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Driving Schedule and the Highway Fuel Economy Test. A key evaluation point of interest is
the potential variation in test results at different laboratories.

Since the purpose is to evaluate the test procedure and not the vehicle, the approach
controls the items which would be expected to produce test-to-test variations but does not
control items which would normally vary with implementation of the procedure. The
laboratories selected (Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Environmental Protection
Agency, Ford Motor Company, Southwest Research Institute, and the California Air
Resources Board) to participate in this project represent a cross-section of the types of
laboratories expected to rely on this procedure in the future.

Controlled variables include the vehicle, instrumentation, and the data acquisition
system. An EVcort electric vehicle was chosen as the test vehicle because of it’s proven
consistency and reliability. Instrumentation and the data acquisition system supplied by the
Idaho National Engineering Laboratory is common to all tests at all test sites.

Tests conducted at four of the five selected test sites on five different dynamometers
were completed in Fiscal Year 1994. Results of the tests completed thus far indicate that the
direct-current energy consumption measured at each test site compare favorably. However,
large differences in system alternating-current energy consumption were noted. This disparity
is largely attributed to variations in battery behavior and differences in alternating-current
electrical service available at each of the sites. Details of the test results from the
participating laboratories, including critiques of the test procedure implementation, will be
reported by the Idaho laboratory at the completion of the test program.

Systems Modeling

The computer simulation code, SIMPLEV, developed by the Idaho National
Engineering Laboratory, was significantly improved during Fiscal Year 1994 and released as
Version 3.1. Minor improvements in Version 3.0 were made as a result of the needs of users
to predict the vehicle performance of state-of-the-art electric, series and parallel hybrid, and
ultracapacitor/battery powered vehicles. And like previous versions, 3.1 can be run on any
IBM compatible personal computer. The following are the most significant features that have
been added and are contained in SIMPLEV Version 3.1.

. Output displays have been significantly upgraded. The user may choose
between three display modes (text, 320 x 200 graphics, and 640 x 480 graphics
display modes).

. Ability to model parallel hybrid and ultracapacitor hybrid propulsion systems
has been added.

° A separate utility was created to allow the user to build and/or edit a file
containing all of the necessary inputs to the simulation, and then run the

simulation in "batch" mode using this file.

. Context sensitive information and "help" text has been included. The Ctrl-h
key combination at any point during the simulation displays a list of special

S-11


Southern California Edison Company currently operates and maintains a fleet of 24
electric vehicles consisting of 15 Conceptor Industries G-Vans, and 9 other electric vehicles.
In 1993, they purchased 2 Solectria Forces, a Shuttle Bus, a converted Ford Ranger pickup,
and a converted Ford Tempo. Cumulative miles to date are more than 240,000. They are
also exploring additional electric vehicle purchases and leases.

As part of Southern California Edison’s Infrastructure Program, two G-Vans are on
loan to Federal Express, one G-Van is in service with Miller Brewing Company, and a fourth
with the City of Fountain Valley, California. They are also working with Ford and the U.S.
Postal Service to lease six Ecostars to be placed into service with the Post Office, and two
school buses are being converted in a cooperative effort with CALSTART. The six Ecostars
and two buses will become part of the Site Operator Program at Southern California Edison.

Vehicle and component testing not only serves to identify technical advances and
problems, but also provides essential input to planning and operating the electric utility
system. An example, is the measurement of the distortion and power factor shift attributable
to electric vehicle chargers.

Texas A&M University conducts its Site Operator Program activities in College
Station, Texas, at its Center for Electrochemical Systems and Hydrogen Research, and in
conjunction with the South Central Electric Vehicle Consortium, a group that includes Texas
A&M, nine utilities, and other organizations. Currently, the Consortium operates 25
passenger and cargo electric vehicles, and 2 zinc-bromine battery-powered race cars. A Texas
A&M G-Van is currently being used as a demonstration vehicle in Houston by the Electric
Power Research Institute, and another in Austin by the Lower Colorado River Authority.
Limited driving range has been the major problem with all the G-Vans.

The Texas A&M University electric car race team supported their University of
California counterparts in building an electric car. The vehicle, converted from a Geo Prism,
and powered by a zinc-bromine battery and alternating-current drive system, placed third in
the 1994 Solar and Electric 500 stock car race (co-sponsored by Arizona Public Service and
the Department of Energy) held in Phoenix, Arizona.

The South Central Electric Vehicle Consortium, based at Texas A&M University,
supports the Program, and serves as a clearinghouse for information exchange between
electric vehicle fleet operators in Texas and Oklahoma.

University of South Florida maintains a fleet of two G-Vans, six Chevrolet S-10
conversions, and one Mitsubishi Mirage conversion. One of the six S-10s is operated by the
Pinellas County Air Quality Office and another by the privately owned Bruderly Engineering
Associates of Gainesville. Performance data collection is simplified by the Mobile Data
Acquisition System developed by the University. The system automatically monitors and
stores main battery pack voltage, current, temperature, electric vehicle velocity, cab
temperature, and ambient temperature, all relevant for optimum performance in the Florida
climate. An Automatic Data Retrieval System receives Mobile Data Acquisition System data
via cellular or land-line telephones for processing and analysis by University computers. This


Demonstration Projects

In Fiscal Year 1994, no funds were appropriated for demonstration projects under
Subtitle A -- Electric Motor Vehicle Commercial Demonstration Program of the Energy
Policy Act of 1992. No activities were conducted under this subtitle.

6.2 Interagency Coordination
Coordination on Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technologies

The Interagency Coordination Task Force for Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
Technologies continued to coordinate and integrate the programs and policies of Federal
agencies that research, develop, test, and promote electric and hybrid vehicles and associated
technologies.

A Memorandum of Understanding was entered into by the Department of Energy with
the Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in June 1994 to document a
commitment to support common interests and objectives in the research, development, and
demonstration of transportation, fuel cell, natural gas, and coal technologies for military and
public benefit.

The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles

On September 30, 1993, the United States government and the United States Council
for Automotive Research (representing Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors) formed an
historic new partnership called the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles. This
partnership is aimed at strengthening U.S. competitiveness by developing technologies that
could lead to near-term improvements in auto manufacturing, mid-term improvements in the
fuel efficiency of conventional vehicles, and the long-term development of a new generation
of vehicles with up to three times the fuel efficiency but posses the same performance/
operational attributes as comparable production vehicles, and meet the Environmental
Protection Agency’s Tier II emissions standards.

Several technologies being developed by the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Program
have been recognized as both relevant and important to the Partnership. Successful
development of hybrid propulsion systems that could double the fuel economy of
conventional vehicles is an important step in achieving the Partnership’s long term goal of
achieving triple fuel efficiency. Also, fuel cells continue to be a viable long term technology
candidate that could offer improved fuel efficiency and minimal environmental emissions.
High power batteries and ultracapacitors for energy recovery and storage are also important in
improving the overall energy utilization by the vehicle.

In Fiscal Year 1994, the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Program coordinated with the
Partnership to ensure that technologies currently under development could contribute
positively to the successful development of the new generation of vehicles by industry.


The Department continued to participate in the development of an infrastructure for
electric vehicles through the Infrastructure Working Council and appropriate
committees. The Council coordinates the activities of the electric utility industry, the
automobile industry, and equipment suppliers towards development of common
standards.

The Department signed on June 30, 1994, a Memorandum of Understanding with the
Advanced Research Projects Agency concerning the coordination of activities in three
program areas, namely: Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research and Development; Fuel
Cell Vehicle Research and Development; and Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
Deployment. The goal of the Memorandum is to avoid duplication of efforts and
ensure the efficient use of government resources between the agencies. Detailed
agreements will be developed in Fiscal Year 1995 to implement the Memorandum.

The Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on Equivalent Petroleum-Based Fuel Economy
for electric vehicles was published in the Federal Register in February 1994. The
tulemaking delineates the procedure for calculating the electric vehicles’ equivalent
miles per gallon for application to manufacturer’s corporate average fuel economy.
Appropriate comments from the public hearing are being incorporated into the final
tule which will be released during Fiscal Year 1995. This rulemaking provides an
increased incentive to vehicle manufacturers to produce electric vehicles.

2-4








Battaglia, V.S., and J. Newman, “Magnetic Field Effects in High-Power Batteries I. The
Penetration of an Electric Field into a Cylindrical Conductor,” LBL-34096, December 1993.

Battaglia, V.S., and J. Newman, “Magnetic Field Effects in High-Power Batteries II. Time
Constant of a Radial Circuit Terminated by a Cylindrical Cell with Inductance,” LBL-34097,
December 1993.

Battaglia, V.S., and J. Newman, “Modeling of a Growing Oxide Film: The Iron/Iron Oxide
System,” LBL-34385, November 1993.

Doeff, M.M., Y. Ma, M. Peng, S.J. Visco, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Solid Sodium Solid Polymer
Electrolyte Batteries,” Abstract No. 93039, 28th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering
Conference, Atlanta, GA , August 1993.

Doeff, M.M., Y. Ma, S.J. Visco, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Electrochemical Insertion of Sodium into
Carbon,” LBL-34552, August 1993.

Doeff, M.M., Y. Ma, S.J. Visco, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Electrochemical Insertion of Sodium into
Carbon,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 140, L169, 1993.

Doyle, M., T.F. Fuller, and J. Newman, “The Importance of the Lithium Ion Transference
Number in Lithium/Polymer Cells,” LBL-34378, December 1993.

Doyle, M., T.F. Fuller, and J. Newman, “Modeling the Galvanostatic Charge/ Discharge of the
Lithium/Polymer/Insertion Cell,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 140, 1526, 1993.

Fukunaka, Y., F. McLarnon, and Z. Asaki, “Laser Interferometry as an In-Situ Technique to
Characterize Electrochemical Processes,” New Trends and Approaches in Electrochemical
Technology, N. Masuko, T. Osaka, and Y. Fukunaka, eds., Kodansha Scientific, Ltd., Tokyo,
Chapter 11, pp. 215-34, 1993,

Fuller, T.F., M. Doyle, and J. Newman, “Relaxation Phenomena in Lithium Ion Insertion Cells,”
LBL-34471, December 1993.

Fuller, T.F., M. Doyle, and J. Newman, “Simulation and Optimization of the Dual Lithium Ion
Insertion Cell,” LBL-33426, accepted Journal of the Electrochemical Society, October 1993.

Fuller, T.F., and J. Newman, “Convective Diffusion near a Consolute Point,” International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 36, 347, 1993.

Fuller, T.F., and J. Newman, “Diffusion,” Encyclopedia of Chemistry, Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York, NY, October 1992.

Fuller, T.F., and J. Newman, “Electrochemical Processing (Introduction),” Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology 9, 111, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1993.

10-4


Based on vehicle system requirements, it was necessary to consider at least two hybrid
operating modes to envelope storage system requirements. These have been designated as
“dual mode" (where the hybrid storage device may need to supply all of the propulsion power
under some conditions) and "power assist mode" (where the storage device provides only
supplemental power) for acceleration and limited hill climbing capability. A preliminary set
of requirements for these two modes has been proposed as shown Table 6-1.

During Fiscal Year 1994, a set of test procedures specifically for ultracapacitors was
defined to measure their performance from early laboratory stages to subsystem scale-up. A
general test profile and one or more test cycles are being developed to verify the performance
and life of all types of hybrid energy storage devices against the requirements in Table 6-1.
This test method evolves from, and is partly based on, a refinement of the battery testing
procedures defined for the U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium. It is being done
synergistically with the definition of vehicle-level performance tests by the Society of
Automotive Engineers. Trial use of these test cycles will begin in Fiscal Year 1995 as part of

a high power battery evaluation project involving the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory
and a number of battery developers.

6.7. Supporting Analyses and Assessments of Transportation Fuel Cells

Analyses and assessments of critical technical, market, and policy issues related to the
use of fuel cells in transportation are conducted to provide a rationale for the choice of
research program elements, to assist in overall program planning, definition and direction, and
to coordinate public outreach and information transfer. These activities are also needed to
help integrate the transportation fuel cell program with major federal initiatives to improve the
nation’s economic productivity, international competitiveness, and environmental quality.

Table 6-1. Requirements for a Hybrid Energy Storage Device

Requirement for Hybrid Dual Mode Power Assist
Energy Storage Device

[ Maximum Power (kilowatt) 80 60 |
Energy Storage (kilowatt -hour) 10+ 2-3 |
Maximum Weight (kilogram) 100 60
Maximum Volume (Liter) 120 40

| Life (cycles) >2000 >100,000

[ Cost ($ per kilowatt -hour) <130 <250

In Fiscal Year 1994, the draft environmental assessment was revised to address the
potential impacts of research and development activities outlined in the new program plan for

68


Pentastar/Chrysler/AlliedSignal team is taking a design-to-cost approach to their development
activities. For the fuel cell’s polymer electrolyte, lower cost alternatives are being developed
rather than the traditional perfluoronated sulfonic acid membranes such as NafionTM,
Potentially lower cost alternatives for the machined graphite bipolar plate are also being
explored. The Pentastar/Chrysler/ AlliedSignal team will also carry out a passenger vehicle
conceptual design, conducting research and development of on-board hydrogen storage
technologies and laboratory demonstration of an integrated 30-kilowatt power source system.
A preliminary conceptual design is shown in Figure 4-1.

© PEM FUEL CELL

LOAD LEVELING
‘SYSTEM

VEHICLE MANAGEMENT

CONTROLLER

O HYDROGEN STORAGE TANKS:

‘OW/AIR HEAT

EXCHANGER

Figure 4-1. Conceptual hydrogen proton exchange
membrane fuel cell vehicle

Methanol-Fueled Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

General Motors has completed a Phase I contract (20-percent cost-shared) that
successfully developed and tested a 10-kilowatt methanol-fueled proton exchange membrane
fuel cell system. In a conceptual design study for a minivan, the performance of fuel cell
technology was shown to be comparable to the internal combustion engine, but with over
twice the energy efficiency and nearly zero emissions. In Fiscal Year 1994, the Department
awarded a 30-month Phase II follow-on contract to General Motors to continue the
development and testing of a complete 60-kilowatt laboratory propulsion system. The
General Motors effort includes AC Delco Division (formed by the merging of AC Rochester
and Delco Remy divisions) and Harrison Radiator Division. Key subcontractors on the
General Motors Phase II team are DuPont, Dow Chemical, Los Alamos National Laboratory,
Ballard Power Systems, and Allison Engine Company.

42


keys and their use. The user may also add additional information or
customized notes to the help text as desired.

° Periods of vehicle coasting may be specified during the driving cycle.

° Road grade and vehicle direction may be given as a function of distance and
driving profiles can be defined as a function of time or distance.

° Wind speed and direction as a function of time may be specified.

SIMPLEV has been licensed to more than 70 users including automobile companies,
battery companies, component suppliers, and colleges and universities. The code has also
been distributed to other government agencies.

5.5 Student Competitions

The 1994 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenge

The Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenge is an annual student engineering competition
cosponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, the Society of Automotive Engineers, Natural
Resources Canada, and the "Big Three" automakers. It provides future engineers with
opportunities to design, build, and test "real-world" hybrid electric vehicles. Students from a
variety of disciplines including engineering, computer science, business, and communications
work together in vehicle development teams. The teams develop innovative and
environmentally responsible vehicles that combine electric and thermal power to improve
mileage and reduce emissions while maintaining performance comparable to conventional
vehicles. Safety, energy efficiency, and the use of alternative fuels are the cornerstones of the
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenge. This competition provides a wealth of technical data from
innovative and advanced designs that complement and enhance industry’s research and
development efforts.

The 1994 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenge was held in Southfield, Michigan from
June 14-21. Over 800 students representing 38 colleges and universities came from across
North America to the campus of Lawrence Technological University to participate in this
event. The hybrid electric vehicles were divided into three classes: Saturn vehicles converted
to hybrids, Ford Escort conversions, and hybrids built from the ground-up. Competitive
categories included designs and capabilities in acceleration, long-range and urban-type driving
cycles, energy economy, and low emissions. Some of the vehicles also used alternative fuels
such as ethanol and methanol. The overall winners of the 1994 Challenge were the
University of Maryland, Satur conversion class; Weber State College, Ford Escort
conversions; and the University of California, Davis, Ground-Up class.

Computer software simulations and data collection are key derivatives of the annual
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenge. The data collected from the 1994 Challenge was used to
validate simulation code (simulation results were compared to actual performance data).
Parametric runs are currently being performed using the simulators to determine the
sensitivity of hybrid performance to various vehicle and component specifications. The

5-12


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

1.0 Introduction 21... .. cece cece cece ee tee tee teen een enenee 1-1
2.0 Fiscal Year 1994 Accomplishments ......... 00. cece cece cece eee eeee 2-1
3.0 Battery Systems Research and Development .......... 0. sees ececeeeee

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

3.1. United States Advanced Battery Consortium .
3.2 Exploratory Technology Research

3.3. Ultracapacitors .........-..005

Fuel Cell Systems Research and Development ............-.0 eee eee 4-1
4.1 Light-Duty Vehicle Propulsion Systems ............e ee eeeeene 4-1
4.2 Heavy-Duty Vehicle Propulsion Systems ..........200eeeeeeeee 4-3
4.3 Research and Development

4.4 Exploratory Technology Development ...........ceceeeeecceee 4-5
4.5 Vehicle Systems Analyses ........ 0. . eee ee cere eee ee eeeeee 4-7
Propulsion Systems Research and Development ...........-00 ee eeeeee S-1

5.1. Hybrid Propulsion Systems Program ...
5.2. Modular Electric Vehicle Program . .

5.3. Site Operator Program .......... .
5.4. Engineering Evaluation and Testing ..........- 0 cece ee eee eee
5.5 Student Competitions»... 6... 0. e cece cece eee ee enone
Other Activities ©... 1... cece eee teen ete neeees 6-1
6.1 The Energy Policy Act of 1992 and the Electric and Hybrid

Vehicles Program «1.1... eet eee cee eet tence eee nee
6.2 Interagency Coordination
6.3 Database Development ..... 1.2.2.2... 0.0 e eee eee eee nee
6.4 Electric Vehicle Readiness
6.5 Environmental, Health, and Safety Studies ..................05- 6-6
6.6 Energy Storage for Hybrid/Electric Vehicles ..............e0000e 6-7
6.7 Supporting Analyses and Assessments of Transportation

Fuel Cells 2.0.0... cece cece cece eee een e eee 6-8

Incentives 6... eee eee eet teen eee eenees 7-1
Use of Foreign Components ....... 0.0. c cece erect eee renee eeeenee 8-1
Recommendations for Initiatives .......... 0... e cece eee eee ee eee 9-1

Fiscal Year 1994 Publications ......... 0.0 ccc e eee eee ence eens 10-1


Program management activities continued in a variety of areas including: management
of Site Operator activities, presentations on the Site Operator Program, participation in
activities of other electric vehicle groups (i.e., the Electric Power Research Institute and the
Electric Vehicles Association of the Americas), publishing technical and progress reports, and
supporting the development of components and infrastructure. The Program was represented
on three of the Electric Power Research Institute’s National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure
Working Committees and participated in the Electric Vehicles Association of Americas
working groups on data collection and public awareness.

Purchase orders for a total of 42 pickup conversions have been placed with U.S.
Electricar and Spartan Motors. The Spartan Motors conversions utilize a General Electric
drivetrain, and the U.S. Electricar vehicles feature a Hughes drivetrain. The Site Operator
Program supported EV America in the development of specifications for solicitation of
vehicles they will purchase to achieve their program goals. Site Operator Program support of
EV America continues through technical assistance in the testing and selection of vehicles
proposed by vendors in response to solicitations.

Arizona Public Service currently operates nine electric vehicles, primarily in the
Phoenix area. Seven of these are new demonstration vehicles: three EVcorts, one Solectria,
one Solar car, and two G-Vans made by Griffon. Much of the vehicle use is for
demonstration, often under loan or lease arrangements. Technical information is coordinated
with Southern California Edison, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Idaho National
Engineering Laboratory, and the Electric Power Research Institute. For public education, the
Electric Vehicle Information Center at Arizona Public Service’s Corporate Headquarters in
Phoenix contains displays depicting the history and environmental benefits of electric vehicles
and demonstrations of the operation and efficiency of electric vehicles. Arizona Public
Service also sponsored the 1994 Solar and Electric 500 Race, which included nearly 75
entries, and supports electric vehicle clubs in Phoenix and Tucson with technical information
and presentations. As a result, Arizona Public Service has contact with more than 100
electric vehicle owners in the state. They also used their Saturn electric race car and the
Brawner Motorsport EX-11 electric "Indy" racer to promote electric vehicles throughout the
United States.

Kansas State University, in conjunction with the Kansas Electric Utilities Research
Program, a joint venture of six major electric utilities in the State, is taking a leading role in
introducing electric vehicles in Kansas. Several industrial organizations in the State also
provide technical and financial support to the Program. Three electric vehicles (a G-Van, and
two EVcorts) are at this site. Western Resources, working in cooperation with Kansas State
and Eagle Picher, are conducting research and testing of advanced battery technology in a G-
Van.

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power operates eleven electric vehicles,
including a hybrid minivan, a Uniq (from Unique Mobility, Englewood, Colorado), which is
being tested and evaluated as a candidate fleet vehicle. The Los Angeles Department of
Water and Power is a participant in the CALSTART Electric Bus/Mass Transit Program.

5-5


Figure 3-1. Maxwell Laboratories ultracapacitor cell fixture tested at the Idaho
National Engineering Laboratory

Development of Type II and III Los Alamos materials with improved specific energy and
specific power is on-going, and deliverables for further testing are expected in Fiscal Year
1995.

General Electric Corporate Research and Development in Schenectady, New York,
performed a study of the electronics needed to interface an ultracapacitor unit with the battery
in an electric vehicle driveline. The interface unit (see Figure 3-2) was designed to control
the charge and discharge of the capacitors such that the battery is load-leveled to discharge at
the average power required by the vehicle. In addition, the interface electronics unit could
uncouple the battery/capacitor voltage from that of the motor/inverter permitting a 100-volt
battery/capacitor unit to power a 350-volt motor/inverter drive system. The results of the
study indicate that a high efficiency interface unit utilizing soft-switching can be built with
the size, weight, and cost comparable to that of the electronics in the Modular Electric
Vehicle Program vehicle. The Idaho National Engineering Laboratory Report,
"Ultracapacitor/Battery Interface Electronics for Electric Vehicle Drivelines," (EGG-EP-
11039), published in October 1993, summarized Phase I results. In Phase II, General Electric
will build and deliver hardware for bench testing the design at the Idaho laboratory in late
Fiscal Year 1995.

The University of Wisconsin produced porous, conducting ceramic electrodes which
were delivered and tested at Idaho. The electrodes are 2-square centimeter, 1-micron thick
spin-coated layers of manganese, nickel, and titanium oxides on metal substrates. Preliminary
results for the nickel oxide electrodes indicate that this material functions as a capacitor. The
capacitance of these research cells was estimated at 0.009 Farads.

3-7


can be derived from non-petroleum sources, is easy to transport, and can be converted to
hydrogen at relatively low temperatures. Other fuels are of interest and are being considered.

During Fiscal Year 1994, Arthur D. Little, Inc. of Cambridge, Massachusetts continued
Phase II activities in a 30-month contract (17-percent cost-shared and also co-funded by the
State of Illinois) to develop a prototype partial oxidation ethanol fuel processor. A bench-
scale (approximately 7-kilowatt, equivalent) partial oxidation reformer has been built and
scaled up to 25-kilowatts. In subsequent phases of the program, the fuel processor will be
integrated with the Department’s 25-kilowatt brassboard fuel cell system and, eventually, into
one of the Department’s fuel cell vehicles (likely a transit bus).

Argonne has built a simple, compact, 5 to 10 kilowatt partial oxidation methanol
reformer (see Figure 4-2). Liquid methanol (or a methanol/water mixture) and air are injected
into the reformer which contains a copper zinc oxide catalyst on a rugged, light-weight,
honeycomb support. The product gas consists of a mixture of hydrogen, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and carbon monoxide. This reformer has shown rapid cold start capability,
producing 15 percent hydrogen in less than 1 minute. Steady-state operation yields 36 to 40
percent hydrogen in the raw reformate, which corresponds to 51 to 54 percent hydrogen after
further processing to convert the carbon monoxide and any remaining methanol in a water-gas
shift reactor. First tests of transient operation have shown essentially invariant product gas
composition following step changes in the methanol and air feed rates. Further tests are
being conducted to determine the feasible range of operating conditions and performance over
simulated driving cycles.

4.4 Exploratory Technology Development

Much of the exploratory fuel cell technology development managed by Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory, in collaboration with other national laboratories, was directed at
improving proton exchange membrane fuel cells and on identifying electrode/electrolyte
combinations that lead to a high-performance direct-methanol fuel cell. This type of fuel cell
would be smaller and much less complex, compared to the reformed-methanol (hydrogen) fuel
cell now under consideration.

One of the key technical issues with this fuel cell is the efficient operation of the
polymer membrane. Los Alamos National Laboratory was awarded several U.S. Patents for
describing the developments in membrane catalyst layers for fuel cells (No. 5,211,984, issued
May 18, 1993; No. 5,234,777, issued August 10, 1993) and for the use of the thermoplastic
form of the ionomer (No. 5,234,777, issued August 10, 1993). The first licensing agreement
has been signed with a U.S. industrial company to utilize Los Alamos technology for
membrane/electrode assemblies in proton exchange membrane fuel cells.

Los Alamos has investigated the use of platinum-ruthenium electrodes and their
tolerance to operate effectively in the presence of common gases, namely carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide. The study showed that the advantage of platinum-ruthenium electrode is
not to enhance the oxidation of carbon monoxide, but rather to minimize the extent of the
carbon dioxide reduction process(es). Exposing the polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell
to freezing and room temperatures demonstrated no deleterious effect on performance. These

45


4.0 FUEL CELL SYSTEMS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

The Department prepared a comprehensive ten-year National Program Plan for
research and development of fuel cells as an alternative to internal combustion engines for
vehicle propulsion. The transportation industry, universities, national laboratories, government
agencies, regulatory bodies, and alternative fuels-proponents all provided significant input to
the formulation of this plan. The plan addresses the development of various types of fuel
cells and fuel cell propulsion systems for light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles; fuels processing
and on-board storage; technology assessment and systems analysis, strategic planning and
quality metrics; and information transfer and public outreach. This plan is currently being
reviewed by several program managers from Energy headquarters and the national
laboratories, as well as other agencies funding fuel cell-related research and development.

The Department’s Chicago Field Office administers cost-shared contracts with industry
for fuel cell development. Argonne National Laboratory provides technical management and
support for these fuel cell activities.

4.1 Light-Duty Vehicle Propulsion Systems
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell with On-Board Hydrogen Storage

In Fiscal Year 1994, the Department awarded two 20-percent cost-shared contracts to
teams headed by Ford Motor Company and Pentastar Electronics, Inc. (a Chrysler company)
to develop fuel cell propulsion systems for light-duty passenger vehicles. The propulsion
systems will be based on proton exchange membrane fuel cell technology fueled directly by
hydrogen carried on board the vehicle. On-board storage of hydrogen could simplify the fuel
cell power system by eliminating the fuel processor and would permit an early demonstration
of fuel cells in light-duty vehicles. If this concept proves feasible, stationary fuel reformers
(or electolyzers where appropriate) would supply hydrogen for refueling vehicles much like
refueling operations at gasoline service stations.

Ford and its subcontractor team will carry out: (a) the conceptual design of a light-
duty passenger vehicle powered by a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system; (b)
research and development of on-board hydrogen storage technologies; and (c) the design,
fabrication, and laboratory demonstration of a complete, integrated 50-kilowatt propulsion
system. Subcontractors on the Ford (Dearborn, Michigan) team include: International Fuel
Cells of South Windsor, Connecticut; Energy Partners of West Palm Beach, Florida; H-Power
Corp. of Belleville, New Jersey; Mechanical Technology, Inc. of Latham, New York; Tecogen
of Waltham, Massachussetts; Directed Technologies, Inc. of Arlington, Virginia; Airco Gases
of Murray Hill, New Jersey; Air Products & Chemicals, Inc. of Allentown, Pennsylvania; and
Praxair, Inc. of Tonawanda, New York.

The Pentastar (Huntsville, Alabama) team includes: Chrysler Liberty of Madison
Heights, Michigan; and an AlliedSignal team led by AlliedSignal Aerospace Systems and
Equipment of Torrance, California and supported by AlliedSignal Automotive of Southfield,
Michigan and AlliedSignal Research and Technology of Morristown, New Jersey. The

41


Orcas Power and Light Company operates a Solectria Force and a converted Ford
Escort on the islands of San Juan County, Washington, where short driving distances and
lower speed limits make the area particularly well suited to current electric vehicles. Orcas
Power and Light Company has installed curbside charging stations, developed by Kansas
State University. To date, these charging stations have been mainly used for demonstration
purposes; however, the San Juan County Department of Public Works has made provisions
for an electric vehicle charge station in the specification for a major road project on Orcas
Island.

Pacific Gas and Electric Company operates three G-vans in California’s Bay Area.
Five Ford Ecostar vans have been ordered and will be used for testing, data collection, and
public demonstrations.

In addition to testing and evaluation, Pacific Gas and Electric actively promotes many
aspects of electric vehicle infrastructure development, commercialization, and related issues.
For example, they are collaborating with other public utilities and the Electric Power
Research Institute to establish a test protocol for human exposure to electromagnetic fields,
and has applied to the California Public Utilities Commission for approval of more favorable
billing rates for electric vehicle charging systems. Pacific Gas and Electric is also working
with automakers, utilities, code specialists, and other organizations to establish a standard,
safe, and reliable electric vehicle charging infrastructure. To further assist in the development
and commercialization of electric vehicles, Pacific Gas and Electric has agreed to participate
in the General Motors Corporation Preview customer evaluation program for the Impact IV
passenger electric vehicle.

Platte River Power Authority operates two Soleq EVcort electric vehicles. They
completed a project to develop a "smart" controller for charging electric vehicle batteries that
allows the user to input charging requirements such as cycle completion time and state-of-
charge at the end of the charging cycle. The controller determines charge initiation time and
charge rate based on user input, battery pack state-of-charge, and the utility rate in effect at
the required time. The smart controller minimizes impact on the utility’s peak demand,
maintains user convenience, and minimizes charging cost.

Platte River Power Authority tested thermal management techniques for winter battery
operation, including charging in a heated environment and vehicle preheat from wall-plug
power. These increased passenger comfort, as well as increasing the driving range.

Potomac Electric Power Company, a Washington, D.C. utility, operates three electric
vehicles, primarily in fleet service.

Public Service Electric and Gas Company in Newark, New Jersey, is evaluating
eight General Motors Corporation G-Vans and three Chrysler TEVans. The main thrust of
the Public Service Electric and Gas Company efforts are evaluation of electric vehicles in
daily use and normal fleet requirements.

5-6


collaborative study, Brookhaven National Laboratory used advanced spectroscopic techniques
to study nickel oxide electrodes that were cycled in zinc/nickel oxide cells at Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory. These measurements showed that a substantial amount of zinc is
present in the nickel oxide electrodes, and that the zinc species were different in the
electrodes obtained from three vendors. There was no evidence for reaction of cycled nickel
oxide electrodes with zinc species. Lawrence Berkeley will transfer zinc/nickel oxide cell
technology to the Energy Research Corporation under a Cooperative Research and
Development Agreement.

Other electrochemical cells were also investigated in Fiscal Year 1994. Oak Ridge
National Laboratory has fabricated cells that contain a thin, solid electrolyte of amorphous
lithium phosphorus oxynitride and electrodes of lithium and manganese oxide. These cells
can be cycled at low-current densities. Efforts are now underway to improve the performance
at higher current densities by reducing the resistance of the cell. PolyPlus Battery Company
has successfully demonstrated the high performance potential of sodium/polymer/polydisulfide
cell technology. If long cycle lifetimes can be achieved with these cells, they would offer a
lower-cost alternative to lithium/polymer-electrolyte cells.

Research projects are also focused on development of electrodes. The State University
of New York (Binghamton) is synthesizing molybdenum oxides for positive electrodes in
rechargeable lithium cells. Molybdenum oxides with a layered structure were produced which
should allow for rapid diffusion of lithium ions. These materials were synthesized using the
hydrothermal method. SRI International is investigating high-performance organosulfur
electrodes, which show promise for use in sodium/polymer electrolyte cells. Electrodes and
polymer electrolytes have been produced, and cells have been fabricated for cycle testing.
Case Western used spectroscopic techniques and thermal analysis to study the lithium/organic
electrolyte interface during cycling. The thermal studies with lithium exposed to propylene
carbonate showed evidence of a reaction that produces lithium carbonate. Evidence was also
found to indicate that lithium hydride may be formed.

A new thrust was initiated in-house at Lawrence Berkeley to identify the optimum
properties of carbonaceous materials for use in electrodes to store lithium for rechargeable
lithium cells. Analysis of existing data suggests that no unified theory is available which
explains the relationship between the physical properties of carbon and the amount of lithium
that can be stored. The electrochemical experiments are conducted in collaboration with
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Livermore evaluated the performance
characteristics of commercially available lithium-ion cells manufactured by Sony Corporation
using the cycling profile (Dynamic Stress Tests) developed by the U.S. Advanced Battery
Consortium. Using this test protocol, between 375 and 480 cycles were obtained at complete
cell discharge, depending on charging conditions.

Researchers are also investigating corrosion-resistant coatings for use in the corrosive
environments of non-aqueous, alkali-sulfur, and molten-salt cells. The Illinois Institute of
Technology has undertaken a theoretical study to improve the quality of the molybdenum
carbide coatings obtained by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. The Environmental
Research Institute of Michigan has prepared titanium-coated aluminum containment materials
by sputter-deposition techniques. Materials prepared by these techniques were corrosion-

3-4


Kumar, R., R. Ahluwalia, H.K. Geyer, and M. Krumpelt, "Modeling of Polymer Electrolyte Fuel
Cell Systems," SAE Publications P-278, Proceedings of the 1993 Annual Automotive Technology
Development Contractors’ Coordination Meeting, Dearborn, MI, May 1994, pp. 409-417.

Kumar, R., S. Ahmed, and M. Krumpelt, “Reformers for Fuel Cell-Based Propulsion Power
Systems," EPRI/GRI Workshop on Fuel Cell R&D, Atlanta, GA, March 22-23, 1994.

Kumar, R., "Modeling of PEM Fuel Cell Systems," International Agency Workshop on PEM Fuel
Cells, Grenoble, France, May 26-27, 1994.

Redley, L., J. Prakash, and D.R. Vissers, "Sodium/Nickel-Chloride Battery Development,"
Proceedings Annual Automotive Technology Development Contractor’s Coordination Meeting,
October 18-21, 1993.

Idaho National Engineering Laboratory

Burke, A.F., "The DOE Program and the Status of the Technology - 1993," Proceedings of the
Annual Automotive Technology Development Contractors’ Coordination Meeting for 1993, May
1994,

Burke, A.F., "Energy Storage Specification Requirements for Hybrid-Electric Vehicle," EGG-EP-
10949, October 1993.

Burke, A.F., W.E. Kramer, and R.D. MacDowall, "Performance Testing of the AC Propulsion
ELX Electric Vehicle Report, The DOE Program and Status of Technology," EGG-EP-11320,
June 1994,

Cole, G.H., "Electric Vehicle Test Cycle Development," Proceedings of the Annual Automotive
Technology Development Contractors’ Coordination Meeting for 1993, May 1994.

Electrotek Concepts, Inc., "Investigation of Hazardous Gas Production Associated with Charging
of Electric Vehicle Batteries in a Garage," EGG-EP-10952, 1993.

Hardin, J.E., "Laboratory Testing and Post-Test Analysis of Sonnenschein DF 6V-160 6-Volt
Traction Battery," EGG-EP-10746, October 1993.

Hunt, G.L., E.J. Dowgiallo, Jr., "Development of USABC Battery Test Procedure," Proceedings
of the Annual Automotive Technology Development Contractors’ Coordination Meeting for 1993,
May 1994,

Hunt, G.L., "USABC Electric Vehicle Battery Test Procedures Manual," Rev. 1, DOE/ID-10479,
July 1994.

Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, "Ultracapacitor/Battery Interface for Electric Vehicle
Drivelines," EGG-EP-11039, October 1993.

10-2


Table 1-1. Major Participants in the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Program

Participant Participant Cost Share
of Contract,* percent

Automotive Companies
Ford Motor Company (Fuel Cell) 20
General Motors/Allison (Fuel Cell) 20
United States Advanced Battery Consortium 50
General Motors (Hybrid) 50
Ford Motor Company (Hybrid) 50

Component and Propulsion System Companies

H-Power 22
AD. Little 17
Pentastar Electronics (Fuel Cell) 20

Battery Companies
(participating through the United States
Advanced Battery Consortium)

Universities
Georgetown University 14

Fleet Testing Site Operators ”

Arizona Public Service Company 95
United States Navy 100
Southem California Edison 90
Los Angeles Dept. of Power and Water 100
Kansas State University 63
Orcas Power and Light Company 50

Platte River Power Authority 86
Pacific Gas and Electric Company 96
Potomac Electric Power Company 79
Public Service Gas and Electric Company 7
Texas A&M University 98
University of South Florida 95
York Technical College 94

1/ The variance in the cost-share percentage by site operators is due to the different activities and contractual arrangements with the
site operators.

* All contracted efforts are with fee waiver.

14



Progress has been made in the modeling and preliminary design of several advanced
technology components which could offer enhanced hybrid vehicle performance. These
critical components include the flywheel, high power density batteries, wheel motors, and the
turbo-alternator. Major issues for each of these components are size, weight, efficiency,
response time, reliability, and cost. Increased resources will be directed later at infusing these
attributes at the system level with a focus on manufacturability and assembly issues.

In cooperation with the two system development contracts, the Department is placing
further emphasis on the development of technologies that are considered critical to the success
of hybrid propulsion systems. These "enabling" technologies fall under three general
categories: energy storage, electric propulsion, and power units. Technology development
efforts will focus on performance enhancements as well as cost reduction. Improvements in
any of these technologies will also benefit electric vehicle development.

Many existing government programs are developing similar technologies for other
applications. Negotiations with the sponsoring agencies are proceeding in order to include
hybrid propulsion system requirements in their programs. This approach will allow the
Department to leverage its resources and avoid duplication of efforts. The Department
completed a revision of the Hybrid Propulsion System Program Plan. The revised plan
includes the General Motors and Ford system development projects and discusses the
initiation of a coordinated multiagency program for the development of "enabling" hybrid
propulsion technologies.

5.2 Modular Electric Vehicle Program

The Department has a cost-shared contract with Ford Motor Company (with
subcontract to General Electric) for the development of a modular electric powertrain
subsystem that could be produced from a common design. This powertrain would be
accommodated in a wide range of electric vehicles -- from small passenger cars to front- and
rear-wheel drive full-size vans. Because of economics of mass production, modularization of
the electric powertrain across a variety of models and sizes would result in reduced cost and
allow for early market entry of electric vehicles.

In January 1994, Phase II of this project concluded with the development of a modular
(75-horsepower) electric drivetrain that was incorporated into a Ford Ecostar testbed electric
van. The vehicle (see Figure 5-1) was delivered to the Idaho National Engineering
Laboratory for engineering evaluation and field testing. Data was not collected in Fiscal Year
1994 because the Ecostar was involved in a head-on collision with another vehicle on a
public street during the course of engineering evaluation at Idaho. However, the
sodium/sulfur battery remained intact and undamaged, although the electric van suffered
substantial damage to the chassis and running gear. Evaluation of a replacement vehicle will
commence during the first quarter of next Fiscal Year.

The final review of the Ford/General Electric effort was held in Washington, D.C. on
March 15, 1994. At that time, Ford had successfully fabricated more than 100 drivetrains of
the same size (75-horsepower) which were integrated in Ford Ecostar electric vans. These


Arthur D. Little, Inc., "Multi-Fuel Reformers for Fuel Cells Used in Transportation: Multi-Fuel
Reformers," Phase 1 Final Report, Contract No. DE-AC02-92-CE50343, DOE/CE/S0343-2, May
1994,

Bentley, J.M., "Reformer and Hydrogen Storage Developments for Fuel Cell Vehicles," SAE
Publication P-278, Proceedings of the 1993 Annual Automotive Technology Development
Contractors’ Coordination Meeting, Dearborn, MI, October 18-21, 1993.

General Motors Corporation

Allison Gas Turbine Division, General Motors Corporation, "Research and Development of
Proton-Exchange-Membrane Fuel Cell System for Transportation Applications - Initial

Conceptual Design Report," Contract No. DE-AC02-90CH10435, DOE/CH/10435-01, February
1994,

Allison Gas Turbine Division, General Motors Corporation, "Research and Development of
Proton-Exchange-Membrane Fuel Cell System For Transportation Applications: Phase I Final
Report," Contract No. DE-AC02-90CH10435, September 1994.

Creveling, H.F., "Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell System R&D for Transportation
Applications," SAE Publication P-278, Proceedings of the 1993 Annual Automotive Technology
Development Contractors’ Coordination Meeting, Dearborn, MI, October 18-21, 1993, pp. 485-
492.

Sutton, R.D., and N.E. Vanderborgh, "Electrochemical Engine System Modeling and
Development," SAE Publication P-278, Proceedings of the 1993 Annual Automotive Technology
Development Contractors’ Coordination Meeting, Dearborn, MI, October 18-21, 1993, pp. 493-
503.

H-Power Corporation

Cohen, B.M., "Heat Activated Air Conditioning System for a Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Bus,"
SAE Publication P-278, Proceedings of the 1993 Annual Automotive Technology Development
Contractors’ Coordination Meeting, Dearborn, MI, October 18-21, 1993.

Kaufman, A., and AR. Christ, SAE Publication P-278 "Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Bus
Development," Proceedings of the 1993 Annual Automotive Technology Development
Contractors’ Coordination Meeting, Dearborn, MI, October 18-21, 1993.

Princeton University

Williams, R.H., "Hydrogen and Methanol for Fuel Cell Vehicles: Availability and Economics,"

SAE Publication P-278, Proceedings of the 1993 Annual Automotive Technology Development
Contractors’ Coordination Meeting, Dearborn, MI, October 18-21, 1993.

10-9


energy density, while compressed hydrogen, at a pressure of 200 atmospheres, has the lowest.
Methanol is also the most attractive from the standpoint of refueling. The polymer electrolyte
fuel cell systems use a variety of components -- pumps, compressors, fans, turbines, burners,
heat exchangers, and catalytic reactors. This hardware requirement is the least extensive for
the compressed hydrogen on-board system, and the most extensive for the steam-reformed
natural gas system.

The Argonne analyses show that polymer electrolyte fuel cell systems for
transportation can have on-board system efficiencies of about 52 percent with hydrogen, 45
percent with methanol, and 41 percent with natural gas fuels. Based on natural gas as the
ptimary fuel source, the corresponding global efficiencies are approximately 44, 31, and 41
percent, respectively. These efficiencies do not take into account the energy used in the
distribution and retailing of the fuel, nor the energy consumed in vehicle refueling. Further,
because these are efficiencies at the design load (full load), system operation at part-load is
expected to yield higher efficiencies. Continuing studies will analyze the performance of
these systems over standardized automotive driving cycles.


1.0 INTRODUCTION

The transportation sector is the single largest user of petroleum in the United States;
not only did it account for approximately 66 percent of all petroleum used last year, but more
significantly, it used about 53 percent more oil than the country produced. The transportation
sector is also a major contributor to air pollution. Extensive use of electric, hybrid, and fuel
cell vehicles could lead to an overall reduction in petroleum fuels consumption for
transportation and a corresponding reduction in on-road emission of environmentally harmful
exhaust gases.

The Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of
1976 authorizes the Department of Energy to, among other things, "encourage and support
accelerated research into, and development of electric and hybrid vehicle technologies." 15
U.S.C. §2501(b)(1). The Department established the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Program to
undertake, in cooperation with industry, research, development, testing, and evaluation
activities to develop the technologies that would lead to the production and introduction of
electric and hybrid vehicles in the Nation’s transportation fleet. The Program is managed by
the Electric and Hybrid Propulsion Division within the Office of Propulsion Systems. In
Fiscal Year 1994, Congress provided an appropriation of $74 million for the Program.

The current program structure and principal responsibilities of the organizational units
are shown in Figure 1-1. The participants in electric and hybrid propulsion systems research
and development, and their cost-sharing commitment, are listed in Table 1-1. Participants
include major automotive companies, battery companies, component and propulsion system
companies, universities, and electric vehicle users from the public and private sectors.

In Fiscal Year 1994, the Program continued to emphasize battery, fuel cell, and
propulsion systems development. The Program also supported testing and evaluation of
vehicles and components in laboratory and fleet operations. The battery program concentrated
on technologies that could satisfy the mid- and long-term goals of the automobile
manufacturers as determined by the United States Advanced Battery Consortium. Two major
cost-shared contracts were placed with automotive industry teams for the development of
hybrid propulsion systems that would double the fuel efficiency of conventional vehicles and
satisfy the Environmental Protection Agency Tier II emissions standard.

The Energy Policy Act of 1992, in Title XX, Subtitle A, recognizes the role of electric
vehicles in reducing the nation’s dependence on imported oil. Section 2025 authorizes an
expanded program of research and development of electric motor vehicles and associated
equipment. Subtitle A of Title VI provides for a commercial demonstration program in
electric vehicles. In Fiscal Year 1994, the comprehensive five-year program plan developed
for carrying out the purposes of Section 2025 was completed.

14




resistant for 500 hours in sodium sulfide environments typically used in alkali-sulfur cells.
3.3 Ultracapacitors

High power density ultracapacitors can be used to provide accelerating power and allow
the more uniform or level load to be handled by traction batteries. For electric vehicles,
power to sustain level loads are less than one third of peak power requirements. Therefore,
ultracapacitors, in combination with batteries, can increase electric vehicle range by as much
as 50 percent for some types of batteries and more than double the cycle life. The size
(kilowatt-hours stored), and thus the cost of the battery system needed to meet vehicle range
requirements could potentially be reduced. Ultracapacitors are being considered for
regenerative braking energy storage in conjunction with hybrid propulsion systems. Research
and development of ultracapacitor technology will continue to be coordinated with the hybrid
propulsion systems development projects in Fiscal Year 1995. In addition, further
ultracapacitor development is being considered under the United States Advanced Battery
Consortium.

The ultracapacitor development program for electric and hybrid applications is outlined
in Table 3-1. Near-term and advanced program goals have been defined for specific energy
(5 and 15 watt-hours per kilogram) and specific power (500 and 1600 watts per kilogram).
The Idaho National Engineering Laboratory is responsible for technical program management,
technology assessment and testing. Several carbon-based and non-carbon-based technologies
are being developed for capacitors with specific energies of 25 to 30 watt-hours per
kilogram. Several devices were tested during Fiscal Year 1994,

Maxwell Laboratories Inc. was funded to develop bipolar carbon-based ultracapacitors
with an energy density of at least 5 watt-hours per kilogram by 1995, which could be
configured in a 100 kilogram unit to store 500 watt-hours and produce peak power of 50-
kilowatts. Several ultracapacitor laboratory cell fixtures (see Figure 3-1) were delivered by
Maxwell Laboratories Incorporated to the Idaho laboratory for testing. These 3-volt, 20-
square centimeter bipolar cells (carbon-metal electrode configuration with organic electrolyte
and capacitance of 15 Farads) achieve specific energies as high as 7 watt-hour per kilogram.
They exhibit specific powers as high as 2.5 kilowatts per kilogram while maintaining specific
energies of at least 5 watt-hours per kilogram. Results are based on constant power
discharges and the weight of active materials only (electrodes, separator, electrolyte, and
current collector plate). Although optimized cell packaging and high voltage cell stacks have
not yet been realized, these results, along with other designs currently under development,
indicate that technical goals are possible. Devices containing at least six bipolar cells (18-
volt) of this design are currently being fabricated and will be delivered to the Idaho National
Engineering Laboratory for performance testing in late 1994.

Los Alamos National Laboratory delivered three 0.75-volt, 10-Farad doped layered
polymer capacitor cell fixtures containing Type I polymer to the Idaho National Engineering
Laboratory in September 1994. These preliminary test cells achieved specific energies less
than 2 watt-hours per kilogram and specific powers less than the near-term program goals of
500 watts per kilogram. Tests have demonstrated that these Type I materials can function as
working capacitors and are attractive due to their potential for low-cost manufacturing.

3-5


eI

Assistant Secretary for Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Deputy Assistant Secretary for
Transportation Technologies
r

Office of Propulsion Systems

Electric and Hybrid Propulsion Division

Exploratory Technology
Development

Electrochemical Research
Direct Oxidation Reformation

Advanced Battery Systems Fuel Cell Systems Propulsion Systems
USABC Phosphoric Acid Development
Advanced Batteries Proton Exchange Membrane Hybrid Propulsion Systems
Ultracapacitors Reformer Development Modular Electric Vehicle Propulsion
Environment, Health, and Safety Assessments Environment, Health, and Safety Assessments System

Site Operations
Testing and Evaluation
Student Competition

Headquarters
Field Centers and Offices
Lawrence Brookhaven Los Alamos Argonne Sandia idaho National National
Berkeley National National National National Engineering Renewable
Laboratory Laboratory Laboratory Laboratory Laboratory Laboratory Energy
Technology Base Electrochemical Fuel Cell Fuel CelliBattery USABC CRADA Vehicle System and Laboratory
Research Research Research Integration Component Dynamometer En t
Testing vironment,
Exploratory PEM Fuel Cell PEM Fuel Coll Health, and Safety
Fectnatoay Ultracapacitor Phosphoric Acid Instrumentation Support Assessments
Development Fuel Cell Advanced Powertrain Hybrid Propulsion
USABC CRADA Direct Oxidation Reformer Development Systems (Midwest
of Methanol Development Simulation and Modeling Research Institute)
Engineering Site Operations USABC CRADA
Analysis
and Modeling Uttracapacitor Testing
USABC CRADA USABC CRADA

Figure 1-1: Electric and Hybrid Propulsion Division Program Structure



4.2 Heavy-Duty Vehicle Propulsion Systems

The size and weight constraints that tend to limit the application of fuel cells for light-
duty vehicles are not as severe for heavy-duty applications. Although the number of heavy-
duty vehicles is considerably smaller than the number of light-duty vehicles, the energy
savings impact of fuel cell propulsion in this market is significant because of the greater
number of miles traveled per vehicle. The Department is working to develop fuel cell
technology for heavy-duty applications with their Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Bus and Fuel
Cell Powered Locomotive activities. A fuel cell transit bus is providing early experience with
fuel cell-powered heavy-duty applications. Expanding the use of fuel cells to trucks and
locomotives can provide significant economic, energy, and environmental benefits.

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Bus

H-Power Corporation of Belleville, New Jersey completed the third year of a cost-
shared contract to design and build three fuel cell-powered urban transit buses. Key
subcontractors on the H-Power team are Transportation Manufacturing Corporation, Bus
Manufacturing USA Inc., Booz-Allen & Hamilton, Fuji Electric, and Soleq Corporation. The
goal is to establish fuel cell technology as a viable alternative to the diesel engine for heavy
duty applications.

During Fiscal Year 1994, H-Power completed the fabrication of the first U.S.-built fuel
cell powered bus. Public demonstration of the bus was conducted in April 1994 and formal
performance tests and evaluations were initiated. The 30-foot long bus provides seating for
25 passengers, typical for a bus of that overall length. The bus fully meets all applicable
standards for transit buses. It offers air conditioning and it meets the requirements of the
Americans with Disabilities Act by providing a wheelchair lift and on-board accommodations
for two wheelchairs.

The fuel cell bus uses a 50-kilowatt phosphoric acid fuel cell to supply all of the
vehicle’s energy needs. Tests of the fuel cell system confirmed that it operated on methanol
fuel at an efficiency of over 40 percent; fuel economy tests over standard transit bus duty
cycles are in progress at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds in Maryland. The bus has shown
carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide emissions levels that are more than 30-times lower than
the 1998 Federal heavy-duty diesel emission standards, and has virtually no hydrocarbon or
particulate emissions. Test and evaluation of bus performance under real operating conditions
will also be conducted.

Fuel Cell Powered Locomotive

The Department of Energy has entered into a multi-phased cooperative program with
the South Coast Air Quality Management District and other California agencies to study fuel
cell powered locomotives. The objective is to show that fuel cell-powered locomotives can
meet railroad industry performance requirements comparable or superior to conventional
diese! locomotives with dramatically reduced environmental emissions and increased
efficiency. During Fiscal Year 1994, a study conducted by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(with South Coast funding) established the feasibility, benefits, and operational requirements

43


DOE/EE-0059

ELECTRIC AND
HYBRID VEHICLES
PROGRAM

18th ANNUAL REPORT TO
CONGRESS FOR FISCAL YEAR 1994

April 1995

U.S. Department of Energy
Assistant Secretary, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Office of Transportation Technologies
Washington, DC 20585

@ Printed with soy ink on recycied paper


collection both as the vehicles are driven and as the batteries are charged. The data
acquisition units are being installed in 30 of the 42 new vehicles purchased by the Site
Operator Program for delivery during Fiscal Year 1995. More comprehensive vehicle and
component reliability data will be acquired by implementing a uniform maintenance program
that will be part of the normal vehicle fleet management system in operation at each site.
This ensures that the same maintenance data is made available to both the Site Operator
Program and the site fleet managers, thereby creating a more reliable process. Weather data
will also be acquired utilizing the in-vehicle Mobile Data Acquisition System units and
measuring vehicle battery, cab, and ambient temperatures.

To maximize the capability to handle this large amount of data, a computer server has
been proposed that is accessible by the public, and therefore, accessible by remote sites within
the Site Operator Program. The "Public Access Server" will then be utilized as a central data
gathering point with the capability to assure quality of the data and the capability to provide a
database system for query and analyses of field test data for the electric and hybrid vehicle
community. The Advanced Data Validation and Verification System, which is being
implemented in the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
Battery and Vehicle Test Laboratories, will be utilized to assure quality of the detailed data.

6.4 Electric Vehicle Readiness
Ad Hoc Electric Vehicle Battery Readiness Working Group

An ad hoc government/industry working group was organized to identify
environmental, health, and safety issues associated with the shipment, in-vehicle use, and
recycling/disposal of advanced batteries for electric vehicles. The working group (consisting
primarily of representatives from battery developers, automobile manufactures, Federal
agencies, and national laboratories) serves as an informal forum in which regulatory
requirements are identified, and potential action plans are discussed.

The working group is comprised of three sub-working groups which review the most
important regulatory issues on shipping, recycling, and in-vehicle safety. The sub-working
group on shipping provides organizational and technical support, as needed, to facilitate the
collection of information for regulatory applications. The sub-working group on in-vehicle
safety reviews and discusses the implications of hazards associated with batteries in electric
vehicle propulsion, and reviews proposed rules on Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards.
The sub-working group on recycling and disposal assesses the technical, regulatory, and
institutional issues involved in recycling advanced batteries. They also assess the feasibility
of recycling as an alternative to disposal to avoid regulation under the Resource Conversion
and Recovery Act.

In Fiscal Year 1994, two meetings were held by the ad hoc working group in
Washington, D.C. Topics discussed on January 20-21, 1994 were coordinating efforts with
other electric vehicle groups such as the Health and Safety Committee of the Electric Power
Research Institute Infrastructure Working Council, Advanced Lead Acid Battery Consortium,
Solar Electric Racing Association, and the United States Advanced Battery Consortium.
Activities in the sub-working groups were presented including battery risk assessment, battery

6-4


H-Power Corporation completed the fabrication of the first U.S.-built fuel cell powered
bus. The 30-foot long, 25-passenger bus uses a 50-kilowatt phosphoric acid fuel cell
to supply all of the vehicle’s energy needs, including wheelchair lifts and air
conditioning. The fuel cell operates on methanol fuel and a fuel efficiency of over 40
percent has been demonstrated. Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide emissions levels
are more than 30 times lower than the 1998 federal heavy-duty diesel emission
standards, with virtually no hydrocarbon or particulate emissions.

The General Motors Corporation completed a three-year, 20-percent cost-shared
contract (Phase I) which successfully developed and tested a 10-kilowatt methanol-
fueled proton exchange membrane fuel cell system. In addition, a vehicle conceptual
design study was completed, selecting a minivan for initial demonstration of
performance comparable to the internal combustion engine, but with over twice the
energy efficiency and nearly zero emissions. A 30-month Phase II follow-on contract
was awarded to General Motors towards building and testing a complete 60-kilowatt
laboratory-scale propulsion system.

Two teams headed by Ford Motor Company and Pentastar Electronics, Inc. (a Chrysler
company) were awarded 20-percent cost-shared contracts for 30 months to develop
propulsion systems for light-duty passenger vehicles based on proton exchange
membrane fuel cell technology fueled directly by hydrogen carried on board the
vehicle. Development of conceptual vehicle designs and hydrogen safety analyses are
underway.

Arthur D. Little, Inc. continued Phase II activities in a 30-month contract (17-percent
cost-shared, also co-funded by the State of Illinois) to develop a prototype partial
oxidation ethanol fuel processor. A bench-scale (approximately 7 kilowatt, equivalent)
partial oxidation reformer was built and scaled up to 25 kilowatts.

Argonne National Laboratory analyzed proton exchange membrane fuel cell systems
for a variety of fuel, fuel storage, and fuel processing options. The highest full load
system efficiencies (over 52 percent) were obtained for compressed hydrogen and from
hydrogen stored in iron-titanium hydride systems. Methanol-fueled system efficiencies
were 38 to 45 percent, while natural gas-fueled system efficiencies were about 41
percent.

Argonne National Laboratory successfully tested a bench-scale methanol partial
oxidation reformer designed for a 10-kilowatt fuel cell system. The reformer has
demonstrated rapid cold start capability with liquid feed, high hydrogen content in
product gas, and very good load-following capability. This reformer technology would
allow fuel cell powered vehicles to operate from methanol, a liquid fuel with easy
handling requirements.

Two industry lead teams, headed by General Motors Corporation and the Ford Motor
Company, were awarded five-year, 50-percent cost-shared contracts to design,
construct, and test improved hybrid propulsion systems. The General Motors team
evaluated several hybrid propulsion system technologies and has built a testbed vehicle

22


2.0 FISCAL YEAR 1994 ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Significant Fiscal Year 1994 accomplishments of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

Program include the following:

Yardney Technical Products was awarded a new contract by the United States
Advanced Battery Consortium for the development of low-cost nickel electrode
technology. Low-cost electrode technology development is important for meeting the
cost goals in the nickel/metal hydride battery programs

The Consortium updated and issued a revised manual for advanced battery test
procedures covering almost all aspects of electric vehicle battery testing, including
improved tests for maximum power, and battery operation under extremes of
temperature, shock, and vibration. Over 50 advanced batteries were delivered to the
Consortium and subsequently tested. The Consortium’s independent evaluation of
contractor deliverables assures that milestones in the program are met.

Maxwell Laboratories, under contract to the Department, developed the first
ultracapacitor to demonstrate specific energy of greater than 5 watt-hours per
kilogram at a power level of 500 watts. This goal was set by the Department in 1991
as the minimum performance level to consider ultracapacitor technology for use in
electric vehicles.

The Idaho National Engineering Laboratory developed a comprehensive set of test
procedures for evaluating ultracapacitors for electric and hybrid vehicles. These tests
will allow progress in ultracapacitor technology to be objectively measured.

Under the Exploratory Battery Technology Program in support of the Consortium,
PolyPlus Battery Company (in a subcontract from Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory) has
successfully demonstrated the high performance potential of sodium/polymer/
polydisulfide cell technology. If long cycle lifetimes can be achieved with these cells,
they could offer a lower-cost alternative to lithium/polymer electrolyte cells.

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory has developed a new technique (known as Metal
Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation) for implanting metals in nickel oxide electrodes.
Initial results indicate that this process significantly improved the electrode capacity.
This would lower the cost and improve the performance of all nickel battery
technologies, including nickel/metal hydride.

Los Alamos National Laboratory demonstrated that freeze-thaw cycling of proton
exchange membrane fuel cells had no deleterious effect on performance. These results
suggest that the direct application of a thin electrode to the membrane generates a
bond which effectively prevents delamination under demanding changes in operating
temperature. These results also suggest that fuel cell vehicles would be useable under
a wide range of operating conditions, including extreme cold.

2-1


10.0 FISCAL YEAR 1994 PUBLICATIONS

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

Doddapanini, N., and A.R. Landgrebe, eds., Proceedings of the Symposium on Litium Batteries,
Proceedings Volume 94-4, The Electrochemical Society, 1994.

Heitner, K.L., "Energy Storage Requirements and Optimization of Sustaining Power Source for
Hybrid Vehicles,” 1994 Intersociety Energy Conservation Engineering Conference, Monterey,
CA, August 1994.

Kinoshita, K., and A.R. Landgrebe, "Analysis of Power and Energy For Fuel Cell Systems,"
Power Sources 47, 1-2, 159-175, 1994.

Landgrebe, A.R., "Batteries and Fuel Cells," Critical Review of Surface Chemistry 2, 297-309,
1993.

Landgrebe, A.R., editor, and author of "Batteries for Transportation," Proceedings of the
Interagency Advanced Power Group Chemical Working Group Meeting, Washington, D.C.

Landgrebe, A.R., "An Overview of Lithium Battery Technology," Volume II Annual Automobile
Technology Development Contractors Meeting, Dearborne, MI, 1994.

Landgrebe, A.R., and S. Gottesfeld, "Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells," Proceedings of
the Electrochemical Society, Volume 94-2, 1994.

Patil, P., and P. Zegers, "Fuel Cell Road Traction: An Option for a Clean Global Society,"
Journal of Power Sources 49, pp. 169-184, April 1994.

Patil, P.G., "Fuel Cell Development for Light-Duty and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Applications," SAE
Publication P-278, Proceedings of the 1993 Annual Automotive Technology Development
Contractors’ Coordination Meeting, Dearborn, MI, October 18-21, 1993, pp. 383-385.

Sutula, R.A., Heitner, K.L., and Venkateswaran, S.R., "U.S. Department of Energy Advanced
Battery Systems Program," Solar/ Electric Vehicle 93 Symposium , Boston, MA, October, 1993.

Warren, J.F. and R.A. Helton, "Some Lessons Learned from the DOE, Site Operator Program,"
Solar and Electric Vehicles 1994 Symposium, Providence, RI, October 1994.

NATIONAL LABORATORIES
Argonne National Laboratory

Krumpelt, M., R. Kumar, and K.M. Myles, "Fundamentals of Fuel Cell System Integration,"
Journal of Power Sources 49, 37-51, 1994,

10-1




propulsion system will be a series configuration electric hybrid. This early decision will help
to focus the program on developing those ancillary power units, motors, batteries, and control
architectures most suitable to that configuration.

A hybrid technology test bed vehicle was built as a rolling laboratory for testing and
evaluating various hybrid powertrain components. This vehicle permits components to be
easily removed and replaced without the expense of integrating them into a production
configuration. The test bed vehicle will also be used to refine the system control architecture
and to better understand the issues and complexity of managing multiple energy sources.

A customer clinic on hybrid technology was held in Los Angeles to assess the public’s
attitudes and preferences regarding hybrid vehicles. Different hybrid vehicle attributes were
defined and matched against a price trade-off. The information gathered through this exercise
will be used to guide program decisionmaking and product design.

Table 5-1. Hybrid Propulsion System Development Program Lower-tier

Subcontractors
General Motors Team Ford Motor Company Team
Tt

Allison Engine Company Allied Signal

Coming, Incorporated Onan Corporation

Kyocera Ceramics Sierra Research

Norton Advanced Ceramics Pinnacle Research

Goodyear Tire GE-Corp Research Division

Lawrence Livermore National Lab United Technologies

Stirling Thermal Motor Company Unique Mobility

Pacific Scientific Energy Partners

AeroVironment, Incorporated Directed Technologies

Consolidated Edison Company, NY Automotive Support Group

Exxon Research & Engineering Company Johnson Controls

University of Idaho Mechanical Technology, Inc.

Onan Corporation A.D. Little

The Analytical Sciences Corporation GNB Industrial Battery
Chevron Research

The Ford Team initiated the Systems Study/Definition Phase in Fiscal Year 1994.
Each of the team members submitted preliminary performance parameters and operational and
physical characteristics for the subsystem or component they are developing. These data will
be utilized in the Ford corporate vehicle simulation program to evaluate and compare various
hybrid configurations, component alternatives, perform trade-off studies, and explore different
operating strategies. Data has also been collected describing several real world driving cycles
which will be used to size components and develop detailed performance specifications.

5-2


safety issues identification, battery handling and charging procedures, and presentation of a
video on EV emergency response for in-vehicle safety. Presentations were given on
nickel/metal hydride battery and lithium battery component recycling, and on nickel/supply
recycling issues. A strategy was developed in response to a German proposal on shipping
sodium/beta batteries, and short- and long-term options for lithium battery shipping were
discussed.

In the second meeting held in August 1994, action items, included: a) the review of
developments on an international sodium/beta battery shipping initiative; b) the identification
of electric vehicle safety issues in a government/industry “brainstorming process;” c) the
development of a comprehensive battery safety issue matrix; and d) an abstract review for
three papers accepted to the 12th Electric Vehicle Symposium. Other activities included
presentations in the in-vehicle safety sub-working group on ground fault circuit interruption,
Navy lithium battery safety testing, and a continuation of work on the battery safety issue
matrix. An overview was presented on the DOE Office of Industrial Technologies recycling
program, two presentations were given on sodium/beta and nickel/metal chloride battery
recycling (the former of which was recently patented), and an industry report on lithium
battery recycling was reviewed. Finally, regulatory issues were reviewed for shipping of
lithium-polymer and lithium/iron sulfide batteries, and a presentation given on a lithium
battery shipping assessment. A report was given on a special industry/government meeting
held on April 15, 1994, to initiate dialogue between industrial developers and the Department
of Transportation to discuss factors that could form the basis of regulatory exemptions for cell
and battery shipment.

Infrastructure Development

During Fiscal Year 1994 the Department worked cooperatively with the Electric Power
Research Institute’s National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Working Council. Headquarters
and national laboratory personnel participated in the Steering Council and the current standing
committees on Health & Safety, Load Management, Distribution & Power Quality, and Data
Interface. Activities of the standing committees are managed and coordinated through the
voting members of the Infrastructure Steering Council. The Council now has six utility
company members(Alabama Power Company, Allegheny Power Systems, Salt River Project,
Southern California Edison, Detroit Edison, and Pacific Gas & Electric) and three automobile
(General Motors, Ford, and Toyota) voting members along with non-voting Ex Officio
representatives/members (Electric Vehicle Association of the Americas, Electric Power
Research Institute, and the Department of Energy).

The Electric and Hybrid Propulsion Division personnel also served on the International
Energy Agency’s Executive Committee for the Implementing Agreement for Electric Vehicle
Technologies and Programmes. This committee manages the efforts of member nations
currently working on the development of six Annexes. These Annexes are: I - Information
Exchange on Electric Vehicle Technologies and Programmes; II - Assessment of Electric
Vehicle Impacts on Energy, the Environment, and Transportation; III - Development of
Electric Vehicle Technical and Testing Methods; [V- Support for Design of Internationally
Compatible Electric Vehicle Infrastructure; V - Exploratory Research on Advanced Batteries
and Capacitors for Electric Vehicles; and VI - Design of Light-Weight Vehicles. The United

6-5


5.0 PROPULSION SYSTEMS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

In Fiscal Year 1994, the Department supported various activities to improve the
commercial viability and customer acceptance of electric vehicles, such as: a) development of
a hybrid propulsion system that would have the energy and environmental benefits of an
electric propulsion system with the range and drivability of a heat engine; b) integration of
subsystems and components into modularized electric propulsion systems that match vehicle
requirements; and c) field testing and evaluation of electric vehicle technologies, and
prototype and limited production electric vehicles.

5.1 Hybrid Propulsion Systems Program

The range, performance and market acceptance of electric vehicles are currently
limited by the lack of suitable battery technology. A hybrid vehicle using a combination of
electric and internal combustion engine systems would offer the extended range and rapid
refueling that consumers expect from conventional vehicles, as well as energy and
environmental benefits of an electric vehicle. In the long-term, hybrid vehicles would help
improve the consumer acceptance of electric vehicles. However, technological advancements
are necessary to bring hybrid vehicles up to the level of performance, quality, safety, and
value of vehicles powered by internal combustion engines.

The Hybrid Propulsion Systems Program is specifically aimed at assisting the United
States auto industry in developing and demonstrating the commercial viability of hybrid
propulsion systems. More specifically, the objective is to develop a near-term passenger
vehicle that exhibits the following characteristics:

. has double the fuel efficiency of current vehicles;

° meets Environmental Protection Agency Tier II emission standards;

. competes with conventional vehicles on performance, range, safety, and cost;
. can operate on alternative fuels; and

° has significant consumer acceptance.

The Department has competitively selected two industry-led teams (headed by General
Motors Corporation and the Ford Motor Company) to design, construct, and test hybrid
propulsion systems over a five year period. These teams are funded under 50-percent cost-
shared contracts managed by the Midwest Research Institute for the Department. At the
conclusion of the projects, the prototype hybrid propulsion systems will be at the stage where
a decision can be made by the automotive industry whether to mass produce and market
hybrid vehicles. Table 5-1 shows the subcontractors included in the teams of General Motors
and Ford.

The General Motors Team made substantial progress during Fiscal Year 1994 with
the completion of the Concept Definition Phase. A wide range of hybrid propulsion system
technologies were evaluated for their potential to meet program goals without compromising
customer’s expectations for value, performance, safety, and convenience. After weighing the
considerable modeling and analysis results, it was decided that the program’s mainstream

5-1


National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Corbus, D, and C.J. Hammel, "Current Status of Environmental, Health, and Safety Issues of
Lithium Polymer Electric Vehicle Batteries," (Draft) August 1994,

Hammel, C.J., "Transport of EV Batteries," Proceedings of the Second National Conference on
Electric Vehicle Infrastructure, Electric Power Research Institute, Scottsdale, Arizona, December
1-3, 1993.

Hammel, C.J., “Electric Vehicle Environmental, Health, and Safety Program and Battery
Readiness Working Group," Proceedings of the EnV’94 Environmental Vehicle Conference and
Exposition, ESD-The Engineering Society, Dearborn, Michigan, January 25-26, 1994.

Hammel, C.J., "EV Environmental, Health, and Safety Program," Proceedings of the Annual
Meeting of the Interagency Advanced Power Group, Washington, DC, June 28-30, 1994.

Hammel, C.J., "DOE Electric Vehicle EH&S Program Briefing," US Advanced Battery
Consortium Technical Advisory Committee Meeting, Dearborn, Michigan, May 12, 1994.

Hammel, C.J., "Executive Committee Report,"" FY94 ad hoc EV Battery Readiness Working
Group Meeting, Washington, DC, January 20-21, 1994; and August 30-31, 1994.

Mark, J., J.M. Ohi, D.V. Hudson, "Fuel Savings and Emissions Reductions from Light Duty Fuel
Cell Vehicles," NREL/TP-463-6257, April 1994.

Sabatini, J.C., and E.L. Field, "Feasibility Study for the Recycling of Nickel Metal Hydride
Electric Vehicle Batteries," NREL/TP-463-6153, January 1994.

Sandia National Laboratory

Clark, N.H., and K. Kinoshita, editors, "Zinc/Air Technology," December 1993 Meeting Report,
SAND94-2047, Sandia National Laboratories, October 1994.

DOE CONTRACTORS

AlliedSignal Aerospace Systems and Equipment

Kimble, M., J. Hart, and G. Hossepian, "Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Development
Program at AlliedSignal," Proceedings of the International Conference on Fuel Cells, Long
Beach, CA, February 23-25, 1994, pp. 165-172.

Arthur D. Little, Inc.

Arthur D. Little, Inc.,"Multi-Fuel Reformers for Fuel Cells Used in Transportation: Assessment
of Hydrogen Storage Technologies," Phase I Final Report, Contract No. DE-AC02-92-CE50343,
DOE/CE/S0343-1, March 1994.

10-8


This Annual Report describes the progress made in developing electric and hybrid
vehicle technologies. The report provides a summary of Fiscal Year 1994 accomplishments,
followed by detailed descriptions of program activities in advanced battery, fuel cell, and
propulsion systems development. The results of testing and evaluation of new technology in
fleet site operations and in laboratories are provided.

1-2


Figure 3-2. Ultracapacitor/battery setup using the electronics interface unit

The Pinnacle Research Institute in Los Gatos, California, delivered a 28-volt, 0.825-
Farad bipolar ultracapacitor containing mixed metal oxides to the Idaho National Engineering
Laboratory at the end of Fiscal Year 1994. Although preliminary calculations indicate that
this device will fall short of the Department’s near-term specific energy goals, Pinnacle has
shown the ability to produce functioning high voltage, bipolar cell stacks incorporating
innovative construction techniques.

An "Electric Vehicle Capacitor Test Procedures Manual," (DOE/ID-104-91) was
completed by the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory and JME, Incorporated to provide
consistent test methods for evaluating the performance of electrochemical capacitors intended
for use in electric and hybrid vehicle drivelines. Consistent testing guidelines were needed to
compare one technical approach or capacitor product configuration with another. The
standardized test methods and reporting can identify critical performance deficiencies, thereby
providing direction for subsequent developments.

3-8


9.0 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INITIATIVES

The Department of Energy has no recommendations for new legislative initiatives at
this time.

9-1


McBreen, J., and M. Sansone, “Jn Site XAS Study of Adsorbed Pb on Carbon Supported Pt,”
BNL-49480, 1993.

McBreen, J., “EXAFS Studies of Adsorbed Copper on Carbon Supported Platinum,” Journal of
Electroanalytical Chemistry 357, 373, 1993.

Mukerjee, S., S. Srinivasan, and J. McBreen, “The Role of Electronic and Geometric Parameters
in the Electrocatalysis of Pt/Co and Pt/Ni Binary Alloys,” Extended Abstracts of the
Electrochemical Society Fall Meeting, New Orleans, LA, October 10-15, 1993.

Mukerjee, S., S. Srinivasan, M.P. Soriaga, and J. McBreen, “Role of Structural and Electronic
Properties of Pt and Pt Alloys on Electrocatalysis of Oxygen Reduction: An In Situ XANES and
EXAFS Investigation,” BNL-49765, 1993.

Pillay, B., and J. Newman, “Modeling Diffusion and Migration in Dilute Electrochemical Systems
using the Quasi-potential Transformation,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 140, 414, 1993.

Springer, T.E., M.S. Wilsonm and S. Gottesfeld, “Modeling and Experimental Diagnostics in
Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 140, 3513, 1993.

Springer, T.E., M.S. Wilson, T.A. Zawodzinski, F. Garzon, and S. Gottesfeld, “Polymer
Electrolyte Fuel Cells for Transportation Applications,” Proceedings of the Symposium on
“Batteries and Fuel Cells for Stationary and Electric Vehicle Applications,” The Electrochemical
Society, Proceedings Vol. 93-8, 258-268, 1993.

Tiedemann, W., and J. Newman, “Potential and Current Distribution in Electrochemical Cells:
Interpretation of the Half-Cell Voltage Measurements as a Function of Reference-Electrode
Location,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 140, 1961, 1993.

Tsuda, T., M. Kimoto, and C.W. Tobias, “Formation of Striated Markings in Electrodeposited
Zinc,” Extended Abstracts of the 183rd Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Honolulu, HI,
vol. 93-1, no. 1364, May 16-21, 1993.

Ue, M., S.J. Visco, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Comparison of Cathode Utilization between Polymeric
Organodisulfide and Titanium Disulfide in Solid Polymer Electrolyte Rechargeable Lithium
Cells,” Denki Kagaku (Journal of the Electrochemical Society of Japan) 61, 1409, 1993.

Umino, S., and J. Newman, “Diffusion of Sulfuric Acid in Concentrated Solutions,” Journal of
the Electrochemical Society 140, 2217, 1993.

Verbrugge, M.W., D.R. Baker, and J. Newman, “Reaction Distribution in a Corroding Pit,”
Electrochimica Acta 38, 1649, 1993.

Verbrugge, M.W., D.R. Baker, and J. Newman, “Dependent-Variable Transformation for the
Treatment of Diffusion, Migration, and Homogeneous Reactions. Application to Calculating the

Reaction Distribution in a Corroding Pit,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 140, 2530,
1993,

10-6


batteries by electrically loading them with complex driving cycle power profiles in a
controlled laboratory environment over a range of operating temperatures from -20° to +80°C.

At the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, dynamometer and battery tests are
performed routinely on electric vehicles using standard driving profiles such as the Society of
Automotive Engineers electric vehicle driving cycles (SAE J227a and SAE J1634). Special
tests have been performed in the laboratory and on the test track to provide direct
comparisons of alternating current and direct current powertrains, measure regenerative
braking performance, evaluate air-conditioning concepts, evaluate interior noise levels, and
measure electromagnetic emissions.

Electric Vehicle Testing for California Air Resources Board

California legislation now mandates a fixed percentage of zero-emission highway
vehicles, with a 1998 deadline for full implementation. The California Air Resources Board
entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with the U.S. Department of Energy for
electric vehicle testing to collect data to further that objective. This Memorandum is
implemented through a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement with the Idaho
National Engineering Laboratory. The Agreement protects from public release all data
developed under this effort.

During the Fiscal Year 1994, testing was initiated on advanced electric vehicles. The
test vehicles included the ELX of AC Propulsion, Incorporated, the Solectria Force (see
Figure 5-2), and a prototype Honda electric Civic. Most of the testing was conducted in the
Vehicle Dynamometer Laboratory at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory facility where
on-road testing was accomplished using the laboratory’s Versatile Data Acquisition System in
the vehicle. In most instances, the dynamometer used coastdown and road-load data taken
with the System. Measurements were made of battery voltage, current, and power for various
driving modes for each of the vehicles. The driving modes included constant speeds between
40 and 96 kilometers per hour, the Federal Urban Driving Schedule and Highway Fuel
Economy Driving cycles. Maximum effort acceleration tests were also performed.

The test data were used to calculate the energy consumption (watt hours per
kilometer) and the driveline efficiency (from the battery terminals to the wheels) for each of
the vehicles for the various driving modes. The data were also used to determine the
characteristics (capacity and charge/discharge behavior at different rates) of the batteries in
the vehicles. The vehicles were tested using a variety of battery types: sealed lead/acid,
nickel/cadmium, sodium/sulfur, and nickel/metal-hydride. An abbreviated summary of these
test results is presented in Table 5-2. Some of the vehicles tested were very efficient, having
driveline efficiencies between 80 and 90 percent for most driving modes. Most of the
vehicles exhibited good acceleration characteristics, with the ELX having a 0 to 96 kilometers
per hour acceleration time of under 10 seconds. For all the vehicles, comparisons were made
between the empirical data and calculated values obtained using the Idaho-developed
SIMPLEV vehicle simulation program. Good agreement was found in all cases, with the
differences between the laboratory data and predictions being generally less than 5 percent.

5-9


Figure 5-2. Solectria Force vehicle tested at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory

Table 5-2. California Air Resources Board/Idaho National Engineering
Laboratory summary test results

Driving Cycle AC Propulsion ELX Solectria GT

-
FUDS* (net, watt-hours per kilometer) 101 109
Highway (net, watt-hours per kilometer) 97 122
LA 92 (net, watt-hours per kilometer) 127 137
All Electric 100 113
(FUDS' + HWFET”) (net, watt-hours per

kilometer)

1 Federal Urban Driving Schedule cycle
2 Highway Fuel Economy Driving cycle

Test Procedure Evaluation

A cooperative effort between the Department and the Environmental Protection
Agency was initiated this Fiscal Year to evaluate a test procedure promoted by the Society of
Automotive Engineers for measuring the energy efficiency and driving range of an electric
vehicle. Dynamometer tests involved the use of Environmental Protection Agency Urban

5-10


7.0 INCENTIVES

The major incentive-related activities of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Program
include proposed revisions to the Corporate Average Fuel Economy regulations and the
implementation of the Energy Policy Act of 1992, which offers new incentives for electric
and alternative fuel vehicle commercialization and development.

Corporate Average Fuel Economy Regulations

The Department has proposed to revise 10 CFR Part 474 (Equivalent Petroleum-Based
Fuel Economy Calculation) to provide an improved means of calculating the corporate
average-equivalent fuel economy for electric vehicles. The proposed method incorporates by
reference the latest industry test procedure for measuring energy consumption of electric
vehicles. In addition, the economic factors in the original rule which required annual
updating would be eliminated in favor of fixed indices that are valid through the end of the
century. Off peak charging would be assumed and the national average electric generating
efficiency, fuel mix, and fuel depletion rates would be taken into account. The proposed
methodology provides a simpler calculation procedure and results in a greater incentive to the
automotive industry to manufacture and market electric vehicles. The incentive comes in the
form of much higher corporate average fuel economy values for electric vehicles,

In early Fiscal Year 1994, a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking for the revised procedure
was published in the Federal Register. The final rule is expected to be published in Fiscal
Year 1995.

Energy Policy Act of 1992

The Energy Policy Act of 1992, Public Law 102-486 includes both tax incentives and
research, development, and demonstration authorizations for electric vehicles. Section 1913
of the Act provides a 10-percent tax credit (up to $4,000) for electric vehicles. Title VI of
the Act authorizes electric and electric hybrid vehicle demonstrations between 1993 and 2002,
as well as electric vehicle infrastructure development between 1993 and 1997. Section 2025
of the Act authorizes electric vehicle and equipment research and development between 1993
and 1998. To date, no funds have been appropriated for implementation of Title VI.


results suggest that the direct application of a thin electrode to the membrane generates a very
good bond that effectively prevents delamination under demanding changes in operating
temperature. Los Alamos developed a new design for distributing the reactant gases that
provided higher performance than in cells with the earlier designs. Also, researchers observed
that modifying the structure of the electrodes dramatically improved the performance of a
direct methanol fuel cell.

Figure 4-2. Argonne methanol reformer test stand

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory utilized spectroscopic techniques to study the
composition of polycrystalline platinum-ruthenium alloys that were used to electrochemically
oxidize methanol. When these alloys are heated, the amount of platinum on the surface
becomes different from the amount in the solid. This change in the surface composition has
significant implications on the effectiveness of these alloys for electrochemically reacting
methanol. Lawrence Berkeley observed that the rate for reacting methanol on these alloys
increases when the amount of platinum on the surface decreases from 90 percent (reaction at
25°C) to about 70 percent (reaction at 60°C). This change is attributed to the change in the
interaction of methanol with the surface sites and with temperature. Lawrence Berkeley is
also exploring the use of nuclear magnetic resonance to obtain information about chemical
species that poison platinum-containing materials used for electrochemically reacting
methanol.

Brookhaven National Laboratory utilized advanced spectroscopy techniques involving
X-rays to study how the presence of small amounts of lead on platinum changes the rate at

46




Visco, S.J., and L.C. De Jonghe, “Thin-film Polymer Batteries for Electric Vehicles,”
Proceedings for WESCON 93, Moscone Convention Center, San Francisco, CA, September 28-30,
1993,

Visco, S.J., M.M. Doeff, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Advanced Batteries Based on Organosulfur Redox
Chemistry,” Proceedings of The Science of Advanced Batteries Symposium, Case Western
Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, November 8-9, 1993.

Visco, S.J., M.M. Doeff, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Solid-State Sodium and Lithium Polymer
Batteries for Electric Vehicles,” Proceedings of the Project Energy 1993 Symposium, pp. 346-
354, 1993.

Visco, S.J., M. Liu, Y. Ma, M.M. Doeff, C. Lampert, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Polyorgano-disulfide
Electrodes for Solid-State Batteries and Electrochromic Devices,” Solid State Ionics 60, 175,
1993.

Visco, S.J., M. Liu, F. Lin, P. Kimes, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Properties and Morphology of Doped
Polycrystalline Na-B"-alumina Electrolytes,” Solid State Ionics 62, 185, 1993.

Wakizoe, M., J. Kim, S. Srinivasan, and J. McBreen, “A Novel Method for Determination of
Transport Parameters of H, and O, in PEMFCs,” Proceedings of the Symposium on Batteries and
Fuel Cells for Stationary and Electric Vehicle Application, A.R. Landgrebe and Z. Takehara, eds.,
The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, NJ, pp. 310-323, 1993.

Wilson, M.S., F. Garzon, K.E. Sickafus, and S. Gottesfeld, “Surface Area Loss of Supported
Platinum in Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 140, 2872,
1993,

Zawodzinski, T.A., S. Gottesfeld, M.S. Shoichet, and T.J. McCarthy, “The Contact Angle
Between Water and the Surface of Perfluorosulfonic Acid Membranes,” Journal of Applied
Electrochemistry 23, 86, 1993.

Zawodzinski, T.A., C. Deoruin, S. Radinzki, R.J. Sherman, V.T. Smith, T.E. Springer, and S.
Gottesfeld, “Water Uptake By and Transport Through Nafion® 117 Membranes,” Journal of the
Electrochemical Society 140, 1041, 1993.

Zawodzinski, T.A., T.E. Springer, J. Davey, R. Jestel, J. Valerio, and S. Gottesfeld, “A
Comparative Study of Water Uptake By and Transport Through Ionomeric Fuel Cell
Membranes,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 140, 1981, 1993.

Zawodzinski, T.A., T.E. Springer, F. Uribe, and S. Gottesfeld, “Characterization of Polymer
Electrolytes for Fuel Cell Applications,” Solid State Ionics 60, 199, 1993.

Zhang, S.T., F.P. Kong, and R.H. Muller, “Effect of Ion Implantation on the Corrosion Behavior
of Lead and a Lead-Antimony Alloy,” LBL-34890, 1993.

10-7




63 Database Development

The Idaho National Engineering Laboratory continued development of personal
computer-based databases, and developed telephone and Ethernet computer network capability
linking the Idaho laboratories and Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Program staff. This computer
network also provides off-site user access to the databases.

Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Battery Test Database

During Fiscal Year 1994 the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory continued the
development of its Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Battery Test Database and utilized the
database as a mechanism to transfer test results to the customer, via Internet, in a more timely
manner. To achieve this, three computer software technologies were developed. First, a
computer automated data qualification system was acquired and modified for electric vehicle
testing applications, under a contract with the Advanced Modeling Techniques Corporation of
Idaho Falls, Idaho. The software, called the Advanced Data Validation and Verification
System, assures the quality of test data, in an automated manner, using multi-variate statistical
modeling technology. The software is now used in the Idaho Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
Battery Test Laboratory and will be implemented in the Vehicle Test Laboratory early in
Fiscal Year 1995. A second software allows a customer to remotely access the Battery Test
Database, view the data, and ultimately download the test results, utilizing either the Internet
or a telephone modem. A computer server provides security for proprietary data files, in
order to prevent access by unauthorized users. Thus, for a typical battery test, the test results
can now be quality assured, stored and protected in secure database computer files, and
transmitted to the customer via Internet in an automated and timely manner.

Also during Fiscal Year 1994, additional users representing the United States
Advanced Battery Consortium, the Advanced Research Projects Agency, and all participants
in the Department of Energy Site Operator Program registered for network access to the Idaho
National Engineering Laboratory Electric and Hybrid Vehicle databases. Access to these
databases was also requested by the Electric Vehicle Research Network, an affiliate of the
Electric Power Research Institute.

Site Operator Database

The Site Operator Database is a record of Site Operator Program activities, and
contains information on the operators, vehicles, and vehicle operation and maintenance
records. During Fiscal Year 1994, entry of the complete set of data from Site Operator
participants was completed. Thus, the Site Operator operations and maintenance data from
about 1988 to present is now available for Internet or telephone modem access by the electric
vehicle community.

The database was extensively modified to accommodate a more comprehensive set of
data that is being added to include vehicle/battery performance data, vehicle and component
reliability data, and site weather data. This more comprehensive data will be acquired by in-
vehicle data acquisition units, which are designed and produced by the University of South
Florida. This will provide extensive and accurate vehicle and battery performance data

6-3


6.0 OTHER ACTIVITIES

6.1 The Energy Policy Act of 1992 and the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Program
Deployment Activities

Section 2025 (f) of the Energy Policy Act requires the Department to undertake
activities that will accelerate deployment of advanced battery technologies for electric
vehicles. The United States Advanced Battery Consortium has formed a Commercialization
Task Force, comprised of senior members of the Consortium’s Management Committee, to
examine new possibilities for industry and government to cooperate on deployment issues.
The Task Force has considered ways for the Federal government to participate in a potential
Phase II of the Consortium, which could involve commercialization activities. However, the
current program emphasizes research and development.

Also required under Section 2025(f) are inventories and assessments of advanced
battery and electric vehicle technology and commercial capability. As an internal effort, the
United States Advanced Battery Consortium is also conducting mid- and long-term
assessments of the technologies under development. Because of the competitive nature of this
program, these assessments are protected from disclosure as ’Protected Battery Information’.
Protection is provided up to a period of five years beyond the completion of the project.

In Fiscal Year 1994, the Department worked with a private non-profit organization
called the Electric Vehicle Market Development Group in Washington, D.C. to set up an
acceptance trial for electric vehicles. This work on this program will continue through Fiscal
Year 1995.

Encouraging Purchase and Use of Electric Vehicles

In response to Section 615(b) of the Energy Policy Act, the U.S. Department of
Energy initiated a study of electric vehicle costs and methods to reduce those costs. The
study, as specified, is to report on methods for encouraging the purchase and use of electric
motor vehicles. Specific objectives are to:

. Assess the potential cost of purchasing and maintaining electric vehicles,
including the initial cost of the batteries and the cost of replacement batteries,

° Identify methods for reducing, subsidizing, or sharing such costs, and

. Recommend legislative and administrative measures to encourage the purchase
and use of electric vehicles.

This study will continue through Fiscal Year 1995.

6-1




3.0 BATTERY SYSTEMS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

3.1 United States Advanced Battery Consortium

During Fiscal Year 1994, the United States Advanced Battery Consortium and the
Department continued to work together to achieve the technical and cost objectives required
for mid- and long-term battery systems. More specifically, the purpose of this cooperation is
to develop for commercialization advanced battery systems that will provide increased range
and improved performance for electric vehicles in the latter part of the 1990s.

In the spring of 1994, the Consortium participated in workshops and public hearings
held by the California Air Resources Board concerning the technical status of advanced
batteries for electric vehicles. The Consortium outlined the development process it was using
and its forecast of the availability of advanced batteries for the mid term.

In particular, discussions focused on the status of the nickel-metal hydride batteries
which are being developed under contract to the Consortium by Ovonic Battery Company and
SAFT America. Cells, modules, and battery packs are being tested in laboratories and in
vehicles, While each contract is at a different stage of development, neither company has
fully met the mid-term criteria.

The Ovonic contract has begun the third phase of a four-phase effort. Battery
performance in the first and second phases improved consistently and all deliverables were
met on or ahead of schedule. Test results to date at Argonne National Laboratory have
shown that this technology holds promise of meeting the mid-term performance criteria.
Phase 2 modules are now under test at Argonne, including life and temperature testing to
determine thermal management requirements. While these modules continue to cycle on the
rigorous Dynamic Stress Test, the mid-term criterion for cycle life (600 cycles) has not yet
been reached. The criteria for success are to maintain both energy and peak pulse power
above 80-percent of their initial ratings (30-second pulse at two-thirds open circuit voltage
and 80-percent depth-of-discharge). Based on Ovonic’s technical progress, the consortium
agreed to install full-size Phase 2 packs in vehicles prior to completion of Phase 3. These
have now been delivered and integrated into vehicles.

Projections of battery selling price made by Ovonic, and independently by the
Consortium, are currently in excess of the United States Advanced Battery Consortium mid-
term goal of $150 per kilowatt-hour. Ovonic has proposed additional development aimed at
reducing materials and manufacturing costs to meet this goal. Overall, it will take more than
two additional years before final verification testing can be started for this improved
technology. Subsequent verification of cycle life will take about one additional year. This
could result in eventual achievement of the price goal, with specific energy levels well above
the mid-term criteria.

In parallel with this effort, General Motors recently announced an agreement with
Ovonic to further develop, manufacture and commercialize the Ovonic nickel-metal hydride

batteries for electric vehicles. The impact this agreement will have on the timing for volume

3-1


8.0 USE OF FOREIGN COMPONENTS

Section 14(2) of Public Law 94-413, 15 U.S.C. §2513(2), requires the Department to
include in its Annual Report to Congress a statement of the extent to which imported
automobile chassis or components are being used, or are desirable, for the production of
vehicles under Section 7, 15 U.S.C. §2506, and of the extent to which restrictions imposed by
law or regulation upon the importation or use of such chassis or components are impeding the
achievement of the purpose of this chapter. No further vehicle purchases are being made
under the provisions of Section 7 of the Act.

8-1


Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, "Electric Vehicle Capacitor Test Procedures Manual,"
DOE/ID-104-91.

Kiser, D.M., and R.A. Richardson, "Preliminary Evaluation of The University of South Florida
Mobile Data Acquisition System, The Idaho National Engineering Laboratory Versatile Data
Acquisition System and The Autologger Vehicle User Survey System Produced by Instrumental
Solutions of Ottawa, CN for The Site Operator Program Field Data Collection," EGG-EP-10948,
October 1993.

Kiser, D.M., and J.F. Warren, "Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Program Site Operator Program,
Quarterly Progress Report, (First Quarter of Fiscal Year 1994)," EGG-EP-11237-Qtr. 1, August
1994,

Kiser, D.M., and J.F. Warren, "Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Program Site Operator Program,
Quarterly Progress Report, (Second Quarter of Fiscal Year 1994)," EGG-EP-11237-Qtr. 2, August
1994,

Kiser, D.M., and J.F. Warren, "Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Program Site Operator Program,
Quarterly Progress Report, (Fourth Quarter of Fiscal Year 1993)," EGG-EP-10649-4, December
1993,

Mersman, Curtis R., "EDD-7 Electric Charge Point Meter Test Results," EGG-EP-10999, October
1993,

Stokes, G.P., R.D. MacDowall, "Modular Electric Vehicle Program," Proceedings of the Annual
Automotive Technology Development Contractors’ Coordination Meeting for 1993, May 1994.

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

Adler, T.C., F.R. McLarnon, and E.J. Cairns, “Alkaline-Fluoride-Carbonate Electrolytes for
Enhanced Zn/NiOOH Cell Cycle-Life Performance,” Paper No. 60, 184th Electrochemical Society
Meeting, New Orleans, LA, October 1993.

Adler, T.C., R.F. Plivelich, F.R. McLarnon, and E.J. Cairns, “Zinc Electrodes,” Proceedings of
the Symposium on the Science of Advanced Batteries, D.A. Scherson, ed., Case Western Reserve
University, Cleveland, OH, 1993.

Allen, P.G., S.D. Conradson, M.S. Wilson, S. Gottesfeld, and ID. Raistrick, “Real Time
Structural Electrochemistry of Platinum Clusters using Dispersive XAFS,” Proceedings of the
Material Research Society Symposium 307, pp. 51-56, 1993.

Bardi, U., and P. Ross, Langmuir 9, 132, 1993.

Battaglia, V.S., “Current-Potential Characteristics of Electrochemical Systems,” Ph.D. Thesis,

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, LBL-34386, July
1993.

10-3


behavior of the “Rocking Chair” configuration, which is based upon two electrodes which
store lithium at different potentials. A thermal model has been developed which predicts the
amount of heat that is generated during cycling of a lithium/polymer battery. The results
demonstrate that thermal management may not be a serious problem for these batteries under
low discharge rates. However, under high discharge rates, the temperature of a battery may
increase significantly if the thickness of a battery exceeds a certain value.

At Case Western Reserve University, a project is underway to develop novel materials
for polymer electrolytes. Researchers are attempting to synthesize sulfonated and
phosphonated polybenzimidazole polymers. Northwestern University is involved in two
projects: (a) synthesizing polymer electrolytes based on aluminosilicate-polyether hybrid
electrolytes with improved low-temperature performance; and (b) applying theoretical studies
involving molecular dynamics and simulations to understand the conduction process in
polymer electrolytes. A new hybrid polymer electrolyte (polyether-bound lithium
aluminosilicate-polyether) has been synthesized and will be tested shortly. Theoretical models
are being developed to determine the influence of different parameters on the transport of
lithium in polymer electrolytes.

The University of Dayton is conducting research to synthesize and characterize new
polymer electrolytes that contain crown ethers which could have a fundamentally different
mode of ion transport than those currently under investigation. The proposed systems are
doped polymers with side chains that have crown ether groups which form a strong bond to
lithium. It is hypothesized that these materials will create highly ordered structures, thereby
forming paths through which ions can move easily. The synthesis of polymers involving a
seven-step procedure has been initiated.

Rutgers University is investigating methods to optimize the synthesis of polymer
electrolytes by sol-gel processing of alkali silicate components. Various lithia-silicate
compositions have been prepared which were found to have ionic conductivities over the
range from room temperature to 400°C that show some promise for test in lithium batteries.

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory is also developing new electrochemical couples, and new
versions of previously investigated couples, with the potential to meet or exceed the battery
performance goals of the Consortium. These include the sodium/polymer and zinc/nickel oxide
cells which could provide high performance at ambient or near-ambient temperatures.

A sodium/polymer cell consists of electrodes made of pure sodium (for some studies, a
sodium-lead alloy was substituted) and sodium cobalt oxide, and a polymer electrolyte.
Studies are underway to find an alternative to the costly sodium cobalt oxide. The most
suitable family of low-cost metal oxides is the manganese oxides. Tests in sodium/polymer
cells indicate that this material can operate over an acceptable voltage range with good
performance. In a separate study, Brookhaven National Laboratory observed that adding
metal oxides to manganese oxides improved the performance of these electrodes.

In their evaluation of the zinc/nickel oxide cell, researchers at Lawrence Berkeley found
that the nickel oxide electrode limits the cell lifetime. It was previously believed that the

reactions of zinc species with the nickel oxide electrode degrade its performance. In a

3-3


PREFACE

This eighteenth annual report serves to inform the United States Congress of
the progress in Fiscal Year 1994 and the plans of the Department of Energy Electric
and Hybrid Vehicles Research and Development Program. This document complies
with the reporting requirements established under Section 14 of the Electric and
Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976, Public Law
94-413, as amended, 15 U.S.C. §2513. It also satisfies the reporting requirements of
Section 615 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992, Public Law 102-486, 42 U.S.C.
§$13285. In addition, this report is intended to serve as a means of communication
from the Department to all the public and private sector participants involved in
making the program a success, and other interested parties.

The Department remains focused on the technologies that are critical to making
electric and hybrid vehicles commercially viable and competitive with current
production gasoline-fueled vehicles in performance, reliability, and affordability.
During Fiscal Year 1994, significant progress was made toward fulfilling the intent of
Congress. The Department and the United States Advanced Battery Consortium (a
partnership of the three major domestic automobile manufacturers) continued to work
together and to focus the efforts of battery developers on the battery technologies that
are most likely to be commercialized in the near term. Progress was made in industry
cost-shared contracts toward demonstrating the technical feasibility of fuel cells for
passenger bus and light duty vehicle applications. Two industry teams which will
develop hybrid vehicle propulsion technologies have been selected through competitive
procurement and have initiated work, in Fiscal Year 1994. In addition, technical
studies and program planning continue, as required by the Energy Policy Act of 1992,
to achieve the goals of reducing the transportation sector dependence on imported oil,
reducing the level of environmentally harmful emissions, and enhancing industrial
productivity and competitiveness.


system will be used in the Site Operator User Task Force vehicles for enhanced data
collection.

The University of South Florida operates a photovoltaic charging system. Four source
circuits accommodate direct charging of the S-10 pickup batteries. An automatic photovoltaic
data acquisition system acquires data from the arrays to analyze overall performance and
effectiveness.

The U.S. Navy maintains a total of 66 electric vehicles in daily use and participates in
the Site Operator Program at no cost to the U.S. Department of Energy. Several types of
electric vehicles are operated on Naval bases in climates ranging from frigid to tropical. The
Navy is the advisor to the Department of Defense on electric vehicle applications, and has
contributed much information on their use and technology.

York Technical College, at Rock Hill, South Carolina, operates 11 electric vehicles.
The school’s enthusiasm for electric vehicle technology is demonstrated by its growing
Electric Vehicle Program and its pursuit of public awareness. York has been, and continues
to be, deeply involved in developing a curriculum for training electric vehicle technicians.
York has worked with General Motors, CALSTART, and other organizations to define and
implement the program, the first of its type in the country. York interfaces regularly with
local electric utilities, other Program participants, municipalities, the South Carolina State
Energy Office, regional secondary schools and colleges, and the Clean Air Transport
Association. Vehicles from the York fleet are being used by Duke Power, the City of Rock
Hill, and Palmetto Electric Company. York’s electric vehicles were publicly displayed and
demonstrated numerous times during the year, many in collaboration with the Duke Power
Company, and more are scheduled, including electric vehicles at the 1995 Olympics in
Atlanta, Georgia.

Sandia National Laboratory at Albuquerque, New Mexico, although no longer a
participant in the Site Operator Program, continues its electric vehicle work and shares
information with the Program. Sandia has operated, on a daily basis, seven Ford Escort
Electricas since 1981 and four other electric vehicles since 1987. A twelfth Electrica (1983
model) was obtained from Public Service Company of New Mexico and placed into service.

5.4 Engineering Evaluation and Testing
Dynamometer and Laboratory Tests

Dynamometer and laboratory tests evaluate the performance of electric vehicle systems
and components under repeatable and well-defined operating conditions that simulate actual
electric and electric/hybrid vehicle operation and environments. The objectives of the testing
and evaluation are to: (a) subject batteries to the actual electrical loads of high technology
electric vehicles in testbed vehicles on a dynamometer; (b) evaluate advanced drive systems
in electric and electric/hybrid vehicles on the track, road, and dynamometer; (c) test and
characterize auxiliary systems, such as battery chargers, state-of-charge indicators, and battery
monitoring and thermal management systems in a realistic environment; and (d) test advanced

5-8


of fuel cell locomotives. A solicitation was prepared for the first phase of a multi-year
program designed to demonstrate the technical and commercial viability of fuel cell-powered
locomotives. The solicitation package is currently undergoing internal review.

Development contracts for Phase I will be awarded in 1995. Phase I, an 18-month
design phase, is expected to involve one or two contracting teams led by locomotive
manufacturers. Contingent on availability of funding, Phase I will lead to the development of
a preliminary design for a 1-megawatt (1,350-horsepower) fuel cell test locomotive and the
conceptual design of a 2.25 to 4.5-megawatt (3,000 to 6,000-horsepower) commercial
locomotive. At the end of the Phase I design study, a contractor team will be selected for
Phase II to build and test a 1-megawatt test locomotive over a range of duty cycles to obtain
performance and cost data. Phase II is expected to take three years to complete. Phase III,
the development of a commercial prototype locomotive, is expected to take an additional
three years to complete, with one or more prototype locomotives built by the year 2002.
These prototype locomotives will provide the basis for future commercialization of fuel cell
locomotives by the U.S. railroad industry.

43 Research and Development

A Program Research and Development Announcement for advanced fuel cells for
transportation applications was prepared and is currently undergoing internal review. Work
that will be funded through this solicitation is expected to lead to significant cost reductions
and improved performance in current fuel cell technology and to the development of
advanced fuel cells and related components for light-duty transportation applications. This
solicitation seeks innovative research in the following areas: (a) cost reduction through new
and novel manufacturing techniques and significantly improved performance and reliability of
current proton exchange membrane fuel cells; (b) development of fuel cells able to operate
directly on methanol, thereby eliminating the need for external fuel reforming; (c)
development of solid oxide fuel cells that operate at lower temperatures than current
technology permits, thereby eliminating the need for a separate, external fuel reformer and
improving the prospects for transportation applications of the technology; and (d) improved
components for the balance-of-plant, such as high efficiency compressor/expanders, power
electronics, and special exhaust fuel stream burners for fuel cell vehicles. Proposals will be
solicited in Fiscal Year 1995.

Fuels Processing and Hydrogen Storage

On-board storage of hydrogen results in the simplest fuel cell vehicle propulsion
system, although hydrogen’s low energy density requires a large storage volume to achieve
adequate range. With on-board reforming, fuel cell-powered vehicles can carry liquid fuels in
tanks similar to those in today’s cars. Fuel reformers can extract hydrogen from fuels such as
methanol, ethanol, and natural gas, and provide the same range capability as today’s cars.
However, most reformers developed to date have been designed for stationary applications
where size, weight, and dynamic response capabilities are not as critical as in most
transportation applications. Methanol is the fuel specified in the Department of Energy’s fuel
cell bus and the General Motors’ light-duty passenger vehicle development programs since it

4-4




States, through the Department of Energy, is currently supporting the United Kingdom
Operating Agent organization efforts for Annex IV.

The Department also participated in other infrastructure related meetings organized by
the Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, private industry (utilities and
car companies), and private policy organizations, all working toward the furtherance of "clean
transportation" alternatives. Examples of these activities are attending the Virginia Power
Electroexpo’ 94, triennial Electric & Hybrid Vehicle Technology Program Regional Consortia
meetings sponsored by the Advanced Research Projects Agency to maintain cognizance and
understanding of programs to avoid duplicative efforts, and the presentation of invited papers
at the Northeast Sustainable Energy Association’s Solar and Electric Vehicles 1994
Conference in Providence, Rhode Island.

Other activities included participation in the development of a strategy, called "Critical
Path to the Electric Vehicle Infrastructure - Getting There From Here," and attendance at the
Electric Transportation Coalition meetings held in Washington D.C. An infrastructure
strategy chart was prepared by Cecil & Rizvi under the sponsorship of General Motors with
the Edison Electric Institute and the Department along with eight nationwide major utilities
with interests in electric vehicles. The strategy development is a continuing effort following
"The Electric Vehicle and the American Community: A National Planning and Design
Competition" which was also sponsored by the Department in 1993. The Electric
Transportation Coalition meetings afford a convenient and important forum for the
Department of Energy, Department of Defense/Advanced Research Projects Agency, electric
vehicle/car companies, utilities, and members of Congress and their staff to hear about and
ask questions concerning aspects of electric vehicle infrastructure needs and evolving electric
vehicle performance levels being afforded by improved battery characteristics and energy
management systems.

6.5 Environmental, Health, and Safety Studies
Environmental Impact of Battery Systems

In Fiscal Year 1994, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory completed an
assessment of the environmental, health, and safety issues related to lithium/solid polymer
electrolyte batteries, because of the added safety issues that these systems are anticipated to
have in comparison to lithium batteries with non-solid polymer electrolytes. This solid
polymer electrolyte has been proposed to alleviate some of the problems encountered in
organic liquid electrolyte designs, such as reaction with the lithium negative electrode, gas
venting, and the need for sophisticated seals to contain the liquids.

Human exposure to lithium/solid polymer electrolyte system materials is possible
during use, as well as during the manufacture and recycling of batteries, and hence, the
toxicity and potential carcinogenicity of lithium battery materials were analyzed. In addition,
Occupational Safety and Health standards for the different cell materials were reviewed. For
the materials analyzed, there did not appear to be any serious toxicity issues. As new cell
materials are evaluated for lithium solid polymer electrolyte batteries, their toxicity should be
evaluated.

66


vans will undergo extensive field testing and engineering evaluation at various locations
throughout the United States and overseas starting in Fiscal Year 1995.

Figure 5-1. Ford Ecostar with modular electric powertrain for testing,
data collection, and public demonstration in California

5.3. Site Operator Program

The 13 participants in the Site Operator Program are located in various regions of the
United States, allowing operation, testing, and evaluation of electric vehicles in a wide range
of climate, weather conditions, and terrain. Electric vehicles are used as delivery vans and
trucks, commuter vehicles, and in mixed categories of transportation; others are used
primarily for demonstrations to increase public awareness of these vehicles. Most of the
problems encountered with these vehicles are associated with their batteries. Improvements
are needed in battery chemistry, design, manufacturing techniques, and charging and
maintenance practices. Improved and dependable control and drive components are also
needed. The contractor’s cost-shared percentages for this program are listed in Table 1-1.

The program continues to promote public exposure to electric vehicles. The annual
"Solar and Electric 500 Race," sponsored by Arizona Public Service, attracted about 75
entries and national attention. Approximately 35 to 40 local and regional high schools
participated with entries and local, regional, and national corporate sponsors provided support
to the participating high schools. The Site Operator Program participants also displayed their
vehicles at energy conferences, technical symposiums, and public participation "ride and
drives" across the nation.

5-4


simulators were also used to predict performance of the industry hybrid electric vehicles
under challenging driving conditions, such as extended mountain climbs. Future work
includes developing an object-oriented hybrid vehicle simulator to which emissions prediction
will be added after extensive laboratory and field testing.

The Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenge is also contributing data for the development of
a standard test procedure for hybrid vehicles. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory
and the Society of Automotive Engineers are working together to develop this procedure.
The procedure, which is currently in the evaluation and refinement stage, will be presented to
the Environmental Protection Agency and other regulatory organizations for their adoption.
Three of the vehicles that participated in the 1994 Challenge are being tested against the
procedure as part of the evaluation process.


which small organic molecules react on the platinum surface. The results suggest that the
enhanced rate of the reaction is attributed to the layer that forms as a result of the presence of
lead, and not to a process involving oxygen, which often plays a role when small organic
molecules react electrochemically on a platinum surface.

4.5 Vehicle Systems Analyses

Argonne National Laboratory is analyzing a comprehensive set of options for polymer
electrolyte fuel cell systems which include systems based on hydrogen, methanol, and natural
gas as the on-board fuels. For on-board hydrogen, fuel storage options include compressed
gas, magnesium hydride, iron-titanium hydride, and sponge iron (which generates hydrogen
by reacting with steam). Only compressed gas storage was considered for natural gas.
Hydrogen can be used directly in the fuel cell, but methanol and natural gas must first be
reformed to hydrogen. For the latter two fuels, both steam and partial-oxidation reforming
were considered. Table 4-1 summarizes the various fuel, fuel storage, and fuel processing
options analyzed; the energy content of the fuels; and the calculated system (based on the on-
board fuel) and “global” (based on the natural gas used to produce hydrogen and methanol)
efficiencies.

Table 4-1. Argonne National Laboratory Systems Modeling Activity Summary

Fuel Energy Density System Efficiency,
percent
Fuel/Storage megajoules | megajoules Reforming On- Global
per kilogram per cubic board
meter
H,, 200 atmospheres 142.8 2,320 52.3
H,, Mg Hydride 10.8 18,849 None 32.3
H,, Fe-Ti Hydride 2.7 17,564 Needed 52.6
H,, Sponge Iron 4.8 35,252 42.9
Steam 44.8
Methanol, liquid 22.7 16,662 Partial 402
Oxidation .
N iG Steam 41.1
latural Gas, 200
atmospheres 55.5 7,240 Partial 40.9
Oxidation °

The different systems can be compared on the basis of fuel storage, fuel processing,
and balance-of-plant considerations. Of the three fuels considered, methanol has the highest

47


for future use as a rolling laboratory to test various components of the hybrid
powertrain as they become available. This testbed vehicle will facilitate the evaluation
of various component combinations and control strategy alternatives. After weighing
all the analysis during Phase I of the program, it was decided that the team will pursue
a series configuration electric hybrid.

The Ford hybrid propulsion team initiated the Systems Study/ Definition Phase to
define component characteristics for subsequent trade-off studies and developed an
integrated hybrid propulsion simulation computer model. This model simulates the
function of the major hybrid components during operation on various vehicle driving
cycles and will facilitate the evaluation of various hybrid configurations, component
combinations, and control strategies prior to large investments in hardware fabrication.

A Cooperative Research and Development Agreement entitled "Electromechanical
Batteries for Hybrid Vehicles" was signed between General Motors and Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory under the General Motors Hybrid Propulsion Systems
Program. The effort will involve the design, fabrication, integration, and test of
electromechanical batteries (flywheels) for hybrid vehicles.

Phase II of the Modular Electric Vehicle Program was completed with the
development of a modular 75-horsepower electric drivetrain that was incorporated into
a testbed electric van. The vehicle, known as the Ford Ecostar, is being field tested at
a number of sites across the country. This is the first time that Department-developed
propulsion technology has been incorporated in a major automaker’s prototype.

The Site Operators procured 42 advanced design electric pickup trucks from Spartan
Motors (with General Electric drivetrain) and U.S. Electricar (with Hughes Power
Systems drivetrain) under cost-shared cooperative agreements with the Department.
These vehicles will be field tested in Fiscal Year 1995 as part of the Site Operators
Program.

The 1994 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenge student engineering competition, co-
sponsored by the Department and others, attracted over 800 student participants from
30 colleges and universities. The vehicles competed in three categories: Saturn
vehicles converted to hybrids, Ford Escort conversions, and hybrids built from the
ground up. The Challenge also contributed data for the development of a standard test
procedure for hybrid vehicles.

The California Air Resource Board and the Department have entered into a
Memorandum of Understanding for testing electric vehicles at the Idaho National
Engineering Laboratory. The data collection will serve to further the objective of the
fixed percentage of zero-emission highway vehicles that California law mandates (with
a 1998 deadline).

The Department initiated activities with a confederation of electric utilities, known as
"EV America" to critically examine the status of available electric vehicles for

potential use in broader demonstrations of this technology.

2-3


Fuller, T.F., and John Newman, “Water and Thermal Management in Solid-Polymer-Electrolyte
Fuel Cells,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 140, 1218, 1993.

Gasteiger, H., N. Markovic, P. Ross, and E. Cairns, “Electrooxidation of Small Organic
Molecules on Well-Characterized Pt-Ru Alloys,” LBL-34672, 1993.

Gasteiger, H., N. Markovic, P. Ross, and E, Cairns, “CO Electrooxidation on Well-Characterized
Pt-Ru Alloys,” LBL-34622, 1993.

Gasteiger, H., N. Markovic, P. Ross, and E. Cairns, “Methanol Electrooxidation on Well-
Characterized Pt-Ru Alloys,” LBL-34311, 1993.

Gasteiger, H., N. Markovic, P. Ross, and E. Cairns, “Temperature-Dependence of the
Electrooxidation of Methanol on Well-Characterized Pt-Ru Alloys,” LBL-34950, 1993.

Gasteiger, H., P. Ross, and E. Cairns, “LEIS and AES of Sputtered and Annealed Polycrystalline
Pt-Ru Bulk Alloys,” Surface Science 293, 67, 1993.

Grabowski, A.J., and J. Newman, “Current and Potential Distributions on a Cylinder Electrode,”
Journal of the Electrochemical Society 140, 1625, 1993.

Hessami, S., and C.W. Tobias, “In-Situ Measurement of Interfacial pH using Rotating Disk
Electrode,” Journal of AIChE 39, 149, 1993.

Liu, M., S.J. Visco, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Jn Situ Characterization of Interfacial and Bulk
Properties of Lithium Polymer Batteries Using 4-Probe DC Techniques,” Material Research
Symposium Proceedings 293, 107, 1993.

Liu, M., S.J. Visco, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Four Probe Polarization Techniques and the
Application to Investigation of Solid-State Electrochemical Devices,” Electrochimica Acta 38,
1289, 1993.

Ma, Y., M.M. Doeff, S.J. Visco, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Rechargeable Na/Na,CoO, and
Na,5Pb,/Na,CoO, Polymer Electrolyte Cells,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society 140, 2726,
1993,

Ma, Y., M.M. Doeff, S.J. Visco, and L.C. De Jonghe, “Rechargeable Na/Na,CoO, and
Na,sPb,/Na,CoO, Polymer Electrolyte Cells,” LBL-33969, April 1993.

Markovic, N., and P. Ross, “Effect of Anions on the Underpotential Deposition of Cu on Pt (111)
and (100),” Langmuir 9, 580, 1993.

Markovic, N., and P. Ross, “Electrodeposition of Cu on Pt (111) and (100) Single Crystal
Surfaces,” Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A 11, 2225, 1993.

Markovic, N., and P. Ross, “Oscillatory Behavior in the Electrochemical Oxidation of Formic
Acid on Pt (100),” Journal of Physical Chemistry 97, 9771, 1993.

10-5


Existing facilities that dispose of lithium batteries (non-solid polymer electrolyte type)
were reviewed. These facilities all use hydrolysis as a method for deactivating the lithium in
the batteries. At present, it is not economical for these facilities to recycle the lithium.
Because lithium batteries for electric vehicles will not contain very much lithium (in the range
of 5 kilograms for a 25-kilowatt-hour electric vehicle battery), it may not be economical to
recycle the lithium from solid polymer electrolyte systems. However, the bulk of an electric
vehicle lithium battery will be composed of metals (e.g., stainless steel) and plastics, and
many of these materials may be recycled.

Even though the exact chemistries and associated constituents of lithium/polymer cells
and batteries under development are not completely known, transport provisions could be
assessed under currently existing "LITHIUM BATTERY" associated transport regulations. As
such, any hazardous material other than lithium or lithium alloy that may be present in the
battery or cell need not be specifically taken into account in order to determine the
requirements applicable to the device. In addition, the quantity of lithium or lithium alloy
present in a battery or cell is a critical factor when considering shipping requirements. It is
anticipated that most, if not all, electric vehicle batteries and cells will contain quantities of
lithium or lithium alloy exceeding the limitations specified in the domestic and international
regulations. Therefore, special written approvals will be necessary from the respective
transport regulatory authorities with jurisdiction.

A second assessment was conducted by Arthur D. Little (with the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory as a technical monitor) to examine possible recycling processes for nickel
metal hydride batteries for two sample compositions (named, AB, and AB, systems). The
actual battery compositions were estimated based on published compositions of battery alloys.
(Actual compositions of current designs were requested from representatives of major battery
developers, but no information was released.) Three possible recycling processes were
evaluated to determine possible routes for recovering battery materials. The processes were
based on similar processes used commercially, currently, or in the past, to recover the major
components found within nickel/cadmium batteries or for the recovery of nickel from waste
materials. Focus was on recovering the major constituent materials in the nickel metal
hydride batteries, nickel and iron. Vanadium recovery from the AB, system and rare-earth
metals recovery from the AB, system were investigated. In addition, polypropylene is also
recovered in each process. A report was published by the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory entitled "Feasibility Study for the Recycling of Nickel Metal Hydride Electric
Vehicle Batteries," (January 1995).

6.6 Energy Storage for Hybrid-Electric Vehicles

A study performed by the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory during Fiscal Year
1993 established preliminary performance, life and cost targets for energy storage units for
hybrid-electric vehicle drivelines. In Fiscal Year 1994, Idaho enhanced its SIMPLEV
computer simulation code to model various hybrid propulsion systems, including parallel
hybrid and ultracapacitor load-levelled configurations. This permitted some additional
refinement of requirements for hybrid energy storage devices both through modeling and
discussions with industry interests, including the U.S. auto manufacturers and the U.S.
Council for Automotive Research.


fuel cells in transportation. Also, a draft of the first of a series of reports on environmental,
health, and safety issues related to phosphoric acid fuel cell buses was prepared. This report
(which is still under peer review) shows that the phosphoric acid fuel cell bus is as safe as its
diesel-powered counterpart while providing substantial reductions in air emissions and noise.
Subsequent reports will address issues with other fuel cell technologies in transportation
applications.

A key issue is linking the development of fuel cell technology with that of advanced
manufacturing technology. In Fiscal Year 1994, strategic planning focused on capital, plant
and equipment, and labor (including education and training) requirements, for the design,
production, and servicing of fuel cell vehicles.

The potential energy savings and emissions reductions of light-duty fuel cell vehicles
was assessed. Assumptions for new fuel cell vehicle market penetration and potential benefits
are described in the report entitled "Fuel Savings and Emissions Reductions from Light-Duty
Fuel Cell Vehicles" (TP-463-6257, April 1994). Benefits are due to the higher fuel efficiency
of the fuel cell vehicle, which are significant even though the price of methanol and hydrogen
from natural gas are projected to be higher than that of reformulated gasoline. The
deployment of fuel cell vehicles will also mean a shift from petroleum-based fuels and a
reduced demand for crude oil. The environmental benefits result from reductions of
emissions of pollutants that affect local air quality such as non-methane organic gases,
nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide, as well as carbon dioxide (CO,) because of its
important role in global climate change. Although tailpipe emissions are the primary
component of transportation emissions, air emissions associated with producing and
distributing fuel are not small. The estimate of environmental benefits accounts for the total
fuel cycle of emissions that includes both vehicular and upstream emissions from fuel
production and distribution.

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production and meeting the cost goal is not known at this time.

SAFT is also making excellent progress in their nickel-metal hydride development
program. The program is structured on a number of hardware deliverable to measure progress
against defined performance goals. Although the initial and interim goals are below mid-term
targets, they plan to meet the mid-term goals in the final deliverables. The first SAFT 12-volt
modules were delivered to the Sandia National Laboratories in July 1993. Performance and
cycling tests are in progress using the Dynamic Stress Test profile but have not yet achieved
the 600 cycles required by the Consortium. The second hardware deliverables were provided
on schedule in January 1994. By the end of 1994, four 40-kilowatt-hours battery packs will
have been delivered. These packs are expected to meet at least some of the mid-term goals.
The final contract deliverables are scheduled for the end of 1995 and the first quarter of 1996.
Testing of these full-sized packs in the laboratory and in vehicles will require up to 12
additional months to verify achievement of the cycle life goal.

Throughout the development, efforts will continue towards achieving the mid-term
battery cost goal. Even if successful, a decision to commercialize this technology could not
be made before mid-1997. Thereafter, production facilities would have to be set up and
commissioned before significant production rates could be achieved.

The Battery Test Procedures Committee of the Consortium continued its work in test
development, data reporting, and advanced planning. A revised version of the Electric
Vehicle Battery Test Procedures Manual, containing updated versions of test procedures and
data reporting formats, was published. First drafts of a Glossary of Terms and Detailed Test
Procedures were completed and will be included in the next revision of the Battery Test
Procedures Manual. Ali Consortium deliverable schedules, data distribution, and testing costs
were planned and monitored. Initial drafts of the In-Vehicle Test Plan and Battery Safety
Testing studies were completed.

Work continued in Fiscal Year 1994 under Cooperative Research and Development
Agreements between the Consortium and national laboratories including Argonne National
Laboratory, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and Sandia National Laboratory.

3.2 Exploratory Technology Research

In Fiscal Year 1994, exploratory research activities managed by Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory focused on identifying new rechargeable battery systems with higher
performance and lower cycle-life costs than those now available, and conducting critical
supporting and materials research for the batteries now under development by the U.S.
Advanced Battery Consortium.

Work on rechargeable lithium/polymer electrolyte batteries addressed charge and
discharge processes, and synthesis of polymer electrolyte materials. At Lawrence Berkeley,
researchers have identified the important physical processes taking place in the charge and
discharge of lithium/polymer electrolyte cells and have developed a mathematical model to
understand the dynamic changes that occur. This model has been extended to examine the

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