, Development, and Management

Volume Two Containers and Growing Media (1990)

Volume Three Atmospheric Environment (1992)

Volume Four Seedling Nutrition and Irrigation (1989)

Volume Five The Biological Component: Nursery Pests and Mycorrhizae (1990)

Volume Six Seedling Propagation

Volume Seven Seedling Processing, Storage, and Outplanting

Landis, T.D.; Tinus, R.W.; McDonald, S.E.; Barnett, J.P. 1992. 

Atmospheric environment, Vol. 3, The Container Tree Nursery 

Manual. Agric. Handbk. 674. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service. 145 p.

Preface

Work on the first comprehensive technical manual on the production 

of container tree seedlings, "How to grow tree seedlings in 

containers in greenhouses" by Richard W. Tinus and Stephen E. 

McDonald, was begun in June 1975 and it was published by the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service as a General 

Technical Report (GTR RM-60) in May 1979. This manual achieved 

worldwide acceptance as the primary reference on the culture of 

container tree seedlings. "How to grow tree seedlings" was originally 

intended as an interim publication and has been reprinted several 

times. However, it is currently out of print.

In 1982, planning began for writing a new container nursery manual 

based on "How to grow tree seedlings in containers in 

greenhouses," but adding several new chapters. The writing team 

consisted of four authors: Thomas D. Landis, Richard W. Tinus, 

Stephen E. McDonald, and James P. Barnett, with the assistance of 

Rebecca G. Nisley as managing editor. Guest authors were invited 

to write specific chapters and their contributions are acknowledged 

in the individual chapter title pages.

Realizing that container nursery management had changed 

considerably over the previous decade, the team surveyed 

container tree nursery practices in North America in 1984. To gain 

additional data for volume three on how nurseries regulated the 

nursery environment, nurseries were again surveyed in early 1991. 

Information from these surveys helped to determine writing priorities 

and emphasis and has been used to complement the published 

literature.

The Container Tree Nursery Manual consists of seven volumes; 

they are being published in the order they are written, all under the 

same series number-U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural 

Handbook 674. Each volume contains chapters on closely related 

subjects concerning the production of tree seedlings in containers. 

The volumes can be accumulated and used as a complete nursery 

manual or can be used separately by specialists needing 

information on a particular subject. Because several subjects must 

be discussed in more than one volume there will be some 

redundancy in the manual. Such repetition is justified, however, 

because most readers will be using the

ii

manual as a technical reference and will not be reading the 

entire text.

The Container Tree Nursery Manual is structured around an 

outline of numerical organizational headings that allow the reader 

to locate a specific subject quickly, without referring to an index. 

The general outline of volume and chapter titles is as follows:

Volume One—Planning, Development, and

Management

Chapter 1 Initial Planning and Feasibility 

Assessment

Chapter 2 Site Selection

Chapter 3 Nursery Layout and Growing

Facilities

Chapter 4 Nonstructural Equipment and

Controls

Chapter 5 Auxiliary Equipment and Buildings

Chapter 6 Shadehouses, Bedhouses, and

Tunnels

Chapter 7 Nursery Management

Chapter 8 Troubleshooting Container Nursery

Problems

Volume Two—Containers and Growing Media

Chapter 1 Containers: Types and Functions

Chapter 2 Growing Media

Volume Three—Atmospheric Environment

Chapter 1 Temperature

Chapter 2 Humidity

Chapter 3 Light

Chapter 4 Carbon Dioxide

Volume Four—Seedling Nutrition and Irrigation

Chapter 1 Mineral Nutrients and Fertilization

Chapter 2 Irrigation and Water Management

Volume Five—The Biological Component: Nursery

 Pests and Mycorrhizae

Chapter 1 Disease and Pest Management

Chapter 2 Mycorrhizae

Volume Six—Seedling Propagation

Chapter 1 Stock Types and Growing Schedules

Chapter 2 Seed Factors and Presowing

Treatments
Chapter 3 Sowing and Other Propagation

Methods

Chapter 4 Establishment Phase

Chapter 5 Rapid Growth Phase

Chapter 6 Hardening Phase

Volume Seven—Seedling Processing, Storage, and

 Outplanting

Chapter 1 Processing and Storage

Chapter 2 Handling and Transportation

Chapter 3 Outplanting

The manual is based on the best current knowledge on container 

tree nursery management and should be used as a general 

reference. Recommendations were made using the best 

information available at the time and are, therefore, subject to 

revision as more knowledge becomes available. Much of the 

information in this manual was developed for western and 

southern conifer seedlings. Although the authors attempted to 

include information for species from other geographical areas, 

because of the wide variation in individual species responses, 

container nursery managers will need to adapt these principles 

and procedures to their own nursery situation. There is no 

substitute for individual experience, and recommended cultural 

practices should be tested before being implemented on an 

operational scale.

Trade names are used throughout the manual, but only to provide 

examples, and no endorsement of specific products, or exclusion 

of equally suitable products, is implied. The mention of specific 

pesticides is intended only for general information and should not 

be construed as an endorsement. Because of frequent changes in 

pesticide registration and labeling, the reader should check with 

local authorities to make sure that an intended use is both safe 

and legal. Remember that pesticides can be harmful to humans, 

domestic animals, desirable plants, and fish or other wildlife, if they 

are not handled or applied properly. Use all pesticides selectively 

and carefully, following the label directions. Follow recommended 

practices for the disposal of surplus pesticides and pesticide 

containers.

The Container Tree Nursery Manual was organized into separate 

volumes to allow for revisions and updating. The authors request 

that readers bring any errors in the tex t to their attention and also

offer suggestions for improvement. Submit any suggestions to 

Thomas D. Landis, USDA Forest Service, State and Private 

Forestry, PO Box 3623, Portland, OR 97208, USA.

Many people have been instrumental in the preparation of the

manual. Technical review of such a large publication involves 

considerable work, and the authors are extremely grateful to the 

following nursery professionals for reviewing various drafts of 

volume three:

Chapter 1—Temperature 

Dr. Eugene Shoulders, USDA Forest Service,

Southern Station, Alexendria, LA

Dr. William C. Carlson, Weyerhaueser

Technology Center, Federal Way, WA

Mr. Eric van Steenis, British Columbia Ministry of

Forests, Surrey, BC, Canada

Chapter 2—Humidity

Dr. Boyd Strain, Duke University, Durham, NC

Dr. Merrill Kaufmann, USDA Forest Service,

Rocky Mountain Station, Ft. Collins, CO

Dr. Leroy J. Heidmann, USDA Forest Service,

Rocky Mountain Station, Flagstaff, AZ

Dr. William Lopushinsky, USDA Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Station, Wenatchee, WA

Mr. Eric van Steenis, British Columbia Ministry of

Forests, Surrey, BC, Canada

Chapter 3—Light 

Dr. James T. Arnott, Canadian Forestry Service,

Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC, Canada

Mr. Eric van Steenis, British Columbia Ministry of

Forests, Surrey, BC, Canada

Chapter 4—Carbon Dioxide

Dr. Boyd Strain, Duke University, Durham, NC

Dr. Merrill Kaufmann, USDA Forest Service,

Rocky Mountain Station, Ft. Collins, CO

Dr. Leroy J. Heidmann, USDA Forest Service,

Rocky Mountain Station, Flagstaff, AZ

Dr. Kenneth L. Goldsberry, Department of

Horticulture, Colorado State University, Ft.

Collins, CO

iii
IV
The Container Tree Nursery Manual

Volume Three

Atmospheric Environment

Introduction 1

Chapter 1-Temperature 5

3.1.1 Introduction 7

3.1.2 Role of Temperature in Tree Seedling

Growth and Development 9

3.1.3 Optimum Temperature Levels 13

3.1.4 Modifying Temperature in Container Tree

Nurseries 20

3.1.5 Temperature Monitoring and Control

Systems 39

3.1.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 42

3.1.7 Literature Cited 43

Chapter 2-Humidity 47

3.2.1 Introduction 49

3.2.2 Role of Humidity in Tree Seedling

Growth and Development 54

3.2.3 Optimum Humidity Levels 58

3.2.4 Modifying Humidity in Container Tree

Nurseries 61

3.2.5 Humidity Monitoring and Control

Systems 66

3.2.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 70

3.2.7 Literature Cited 71

3.3.1 Introduction 75

3.3.2 Role of Light in Tree Seedling Growth

and Development 80

3.3.3 Optimum Light Levels 92

3.3.4 Modifying Light in Container Tree

Nurseries 96

3.3.5 Light Monitoring and Control Systems 115

3.3.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 117

3.3.7 Literature Cited 118

v

Chapter 4-Carbon Dioxide 123

3.4.1 Introduction 125

3.4.2 Role of Carbon Dioxide in Tree Seedling

Growth and Development 126

3.4.3 Optimum Carbon Dioxide Levels 130

3.4.4 Modifying Carbon Dioxide in Container

Tree Nurseries 132

3.4.5 Carbon Dioxide Monitoring and Control

Systems 137

3.4.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 139

3.4.7 Literature Cited 140

Appendix 142

Index of Common and Scientific Names 144

Chapter 3—Light