Report to the Chairman, Committee on 

Rules, House of Representatives 

United States Government Accountability Office

GAO

October 2005 HIGHER EDUCATION

Federal Science, 

Technology, 

Engineering, and 

Mathematics 

Programs and Related 

Trends 

GAO-06-114 
What GAO Found

United States Government Accountability Office

Why GAO Did This Study

Highlights

Accountability Integrity Reliability

www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-06-114.

To view the full product, including the scope 

and methodology, click on the link above. 

For more information, contact Cornelia M. 

Ashby at (202) 512-7215 or 

ashbyc@gao.gov. 

Highlights of GAO-06-114, a report to the 

Chairman, Committee on Rules, House of 

Representatives 

October 2005

HIGHER EDUCATION

Federal Science, Technology, 

Engineering, and Mathematics Programs 

and Related Trends 

Officials from 13 federal civilian agencies reported spending about $2.8 

billion in fiscal year 2004 for 207 education programs designed to increase 

the numbers of students and graduates or improve educational programs in 

STEM fields, but agencies reported little about their effectiveness. The 

National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation had most 

of the programs and spent most of the funds. Officials also reported that 

evaluations were completed or under way for about half of the programs. 

Federal STEM Education Programs and Funding by Agency, Fiscal Year 2004 

All others

HRSA

EPA

Education

NASA

NIH

NSF

Dollars in millions

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies.

998 997

231 221 121 63 154

(51)

(48)

(5)

(4)

(21)

(3)

(75)

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200 National Institutes of Health (NIH)

National Science Foundation (NSF)

National Aeronautics and Space 

 Administration (NASA)

Environmental Protection 

 Agency (EPA)

Health Resources and Services 

 Administration (HRSA)

While the total numbers of students, graduates, and employees in STEM 

fields increased, changes in the numbers and percentages of women, 

minorities, and international students varied during the periods reviewed. 

From academic year 1995-1996 to 2003-2004, the percentage of students in 

STEM fields increased from 21 to 23 percent. Changes in the percentages of 

domestic minority students varied by group. From academic year 1994-1995 

to 2002-2003, the number of graduates in STEM fields increased 8 percent, 

but this was less than the 30 percent increase in graduates in non-STEM 

fields. International graduates continued to earn about one-third or more of 

the advanced degrees in three STEM fields. Between calendar years 1994 

and 2003, employment in STEM fields increased 23 percent compared to 17 

percent in non-STEM fields, and there was no statistically significant change 

in the percentage of women employees. 

Educators and others cited several factors that affected students’ decisions 

about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations, and made suggestions to 

encourage more participation. They said teacher quality at the kindergarten 

to 12th grades, the mathematics and science courses completed in high 

school, and a mentor, especially for women and minorities, influenced 

domestic students’ decisions. Also, these sources said that opportunities 

outside the United States and the visa process affected international 

students’ decisions. To encourage more participation in STEM fields, 

educators and others made several suggestions. But before adopting any of 

them, it is important to know the extent to which existing STEM education 

programs are appropriately targeted and making the best use of available 

federal resources. 

The United States has long been 

known as a world leader in 

scientific and technological 

innovation. To help maintain this 

advantage, the federal government 

has spent billions of dollars on 

education programs in the science, 

technology, engineering, and 

mathematics (STEM) fields for 

many years. However, concerns 

have been raised about the nation’s 

ability to maintain its global 

technological competitive 

advantage in the future. 

This report presents information on 

(1) the number of federal programs 

funded in fiscal year 2004 that were 

designed to increase the number of 

students and graduates pursuing 

STEM degrees and occupations or 

improve educational programs in 

STEM fields, and what agencies 

report about their effectiveness; (2) 

how the numbers, percentages, and 

characteristics of students, 

graduates, and employees in STEM 

fields have changed over the years; 

and (3) factors cited by educators 

and others as affecting students’ 

decisions about pursing STEM 

degrees and occupations, and 

suggestions that have been made to 

encourage more participation. 

GAO received written and/or 

technical comments from several 

agencies. While one agency, the 

National Science Foundation, 

raised several questions about the 

findings, the others generally 

agreed with the findings and 

conclusion and several agencies 

commended GAO for this work. 
Page i GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Letter 1

Results in Brief 3 

Background 5 

More than 200 Federal Education Programs Are Designed to 

Increase the Numbers of Students and Graduates or Improve 

Educational Programs in STEM Fields, but Most Have Not Been 

Evaluated 10 

Numbers of Students, Graduates, and Employees in STEM Fields 

Generally Increased, but Percentage Changes Varied 18 

University Officials and Others Cited Several Factors That 

Influence Decisions about Participation in STEM Fields and 

Suggested Ways to Encourage Greater Participation 32 

Concluding Observations 41 

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 42 

Appendix I Objectives, Scope, and Methodology 46 

Appendix II List of 207 Federal STEM Education Programs 57 

Appendix III Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 

Million or More 64 

Appendix IV Data on Students and Graduates in STEM Fields 74 

Appendix V Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at 

the Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 79 

Appendix VI Confidence Intervals for Estimates of STEM 

Employment by Gender, Race or Ethnicity, and 

Wages and Salaries 88 

Contents 
Page ii GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Appendix VII Comments from the Department of Commerce 91 

Appendix VIII Comments from the Department of Health and 

Human Services 95 

Appendix IX Comments from the National Science Foundation 97 

Appendix X Comments from the National Science and 

Technology Council 100 

Appendix XI GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 101 

Bibliography 102 

Tables 

Table 1: Sources of Data, Data Obtained, Time Span of Data, and 

Years Analyzed 2 

Table 2: List of STEM Fields Based on NCES’s NPSAS and IPEDS 

Data and BLS’s CPS Data 6 

Table 3: Percentage of the U.S. Population for Selected Racial or 

Ethnic Groups in the Civilian Labor Force, Calendar Years 

1994 and 2003 8 

Table 4: Number of STEM Education Programs Reported by 

Federal Civilian Agencies 11 

Table 5: Funding Levels for Federal STEM Education Programs in 

Fiscal Year 2004 13 

Table 6: Program Goals and Numbers of STEM Programs with One 

or Multiple Goals 14 

Table 7: Numbers of STEM Programs with One or Multiple Types 

of Assistance and Beneficiaries 14 
Page iii GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 8: Numbers of STEM Programs Targeted to One Group and 

Multiple Groups 15 

Table 9: Estimated Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of 

Students in the STEM and Non-STEM Fields across All 

Education Levels, Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-

2004 20 

Table 10: Estimated Percentage Changes in the Numbers and 

Percentages of Domestic Minority Students in STEM fields 

for All Education Levels for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 

2003-2004 21 

Table 11: Estimated Changes in Numbers of International Students 

in STEM fields by Education Levels from the 1995-1996 

Academic Year to the 2003-2004 Academic Year 22 

Table 12: Numbers of Graduates and Percentage Changes in STEM 

and Non-STEM Fields across All Degree Levels from the 

1994-1995 Academic Year to the 2002-2003 Academic Year 23 

Table 13: Numbers and Percentage Changes in Men and Women 

Graduates with STEM Degrees by Education Level and 

Field for Academic Years 1994-1995 and 2002-2003 25 

Table 14: Numbers and Percentage Changes in Domestic Minority 

Graduates in STEM Fields by Education Levels and Race 

or Ethnicity for Academic Years 1994-1995 and 2002-2003 26 

Table 15: Changes in Numbers and Percentages of International 

Graduates in STEM fields at the Master’s and Doctoral 

Degree Levels, 1994-1995 and 2002-2003 Academic Years 27 

Table 16: Estimated Numbers and Percentages of Employees in 

STEM Fields by Gender in Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 

(numbers in thousands) 29 

Table 17: Estimated Percentages of STEM Employees by Selected 

Racial or Ethnic Group for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 30 

Table 18: Sources of Data, Data Obtained, Time Span of Data, and 

Years Analyzed 48 

Table 19: Classification codes and Occupations, 2002-2003 51 

Table 20: Classification codes and occupations, 1994-2001 52 

Table 21: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded in FY 2004 57 

Table 22: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million 

or More during Fiscal Year 2004 or Fiscal Year 2005 64 

Table 23: Estimated Numbers of Students in STEM Fields by 

Education Level for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-

2004 74 

Table 24: Estimated Percentages of Students by Gender and STEM 

Field for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 75 
Page iv GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 25: Estimated Number of Women Students and Percentage 

Change by Education Level and STEM Field for Academic 

Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 77 

Table 26: Comparisons in the Percentage of STEM Graduates by 

Field and Gender for Academic Years 1994-1995 and 2002-

2003 78 

Table 27: Estimated Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of 

Students in the STEM and Non-STEM Fields across All 

Education Levels, Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-

2004 (95 percent confidence intervals) 79 

Table 28: Numbers of Students by Education Level in all STEM 

Fields for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 

percent confidence intervals) 80 

Table 29: Estimated Numbers and Percentage Changes in Women 

Students in STEM Fields, Academic Years 1995-1996 and 

2003-2004 (95 percent confidence intervals) 81 

Table 30: Estimated Percentage Changes in Bachelor’s, Master’s, 

and Doctoral Students in STEM Fields, Academic Years 

1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent confidence intervals) 83 

Table 31: Estimates of STEM Students by Gender and Field for 

Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent 

confidence intervals) 84 

Table 32: Estimates of Students for Selected Racial or Ethnic 

Groups in STEM Fields for All Education Levels and Fields 

for the Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2002-2003 (95 

percent fonfidence intervals) 86 

Table 33: Estimates of International Students in STEM Fields by 

Education Levels for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-

2004 (95 percent confidence intervals) 87 

Table 34: Estimated Total Number of Employees by STEM Field 

between Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 88 

Table 35: Estimated Numbers of Employees in STEM Fields by 

Gender for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 89 

Table 36: Estimated Changes in STEM Employment by Gender for 

Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 89 

Table 37: Estimated Percentages of STEM Employees for Selected 

Racial or Ethnic Groups for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 90 

Table 38: Estimated Changes in Median Annual Wages and Salaries 

in the STEM Fields for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 90 
Page v GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Figures 

Figure 1: Amounts Funded by Agencies for STEM-Related Federal 

Education Programs in Fiscal Year 2004 12 

Figure 2: Key Changes in Students, Graduates, and Employees in 

STEM Fields 19 

Figure 3: Percentage Changes in Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctoral 

Graduates in STEM Fields from Academic Year 1994-1995 

to Academic Year 2002-2003 24 

Figure 4: Estimated Numbers of Employees in STEM Fields from 

Calendar Years 1994 through 2003 28 

Figure 5: Estimated Median Annual Wages and Salaries in STEM 

Fields for Calendar Years 1994 through 2003 32 
Page vi GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Abbreviations 

BEST Building Engineering and Science Talent 

BLS Bureau of Labor Statistics 

CGS Council of Graduate Schools 

CLF civilian labor force 

COS Committee on Science 

CPS Current Population Survey 

DHS Department of Homeland Security 

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

HHS Health and Human Services 

HRSA Health Resources and Services Administration 

IPEDS Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NCES National Center for Education Statistics 

NCLBA No Child Left Behind Act 

NIH National Institutes of Health 

NPSAS National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

NSF National Science Foundation 

NSTC National Science and Technology Council 

SAO Security Advisory Opinion 

SEVIS Student and Exchange Visitor Information System 

STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics 

This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright protection in the 

United States. It may be reproduced and distributed in its entirety without further 

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other material, permission from the copyright holder may be necessary if you wish to 

reproduce this material separately. 
Page 1 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

October 12, 2005 

The Honorable David Dreier 

Chairman, Committee on Rules 

House of Representatives 

Dear Mr. Chairman: 

The United States has long been known as a world leader in scientific and 

technological innovation. To help maintain this advantage, the federal 

government has spent billions of dollars on education programs in the 

science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields for many 

years. Some of these programs were designed to increase the numbers of 

women and minorities pursuing degrees in STEM fields. In addition, for 

many years, thousands of international students came to the United States 

to study and work in STEM fields. However, concerns have been raised 

about the nation’s ability to maintain its global technological competitive 

advantage in the future. In spite of the billions of dollars spent to 

encourage students and graduates to pursue studies in STEM fields or 

improve STEM educational programs, the percentage of United States 

students earning bachelor’s degrees in STEM fields has been relatively 

constant—about a third of bachelor’s degrees—since 1977. Furthermore, 

after the events of September 11, 2001, the United States established 

several new systems and processes to help enhance border security. In 

some cases, implementation of these new systems and processes, which 

established requirements for several federal agencies, higher education 

institutions, and potential students, made it more difficult for international 

students to enter this country to study and work. 

In the last few years, many reports and news articles have been published, 

and several bills have been introduced in Congress that address issues 

related to STEM education and occupations. This report presents 

information on (1) the number of federal civilian education programs 

funded in fiscal year 2004 that were designed to increase the numbers of 

students and graduates pursuing STEM degrees and occupations or 

improve educational programs in STEM fields and what agencies report 

about their effectiveness; (2) how the numbers, percentages, and 

characteristics of students, graduates, and employees in STEM fields have 

changed over the years; and (3) factors cited by educators and others as 

influencing people’s decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and 

occupations, and suggestions that have been made to encourage greater 

United States Government Accountability Office

Washington, DC 20548 
Page 2 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

participation in STEM fields. To determine the number of programs 

designed to increase the numbers of students and graduates pursuing 

STEM degrees and occupations, we identified 15 federal departments and 

agencies as having STEM programs, and we developed and conducted a 

survey asking each department or agency to provide information on its 

education programs, including information about their effectiveness.1 We 

received responses from 14 of them, the Department of Defense did not 

participate, and we determined that at least 13 agencies had STEM 

education programs during fiscal year 2004 that met our criteria. 

To describe how the numbers of students, graduates, and employees in 

STEM fields have changed, we analyzed and reported data from the 

Department of Education’s (Education) National Center for Education 

Statistics (NCES) and the Department of Labor’s (Labor) Bureau of Labor 

Statistics (BLS). Specifically, as shown in table 1, we used the National 

Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) and the Integrated 

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) from NCES and the 

Current Population Survey (CPS) data from BLS. We assessed the data for 

reliability and reasonableness and found them to be sufficiently reliable 

for the purposes of this report. 

Table 1: Sources of Data, Data Obtained, Time Span of Data, and Years Analyzed 

Department Agency Database Data obtained 

Time span 

of data Years analyzed 

Education NCES NPSAS College student enrollment 9 years Academic years 1995-1996 and 

2003-2004 

Education NCES IPEDS Graduation/degrees 9 years Academic years 1994-1995 and 

2002-2003 

Labor BLS CPS Employment 10 years Calendar years 1994 through 2003 

Sources: NCES’s National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) 

and BLS’s Current Population Survey (CPS) data. 

Note: Enrollment and employment information are based on sample data and are subject to sampling 

error. The 95-percent confidence intervals for student enrollment estimates are contained in appendix 

V of this report. Percentage estimates for STEM employment have 95-percent confidence intervals of 

within +/- 6 percentage points and other employment estimates (such as wages and salaries) have 

confidence intervals of within +/- 10 percent of the estimate, unless otherwise noted. See appendixes 

I, V, and VI for additional information. 

 1

For the purposes of this report, we will use the term “agency” when referring to any of the 

13 federal departments and agencies that responded to our survey. 
Page 3 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

To obtain perspectives on the factors that influence people’s decisions 

about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations, and to obtain suggestions 

for encouraging greater participation in STEM fields, we interviewed 

educators and administrators in eight colleges and universities (the 

University of California Los Angeles and the University of Southern 

California in California; Clark Atlanta University, Georgia Institute of 

Technology, and Spelman College in Georgia; the University of Illinois; 

Purdue University in Indiana; and Pennsylvania State University). We 

selected these colleges and universities to include a mix of public and 

private institutions, provide geographic diversity, and include a few 

minority-serving institutions, including one (Spelman College) that serves 

only women students. In addition, most of the institutions had large total 

numbers of students, including international students, enrolled in STEM 

fields. We also asked officials from the eight universities to identify 

current students to whom we could send an e-mail survey. We received 

responses from 31 students from five of these institutions. In addition, we 

interviewed federal agency officials and representatives from associations 

and education organizations, and analyzed reports on various topics 

related to STEM education and occupations. Appendix I contains a more 

detailed discussion of our scope and methodology. We conducted our 

work between October 2004 and October 2005 in accordance with 

generally accepted government auditing standards. 

Officials from 13 federal civilian agencies reported having 207 education 

programs funded in fiscal year 2004 that were designed to increase the 

numbers of students and graduates pursuing STEM degrees and 

occupations or improve educational programs in STEM fields, but they 

reported little about the effectiveness of these programs. The 13 agencies 

reported spending about $2.8 billion in fiscal year 2004 for these programs. 

According to the survey responses, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) 

and the National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored 99 of the 207 

programs and spent about $2 billion of the approximate $2.8 billion. The 

program costs ranged from $4,000 for a national scholars program 

sponsored by the Department of Agriculture (USDA) to about $547 million 

for an NIH program that is designed to develop and enhance research 

training opportunities for individuals in biomedical, behavioral, and 

clinical research by supporting training programs at institutions of higher 

learning. Officials reported that most of the 207 programs had multiple 

goals, and many were targeted to multiple groups. For example, 2 

programs were identified as having one goal of attracting and preparing 

students at any education level to pursue coursework in STEM areas, 

while 112 programs had this as one of multiple goals. Agency officials also 

Results in Brief 
Page 4 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

reported that evaluations were completed or under way for about half of 

the programs, and most of the completed evaluations reported that the 

programs had been effective and achieved established goals. However, 

some programs that have not been evaluated have operated for many 

years. 

While the total numbers of students, graduates, and employees have 

increased in STEM fields, changes in the numbers and percentages of 

women, minorities and international students varied during the periods 

reviewed. From the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic 

year, the number of students increased in STEM fields by 21 percent—

more than the 11 percent increase in non-STEM fields. Also, students 

enrolled in STEM fields increased from 21 percent to 23 percent of all 

students. Changes in the numbers and percentages of domestic minority 

students varied by group. For example, the number of African American 

students increased 69 percent and the number of Hispanic students 

increased 33 percent. The total number of graduates in STEM fields 

increased by 8 percent from the 1994-1995 academic year to the 2002-2003 

academic year, while graduates in non-STEM fields increased 30 percent. 

Further, the numbers of graduates decreased in at least four of eight STEM 

fields at each education level. The total number of domestic minority 

graduates in STEM fields increased, and international graduates continued 

to earn about one-third or more of the master’s and doctoral degrees in 

three fields. Moreover, from 1994 to 2003, employment increased by 23 

percent in STEM fields as compared with 17 percent in non-STEM fields. 

African American employees continued to be less than 10 percent of all 

STEM employees, and there was no statistically significant change in the 

percentage of women employees. 

Educators and others cited several factors as influencing students’ 

decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations, and they 

suggested many ways to encourage more participation in STEM fields. 

Studies, education experts, university officials, and others cited teacher 

quality at the kindergarten through 12th grade levels and students’ high 

school preparation in mathematics and science courses as major factors 

that influence domestic students’ decisions about pursuing STEM degrees 

and occupations. In addition, university officials, students, and studies 

identified mentoring as a key factor for women and minorities. Also, 

according to university officials, education experts, and reports, 

international students’ decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and 

occupations in the United States are influenced by yet other factors, 

including more stringent visa requirements and increased educational 

opportunities outside the United States. We have reported that several 
Page 5 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

aspects of the visa process have been improved, but further steps could be 

taken. In order to promote participation in the STEM fields, officials at 

most of the eight universities visited and current students offered 

suggestions that focused on four areas: teacher quality, mathematics and 

science preparation and courses, outreach to underrepresented groups, 

and the federal role in STEM education. The students who responded to 

our e-mail survey generally agreed with most of the suggestions and 

expressed their desires for better mathematics and science preparation for 

college. However, before adopting such suggestions, it is important to 

know the extent to which existing STEM education programs are 

appropriately targeted and making the best use of available federal 

resources. 

We received written comments on a draft of this report from the 

Department of Commerce, the Department of Health and Human Services, 

and the National Science and Technology Council. These agencies 

generally agreed with our findings and conclusions. We also received 

written comments from the National Science Foundation which 

questioned our findings related to program evaluations, interagency 

collaboration, and the methodology we used to support our findings on the 

factors that influenced decisions about pursing STEM fields. Also, the 

National Science Foundation provided information to clarify examples 

cited in the report, stated that the data categories were not clear, and 

commented on the graduate level enrollment data we used. We revised the 

report to acknowledge that the National Science Foundation uses a variety 

of mechanisms to evaluate its programs and we added a bibliography that 

identifies the reports and research used during the course of this review to 

address the comment about our methodology related to the factors that 

influenced decisions about pursuing STEM fields. We also revised the 

report to clarify the examples and the data categories and to explain the 

reasons for selecting the enrollment data we used. However, we did not 

make changes to address the comment related to interagency 

collaboration for the reason explained in the agency comments section of 

this report. The written comments are reprinted in appendixes VII, VIII, IX, 

and X. In addition, we received technical comments from the Departments 

of Commerce, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Labor, and 

Transportation, and the Environmental Protection Agency and National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, which we incorporated when 

appropriate. 

STEM includes many fields of study and occupations. Based on the 

National Science Foundations’ categorization of STEM fields, we Background 
Page 6 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

developed STEM fields of study from NCES’s National Postsecondary 

Student Aid Study (NPSAS) and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data 

System (IPEDS), and identified occupations from BLS’s Current 

Population Survey (CPS). Using these data sources, we developed nine 

STEM fields for students, eight STEM fields for graduates, and four broad 

STEM fields for occupations. Table 2 lists these STEM fields and 

occupations and examples of subfields. Additional information on STEM 

occupations is provided in appendix I. 

Table 2: List of STEM Fields Based on NCES’s NPSAS and IPEDS Data and BLS’s CPS Data 

Enrollment–NCES’ NPSAS 

data Degrees–NCES’ IPEDS data Occupations–BLS’ CPS data 

Agricultural sciences 

Biological sciences 

Biological/agricultural sciences 

• Botany 

• Zoology 

• Dairy 

• Forestry 

• Poultry 

• Wildlife management 

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 

• Geology 

• Geophysics and seismology 

Physical sciences Physical sciences 

• Chemistry 

• Physics

Psychology Psychology 

• Clinical 

• Social 

Social sciences Social sciences 

• Political science 

• Sociology

Science 

• Agricultural and food scientists 

• Astronomers and physicists 

• Atmospheric and space scientists 

• Biological scientists 

• Chemists and materials scientists 

• Environmental scientists and geoscientists 

• Nurses 

• Psychologists 

• Sociologists 

• Urban and regional planners 

Technology Technology 

• Solar 

• Automotive engineering 

Technology 

• Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians 

• Diagnostic-related technologists and technicians 

• Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory 

technicians 
Page 7 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Enrollment–NCES’ NPSAS 

data Degrees–NCES’ IPEDS data Occupations–BLS’ CPS data 

Engineering Engineering

• Aerospace, aeronautical, and 

astronautical 

• Architectural 

• Chemical 

• Civil 

• Electrical, electronics, and 

communication 

• Nuclear 

Engineering 

• Architects, except naval 

• Aerospace engineers 

• Chemical engineers 

• Civil engineers 

• Electrical and electronic engineers 

• Nuclear engineers 

Computer sciences 

Mathematics 

Mathematics/computer sciences 

• Actuarial science 

• Applied mathematics 

• Mathematical statistics 

• Operations research 

• Data processing 

• Programming 

Mathematics and computer sciences 

• Computer scientists and systems analysts 

• Computer programmers 

• Computer software engineers 

• Actuaries 

• Mathematicians 

• Statisticians 

Sources: NCES for NPSAS and IPEDS data; CPS for occupations. 

Note: This table is not designed to show a direct relationship from enrollment to occupation, but to 

provide examples of majors, degrees, and occupations in STEM fields from the three sources of data. 

Many of the STEM fields require completion of advanced courses in 

mathematics or science, subjects that are introduced and developed at the 

kindergarten through 12th grade level, and the federal government has 

taken steps to help improve achievement in these and other subjects. 

Enacted in 2002, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLBA) seeks to improve 

the academic achievement of all of the nation’s school-aged children. 

NCLBA requires that states develop and implement academic content and 

achievement standards in mathematics, science and the reading or 

language arts. All students are required to participate in statewide 

assessments during their elementary and secondary school years. 

Improving teacher quality is another goal of NCLBA as a strategy to raise 

student academic achievement. Specifically, all teachers teaching core 

academic subjects must be highly qualified by the end of the 2005-2006 

school year.2

 NCLBA generally defines highly qualified teachers as those 

that have (1) a bachelor’s degree, (2) state certification, and (3) subject 

area knowledge for each academic subject they teach. 

 2

Core subjects include English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign 

languages, civics and government, economics, arts, history, and geography. 
Page 8 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

The federal government also plays a role in coordinating federal science 

and technology issues. The National Science and Technology Council 

(NSTC) was established in 1993 and is the principal means for the 

Administration to coordinate science and technology among the diverse 

parts of the federal research and development areas. One objective of 

NSTC is to establish clear national goals for federal science and 

technology investments in areas ranging from information technologies 

and health research to improving transportation systems and 

strengthening fundamental research. NSTC is responsible for preparing 

research and development strategies that are coordinated across federal 

agencies in order to accomplish these multiple national goals. 

In addition, the federal government, universities and colleges, and others 

have developed programs to provide opportunities for all students to 

pursue STEM education and occupations.3

 Additional steps have been 

taken to increase the numbers of women, minorities, and students with 

disadvantaged backgrounds in the STEM fields, such as providing 

additional academic and research opportunities. According to the 2000 

Census, 52 percent of the total U.S. population 18 and over were women; 

in 2003, members of racial or ethnic groups constituted from 0.5 percent to 

12.6 percent of the civilian labor force (CLF), as shown in table 3. 

Table 3: Percentage of the U.S. Population for Selected Racial or Ethnic Groups in 

the Civilian Labor Force, Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 

Race or ethnicity 

Percentage of 

U.S. population 

 in the CLF, 1994 

Percentage of

U.S. population

 in the CLF, 2003 

Hispanic or Latino origin 8.9 12.6

Black or African American 10.8 10.7

Asian 2.8 4.4

American Indian or Alaska Native 0.5 0.5

Source: GAO calculations based upon March 1994 and March 2003 CPS data. 

In addition to domestic students, international students have pursued 

STEM degrees and worked in STEM occupations in the United States. To 

 3

Other federal programs that are not specifically designed to attract students to STEM 

education and occupations, such as Pell Grants, may provide financial assistance to 

students who obtain degrees in STEM fields. 
Page 9 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

do so, international students and scholars must obtain visas.4 International 

students who wish to study in the United States must first apply to a 

Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS) certified 

school. In order to enroll students from other nations, U.S. colleges and 

universities must be certified by the Student and Exchange Visitor 

Program within the Department of Homeland Security’s Immigration and 

Customs Enforcement organization. As of February 2004, nearly 9,000 

technical schools and colleges and universities had been certified. SEVIS, 

is an Internet-based system that maintains data on international students 

and exchange visitors before and during their stay in the United States. 

Upon admitting a student, the school enters the student’s name and other 

information into the SEVIS database. At this time the student may apply 

for a student visa. In some cases, a Security Advisory Opinion (SAO) from 

the Department of State (State) may be needed to determine whether or 

not to issue a visa to the student. SAOs are required for a number of 

reasons, including concerns that a visa applicant may engage in the illegal 

transfer of sensitive technology. An SAO based on technology transfer 

concerns is known as Visas Mantis and, according to State officials, is the 

most common type of SAO applied to science applicants.5

 In April 2004, 

the Congressional Research Service reported that State maintains a 

technology alert list that includes 16 sensitive areas of study. The list was 

produced in an effort to help the United States prevent the illegal transfer 

of controlled technology and includes chemical and biotechnology 

engineering, missile technology, nuclear technology, robotics, and 

advanced computer technology.6

Many foreign workers enter the United States annually through the H-1B 

visa program, which assists U.S. employers in temporarily filling specialty 

 4

There are several types of visas that authorize people to study and work in the United 

States. F, or student, visas, are for study at 2- and 4-year colleges and universities and other 

academic institutions; the exchange visitor, or J, visas are for people who will be 

participating in a cultural exchange program; and M visas are for nonacademic study at 

institutions, such as vocational and technical schools. In addition, H-1B visas allow noncitizens to work in the United States. 

5

GAO, Border Security: Streamlined Visas Mantis Program Has Lowered Burden on 

Foreign Science Students and Scholars, but Further Refinements Needed, GAO-05-198

(Washington, D.C.: Feb. 18, 2005). 

6

Congressional Research Service, Science, Engineering, and Mathematics Education: 

Status and Issues, 98-871 STM, April 27, 2004, Washington, D.C. 
Page 10 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

occupations.7 Employed workers may stay in the United States on an H-1B 

visa for up to 6 years. The current cap on the number of H-1B visas that 

can be granted is 65,000. The law exempts certain workers, however, from 

this cap, including those who are employed or have accepted employment 

in specified positions. Moreover, up to 20,000 exemptions are allowed for 

those holding a master’s degree or higher. 

Officials from 13 federal civilian agencies reported having 207 education 

programs funded in fiscal year 2004 that were specifically established to 

increase the numbers of students and graduates pursuing STEM degrees 

and occupations, or improve educational programs in STEM fields, but 

they reported little about the effectiveness of these programs.8

 These 13 

federal agencies reported spending about $2.8 billion for their STEM 

education programs. Taken together, NIH and NSF sponsored nearly half 

of the programs and spent about 71 percent of the funds. In addition, 

agencies reported that most of the programs had multiple goals, and many 

were targeted to multiple groups. Although evaluations have been done or 

were under way for about half of the programs, little is known about the 

extent to which most STEM programs are achieving their desired results. 

Coordination among the federal STEM education programs has been 

limited. However, in 2003, the National Science and Technology Council 

formed a subcommittee to address STEM education and workforce policy 

issues across federal agencies. 

 7

A specialty occupation is defined as one that requires the application of a body of highly 

specialized knowledge, and the attainment of at least a bachelor’s degree (or its 

equivalent), and the possession of a license or other credential to practice the occupation if 

required. 

8

 GAO asked agencies to include STEM and related education programs with one or more 

of the following as a primary objective: (1) attract and prepare students at any education 

level to pursue coursework in STEM areas, (2) attract students to pursue degrees (2-year 

degrees through post doctoral) in STEM fields, (3) provide growth and research 

opportunities for college and graduate students in STEM fields, such as working with 

researchers and/or conducting research to further their education, (4) attract graduates to 

pursue careers in STEM fields, (5) improve teacher (pre-service, in-service, and 

postsecondary) education in STEM areas, and (6) improve or expand the capacity of 

institutions to promote or foster STEM fields. 

More than 200 Federal 

Education Programs 

Are Designed to 

Increase the Numbers 

of Students and 

Graduates or Improve 

Educational Programs 

in STEM Fields, but 

Most Have Not Been 

Evaluated 
Page 11 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Officials from 13 federal civilian agencies provided information on 207 

STEM education programs funded in fiscal year 2004. The numbers of 

programs ranged from 51 to 1 per agency with two agencies, NIH and NSF, 

sponsoring nearly half of the programs—99 of 207. Table 4 provides a 

summary of the numbers of programs by agency, and appendix II contains 

a list of the 207 STEM education programs and funding levels for fiscal 

year 2004 by agency. 

Table 4: Number of STEM Education Programs Reported by Federal Civilian 

Agencies 

Federal agency 

Number of STEM 

education programs

Department of Health and Human Services/ 

National Institutes of Health 51

National Science Foundation 48

Department of Energy 26

Environmental Protection Agency 21

Department of Agriculture 16

Department of Commerce 13

Department of the Interior 13

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 5

Department of Education 4

Department of Transportation 4

Department of Health and Human Services/Health 

Resources and Services Administration 3

Department of Health and Human Services/Indian Health 

Service 2

Department of Homeland Security 1

Total 207

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies. 

Federal civilian agencies reported that approximately $2.8 billion was 

spent on STEM education programs in fiscal year 2004.9

 The funding levels 

for STEM education programs among the agencies ranged from about $998 

million to about $4.7 million. NIH and NSF accounted for about 71 percent 

of the total—about $2 billion of the approximate $2.8 billion. NIH spent 

 9

The program funding levels, as provided by agency officials, contain both actual and 

estimated amounts for fiscal year 2004. 

Federal Civilian Agencies 

Reported Sponsoring over 

200 STEM Education 

Programs and Spending 

Billions in Fiscal Year 2004 
Page 12 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

about $998 million in fiscal year 2004, about 3.6 percent of its $28 billion 

appropriation, and NSF spent about $997 million, which represented 18 

percent of its appropriation. Four other agencies, some with a few 

programs, spent about 23 percent of the total: $636 million. For example, 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) spent about 

$231 million on 5 programs and the Department of Education (Education) 

spent about $221 million on 4 programs during fiscal year 2004. Figure 1 

shows the 6 federal civilian agencies that used the most funds for STEM 

education programs and the funds used by the remaining 7 agencies. 

Figure 1: Amounts Funded by Agencies for STEM-Related Federal Education 

Programs in Fiscal Year 2004 

The funding reported for individual STEM education programs varied 

significantly, and many of the programs have been funded for more than 

10 years. The funding ranged from $4,000 for an USDA-sponsored program 

that offered scholarships to U.S. citizens seeking bachelor’s degrees at 

Hispanic-serving institutions, to about $547 million for a NIH grant 

program that is designed to develop and enhance research training 

opportunities for individuals in biomedical, behavioral, and clinical 

research by supporting training programs at institutions of higher 

education. As shown in table 5, most programs were funded at $5 million 

or less and 13 programs were funded at more than $50 million in fiscal 

year 2004. About half of the STEM education programs were first funded 

after 1998. The oldest program began in 1936, and 72 programs are over 10 

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

All Others

Health Resources and

Enviromental Protection

Education

National Aeronautics and

National Science

National Institutes

Dollars in millions

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies.

998 997

231 221

121

63

154

 of Health

 Foundation

 Agency

 Space Administration

 Services Administration
Page 13 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

years old.10 Appendix III describes the STEM education programs that 

received funding of $10 million or more during fiscal year 2004 or 2005.11

Table 5: Funding Levels for Federal STEM Education Programs in Fiscal Year 2004 

Program funding levels 

Numbers of STEM 

education programs 

Percentage of total STEM 

education programs

Less than $1 million 93 45

$1 million to $5 million 51 25

$5.1 million to $10 million 19 9

$10.1 million to $50 million 31 15

More than $50 million 13 6

Total 207 100

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies. 

Agencies reported that most of the STEM education programs had 

multiple goals. Survey respondents reported that 80 percent (165 of 207) of 

the education programs had multiple goals, with about half of these 

identifying four or more goals for individual programs.12 Moreover, 

according to the survey responders, few programs had a single goal. For 

example, 2 programs were identified as having one goal of attracting and 

preparing students at any education level to pursue coursework in the 

STEM areas, while 112 programs identified this as one of multiple goals. 

Table 6 shows the program goals and numbers of STEM programs aligned 

with them. 

 10Six survey respondents did not include the date the program was initially funded. 

11Fiscal year 2005 funding levels were not available for all of the 207 STEM education 

programs. 

12Three survey respondents did not identify the program goals. 

Federal Agencies Reported 

Most STEM Programs Had 

Multiple Goals and Were 

Targeted to Multiple 

Groups 
Page 14 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 6: Program Goals and Numbers of STEM Programs with One or Multiple Goals 

Program goal 

Programs with

only this goal

Programs with 

multiple goals 

including this goal 

Total programs

 with this goal

 and other goal(s)

Attract and prepare students at any education level to 

pursue coursework in STEM areas 2 112 114

Attract students to pursue degrees (2-year through Ph.D.) 

and postdoctoral appointments 6 131 137

Provide growth and research opportunities for college and 

graduate students in STEM fields 3 100 103

Attract graduates to pursue careers in STEM fields 17 114 131

Improve teacher education in STEM areas 8 65 73

Improve or expand the capacity of institutions to promote 

or foster STEM fields 3 87 90

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies. 

The STEM education programs provided financial assistance to students, 

educators, and institutions. According to the survey responses, 131 

programs provided financial support for students or scholars, and 84 

programs provided assistance for teacher and faculty development.13 Many 

of the programs provided financial assistance to multiple beneficiaries, as 

shown in table 7. 

Table 7: Numbers of STEM Programs with One or Multiple Types of Assistance and Beneficiaries 

Type of assistance 

Programs that

 provide only this

 type of assistance

Programs that provide 

this type and other 

 types of assistance 

Total programs

 that provide this

 type of assistance

Financial support for students or scholars 54 77 131

Institutional support to improve educational 

quality 6 70 76

Support for teacher and faculty development 12 72 84

Institutional physical infrastructure support 1 26 27

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies. 

Most of the programs were not targeted to a specific group but aimed to 

serve a wide range of students, educators, and institutions. Of the 207 

programs, 54 were targeted to 1 group and 151 had multiple target 

 13One survey respondent did not identify the type of assistance supported by the program. 
Page 15 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

groups.14 In addition, many programs were targeted to the same group. For 

example, while 12 programs were aimed solely at graduate students, 88 

other programs had graduate students as one of multiple target groups. 

Fewer programs were targeted to elementary and secondary teachers and 

kindergarten through 12th grade students than to other target groups. 

Table 8 summarizes the numbers of STEM programs targeted to one group 

and multiple groups. 

Table 8: Numbers of STEM Programs Targeted to One Group and Multiple Groups 

Targeted group 

Targeted to

 only this group

Targeted to this 

 and other groups 

Total programs

 targeted to this group

Kindergarten through grade 12 students 

Elementary school students 0 28 28

Middle or junior high school students 1 33 34

High school students 3 50 53

Undergraduate students

2-year college students 1 57 58

4-year college students 4 92 96

Graduate students and postdoctoral scholars

Graduate students 12 88 100

Postdoctoral scholars 12 58 70

Teachers, college faculty and instructional staff

Elementary school teachers 0 39 39

Secondary school teachers 3 47 50

College faculty or instructional staff 4 75 79

Institutions 5 77 82

Source: GAO survey responses from13 federal agencies. 

Some programs limited participation to certain groups. According to 

survey respondents, U.S. citizenship was required to be eligible for 53 

programs, and an additional 75 programs were open only to U.S. citizens 

or permanent residents.15 About one-fourth of the programs had no 

 14Two survey respondents did not identify the group targeted by the program. 

15Lawful permanent residents, also commonly referred to as immigrants, are legally 

accorded the privilege of residing permanently in the United States. They may be issued 

immigrant visas by the Department of State overseas or adjusted to permanent resident 

status by the Department of Homeland Security in the United States. 
Page 16 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

citizenship requirement, and 24 programs allowed noncitizens or 

permanent residents to participate in some cases. According to a NSF 

official, students receiving scholarships or fellowships through NSF 

programs must be U.S. citizens or permanent residents. In commenting on 

a draft of this report, NSF reported that these restrictions are considered 

to be an effective strategy to support its goal of creating a diverse, 

competitive, and globally-engaged U.S. workforce of scientists, engineers, 

technologists, and well-prepared citizens. Officials at two universities said 

that some research programs are not open to non-citizens. Such 

restrictions may reflect concerns about access to sensitive areas. In 

addition to these restrictions, some programs are designed to increase 

minority representation in STEM fields. For example, NSF sponsors a 

program called Opportunities for Enhancing Diversity in the Geosciences 

to increase participation by African Americans, Hispanic Americans, 

Native Americans (American Indians and Alaskan Natives), Native Pacific 

Islanders (Polynesians or Micronesians), and persons with disabilities. 

Evaluations had been completed or were under way for about half of the 

STEM education programs. Agency officials responded that evaluations 

were completed for 55 of the 207 programs and that for 49 programs, 

evaluations were under way at the time we conducted our survey. Agency 

officials provided us documentation for evaluations of 43 programs, and 

most of the completed evaluations reviewed reported that the programs 

met their objectives or goals. For example, a March 2004 report on the 

outcomes and impacts of NSF’s Minority Postdoctoral Research 

Fellowships program concluded that there was strong qualitative and 

quantitative evidence that this program is meeting its broad goal of 

preparing scientists from those ethnic groups that are significantly 

underrepresented in tenured U.S. science and engineering professorships 

and for positions of leadership in industry and government. 

However, evaluations had not been done for 103 programs, some of which 

have been operating for many years. Of these, it may have been too soon 

to expect evaluations for about 32 programs that were initially funded in 

fiscal year 2002 or later. However, of the remaining 71 programs, 17 have 

been operating for over 15 years and have not been evaluated. In 

commenting on a draft of this report NSF noted that all of its programs 

undergo evaluation and that it uses a variety of mechanisms for program 

evaluation. We reported in 2003 that several agencies used various 

Agency Officials Reported 

That Evaluations Were 

Completed or Under Way 

for About Half of the 

Federal Programs 
Page 17 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

strategies to develop and improve evaluations.16 Evaluations play an 

important role in improving program operations and ensuring an efficient 

use of federal resources. Although some of the STEM education programs 

are small in terms of their funding levels, evaluations can be designed to 

consider the size of the program and the costs associated with measuring 

outcomes and collecting data. 

Coordination of federal STEM education programs has been limited. In 

January 2003 the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), 

Committee on Science (COS), established a subcommittee on education 

and workforce development. The purpose of the subcommittee is to advise 

and assist COS and NSTC on policies, procedures, and programs relating 

to STEM education and workforce development. According to its charter, 

the subcommittee will address education and workforce policy issues and 

research and development efforts that focus on STEM education issues at 

all levels, as well as current and projected STEM workforce needs, trends, 

and issues. The members include representatives from 20 agencies and 

offices—the 13 agencies that responded to our survey as well as the 

Departments of Defense, State, and Justice, and the Office of Science and 

Technology Policy, the Office of Management and Budget, the Domestic 

Policy Council, and the National Economic Council. The subcommittee 

has working groups on (1) human capacity in STEM areas, (2) minority 

programs, (3) effective practices for assessing federal efforts, and (4) 

issues affecting graduate and postdoctoral researchers. The Human 

Capacity in STEM working group is focused on three strategic initiatives: 

defining and assessing national STEM needs, including programs and 

research projects; identifying and analyzing the available data regarding 

the STEM workforce; and creating and implementing a comprehensive 

national response that enhances STEM workforce development. 

NSTC reported that as of June 2005 the subcommittee had a number of 

accomplishments and projects under way that related to attracting 

students to STEM fields. For example, it has (1) surveyed federal agency 

education programs designed to increase the participation of women and 

underrepresented minorities in STEM studies; (2) inventoried federal 

fellowship programs for graduate students and postdoctoral fellows; and 

(3) coordinated the Excellence in Science, Technology, Engineering, and 

 16GAO, Program Evaluation: An Evaluation Culture and Collaborative Partnerships Help 

Build Agency Capacity, GAO-03-454 (Washington, D.C.: May 2, 2003).

A Subcommittee Was 

Established in 2003 to Help 

Coordinate STEM 

Education Programs 

among Federal Agencies 
Page 18 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Mathematics Education Week activities, which provide an opportunity for 

the nation’s schools to focus on improving mathematics and science 

education. In addition, the subcommittee is developing a Web site for 

federal educational resources in STEM fields and a set of principles that 

agencies would use in setting levels of support for graduate and 

postdoctoral fellowships and traineeships. 

While the total numbers of students, graduates, and employees have 

increased in STEM fields, percentage changes for women, minorities, and 

international students varied during the periods reviewed. The increase in 

the percentage of students in STEM fields was greater than the increase in 

non-STEM fields, but the change in percentage of graduates in STEM fields 

was less than the percentage change in non-STEM fields. Moreover, 

employment increased more in STEM fields than in non-STEM fields. 

Further, changes in the percentages of minority students varied by race or 

ethnic group, international graduates continued to earn about a third or 

more of the advanced degrees in three STEM fields, and there was no 

statistically significant change in the percentage of women employees. 

Figure 2 summarizes key changes in the students, graduates, and 

employees in STEM fields. 

Numbers of Students, 

Graduates, and 

Employees in STEM 

Fields Generally 

Increased, but 

Percentage Changes 

Varied 
Page 19 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Figure 2: Key Changes in Students, Graduates, and Employees in STEM Fields 

Total enrollments of students in STEM fields have increased, and the 

percentage change was greater for STEM fields than non-STEM fields, but 

the percentage of students in STEM fields remained about the same. From 

the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year, total 

enrollments in STEM fields increased 21 percent—more than the 11 

percent enrollment increase in non-STEM fields. The number of students 

enrolled in STEM fields represented 23 percent of all students enrolled 

during the 2003-2004 academic year, a modest increase from the 21 

percent these students constituted in the 1995-1996 academic year. Table 9 

summarizes the changes in overall enrollment across all education levels 

from the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year. 

Numbers of Students in 

STEM Fields Grew, but 

This Increase Varied by 

Education Level and 

Student Characteristics 

Source: GAO analysis of CPS, IPEDS, and NPSAS data; graphics in part by Art Explosion.

Students Graduates Employees

1995-1996 to 2003-2004

Percentage increase was 

greater in STEM than 

non-STEM

Increase mostly at bachelor’s

and master’s level 

Increase in percentage of 

women 

Increase in minority students 

but percentage changes varied

by race/ethnicity

Increase in international 

students at bachelor’s level

1994-1995 to 2002-2003

Decrease at doctoral level in 

most fields

Increase in percentages

of women in most fields

No change in percentages 

of minorities at master’s or 

doctoral levels

International graduates

continued to earn about 

one-third or more of master’s 

and Ph.D.s in three fields

1994 - 2003

Increase was greater in STEM

than non-STEM

No significant change in 

percentage of women 

African Americans continued 

to be less than 10 percent of 

the total

Median annual wages and 

salaries increased in all fields

UNIVERSITY

Total increase in STEM was

less than non-STEM
Page 20 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 9: Estimated Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of Students in the 

STEM and Non-STEM Fields across All Education Levels, Academic Years 1995-

1996 and 2003-2004 

 

Academic year 

1995-1996 

Academic year 

2003-2004 

Enrollment measures STEM

NonSTEM STEMNonSTEM

Students enrolled (in 

thousands) 4,132 15,243 4,997 16,883

Percentage of total 

enrollment 21 79 23 77

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data. 

Note: The totals for STEM and non-STEM enrollment include students in bachelor’s, master’s, and 

doctoral programs as well as students enrolled in certificate, associate’s, other undergraduate, firstprofessional degree, and post-bachelor’s or post-master’s certificate programs. The percentage 

changes between the 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 academic years for STEM and non-STEM students 

are statistically significant. See appendix V for confidence intervals associated with these estimates. 

The increase in the numbers of students in STEM fields is mostly a result 

of increases at the bachelor’s and master’s levels. Of the total increase of 

about 865,000 students in STEM fields, about 740,000 was due to the 

increase in the numbers of students at the bachelor’s and master’s levels. 

See table 23 in appendix IV for additional information on the estimated 

numbers of students in STEM fields in academic years 1995-1996 and 2003-

2004. 

The percentage of students in STEM fields who are women increased from 

the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year, and in the 

2003-2004 academic year women students constituted at least 50 percent 

of the students in 3 STEM fields—biological sciences, psychology, and 

social sciences. However, in the 2003-2004 academic year, men students 

continued to outnumber women students in STEM fields, and men 

constituted an estimated 54 percent of the STEM students overall. In 

addition, men constituted at least 76 percent of the students enrolled in 

computer sciences, engineering, and technology.17 See tables 24 and 25 in 

appendix IV for additional information on changes in the numbers and 

 17In 2004, we reported on women’s participation in federally funded science programs. 

Among other issues, this report discussed priorities pertaining to compliance with 

provisions of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. For additional information, 

see GAO, Gender Issues: Women’s Participation in the Sciences Has Increased, but 

Agencies Need to Do More to Ensure Compliance with Title IX, GAO-04-639, (Washington, 

D.C.: July 22, 2004). 
Page 21 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

percentages of women students in the STEM fields for academic years 

1995-1996 and 2003-2004. 

While the numbers of domestic minority students in STEM fields also 

increased, changes in the percentages of minority students varied by racial 

or ethnic group. For example, Hispanic students increased 33 percent, 

from the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year. In 

comparison, the number of African American students increased about 69 

percent. African American students increased from 9 to 12 percent of all 

students in STEM fields while Asian/Pacific Islander students continued to 

constitute about 7 percent. Table 10 shows the numbers and percentages 

of minority students in STEM fields for the 1995-1996 academic year and 

the 2003-2004 academic year. 

Table 10: Estimated Percentage Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of Domestic Minority Students in STEM fields for 

All Education Levels for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 

Race or ethnicity 

Numbers of 

students, 1995-

1996 (in 

thousands) 

Numbers of 

students, 2003-

2004 (in 

thousands)

Percentage change in 

the numbers of 

students between 

academic years 1995-

1996 and 2003-2004 

Minority group as a 

percentage of 

students in STEM 

fields, academic 

year 1995-1996 

Minority group as a 

percentage of 

students in STEM 

fields, academic 

year 2003-2004 

Black or African 

American 360 608 +69 9 12

Asian/Pacific 

Islander 289 345 +19 7 7

Hispanic or Latino 

origin 366 489 +33 9 10

American Indian 18 38 +107 0 1

Other/Multiple 

minorities 29 166 +475 1 3

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data. 

Note: All percentage changes are statistically significant. See appendix V for confidence intervals 

associated with these estimates. 

From the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year, the 

number of international students in STEM fields increased by about 57 

percent solely because of an increase at the bachelor’s level. The numbers 

of international students in STEM fields at the master’s and doctoral levels 

declined, with the largest decline occurring at the doctoral level. Table 11 

shows the numbers and percentage changes in international students from 

the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year. 
Page 22 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 11: Estimated Changes in Numbers of International Students in STEM fields by Education Levels from the 1995-1996 

Academic Year to the 2003-2004 Academic Year 

Education level 

Number of international 

students, 1995-1996

Number of international 

students, 2003-2004 Percentage change 

Bachelor’s 31,858 139,875 +339

Master’s 40,025 22,384 -44

Doctoral 36,461 7,582 -79

Total 108,344 169,841 +57

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data. 

Note: Changes in enrollment between the 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 academic years are significant 

at the 95 percent confidence level for international students and for all education levels. See appendix 

V for confidence intervals associated with these estimates. 

According to the Institute of International Education, from the 2002-2003 

academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year, the number of international 

students declined for the first time in over 30 years, and that was the 

second such decline since the 1954-1955 academic year, when the institute 

began collecting and reporting data on international students.18 Moreover, 

in November 2004, the Council of Graduate Schools (CGS) reported a 6 

percent decline in first-time international graduate student enrollment 

from 2003 to 2004. Following a decade of steady growth, CGS also 

reported that the number of first-time international students studying in 

the United States decreased between 6 percent and 10 percent for 3 

consecutive years. 

The number of graduates with degrees in STEM fields increased by 8 

percent from the 1994-1995 academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year. 

However, during this same period the number of graduates with degrees in 

non-STEM fields increased by 30 percent. From academic year 1994-1995 

to academic year 2002-2003, the percentage of graduates with STEM 

degrees decreased from 32 percent to 28 percent of total graduates. Table 

12 provides data on the changes in the numbers and percentages of 

graduates in STEM and non-STEM fields. 

 18Institute of International Education, Open Doors: Report on International Educational 

Exchange, 2004, New York. 

Total Numbers of 

Graduates with STEM 

Degrees Increased, but 

Numbers Decreased in 

Some Fields, and 

Percentages of Minority 

Graduates at the Master’s 

and Doctoral Levels Did 

Not Change 
Page 23 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 12: Numbers of Graduates and Percentage Changes in STEM and Non-STEM Fields across All Degree Levels from the 

1994-1995 Academic Year to the 2002-2003 Academic Year 

 STEM fields Non-STEM fields 

Graduation measures 1994-1995 2002-2003

Percentage 

change 1994-1995 2002-2003

Percentage 

change

Graduates (in thousands) 519 560 +8 1,112 1,444 +30

Percentage of total graduates 32 28 -4 68 72 +4

Source: GAO calculations based upon IPEDS data. 

Decreases in the numbers of graduates occurred in some STEM fields at 

each education level, but particularly at the doctoral level. The numbers of 

graduates with bachelor’s degrees decreased in four of eight STEM fields, 

the numbers with master’s degrees decreased in five of eight fields, and 

the numbers with doctoral degrees decreased in six of eight STEM fields. 

At the doctoral level, these declines ranged from 14 percent in 

mathematics/computer sciences to 74 percent in technology. Figure 3 

shows the percentage change in graduates with degrees in STEM fields 

from the 1994-1995 academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year. 
Page 24 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Figure 3: Percentage Changes in Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctoral Graduates in STEM Fields from Academic Year 1994-

1995 to Academic Year 2002-2003 

From the 1994-1995 academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year, the 

total number of women graduates increased in four of the eight fields, and 

the percentages of women earning degrees in STEM fields increased in six 

of the eight fields at all three educational levels. Conversely, the total 

number of men graduates decreased, and the percentages of men 

graduates declined in six of the eight fields at all three levels from the 

1994-1995 academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year. However, men 

continued to constitute over 50 percent of the graduates in five of eight 

fields at all three education levels. Table 13 summarizes the numbers of 

graduates by gender, level, and field. Table 26 in appendix IV provides 

additional data on the percentages of men and women graduates by STEM 

field and education level. 

-70

-50

-30

-10

10

30

50

70

90

Technology

Social sciences

Psychology

Physical sciences

Mathematics/computer

Engineering

Earth, atmospheric,

Biological/agricultural

Percent change

Source: GAO calculations based upon IPEDS data.

 sciences

and ocean sciences

 sciences

-53

-41

-18

-8 -6

-14

-29

-11

-18

72

48

-14

0

-14

14

-15

12 11

25

1

6

-74

-44

-35

Bachelor’s

Master’s

Ph.D.s
Page 25 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 13: Numbers and Percentage Changes in Men and Women Graduates with STEM Degrees by Education Level and Field 

for Academic Years 1994-1995 and 2002-2003 

Number of men 

graduates 

Number of women 

graduates 

Education 

level STEM field 1994-1995 2002-2003

Percentage 

change in 

men 

graduates 1994-1995 2002-2003

Percentage 

change in 

women 

graduates

Biological/agricultural 

sciences 36,108 23,266 -36 35,648 35,546 0

Earth, atmospheric, and 

ocean sciences 2,954 2,243 -24 1,524 1,626 +7

Engineering 52,562 48,214 -8 10,960 11,709 +7

Mathematics and computer 

sciences 25,258 46,381 +84 13,651 20,436 +50

Physical sciences 9,607 8,739 -9 5,292 6,222 +18

Psychology 19,664 18,616 -5 53,010 64,470 +22

Social sciences 56,643 63,465 +12 56,624 77,701 +37

Bachelor’s 

level 

Technology 14,349 9,174 -36 1,602 1,257 -22

Biological/agricultural 

sciences 4,768 2,413 -49 4,340 2,934 -32

Earth, atmospheric, and 

ocean sciences 1,032 805 -22 451 552 +22

Engineering 24,031 20,258 -16 4,643 5,271 +14

Mathematics and computer 

sciences 10,398 14,531 +40 4,474 7,517 +68

Physical sciences 2,958 2,350 -21 1,283 1,299 +1

Psychology 4,013 3,645 -9 10,319 12,433 +20

Social sciences 11,952 11,057 -7 11,398 13,674 +20

Master’s 

level 

Technology 927 467 -50 222 173 -22

Biological/agricultural 

sciences 3,616 1,526 -58 2,160 1,161 -46

Earth, atmospheric, and 

ocean sciences 488 315 -35 134 125 -7

Engineering 5,401 4,159 -23 728 839 +15

Mathematics and computer 

sciences 1,690 1,378 -18 434 439 +1

Physical sciences 2,939 2,396 -18 922 892 -3

Psychology 1,529 1,380 -10 2,511 3,086 +23

Social sciences 2,347 2,111 -10 1,463 1,729 +18

Doctoral 

level 

Technology 24 7 -71 3 0 -100

Source: GAO calculations based upon IPEDS data. 
Page 26 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

The total numbers of domestic minority graduates in STEM fields 

increased, although the percentage of minority graduates with STEM 

degrees at the master’s or doctoral level did not change from the 1994-1995 

academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year. For example, while the 

number of Native American graduates increased 37 percent, Native 

American graduates remained less than 1 percent of all STEM graduates at 

the master’s and doctoral levels. Table 14 shows the percentages and 

numbers of domestic minority graduates for the 1994-1995 academic year 

and the 2002-2003 academic year. 

Table 14: Numbers and Percentage Changes in Domestic Minority Graduates in STEM Fields by Education Levels and Race 

or Ethnicity for Academic Years 1994-1995 and 2002-2003 

Race or ethnicity Degree Level 

Number of 

graduates in 

STEM fields, 

1994-1995

Number of 

graduates in 

STEM fields, 

2002-2003

Percentage 

change in 

graduates 

Percentage of 

total graduates 

in STEM fields, 

1994-1995

Percentage of 

total graduates 

in STEM fields, 

2002-2003

Total 33,121 44,475 +34 6 8

Bachelor’s 28,236 37,195 +32 5 7

Master’s 4,358 6,588 +51 1 1

Black or African 

American 

Doctoral 527 692 +31 0 0

Total 25,781 37,056 +44 5 7

Bachelor’s 22,268 32,255 +45 4 6

Master’s 3,015 4,121 +37 1 1

Hispanic or Latino origin 

Doctoral 498 680 +37 0 0

Total 37,393 46,941 +26 7 8

Bachelor’s 29,389 39,030 +33 6 7

Master’s 6,064 6,814 +12 1 1

Asian/Pacific Islanders 

Doctoral 1,940 1,097 -43 0 0

Total 2,488 3,409 +37 0 1

Bachelor’s 2,115 2,903 +37 0 1

Master’s 320 425 +33 0 0

Native Americans 

Doctoral 53 81 +53 0 0

Source: GAO calculations based upon IPEDS data. 

International students earned about one-third or more of the degrees at 

both the master’s and doctoral levels in several fields in the 1994-1995 and 

the 2002-2003 academic years. For example, in academic year 2002-2003, 

international students earned between 45 percent and 57 percent of all 

degrees in engineering and mathematics/computer sciences at the master’s 

and doctoral levels. However, at each level there were changes in the 
Page 27 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

numbers and percentages of international graduates. At the master’s level, 

the total number of international graduates increased by about 31 percent 

from the 1994-1995 academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year; while 

the number of graduates decreased in four of the fields and the 

percentages of international graduates declined in three fields. At the 

doctoral level, the total number of international graduates decreased by 12 

percent, while the percentage of international graduates increased or 

remained the same in all fields. Table 15 shows the numbers and 

percentages of international graduates in STEM fields. 

Table 15: Changes in Numbers and Percentages of International Graduates in STEM fields at the Master’s and Doctoral 

Degree Levels, 1994-1995 and 2002-2003 Academic Years 

 1994-1995 2002-2003 

Masters’ level Number 

Percentage of all 

graduates Number 

Percentage of all 

graduates

Agriculture/biological sciences 1,549 17 633 12

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean 

sciences 285 19 192 14

Engineering 9,720 34 11,512 45

Mathematics/computer 

sciences 5,105 34 10,335 47

Physical sciences 1,467 35 1,171 32

Psychology 493 3 704 4

Social sciences 3,749 16 4,795 19

Technology 169 15 118 18

Total 22,537 29,460 

Doctoral level 

Agriculture/biological sciences 1,616 28 743 28

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean 

sciences 183 29 140 32

Engineering 3,001 49 2,853 57

Mathematics/computer 

sciences 927 44 895 49

Physical sciences 1,290 33 1,281 39

Psychology 186 5 202 5

Social sciences 1,123 29 1,192 31

Technology 9 33 4 57

Total 8,335 7,310 

Source: GAO calculations based upon IPEDS data. 
Page 28 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

While the total number of STEM employees increased, this increase varied 

across STEM fields. Employment increased by 23 percent in STEM fields 

as compared to 17 percent in non-STEM fields from calendar year 1994 to 

calendar year 2003. Employment increased by 78 percent in the 

mathematics/computer sciences field and by 20 percent in the science field 

over this period. The changes in number of employees in the engineering 

and technology fields were not statistically significant. Employment 

estimates from 1994 to 2003 in the STEM fields are shown in figure 4. 

Figure 4: Estimated Numbers of Employees in STEM Fields from Calendar Years 

1994 through 2003 

Note: Estimated number of employees have confidence intervals of within +/-9 percent of the estimate 

itself. See appendix VI for confidence intervals associated with these estimates. 

From calendar years 1994 to 2003, the estimated number of women 

employees in STEM fields increased from about 2.7 million to about 3.5 

million. Overall, there was not a statistically significant change in the 

percentage of women employees in the STEM fields. Table 16 shows the 

numbers and percentages of men and women employed in the STEM fields 

for calendar years 1994 and 2003. 

STEM Employment Rose, 

but the Percentage of 

Women Remained About 

the Same and Minorities 

Continued to be 

Underrepresented 

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Number of employees (in millions)

Source: GAO calculations based upon CPS data.

Calendar year

Science

Technology

Engineering

Mathematics/computer sciences
Page 29 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 16: Estimated Numbers and Percentages of Employees in STEM Fields by Gender in Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 

(numbers in thousands) 

1994 2003 

Men Women Men Women 

STEM field Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

Science 792 32 1,711 68 829 28 2,179 72

Technology 955 68 445 32 1,050 71 425 29

Engineering 1,658 92 *141 8 1,572 90 *169 10

Mathematics/ 

computer sciences 1,056 71 432 29 1,952 74 695 26

Total 4,461 62 2,729 38 5,404 61 3,467 39

Source: GAO calculations based upon CPS data. 

Note: Estimated employee numbers noted by an asterisk have a 95 percent confidence interval of 

within +/- 25 percent of the estimate itself. All other estimated employee numbers have a 95 percent 

confidence interval of within +/- 16 percent of the estimate. See appendix VI for confidence intervals 

associated with these estimates. Calculations of percentages and numbers may differ due to 

rounding. 

In addition, the estimated number of minorities employed in the STEM 

fields as well as the percentage of total STEM employees they constituted 

increased, but African American and Hispanic employees remain 

underrepresented relative to their percentages in the civilian labor force.19

Between 1994 and 2003, the estimated number of African American 

employees increased by about 44 percent, the estimated numbers of 

Hispanic employees increased by 90 percent, as did the estimated numbers 

of other minorities employed in STEM fields.20 In calendar year 2003, 

African Americans comprised about 8.7 percent of STEM employees 

compared to about 10.7 percent of the CLF. Similarly, Hispanic employees 

comprised about 10 percent of STEM employees in calendar year 2003, 

compared to about 12.6 percent of the CLF. Table 17 shows the estimated 

percentages of STEM employees by selected racial or ethnic groups in 

1994 and 2003. 

 19On the basis of March 2004 CPS estimates, the Pew Hispanic Research Center reported 

that over 10 million unauthorized immigrants resided in the United States and that people 

of Hispanic and Latino origin constituted a significant portion of these unauthorized 

immigrants. 

20Other minorities include Asian/Pacific Islanders and American Indian or Alaska Native. 
Page 30 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 17: Estimated Percentages of STEM Employees by Selected Racial or Ethnic 

Group for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 

Race or ethnicity 

Percentage of total 

STEM employees, 1994 

Percentage of total 

STEM employees, 2003

Black or African American 7.5 8.7

Hispanic or Latino origin 5.7 10.0

Other minoritiesa 4.5 6.9

Source: GAO calculations based upon CPS data. 

Note: Estimated percentages have 95 percent confidence intervals of +/- 1 percentage point. 

Changes for African Americans between calendar years 1994 and 2003 were not statistically 

significant at the 95-percent confidence level. Differences for Hispanic or Latino origin and other 

minorities were statistically significant. See appendix VI for confidence intervals associated with these 

estimates. 

a

Other minorities include Asian/Pacific Islanders and American Indian or Alaska Native. 

International employees have filled hundreds of thousands of positions, 

many in STEM fields, through the H-1B visa program. However, the 

numbers and types of occupations have changed over the years. We 

reported that while the limit for the H-1B program was 115,000 in 1999, the 

number of visas approved exceeded the limit by more than 20,000 because 

of problems with the system used to track the data.21 Available data show 

that in 1999, the majority of the approved occupations were in STEM 

fields. Specifically, an estimated 60 percent of the positions approved in 

fiscal year 1999 were related to information technology and 5 percent were 

for electrical/electronics engineering. By 2002, the limit for the H-1B 

program had increased to 195,000, but the number approved, 79,000, did 

not reach this limit. In 2003, we reported that the number of approved H1B petitions in certain occupations had declined. For example, the number 

of approvals for systems analysis/programming positions declined by 

106,671 from 2001 to 2002.22 

Although the estimated total number of employees in STEM fields 

increased from 1994 to 2003, according to an NSF report, many with STEM 

degrees were not employed in these occupations. In 2004, NSF reported 

that about 67 percent of employees with degrees in science or engineering 

 21GAO, H-1B Foreign Workers: Better Controls Needed to Help Employers and Protect 

Workers, GAO/HEHS-00-157 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 7, 2000). 

22GAO, H-1B Foreign Workers: Better Tracking Needed to Help Determine H-1B 

Program’s Effects on U.S. Workforce, GAO-03-883 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 10, 2003). 
Page 31 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

were employed in fields somewhat or not at all related to their degree.23

Specifically, 70 percent of employees with bachelor’s degrees, 51 percent 

with master’s degrees, and 54 percent with doctoral degrees reported that 

their employment was somewhat or not at all related to their degree in 

science or engineering. 

In addition to increases in the numbers of employees in STEM fields, 

inflation-adjusted median annual wages and salaries increased in all four 

STEM fields over the 10-year period (1994 to 2003). These increases 

ranged from 6 percent in science to 15 percent in engineering. Figure 5 

shows trends in median annual wages and salaries for STEM fields. 

 23National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Indicators, 2004, Volume 1, 

National Science Board, January 15, 2004. 
Page 32 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Figure 5: Estimated Median Annual Wages and Salaries in STEM Fields for Calendar 

Years 1994 through 2003 

Note: Median annual wages and salaries have been adjusted for inflation. Estimated median annual 

wages and salaries have 95 percent confidence intervals of within +/- 2.3 percent. See appendix VI 

for confidence intervals associated with these estimates. 

University officials, researchers, and students identified several factors 

that influenced students’ decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and 

occupations, and they suggested some ways to encourage more 

participation in STEM fields. Specifically, university officials said and 

researchers reported that the quality of teachers in kindergarten through 

12th grades and the levels of mathematics and science courses completed 

during high school affected students’ success in and decisions about 

STEM fields. In addition, several sources noted that mentoring played a 

key role in the participation of women and minorities in STEM fields. 

Current students from five universities we visited generally agreed with 

these observations, and several said that having good mathematics and 

science instruction was important to their overall educational success. 

International students’ decisions about participating in STEM education 

University Officials 

and Others Cited 

Several Factors That 

Influence Decisions 

about Participation in 

STEM Fields and 

Suggested Ways to 

Encourage Greater 

Participation 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Annual wages and salaries (in thousands of dollars)

Source: GAO calculations based upon CPS data.

Calendar year

Science

Technology

Engineering

Mathematics/computer sciences
Page 33 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

and occupations were affected by opportunities outside the United States 

and the visa process. To encourage more student participation in the 

STEM fields, university officials, researchers, and others have made 

several suggestions, and four were made repeatedly. These suggestions 

focused on teacher quality, high school students’ math and science 

preparation, outreach activities, and the federal role in STEM education. 

University officials frequently cited teacher quality as a key factor that 

affected domestic students’ interest in and decisions about pursuing STEM 

degrees and occupations. Officials at all eight universities we visited 

expressed the view that a student’s experience from kindergarten through 

the 12th grades played a large role in influencing whether the student 

pursued a STEM degree. Officials at one university we visited said that 

students pursuing STEM degrees have associated their interests with 

teachers who taught them good skills in mathematics or excited them 

about science. On the other hand, officials at many of the universities we 

visited told us that some teachers were unqualified and unable to impart 

the subject matter, causing students to lose interest in mathematics and 

science. For example, officials at one university we visited said that some 

elementary and secondary teachers do not have sufficient training to 

effectively teach students in the STEM fields and that this has an adverse 

effect on what students learn in these fields and reduces the interest and 

enthusiasm students express in pursuing coursework in high school, 

degree programs in college, or careers in these areas. 

Teacher quality issues, in general, have been cited in past reports by 

Education. In 2002, Education reported that in the 1999-2000 school year, 

14 to 22 percent of middle-grade students taking English, mathematics, 

and science were in classes led by teachers without a major, minor, or 

certification in these subjects—commonly referred to as “out-of-field” 

teachers.24 Also, approximately 30 to 40 percent of the middle-grade 

students in biology/life science, physical science, or English as a second 

language/bilingual education classes had teachers lacking these 

credentials. At the high school level, 17 percent of students enrolled in 

physics and 36 percent of those enrolled in geology/earth/space science 

were in classes instructed by out-of-field teachers. The percentages of 

 24National Center for Education Statistics, Qualifications of the Public School Teacher 

Workforce: Prevalence of Out-of-Field Teaching 1987-88 to 1999-2000, May 2002, revised 

August 2004,Washington, D.C. 

Teacher Quality and 

Mathematics and Science 

Preparation Were Cited as 

Key Factors Affecting 

Domestic Students’ STEM 

Participation Decisions 
Page 34 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

students taught by out-of-field teachers were significantly higher when the 

criteria used were teacher certification and a major in the subject taught. 

For example, 45 percent of the high school students enrolled in 

biology/life science and approximately 30 percent of those enrolled in 

mathematics, English, and social science classes had out-of-field teachers. 

During the 2002-2003 school year, Education reported that the number and 

distribution of teachers on waivers—which allowed prospective teachers 

in classrooms while they completed their formal training—was 

problematic. Also, states reported that the problem of underprepared 

teachers was worse on average in districts that serve large proportions of 

high-poverty children—the percentage of teachers on waivers was larger 

in high-poverty school districts than all other school districts in 39 states. 

Moreover, in 2004, Education reported that 48 of the 50 states granted 

waivers.25

In addition to teacher quality, students’ high school preparation in 

mathematics and science was cited by university officials and others as 

affecting students’ success in college-level courses and their decisions 

about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations. University officials at six 

of the eight universities we visited cited students’ ability to opt out of 

mathematics and science courses during high school as a factor that 

influenced whether they would participate and succeed in the STEM fields 

during undergraduate and graduate school. University officials said, for 

example, that because many students had not taken higher-level 

mathematics and science courses such as calculus and physics in high 

school, they were immediately behind other students who were better 

prepared. In July 2005, on the basis of findings from the 2004 National 

Assessment of Educational Progress, the National Center for Education 

Statistics reported that 17 percent of the 17-year-olds reported that they 

had taken calculus, and this represents the highest percentage in any 

previous assessment year.26 In a study that solicited the views of several 

hundred students who had left the STEM fields, researchers found that the 

effects of inadequate high school preparation contributed to college 

students’ decisions to leave the science fields.27 These researchers found 

 25U.S. Department of Education, The Secretary’s Third Annual Report on Teacher Quality, 

Office of Postsecondary Education, 2004, Washington, D.C. 

26U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of 

Education Sciences, The Nation’s Report Card, NAEP 2004: Trends in Academic 

Progress, July 2005, Washington, D.C. 

27Seymour, Elaine, and Nancy M. Hewitt, Talking about Leaving: Why Undergraduates 

Leave the Sciences, Westview Press, 1997, Boulder, Colorado. 
Page 35 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

that approximately 40 percent of those college students who left the 

science fields reported some problems related to high school science 

preparation. The underpreparation was often linked to problems such as 

not understanding calculus; lack of laboratory experience or exposure to 

computers, and no introduction to theoretical material or to analytic 

modes of thought. Further, 12 current students we interviewed said they 

were not adequately prepared for college mathematics or science. For 

example, one student stated that her high school courses had been limited 

because she attended an all-girls school where the curriculum catered to 

students who were not interested in STEM, and so it had been difficult to 

obtain the courses that were of interest to her. 

Several other factors were mentioned during our interviews with 

university officials, students, and others as influencing decisions about 

participation in STEM fields. These factors included relatively low pay in 

STEM fields, additional tuition costs to obtain STEM degrees, lack of 

commitment on the part of some students to meet the rigorous academic 

demands, and the inability of some professors in STEM fields to effectively 

impart their knowledge to students in the classrooms. For example, 

officials from five universities said that low pay in STEM fields relative to 

other fields such as law and business dissuaded students from pursuing 

STEM degrees in some areas. Also, in a study that solicited the views of 

college students who left the STEM fields as well as those who continued 

to pursue STEM degrees, researchers found that students experienced 

greater financial difficulties in obtaining their degrees because of the extra 

time needed to obtain degrees in certain STEM fields. Researchers also 

noted that poor teaching at the university level was the most common 

complaint among students who left as well as those who remained in 

STEM fields. Students reported that faculty do not like to teach, do not 

value teaching as a professional activity, and therefore lack any incentive 

to learn to teach effectively.28 Finally, 11 of the students we interviewed 

commented about the need for professors in STEM fields to alter their 

methods and to show more interest in teaching to retain students’ 

attention. 

 28Seymour and Hewitt. 
Page 36 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

University officials and students said that mentoring is important for all 

students but plays a vital role in the academic experiences of women and 

minorities in the STEM fields. Officials at seven of the eight universities 

discussed the important role that mentors play, especially for women and 

minorities in STEM fields. For example, one professor said that mentors 

helped students by advising them on the best track to follow for obtaining 

their degrees and achieving professional goals. Also, four students we 

interviewed—three women and one man—expressed the importance of 

mentors. Specifically, while all four students identified mentoring as 

critical to academic success in the STEM fields, two students expressed 

their satisfaction since they had mentors, while the other two students 

said that it would have been helpful to have had someone who could have 

been a mentor or role model. 

Studies have also reported that mentors play a significant role in the 

success of women and minorities in the STEM fields. In 2004, some of the 

women students and faculty with whom we talked reported a strong 

mentor was a crucial part in the academic training of some of the women 

participating in sciences, and some women had pursued advanced degrees 

because of the encouragement and support of mentors.29 In September 

2000, a congressional commission reported that women were adversely 

affected throughout the STEM education pipeline and career path by a 

lack of role models and mentors.30 For example, the report found that girls 

rejection of mathematics and science may be partially driven by teachers, 

parents, and peers when they subtly, and not so subtly, steer girls away 

from the informal technical pastimes (such as working on cars, fixing 

bicycles, and changing hardware on computers) and science activities 

(such as science fairs and clubs) that too often were still thought of as the 

province of boys. In addition, the commission reported that a greater 

proportion of women switched out of STEM majors than men, relative to 

their representation in the STEM major population. Reasons cited for the 

higher attrition rate among women students included lack of role models, 

distaste for the competitive nature of science and engineering education, 

and inability to obtain adequate academic guidance or advice. Further, 

according to the report, women’s retention and graduation in STEM 

graduate programs were affected by their interaction with faculty, 

 29GAO-04-639. 

30Report of the Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities 

in Science, Engineering and Technology Development, Land of Plenty: Diversity as 

America’s Competitive Edge in Science, Engineering, and Technology, September 2000. 

Mentoring Cited as a Key 

Factor Affecting Women’s 

and Minorities’ STEM 

Participation Decisions 
Page 37 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

integration into the department (versus isolation), and other factors, 

including whether there were role models, mentors, and women faculty. 

Officials at seven of the eight universities visited, along with education 

policy experts, told us that competition from other countries for top 

international students, and educational or work opportunities, affected 

international students’ decisions about studying in the United States. They 

told us that other countries, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand, 

and the United Kingdom, had seized the opportunity since September 11 to 

compete against the United States for international students who were 

among the best students in the world, especially in the STEM fields. Also, 

university officials told us that students from several countries, including 

China and India, were being recruited to attend universities and get jobs in 

their own countries. In addition, education organizations and associations 

have reported that global competition for the best science and engineering 

students and scholars is under way. One organization, NAFSA: Association 

of International Educators reported that the international student market 

has become highly competitive, and the United States is not competing as 

well as other countries.31

According to university officials, international students’ decisions about 

pursuing STEM degrees and occupations in the United States were also 

influenced by the perceived unwelcoming attitude of Americans and the 

visa process. Officials from three of the universities said that the perceived 

unwelcoming attitude of Americans had affected the recruitment of 

international students to the United States. Also, officials at six of the eight 

universities visited expressed their concern about the impact of the 

tightened visa procedures and/or increased security measures since 

September 11 on international graduate school enrollments. For example, 

officials at one university stated that because of the time needed to 

process visas, a few students had missed their class start dates. Officials 

from one university told us that they were being more proactive in helping 

new international students navigate the visa system, to the extent possible. 

While some university officials acknowledged that visa processing had 

significantly improved, since 2003 several education associations have 

 31NAFSA: Association of International Educators, In America’s Interest: Welcoming 

International Students, Report of the Strategic Task Force on International Student 

Access, January 14, 2003, Washington, D.C. 

International Students’ 

STEM Participation 

Decisions Were Affected 

by Opportunities Outside 

the United States and the 

Visa Process 
Page 38 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

requested further changes in U.S. visa policies because of the lengthy 

procedures and time needed to obtain approval to enter the country. 

We have reported on various aspects of the visa process, made several 

recommendations, and noted that some improvements have been made. In 

October 2002 we cited the need for a clear policy on how to balance 

national security concerns with the desire to facilitate legitimate travel 

when issuing visas and we made several recommendations to help 

improve the visa process.32 In 2003, we reported that the Departments of 

State, Homeland Security, and Justice could more effectively manage the 

visa function if they had clear and comprehensive policies and procedures 

and increased agency coordination and information sharing.33 In February 

2004 and February 2005, we reported on the State Department’s efforts to 

improve the program for issuing visas to international science students 

and scholars. In 2004 we found that the time to adjudicate a visa depended 

largely on whether an applicant had to undergo a security check known as 

Visas Mantis, which is designed to protect against sensitive technology 

transfers. Based on a random sample of Visas Mantis cases for science 

students and scholars, it took State an average of 67 days to complete the 

process.34 In 2005, we reported a significant decline in Visas Mantis 

processing times and in the number of cases pending more than 60 days.35

We also reported that, in some cases, science students and scholars can 

obtain a visa within 24 hours. 

We have also issued several reports on SEVIS operations. In June 2004 we 

noted that when SEVIS began operating, significant problems were 

reported.36 For example, colleges and universities and exchange programs 

had trouble gaining access to the system, and when access was obtained, 

these users’ sessions would “time out” before they could complete their 

tasks. In that report we also noted that SEVIS performance had improved, 

 32GAO, Border Security: Visa Process Should Be Strengthened as an Antiterrorism Tool, 

GAO-03-132NI (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 21, 2002). 

33GAO, Border Security: New Policies and Increased Interagency Coordination Needed to 

Improve Visa Process, GAO-03-1013T (Washington, D. C.: July 15, 2003). 

34GAO, Border Security: Improvements Needed to Reduce Time Taken to Adjudicate Visas 

for Science Students and Scholars, GAO-04-371 (Washington, D.C.: Feb. 25, 2004). 

35GAO-05-198. 

36GAO, Homeland Security: Performance of Information System to Monitor Foreign 

Students and Exchange Visitors Has Improved, but Issues Remain, GAO-04-690

(Washington, D.C.: June 18, 2004). 
Page 39 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

but that several key system performance requirements were not being 

measured. In March 2005, we reported that the Department of Homeland 

Security (DHS) had taken steps to address our recommendations and that 

educational organizations generally agreed that SEVIS performance had 

continued to improve.37 However, educational organizations continued to 

cite problems, which they believe created hardships for students and 

exchange visitors. 

To increase the number of students entering STEM fields, officials from 

seven universities and others stated that teacher quality needs to improve. 

Officials of one university said that kindergarten through 12th grade 

classrooms need teachers who are knowledgeable in the mathematics and 

science content areas. As previously noted, Education has reported on the 

extent to which classes have been taught by teachers with little or no 

content knowledge in the STEM fields. The Congressional Commission on 

the Advancement of Women and Minorities reported that teacher 

effectiveness is the most important element in a good education.38 The 

commission also suggested that boosting teacher effectiveness can do 

more to improve education than any other single factor. States are taking 

action to meet NCLBA’s requirement of having all teachers of core 

academic subjects be highly qualified by the end of the 2005-2006 school 

year. 

University officials and some students suggested that better preparation 

and mandatory courses in mathematics and science were needed for 

students during their kindergarten through 12th grade school years. 

Officials from five universities suggested that mandatory mathematics and 

science courses, especially in high school, may lead to increased student 

interest and preparation in the STEM fields. With a greater interest and 

depth of knowledge, students would be better prepared and more inclined 

to pursue STEM degrees in college. Further, nearly half of the students 

who replied to this question suggested that students needed additional 

mathematics and science training prior to college. However, adding 

 37GAO, Homeland Security: Performance of Foreign Student and Exchange Visitor 

Information System Continues to Improve, but Issues Remain, GAO-05-440T

(Washington, D.C.: March 17, 2005). 

38Report of the Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities 

in Science, Engineering and Technology Development, Land of Plenty: Diversity as 

America’s Competitive Edge in Science, Engineering, and Technology, September 2000. 

Several Suggestions Were 

Made to Encourage More 

Participation in the STEM 

Fields 
Page 40 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

mathematics and science classes has resource implications, since more 

teachers in these subjects would be needed. Also this change could require 

curriculum policy changes that would take time to implement. 

More outreach, especially to women and minorities from kindergarten 

through the 12th grade, was suggested by university officials, students, and 

other organizations. Officials from six of the universities we visited 

suggested that increased outreach activities are needed to help create 

more interest in mathematics and science for younger students. For 

example, at one university we visited, officials told us that through inviting 

students to their campuses or visiting local schools, they have provided 

some students with opportunities to engage in science laboratories and 

hands-on activities that foster interest and excitement for students and can 

make these fields more relevant in their lives. Officials from another 

university told us that these experiences were especially important for 

women and minorities who might not have otherwise had these 

opportunities. The current students we interviewed also suggested more 

outreach activities. Specifically, two students said that outreach was 

needed to further stimulate students’ interest in the STEM fields. One 

organization, Building Engineering and Science Talent (BEST), suggested 

that research universities increase their presence in prekindergarten 

through 12th grade mathematics and science education in order to 

strengthen domestic students’ interests and abilities. BEST reported that 

one model producing results entailed universities adopting students from 

low-income school districts from 7th through 12th grades and providing 

them advanced instruction in algebra, chemistry, physics, and 

trigonometry. However, officials at one university told us that because of 

limited resources, their efforts were constrained and only a few students 

would benefit from this type of outreach. 

Furthermore, university officials from the eight schools and other 

education organizations made suggestions regarding the role of the federal 

government. University officials suggested that the federal government 

could enhance its role in STEM education by providing more effective 

leadership through developing and implementing a national agenda for 

STEM education and increasing federal funding for academic research. 

Officials at six universities suggested that the federal government 

undertake a new initiative modeled after the National Defense Education 

Act of 1958, enacted in response to the former Soviet Union’s achievement 

in its space program, which provided new funding for mathematics and 

science education and training at all education levels. In June 2005, CGS 

called for a renewed commitment to graduate education by the federal 

government through actions such as providing funds to support students 
Page 41 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

trained at the doctoral level in the sciences, technology, engineering, and 

mathematics; expanding U.S. citizen participation in doctoral study in 

selected fields through graduate support awarded competitively to 

universities across the country; requiring recruitment, outreach, and 

mentoring activities that promote greater participation and success, 

especially for underrepresented groups; and fostering interdisciplinary 

research preparation. In August 2003, the National Science Board 

recommended that the federal government direct substantial new support 

to students and institutions in order to improve success in science and 

engineering studies by domestic undergraduate students from all 

demographic groups. According to this report, such support could include 

scholarships and other forms of financial assistance to students, incentives 

to institutions to expand and improve the quality of their science and 

engineering programs in areas in which degree attainment is insufficient, 

financial support to community colleges to increase the success of 

students in transferring to 4-year science and engineering programs, and 

expanded funding for programs that best succeed in graduating 

underrepresented minorities and women in science and engineering. BEST 

also suggested that the federal government allocate additional resources 

to expand the mathematics and science education opportunities for 

underrepresented groups. However, little is known about how well federal 

resources have been used in the past. Changes that would require 

additional federal funds would likely have an impact on other federal 

programs, given the nation’s limited resources and growing fiscal 

imbalance, and changing the federal role could take several years. 

While the total numbers of STEM graduates have increased, some fields 

have experienced declines, especially at the master’s and doctoral levels. 

Given the trends in the numbers and percentages of students pursuing 

STEM degrees, particularly advanced degrees, and recent developments 

that have influenced international students’ decisions about pursuing 

degrees in the United States, it is uncertain whether the number of STEM 

graduates will be sufficient to meet future academic and employment 

needs and help the country maintain its technological competitive 

advantage. Moreover, it is too early to tell if the declines in international 

graduate student enrollments will continue in the future. In terms of 

employment, despite some gains, the percentage of women in the STEM 

workforce has not changed significantly, minority employees remain 

underrepresented, and many with degrees in STEM fields are not 

employed in STEM occupations. 

Concluding 

Observations 
Page 42 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

To help improve the trends in the numbers of students, graduates, and 

employees in STEM fields, university officials and others made several 

suggestions, such as increasing the federal commitment to STEM 

education programs. However, before making changes, it is important to 

know the extent to which existing STEM education programs are 

appropriately targeted and making the best use of available federal 

resources. Additionally, in an era of limited financial resources and 

growing federal deficits, information about the effectiveness of these 

programs can help guide policy makers and program managers. 

We received written comments on a draft of this report from Commerce, 

the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), NSF, and NSTC. 

These comments are reprinted in appendixes VII, VIII, IX, and X, 

respectively. We also received technical comments from the Departments 

of Commerce, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Labor, and 

Transportation; and the Environmental Protection Agency and National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, which we incorporated when 

appropriate. 

In commenting on a draft of this report, Commerce, HHS, and NSTC 

commended GAO for this work. Commerce explicitly concurred with 

several findings and agreed with our overall conclusion. However, 

Commerce suggested that we revise the conclusion to point out that 

despite overall increases in STEM students, the numbers of graduates in 

certain fields have declined. We modified the concluding observations to 

make this point. HHS agreed with our conclusion that it is important to 

evaluate ongoing programs to determine the extent to which they are 

achieving their desired results. The comments from NSTC cited 

improvements made to help ensure that international students, exchange 

visitors, and scientists are able to apply for and receive visas in a timely 

manner. We did not make any changes to the report since we had cited 

another GAO product that discussed such improvements in the visa 

process. 

NSF commented about several of our findings. NSF stated that our 

program evaluations finding may be misleading largely because the type of 

information GAO requested and accepted from agencies was limited to 

program level evaluations and did not include evaluations of individual 

underlying projects. NSF suggested that we include information on the 

range of approaches used to assure program effectiveness. Our finding is 

based on agency officials’ responses to a survey question that did not limit 

or stipulate the types of evaluations that could have been included. 

Agency Comments 

and Our Evaluation 
Page 43 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Nonetheless, we modified the report to acknowledge that NSF uses 

various approaches to evaluate its programs. 

NSF criticized the methodology we used to support our finding on the 

factors that influence decisions about pursuing STEM fields and suggested 

that we make it clearer in the body of the report that the findings are 

based on interviews with educators and administrators from 8 colleges 

and universities, and responses from 31 students. Also, NSF suggested that 

we improve the report by including corroborating information from 

reports and studies. Our finding was not limited to interviews at the 8 

colleges and universities and responses from 31 current students but was 

also based on interviews with numerous representatives and policy 

experts from various organizations as well as findings from research and 

reports—which are cited in the body of the report. Using this approach, 

we were able to corroborate the testimonial evidence with data from 

reports and research as well as to determine whether information in the 

reports and research remained accurate by seeking the views of those 

currently teaching or studying in STEM fields. As NSF noted, this 

approach yielded reasonable observations. Additional information about 

our methodology is listed in appendix I, and we added a bibliography that 

identifies the reports and research used during the course of this review. 

NSF also commented that the report mentions the NSTC efforts for 

interagency collaboration, but does not mention other collaboration 

efforts such as the Federal Interagency Committee on Education and the 

Federal Interagency Coordinating Council. NSF also pointed out that 

interagency collaboration occurs at the program level. We did not modify 

the report in response to this comment. In conducting our work, we 

determined that the NSTC effort was the primary mechanism for 

interagency collaboration focused on STEM programs. The coordinating 

groups cited by NSF are focused on different issues. The Federal 

Interagency Committee on Education was established to coordinate the 

federal programs, policies, and practices affecting education broadly, and 

the Federal Interagency Coordinating Council was established to minimize 

duplication of programs and activities relating to children with disabilities. 

In addition, NSF provided information to clarify examples related to their 

programs that we cited in the report, stated that some data categories 

were not clear, and commented on the graduate level enrollment data we 

used in the report. NSF pointed out that while its program called 

Opportunities for Enhancing Diversity in the Geosciences is designed to 

increase participation by minorities, it does not limit eligibility to 

minorities. Also, NSF noted that while the draft report correctly indicated 
Page 44 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

that students receiving scholarships or fellowships from NSF must be U.S. 

citizens or permanent residents, the reason given for limiting participation 

in these programs in the draft report was not accurate. According to NSF, 

these restrictions are considered to be an effective strategy to support its 

goal of creating a diverse, competitive and globally engaged U.S. 

workforce of scientists, engineers, technologists and well prepared 

citizens. We revised the report to reflect these changes. Further, NSF 

commented that the data categories were not clear, particularly the 

technology degrees and occupations, and that the data did not include 

associate degrees. We added information that lists all of the occupations 

included in the analysis, and we added footnotes to clarify which data 

included associate degrees and which ones did not. In addition, NSF 

commented that the graduate level enrollment data for international 

students based on NPSAS data are questionable in comparison with other 

available data and that this may be because the NPSAS data include a 

relatively small sample for graduate education. We considered using 

NPSAS and other data but decided to use the NPSAS data for two reasons: 

NPSAS data were more comprehensive and more current. Specifically, the 

NPSAS data were available through the 2003-2004 academic year and 

included numbers and characteristics of students enrolled for all degree 

fields—STEM and non-STEM—for all education levels, and citizenship 

information. 

Copies of this report are being sent to the Secretaries of Agriculture, 

Commerce, Education, Energy, Health and Human Services, Interior, 

Homeland Security, Labor, and Transportation; the Administrators for the 

Environmental Protection Agency and the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration; and the Directors of the National Science Foundation and 

the National Science and Technology Council; appropriate congressional 

committees; and interested parties. Copies will be made available to others 

upon request. The report is also available on GAO’s Web site at 

http://www.gao.gov. 
Page 45 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact me 

on (202) 512-7215 or ashbyc@gao.gov. Contact points for our Offices of 

Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page 

of this report. GAO staff who made major contributions to this report are 

listed in appendix VII. 

Sincerely yours, 

Cornelia M. Ashby, Director 

Education, Workforce, and Income Security Issues 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 46 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

The objectives of our study were to determine (1) the number of federal 

civilian education programs funded in fiscal year 2004 that were 

specifically designed to increase the number of students and graduates 

pursuing science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) 

degrees and occupations, or improve educational programs in STEM 

fields, and what agencies report about their effectiveness; (2) how the 

numbers, percentages, and characteristics of students, graduates, and 

employees in STEM fields have changed over the years; and (3) factors 

cited by educators and others as influencing people’s decisions about 

pursuing STEM degrees and occupations, and suggestions to encourage 

greater participation in STEM fields. 

In conducting our review, we used multiple methodologies. We (1) 

conducted a survey of federal departments and agencies that sponsored 

education programs specifically designed to increase the number of 

students and graduates pursuing STEM degrees and occupations or 

improve educational programs in STEM fields; (2) obtained and analyzed 

data, including the most recent data available, on students, graduates, and 

employees in STEM fields and occupations; (3) visited eight colleges and 

universities; (4) reviewed reports and studies; and (5) interviewed agency 

officials, representatives and policy experts from various organizations, 

and current students. We conducted our work between October 2004 and 

October 2005 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing 

standards. 

To provide Congress with a better understanding of what programs federal 

agencies were supporting to increase the nation’s pool of scientists, 

technologists, engineers, and mathematicians, we designed a survey to 

determine (1) the number of federal education programs (prekindergarten 

through postdoctorate) designed to increase the quantity of students and 

graduates pursuing STEM degrees and occupations or improve the 

educational programs in STEM fields and (2) what agencies reported 

about the effectiveness of these programs. The survey asked the officials 

to describe the goals, target population, and funding levels for fiscal years 

2003, 2004, and 2005 of such programs. In addition, the officials were 

asked when the programs began and if the programs had been or were 

being evaluated. 

We identified the agencies likely to support STEM education programs by 

reviewing the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance and the Department 

of Education’s Eisenhower National Clearinghouse, Guidebook of Federal 

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Objectives 

Scope and 

Methodology 

Survey 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 47 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Resources for K-12 Mathematics and Science, 2004-05. Using these 

resources, we identified 15 agencies with STEM education programs. The 

survey was conducted via e-mail using an ActiveX enabled MSWord 

attachment. A contact point was designated for each agency, and 

questionnaires were sent to that individual. One questionnaire was 

completed for each program the agency sponsored. Agency officials were 

asked to provide confirming documentation for their responses whenever 

possible. 

The questionnaire was forwarded to agencies on February 15, 2005, and 

responses were received through early May 2005. We received 244 

completed surveys and determined that 207 of them met the criteria for 

STEM programs. The following agencies participated in our survey: the 

Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Education, Energy, Homeland 

Security, Interior, Labor, and Transportation. In addition, the Health 

Resources and Services Administration, Indian Health Service, and 

National Institutes of Health, all part of Health and Human Services, took 

part in the survey. Also participating were the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency; the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; 

and the National Science Foundation. Labor’s programs did not meet our 

criteria for 2004 and the Department of Defense (DOD) did not submit a 

survey. According to DOD officials, DOD needed 3 months to complete the 

survey and therefore could not provide responses within the time frames 

of our work. We obtained varied amounts of documentation from 13 

civilian agencies for the 207 STEM education programs funded in 2004 and 

information about the effectiveness of some programs. 

Because we administered the survey to all of the known federal agencies 

sponsoring STEM education programs, our results are not subject to 

sampling error. However, the practical difficulties of conducting any 

survey may introduce other types of errors, commonly referred to as 

nonsampling errors. For example, differences in how a particular question 

is interpreted, the sources of information available to respondents in 

answering a question, or the types of people who do not respond can 

introduce unwanted variability into the survey results. We included steps 

in the development of the survey, the collection of data, and the editing 

and analysis of data for the purpose of minimizing such nonsampling 

errors. To reduce nonsampling error, the questionnaire was reviewed by 

survey specialists and pretested in person with three officials from 

agencies familiar with STEM education programs to develop a 

questionnaire that was relevant, easy to comprehend, unambiguous, and 

unbiased. We made changes to the content and format of the questionnaire 

based on the specialists’ reviews and the results of the pretests. To further 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 48 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

reduce nonsampling error, data for this study returned electronically were 

entered directly into the instrument by the respondents and converted into 

a database for analysis. Completed questionnaires returned as hard copy 

were keypunched, and a sample of these records was verified by 

comparing them with their corresponding questionnaires, and any errors 

were corrected. When the data were analyzed, a second, independent 

analyst checked all computer programs. Finally, to assess the reliability of 

key data obtained from our survey about some of the programs, we 

compared the responses with the documentation provided, or we 

independently researched the information from other publicly available 

sources. 

To determine how the numbers and characteristics of students, graduates, 

and employees in STEM fields have changed, we obtained and analyzed 

data from the Department of Education (Education) and the Department 

of Labor. Specifically, we analyzed the National Postsecondary Student 

Aid Study (NPSAS) data and the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data 

System (IPEDS) data from the Department of Education’s National Center 

for Education Statistics (NCES), and we analyzed data from the 

Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics’ (BLS) Current 

Population Survey (CPS). Based on National Science Foundation’s 

categorization of STEM fields, we developed STEM fields of study from 

NPSAS and IPEDS, and identified occupations from the CPS. Using these 

data sources, we developed nine STEM fields for students, eight STEM 

fields for graduates, and four broad STEM fields for occupations. 

For our data reliability assessment, we reviewed agency documentation on 

the data sets and conducted electronic tests of the files. On the basis of 

these reviews, we determined that the required data elements from 

NPSAS, IPEDS and CPS were sufficiently reliable for our purposes. These 

data sources, type, time span, and years analyzed are shown in table 18. 

Table 18: Sources of Data, Data Obtained, Time Span of Data, and Years Analyzed 

Department Agency Database Data obtained 

Time span 

of data Years analyzed 

Education NCES NPSAS College student enrollment 9 years Academic years 1995-1996 and 2003-

2004 

Education NCES IPEDS Graduation/degrees 9 years Academic years 1994-1995 and 2002-

2003 

Labor BLS CPS Employment 10 years Calendar years 1994 through 2003 

Sources: NPSAS, IPEDS, and CPS data. 

Analyses of Student, 

Graduate, and 

Employee Data 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 49 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

NPSAS is a comprehensive nationwide study designed to determine how 

students and their families pay for postsecondary education, and to 

describe some demographic and other characteristics of those enrolled. 

The study is based on a nationally representative sample of students in 

postsecondary education institutions, including undergraduate, graduate, 

and first-professional students. The NPSAS has been conducted every 

several years since the 1986-1987 academic year. For this report, we 

analyzed the results of the NPSAS survey for the 1995-1996 academic year 

and the 2003-2004 academic year to compare student enrollment and 

demographic characteristics between these two periods for the nine STEM 

fields and non-STEM fields. 

Because the NPSAS sample is a probability sample of students, the sample 

is only one of a large number of samples that might have been drawn. 

Since each sample could have provided different estimates, confidence in 

the precision of the particular sample’s results is expressed as a 95-percent 

confidence interval (for example, plus or minus 4 percentage points). This 

is the interval that would contain the actual population value for 95 

percent of the samples that could have been drawn. As a result, we are 95 

percent confident that each of the confidence intervals in this report will 

include the true values in the study population. NPSAS estimates used in 

this report and the upper and lower bounds of the 95 percent confidence 

intervals for each estimate relied on in this report are presented in 

appendix V. 

IPEDS is a single, comprehensive system designed to encompass all 

institutions and educational organizations whose primary purpose is to 

provide postsecondary education. IPEDS is built around a series of 

interrelated surveys to collect institution-level data in such areas as 

enrollments, program completions, faculty, staff, and finances. For this 

report, we analyzed the results of IPEDS data for the 1994-1995 academic 

year and the 2002-2003 academic year to compare the numbers and 

characteristics of graduates with degrees in eight STEM fields and nonSTEM fields. 

To analyze changes in employees in STEM and non-STEM fields, we 

obtained employment estimates from BLS’s Current Population Survey 

March supplement for 1995 through 2004 (calendar years 1994 through 

2003). The CPS is a monthly survey of households conducted by the U.S. 

Census Bureau (Census) for BLS. The CPS provides a comprehensive body 

of information on the employment and unemployment experience of the 

nation’s population, classified by age, sex, race, and a variety of other 

characteristics. A more complete description of the survey, including 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 50 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

sample design, estimation, and other methodology can be found in the CPS 

documentation prepared by Census and BLS.1

This March supplement (the Annual Demographic Supplement) is 

specifically designed to estimate family characteristics, including income 

from all sources and occupation and industry classification of the job held 

longest during the previous year. It is conducted during the month of 

March each year because it is believed that since March is the month 

before the deadline for filing federal income tax returns, respondents 

would be more likely to report income more accurately than at any other 

point during the year.2

We used the CPS data to produce estimates on (1) four STEM fields, (2) 

men and women, (3) two separate minority groups (Black or African 

American, and Hispanic or Latino origin), and (4) median annual wages 

and salaries. The measures of median annual wages and salaries could 

include bonuses, but do not include noncash benefits such as health 

insurance or pensions. CPS salary reported in March of each year was for 

the longest held position actually worked the year before and reported by 

the worker himself (or a knowledgeable member of the household). Tables 

19 and 20 list the classification codes and occupations included in our 

analysis of CPS data over a 10-year period (1994-2003). In developing the 

STEM groups, we considered the occupational requirements and 

educational attainment of individuals in certain occupations. We also 

excluded doctors and other health care providers except registered 

nurses. During the period of review, some codes and occupation titles 

were changed; we worked with BLS officials to identify variations in codes 

and occupations and accounted for these changes where appropriate and 

possible. 

 1

See Technical Paper 63RV:Current Population Survey—Design and Methodology, issued 

Mar. 2002. Electronic version available at http://www.censusgov/prod/2002pubs/tp63rv.pdf. 

2

See Technical Paper 63RV, page 11-4. 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 51 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 19: Classification codes and Occupations, 2002-2003 

Science Technology Engineering 

Mathematics/Computer 

Science 

1600 – Agricultural and food 

scientists 

1540 – Drafters 1300 – Architects, except naval 1000 – Computer scientists 

and systems analysts 

1610 – Biological scientists 1550 – Engineering technicians, 

except drafters 

1310 – Surveyors, cartographers, 

and photogrammetrists 

1010 – Computer 

programmers 

1640 – Conservation 

scientists and foresters 

1560 – Surveying and mapping 

technicians 

1320 – Aerospace engineers 1020 – Computer software 

engineers 

1650 – Medical scientists 1900 – Agricultural and food 

science technicians 

1330 – Agricultural engineers 1040 – Computer support 

specialists 

1700 – Astronomers and 

physicists 

1910 – Biological technicians 1340 – Biomedical engineers 1060 – Database 

administrators 

1710 – Atmospheric and 

space scientists 

1920 – Chemical technicians 1350 – Chemical engineers 1100 – Network and 

computer systems 

administrators 

1720 – Chemists and 

materials scientists 

1930 – Geological and petroleum 

technicians 

1360 – Civil engineers 1110 – Network systems and 

data communications 

analysts 

1740 – Environmental 

scientists and geoscientists 

1940 – Nuclear technicians 1400 – Computer hardware 

engineers 

1200 – Actuaries 

1760 – Physical scientists, all 

other 

1960 – Other life, physical, and 

social science technicians 

1410 – Electrical and electronic 

engineers 

1210 – Mathematicians 

1800 – Economists 3300 – Clinical laboratory 

technologists and technicians 

1420 – Environmental engineers 1220 – Operations research 

analysts 

1810 – Market and survey 

researchers 

7010 – Computer, automated teller 

and office machine repairers 

1430 – Industrial engineers, 

including health and safety 

1230 – Statisticians 

1820 – Psychologists 8760 – Medical, dental, and 

ophthalmic laboratory technicians 

1440 – Marine engineers and 

naval architects 

1240 – Miscellaneous 

mathematical science 

occupations 

1830 – Sociologists 1450 – Materials engineers 

1840 – Urban and regional 

planners 

1460 – Mechanical engineers 

1860 – Miscellaneous social 

scientists and related workers 

1500 – Mining and geological 

engineers, including mining safety 

engineers 

2010 – Social workers 1510 – Nuclear engineers 

3130 – Registered nurses 1520 – Petroleum engineers 

6010 – Agricultural inspectors 1530 – Engineers, all other 

Source: GAO analysis of CPS occupation classifications. 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 52 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 20: Classification codes and occupations, 1994-2001 

Science Technology Engineering 

Mathematics/Computer 

Science 

069 – Physicists and 

astronomers 

203 – Clinical laboratory 

technologists and technicians 

043 – Architects 064 – Computer systems 

analysts and scientists 

073 – Chemists, except 

biochemists 

213 – Electrical and electronic 

technicians 

044 – Aerospace engineers 065 – Operations and 

systems researchers and 

analysts 

074 – Atmospheric and space 

scientists 

214 – Industrial engineering 

technicians 

045 – Metallurgical and materials 

engineers 

066 – Actuaries 

075 – Geologists and 

geodesists 

215 – Mechanical engineering 

technicians 

046 – Mining engineers 067 – Statisticians 

076 – Physical scientists, 

n.e.c. 

216 – Engineering technicians, 

n.e.c. 

047 – Petroleum engineers 068 – Mathematical 

scientists, n.e.c. 

077 – Agricultural and food 

scientists 

217 – Drafting occupations 048 – Chemical engineers 229 – Computer 

programmers 

078 – Biological and life 

scientists 

218 – Surveying and mapping 

technicians 

049 – Nuclear engineers 

079 – Forestry and 

conservation scientists 

223 – Biological technicians 053 – Civil engineers 

083 – Medical scientists 224 – Chemical technicians 054 – Agricultural engineers 

095 – Registered Nurses 225 – Science technicians, n.e.c. 055 – Electrical and electronic 

engineers 

166 – Economists 235 – Technicians, n.e.c. 056 – Industrial engineers 

167 – Psychologists 525 – Data processing equipment 

repairers 

057 – Mechanical engineers 

168 – Sociologists 058 – Marine and naval architects 

169 – Social scientists, n.e.c. 059 – Engineers, n.e.c. 

173 – Urban planners 063 – Surveyors and mapping 

scientists 

174 – Social workers 

489 – Inspectors, agricultural 

products 

Source: GAO analysis of CPS occupation classifications. 

Note: For occupations not elsewhere classified (n.e.c.). 

Because the CPS is a probability sample based on random selections, the 

sample is only one of a large number of samples that might have been 

drawn. Since each sample could have provided different estimates, 

confidence in the precision of the particular sample’s results is expressed 

as a 95 percent confidence interval (e.g., plus or minus 4 percentage 

points). This is the interval that would contain the actual population value 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 53 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

for 95 percent of the samples that could have been drawn. As a result, we 

are 95 percent confident that each of the confidence intervals in this 

report will include the true values in the study population. We use the CPS 

general variance methodology to estimate this sampling error and report it 

as confidence intervals. Percentage estimates we produce from the CPS 

data have 95 percent confidence intervals of plus or minus 6 percentage 

points or less. Estimates other than percentages have 95 percent 

confidence intervals of no more than plus or minus 10 percent of the 

estimate itself, unless otherwise noted. Consistent with the CPS 

documentation guidelines, we do not produce estimates based on the 

March supplement data for populations of less than 75,000. 

GAO’s internal control procedures provide reasonable assurance that our 

data analyses are appropriate for the purposes we are using them. These 

procedures include, but are not limited to, having skilled staff perform the 

analyses, supervisory review by senior analysts, and indexing/referencing 

(confirming that the analyses are supported by the underlying audit 

documentation) activities. 

We interviewed administrators and professors during site visits to eight 

colleges and universities—the University of California at Los Angeles and 

the University of Southern California in California; Clark Atlanta 

University, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Spelman College in 

Georgia; the University of Illinois; Purdue University in Indiana; and 

Pennsylvania State University. These colleges and universities were 

selected based on the following factors: large numbers of domestic and 

international students in STEM fields, a mix of public and private 

institutions, number of doctoral degrees conferred, and some geographic 

diversity. We also selected three minority-serving colleges and universities, 

one of which serves only women students. Clark Atlanta University and 

Spelman College were selected, in part, because of their partnerships with 

the College of Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology. During 

these visits we asked the university officials about factors that influenced 

whether people pursue a STEM education or occupations and suggestions 

for addressing those factors that may influence participation. For example, 

we asked university officials to identify (1) issues related to the education 

pipeline; (2) steps taken by their university to alleviate some of the 

conditions that may discourage student participation in STEM areas; and 

(3) the federal role, if any, in attracting and retaining domestic students in 

STEM fields. We also obtained documents on programs they sponsored to 

help support STEM students and graduates. 

College and 

University Visits 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 54 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

We reviewed several articles, reports, and books related to trends in STEM 

enrollment and factors that have an effect on people’s decisions to pursue 

STEM fields. For two studies, we evaluated the methodological soundness 

using common social science and statistical practices. We examined each 

study’s methodology, including its limitations, data sources, analyses, and 

conclusions. 

• Talking about Leaving: Why Undergraduates Leave the Sciences, by 

Elaine Seymour and Nancy Hewitt.3

 This study used interviews and 

focus groups/group interviews at selected universities to identify selfreported reasons for changing majors from science, mathematics, or 

engineering. The study had four primary objectives: (1) to identify 

sources of qualitative differences in educational experiences of 

science, mathematics, and engineering students at higher educational 

institutions of different types; (2) to identify differences in structure, 

culture, and pedagogy of science, mathematics, and engineering 

departments and the impact on student retention; (3) to compare and 

contrast causes of science, mathematics, and engineering students’ 

attrition by race/ethnicity and gender; and (4) to estimate the relative 

importance of factors found to contribute to science, mathematics, and 

engineering students’ attrition. The researchers selected seven 

universities to represent the types of colleges and universities that 

supply most of the nations’ scientists, mathematicians, and engineers. 

The types of institutions were selected to test whether there are 

differences in educational experiences, culture and pedagogy, 

race/ethnicity and gender attrition, and reasons for attrition by type of 

institution. Because the selection of students was not strictly random 

and because there is no documentation that the data were weighted to 

reflect the proportions of types of students selected, it is not possible 

to determine confidence intervals. Thus it is not possible to say which 

differences are statistically significant. The findings are now more than 

a decade old and thus might not reflect current pedagogy and other 

factors about the educational experience, students, or the 

socioeconomic environment. It is important to note that the 

quantitative results of this study are based on the views of one 

constituency or stakeholder—students. Views of faculty, school 

administrators, graduates, professional associations, and employers are 

not included. 

 3

Seymour, Elaine, and Nancy M. Hewitt, Talking about Leaving: Why Undergraduates 

Leave the Sciences, Westview Press, 1997, Boulder, Colorado. 

Reviews of Reports 

and Studies 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 55 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

• NCES’s Qualifications of the Public School Teacher Workforce: 

Prevalence of Out-of-Field Teaching, 1987-1988 to 1999-2000 report. 

This study is an analysis based upon the Schools and Staffing Survey 

for 1999-2000. The report was issued in 2004 by the Institute of 

Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. NCES’s Schools 

and Staffing Survey (SASS) is a representative sample of U.S. schools, 

districts, principals, and teachers. The report focusing on teacher’s 

qualifications uses data from the district and teacher portion of SASS. 

The 1999-2000 SASS included a nationally representative sample of 

public schools and universe of all public charter schools with students 

in any of grades 1 through 12 and in operation in school year 1999-2000. 

The 1999-2000 SASS administration also included nationally 

representative samples of teachers in the selected public and public 

charter schools who taught students in grades kindergarten through 12 

in school year 1999-2000. There were 51,811 public school teachers in 

the sample and 42,086 completed public school teacher interviews. In 

addition, there are 3,617 public charter school teachers in the sample 

with 2,847 completed interviews. The overall weighted teacher 

response rate was 76.7 percent for public school teachers and 71.8 

percent for public charter school teachers. NCES has strong standards 

for carrying out educational surveys. The Office of Management and 

Budget vetted the questionnaire and sample design. The Census Bureau 

carried out survey quality control and data editing. One potential 

limitation is the amount of time it takes the Census Bureau to get the 

data from field collection to public release, but this is partly due to the 

thoroughness of the data quality steps followed. The SASS survey 

meets GAO standards for use as evidence in a report. 

We interviewed officials from 13 federal agencies with STEM education 

programs to obtain information about the STEM programs and their views 

on related topics, including factors that influence students’ decisions 

about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations, and the extent of 

coordination among the federal agencies. We also interviewed officials 

from the National Science and Technology Council to discuss coordination 

efforts. In addition, we interviewed representatives and policy experts 

from various organizations. These organizations were the American 

Association for the Advancement of Science, the Commission on 

Professionals in Science and Technology, the Council of Graduate 

Schools, NAFSA: Association of International Educators, the National 

Academies, and the Council on Competitiveness. 

We also conducted interviews via e-mail with 31 students. We asked 

officials from the eight universities visited to identify students to complete 

Interviews 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology 

Page 56 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

our e-mail interviews, and students who completed the interviews 

attended five of the colleges we visited. Of the 31 students: 16 attended 

Purdue University, 6 attended the University of Southern California, 6 

attended Spelman College, 2 attended the University of California Los 

Angeles, and 1 attended the Georgia Institute of Technology. In addition, 

19 students were undergraduates and 12 were graduate students; 19 

students identified themselves as women and 12 students identified 

themselves as men. Of the 19 undergraduate students, 9 said that they plan 

to pursue graduate work in a STEM field. 
Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM 

Education Programs 

Page 57 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Based on surveys submitted by officials representing the 13 civilian federal 

agencies, table 21 contains a list of the 207 science, technology, 

engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education programs funded in 

fiscal year 2004. 

Table 21: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded in FY 2004 

Program number Program name 

Fiscal year 

04 funding 

Department of Agriculture

1. 1890 Institution Teaching and Research Capacity Building Grants Program $11.4 million 

2. Higher Education Challenge Grants Program $4.6 million 

3. Hispanic-Serving Institutions Education Grants Program $4.6 million 

4. Alaska Native-Serving and Native Hawaiian-Serving Institutions Education Grants 

Program 

$3 million 

5. Food and Agricultural Sciences National Needs Graduate and Postdoctoral Fellowships 

Grants Program 

$2.9 million 

6. Tribal Colleges Endowment Program $1.9 million 

7. Tribal Colleges Education Equity Grants Program $1.7 million 

8. Tribal Colleges Research Grant Program $1.1 million 

9. Higher Education Multicultural Scholars Program $986,000 

10. International Science and Education Competitive Grants Program $859,000 

11. Secondary and Two-Year Postsecondary Agricultural Education Challenge Grants 

Program 

$839,000 

12. Agriculture in the Classroom $623,000 

13. Career Intern Program $272,000 

14. Veterinary Medical Doctoral Program $140,000 

15. 1890 National Scholars Program $16,000 

16. Hispanic Scholars Program $4,000 

Department of Commerce 

17. Educational Partnership Program with Minority Serving Institutions $7.4 million 

18. National Marine Sanctuaries Education Program $4.4 million 

19. National Sea Grant College Program $4 million 

20. Chesapeake Bay Watershed Education and Training Program $2.5 million 

21. Coral Reef Conservation Program $1.8 million 

22. Exploration, Education and Outreach $1.3 million 

23. National Estuarine Research Reserve Graduate Research Fellowship Program $1 million 

24. Bay Watershed Education and Training Hawaii Program $500,000 

25. Monterey Bay Watershed Education and Training Program $500,000 

26. Dr. Nancy Foster Scholarship Program $494,000 

Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM 

Education Programs 
Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM 

Education Programs 

Page 58 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Program number Program name 

Fiscal year 

04 funding 

27. EstuaryLive $115,000 

28. Teacher at Sea Program $95,000 

29. High School-High Tech $11,000 

Department of Education 

30. Mathematics and Science Partnerships Program $149 million 

31. Upward Bound Math and Science Program $32.8 million 

32. Graduate Assistance in Areas of National Need $30.6 million 

33. Minority Science and Engineering Improvement Program $8.9 million 

Department of Energy 

34. Science Undergraduate Laboratory Internship $2.5 million 

35. Computational Science Graduate Fellowship $2 million 

36. Global Change Education Program $1.4 million 

37. Laboratory Science Teacher Professional Development $1 million 

38. National Science Bowl $702,000 

39. Community College Institute of Science and Technology $605,000 

40. Albert Einstein Distinguished Educator Fellowship $600,000 

41. QuarkNet $575,000 

42. Fusion Energy Sciences Fellowship Program $555,000 

43. Pre-Service Teacher Fellowships $510,000 

44. National Undergraduate Fellowship Program in Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy 

Sciences 

$300,000 

45. Fusion Energy Postdoctoral Research Program $243,000 

46. Faculty and Student Teams $215,000 

47. Advancing Precollege Science and Mathematics Education $209,000 

48. Pan American Advanced Studies Institute $200,000 

49. Trenton Community Partnership $200,000 

50. Fusion/Plasma Education $125,000 

51. National Middle School Science Bowl $100,000 

52. Research Project on the Recruitment, Retention, and Promotion of Women in the 

Chemical Sciences 

$100,000 

53. Used Energy Related Laboratory Equipment $80,000 

54. Plasma Physics Summer Institute for High School Physics Teachers $78,000 

55. Pre-Service Teacher Program $45,000 

56. Wonders of Physics Traveling Show $45,000 

57. Hampton University Graduate Studies $40,000 

58. Contemporary Physics Education Project $23,000 
Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM 

Education Programs 

Page 59 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Program number Program name 

Fiscal year 

04 funding 

59. Cooperative Education Program $17,000 

Environmental Protection Agency 

60. Science to Achieve Results Research Grants Program $93.3 million 

61. Science to Achieve Results Graduate Fellowship Program $10 million 

62. Post-Doctoral Fellows Environmental Research Growth Opportunities $7.4 million 

63. Intern Program $3 million 

64. Environmental Science and Engineering Fellows Program $2.5 million 

65. Greater Research Opportunities Graduate Fellowship Program $1.5 million 

66. Environmental Risk & Impact in Communities of Color and Economically Disadvantaged 

Communities 

$824,000 

67. Research Internship for Students in Ecology $698,000 

68. National Network for Environmental Management Studies Fellowship Program $589,000 

69. Cooperative Agreements for Training Cooperative Partnerships $352,000 

70. University of Cincinnati/EPA Research Training Grant $300,000 

71. P3 Award: National Student Design Competition for Sustainability $150,000 

72. Environmental Protection Agency and the Hispanic Association of Colleges and 

Universities Cooperative Agreement 

$121,000 

73. Environmental Science Program $100,000 

74. Environmental Career Organization’s Internship Program $89,000 

75. EPA—Cincinnati Research Apprenticeship Program $75,000 

76. Environmental Protection Internship Program Summer Training Initiative $72,000 

77. Tribal Lands Environmental Science Scholarship Program $60,000 

78. Internship Program for University of Arizona Engineering Students $50,000 

79. Teacher Professional Development Workshop for Teachers Grade 6-12 $18,000 

80. Saturday Academy, Apprenticeships in Science and Engineering Program $6,000 

Department of Health and Human Services/Health Resources and Services Administration

81. Scholarships for Disadvantaged Students Program $45.5 million 

82. Nursing Workforce Diversity $16 million 

83. Faculty Loan Repayment Program $1.1 million 

Department of Health and Human Services/Indian Health Service

84. Indian Health Professions Scholarship $8.1 million 

85. Health Professions Scholarship Program for Indians $3.7 million 

Department of Health and Human Services/National Institutes of Health 

86. Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award Institutional Research Training 

Grants 

$546.9 million

87. Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Awards for Individual Postdoctoral 

Fellows 

$72.6 million 

88. Research Supplements to Promote Diversity in Health-Related Research $70 million 
Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM 

Education Programs 

Page 60 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Program number Program name 

Fiscal year 

04 funding 

89. Postdoctoral Visiting Fellow Program $64.8 million 

90. Clinical Research Loan Repayment Program $40.6 million 

91. Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Awards for Individual Predoctoral 

Fellows, Predoctoral Minority Students, and Predoctoral Students with Disabilities 

$33.8 million 

92. Minority Access to Research Careers Program $30.7 million 

93. Postdoctoral Intramural Research Training Award Program $30.2 million 

94. Science Education Partnership Award $16 million 

95. Pediatric Research Loan Repayment Program $15.9 million 

96. Post-baccalaureate Intramural Research Training Award Program $9.1 million 

97. Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award Short-Term Institutional Research 

Training Grants 

$9 million 

98. Health Disparities Research Loan Repayment Program $8.7 million 

99. Graduate Program Partnerships $7.4 million 

100. Student Intramural Research Training Award Program $6.3 million 

101. Career Opportunities in Research Education and Training Honors Undergraduate 

Research Training Grant 

$5 million 

102. General Research Loan Repayment Program $4.9 million 

103. Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Awards for Individual M.D./Ph.D. 

Predoctoral Fellows 

$4.7 million 

104. Science Education Drug Abuse Partnership Award $3.1 million 

105. Pharmacology Research Associate Training Program $2.7 million 

106. Technical Intramural Research Training Award $1.9 million 

107. Fellowships in Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics $1.8 million 

108. Clinical Research Loan Repayment Program for Individuals from Disadvantaged 

Backgrounds 

$1.7 million 

109. Contraception and Infertility Research Loan Repayment Program $1 million 

110. Medical Infomatics Training Program $853,000 

111. Undergraduate Scholarship Program for Individuals from Disadvantaged Backgrounds $838,000 

112. Curriculum Supplement Series $788,000 

113. National Science Foundation and the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and 

Bioengineering 

$782,000 

114. Summer Institute for Training in Biostatistics $694,000 

115. Summer Institute on Design and Conduct of Randomized Clinical Trials Involving 

Behavioral Interventions 

$622,000 

116. Clinical Research Loan Repayment Program for Individuals from Disadvantaged 

Background 

$551,000 

117. Clinical Research Training Program $407,000 

118. NIH Academy $385,000 

119. Health Communications Internship Program $340,000 
Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM 

Education Programs 

Page 61 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Program number Program name 

Fiscal year 

04 funding 

120. NIH/National Institute of Standards and Technology Joint Postdoctoral Program $338,000 

121. Summer Genetics Institute $323,000 

122. AIDS Research Loan Repayment Program $271,000 

123. Intramural NIAID Research Opportunities $271,000 

124. Cancer Research Interns in Residence $250,000 

125. Comparative Molecular Pathology Research Training Program $199,000 

126. Office of Research on Women’s Health-funded Programs with the Office of Intramural 

Research 

$179,000 

127. Summer Institute for Social Work Research $144,000 

128. Office of Research on Women’s Health-funded Programs with the Office of Intramural 

Training and Education 

$119,000 

129. CCR/JHU Master of Science in Biotechnology Concentration in Molecular Targets and 

Drug Discovery Technologies 

$111,000 

130. Introduction to Cancer Research Careers $96,000 

131. Fellows Award for Research Excellence Program $61,000 

132. Office of Research on Women’s Health-funded Programs Supplements to Promote 

Reentry into Biomedical and Behavioral Research Careers 

$60,000 

133. Translational Research in Clinical Oncology $28,000 

134. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Office of Fellows’ Career 

Development 

$20,000 

135. Mobilizing for Action to Address the Unequal Burden of Cancer: NIH Research and 

Training Opportunities 

$10,000 

136. Sallie Rosen Kaplan Fellowship for Women in Cancer Research $5,000 

Department of Homeland Security

137. Scholars and Fellows Program $4.7 million 

Department of the Interior 

138. Cooperative Research Units Program $15.3 million 

139. Water Resources Research Act Program $6.4 million 

140. U.S. Geological Survey Mendenhall Postdoctoral Research Fellowship Program $3.5 million 

141. Student Educational Employment Program $1.8 million 

142. EDMAP Component of the National Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program $490,000 

143. Student Career Experience Program $177,000 

144. Cooperative Development Energy Program $60,000 

145. Diversity Employment Program $30,000 

146. Cooperative Agreement with Langston University $15,000 

147. Mathematics, Science, and Engineering Academy $15,000 

148. Shorebird Sister Schools Program $15,000 

149. Build a Bridge Contest $14,000 
Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM 

Education Programs 

Page 62 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Program number Program name 

Fiscal year 

04 funding 

150. VIVA Technology $8,000 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

151. Minority University Research Education Program $106.6 million

152. Higher Education $77.4 million 

153. Elementary and Secondary Education $31.3 million 

154. E-Education $9.7 million 

155. Informal Education $5.5 million 

National Science Foundation 

156. Math and Science Partnership Program $138.7 million

157. Graduate Research Fellowship Program $96 million 

158. Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship Program $67.7 million 

159. Teacher Professional Continuum $61.5 million 

160. Research Experiences for Undergraduates $51.7 million 

161. Graduate Teaching Fellows in K-12 Education $49.8 million 

162. Advanced Technological Education $45.9 million 

163. Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement $40.7 million 

164. Research on Learning and Education $39.4 million 

165. Computer Science, Engineering, and Mathematics Scholarships $33.9 million 

166. Louis Stokes Alliances for Minority Participation $33.3 million 

167. Centers for Learning and Teaching $30.8 million 

168. Instructional Materials Development $29.3 million 

169. Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Talent Expansion Program $25 million 

170. Historically Black Colleges and Universities Undergraduate Program $23.8 million 

171. Interagency Education Research Initiative $23.6 million 

172. Information Technology Experiences for Students and Teachers $20.9 million 

173. Enhancing the Mathematical Sciences Workforce in the 21st Century $20.6 million 

174. Centers of Research Excellence in Science and Technology $19.8 million 

175. ADVANCE: Increasing the Participation and Advancement of Women in Academic 

Science and Engineering Careers 

$19.4 million 

176. Federal Cyber Service: Scholarship for Service $15.8 million 

177. Alliances for Graduate Education and the Professoriate $15.3 million 

178. Research on Gender in Science and Engineering $10 million 

179. Tribal Colleges and Universities Program $10 million 

180. Model Institutions for Excellence $9.7 million 

181. Grants for the Department-Level Reform of Undergraduate Engineering Education $8.2 million 

182. Robert Noyce Scholarship Program $8 million 

183. Research Experiences for Teachers $5.8 million 
Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM 

Education Programs 

Page 63 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Program number Program name 

Fiscal year 

04 funding 

184. Nanoscale Science and Engineering Education $4.8 million 

185. Research in Disabilities Education $4.6 million 

186. Opportunities for Enhancing Diversity in the Geosciences $4 million 

187. Mathematical Sciences Postdoctoral Research Fellowships $3.7 million 

188. Minority Postdoctoral Research Fellowships and Supporting Activities $3.2 million 

189. Partnerships for Research and Education in Materials $3 million 

190. Undergraduate Research Centers $3 million 

191. Centers for Ocean Science Education Excellence $2.8 million 

192. Undergraduate Mentoring in Environmental Biology $2.2 million 

193. Director’s Award for Distinguished Teaching Scholars $1.8 million 

194. Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellowship Program $1.6 million 

195. Geoscience Education $1.5 million 

196. Internships in Public Science Education $1.2 million 

197. Discovery Corps Fellowship Program $1.1 million 

198. East Asia & Pacific Summer Institutes for U.S. Graduate Students $1 million 

199. Pan-American Advanced Studies Institutes $800,000 

200. Distinguished International Postdoctoral Research Fellowships $788,000 

201. Postdoctoral Fellowships in Polar Regions Research $667,000 

202. Arctic Research and Education $300,000 

203. Developing Global Scientists and Engineers $172,000 

Department of Transportation 

204. University Transportation Centers Program $32.5 million 

205. Dwight David Eisenhower Transportation Fellowship Program $2 million 

206. Summer Transportation Institute $2 million 

207. Summer Transportation Internship Program for Diverse Groups $925,000 

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies. 
Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 

Page 64 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

The federal civilian agencies reported that the following science, 

technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education programs 

were funded with at least $10 million in either fiscal year 2004 or 2005. 

However, programs that received $10 million or more in fiscal year 2004 

but were unfunded for fiscal year 2005 were excluded from table 22. 

Agency officials also provided the program descriptions in table 22. 

Table 22: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or More during Fiscal Year 2004 or Fiscal Year 2005 

Funding (in millions of dollars)a

Program Description First year 2004 2005

Department of Agriculture 

1890 Institution Teaching and 

Research Capacity Building 

Grants Program 

Is intended to strengthen teaching and research programs in the 

food and agricultural sciences by building the institutional capacities 

of the 1890 Land-Grant Institutions and Tuskegee University and 

West Virginia State University through cooperative linkages with 

federal and nonfederal entities. The program supports projects that 

strengthen teaching programs in the food and agricultural sciences 

in the targeted educational need areas of curriculum design and 

materials development, faculty preparation and enhancement of 

teaching, student experiential learning, and student recruitment and 

retention. 

1990 $11.4 $12.5

Department of Education 

Mathematics and Science 

Partnerships Program 

Is intended to increase the academic achievement of students in 

mathematics and science by enhancing the content knowledge and 

teaching skills of classroom teachers. Partnerships are between 

high-need school districts and the science, technology, engineering, 

and mathematics faculties of institutions of higher education. 

2002 $149 $180

Upward Bound Math and 

Science Program 

Designed to prepare low-income, first-generation college students 

for postsecondary education programs that lead to careers in the 

fields of math and science. 

1990 $32.8 $32.8

Graduate Assistance in Areas 

of National Need 

Provides fellowships in academic areas of national need to assist 

graduate students with excellent academic records who 

demonstrate financial need and plan to pursue the highest degree 

available in their courses of study. 

1988 $30.6 $30.4

Environmental Protection Agency 

Science to Achieve Results 

Research Grants Program 

Funds research grants in numerous environmental science and 

engineering disciplines. The program engages the nation’s best 

scientists and engineers in targeted research. The grant program is 

currently focused on the health effects of particulate matter, drinking 

water, water quality, global change, ecosystem assessment and 

restoration, human health risk assessment, endocrine disrupting 

chemicals, pollution prevention and new technologies, children’s 

health, and socio-economic research. 

1995 $93.3 $80.1

Science to Achieve Results 

Graduate Fellowship Program 

The purpose of this fellowship program is to encourage promising 

students to obtain advanced degrees and pursue careers in 

environmentally related fields. 

1995 $10 $10

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 
Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 

Page 65 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Funding (in millions of dollars)a

Program Description First year 2004 2005

Department of Health and Human Services/Health Resources and Services Administration 

Scholarships for 

Disadvantaged Students 

Program 

Funds are awarded to accredited schools of allopathic medicine, 

osteopathic medicine, dentistry, optometry, pharmacy, podiatric 

medicine, veterinary medicine, nursing, public health, chiropractic, or 

allied health, and schools offering graduate programs in behavioral 

and mental health practice. Priority is given to schools based on the 

proportion of graduating students going into primary care, the 

proportion of underrepresented minority students enrolled, and 

graduates working in medically underserved communities. Schools 

select qualified students and provide scholarships that cannot 

exceed tuition and reasonable educational and living expenses. 

1991 $45.5 Not 

avail.

Nursing Workforce Diversity To increase nursing education opportunities for individuals who are 

from disadvantaged backgrounds (including racial and ethnic 

minorities underrepresented among registered nurses) by providing 

student stipends, pre-entry preparation, and retention activities. 

1989 $16 $16

Department of Health and Human Services/National Institutes of Health 

Ruth L. Kirschstein National 

Research Service Award 

Institutional Research 

Training Grants 

Is designed to develop and enhance research training opportunities 

for individuals in biomedical, behavioral, and clinical research by 

supporting training programs at institutions of higher education. 

These institutional training grants allow the director of the program 

to select the trainees and to develop a curriculum of study and 

research experiences necessary to provide high-quality research 

training. The grant helps offset the cost of stipends and tuition for 

the appointed trainees. Graduate students, postdoctoral trainees, 

and short-term research training for health professional students can 

be supported by this grant. 

1975 $546.9 Not 

avail.

Ruth L. Kirschstein National 

Research Service Awards for 

Individual Postdoctoral 

Fellows 

To support the advanced training of individual students who have 

recently received doctoral degrees. This phase of research 

education and training is performed under the direct supervision of a 

sponsor who is an active investigator in the area of the proposed 

research. The training is designed to enhance the fellow’s 

understanding of the health-related sciences and extend his/her 

potential to become a productive scientist who can perform research 

in biomedical, behavioral, or clinical fields. 

1975 $72.6 Not 

avail.

Research Supplements to 

Promote Diversity in HealthRelated Research 

To improve the diversity of the research workforce by recruiting and 

supporting students, postdoctoral fellows, and eligible investigators 

from groups that have been shown to be underrepresented, such as 

individuals from underrepresented racial and ethnic groups, 

individuals with disabilities, and individuals from disadvantaged 

backgrounds. 

1989 $70 $70

Postdoctoral Visiting Fellow 

Program 

To provide advanced practical biomedical research experience to 

individuals who are foreign nationals and are 1 to 5 years beyond 

obtaining their Ph.D. or professional doctorate (e.g., M.D., DDS, 

etc.). 

1950 $64.8 $70.7
Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 

Page 66 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Funding (in millions of dollars)a

Program Description First year 2004 2005

Clinical Research Loan 

Repayment Program 

To attract health professionals to careers in clinical research. 

Clinical research is defined as “patient-oriented clinical research 

conducted with human subjects, or research on the causes and 

consequences of disease in human populations involving material of 

human origin (such as tissue specimens and cognitive phenomena) 

for which an investigator or colleague directly interacts with human 

subjects in an outpatient or inpatient setting to clarify a problem in 

human physiology, pathophysiology or disease, or epidemiologic or 

behavioral studies, outcomes research or health services research, 

or developing new technologies, therapeutic interventions, or clinical 

trials.” 

2002 $40.6 $42.6

Ruth L. Kirschstein National 

Research Service Awards for 

Individual Predoctoral 

Fellows, Predoctoral Minority 

Students, and Predoctoral 

Students with Disabilities 

Provides predoctoral fellowships to students who are candidates for 

doctoral degrees and are performing dissertation research and 

training under the supervision of a mentor who is an active and 

established investigator in the area of the proposed research. The 

applicant and mentor must provide evidence of potential for a 

productive research career based upon the quality of previous 

research training, academic record, and training program. The 

applicant and mentor must propose a research project that will 

enhance the student’s ability to understand and perform scientific 

research. The training program should be carried out in a research 

environment that includes appropriate resources and is 

demonstrably committed to the student’s training. 

1975 $33.8 Not 

avail.

Minority Access to Research 

Careers Program 

Offers special research training support to 4-year colleges, 

universities, and health professional schools with substantial 

enrollments of minorities such as African Americans, Hispanic 

Americans, Native Americans (including Alaska Natives), and 

natives of U.S. Pacific Islands. Individual fellowships are also 

provided for graduate students and faculty. 

1972 $30.7 $30.7

Postdoctoral Intramural 

Research Training Award 

Program 

To provide advanced practical biomedical research experience to 

individuals who are 1 to 5 years beyond obtaining their Ph.D. or 

professional doctorate (e.g., M.D., DDS, etc.). 

1986 $30.2 $33.3

Science Education 

Partnership Award 

Provides funds for the development, implementation, and evaluation 

of innovative kindergarten through 12th grade (K-12) science 

education programs, teaching materials, and science 

center/museum programs. This program supports partnerships 

linking biomedical, clinical researchers, and behavioral scientists 

with K-12 teachers and schools, museum and science educators, 

media experts, and other interested organizations. 

1992 $16 $16

Pediatric Research Loan 

Repayment Program 

A program to attract health professionals to careers in pediatric 

research. Qualified pediatric research is defined as “research 

directly related to diseases, disorders, and other conditions in 

children.” 

2002 $15.9 $16
Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 

Page 67 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Funding (in millions of dollars)a

Program Description First year 2004 2005

Post-baccalaureate 

Intramural Research Training 

Award Program 

To provide (1) recent college graduates (graduated no more than 2 

years prior to activation of traineeship), an introduction early in their 

careers to biomedical research fields; encourage their pursuit of 

professional careers in biomedical research; and allow additional 

time to pursue successful application to either graduate or medical 

school programs or (2) students who have been accepted into 

graduate, other doctoral, or medical degree programs, and who 

have written permission from their school to delay entrance for up to 

1 year. 

1996 $9.1 $12.3

Department of Homeland Security 

University Programs Provides scholarships for undergraduate and fellowships for 

graduate students pursuing degrees in mission-relevant fields and 

postdoctoral fellowships for their contributions to Department of 

Homeland Security research projects. Students receive professional 

mentoring and complete a summer internship to connect academic 

interests with homeland security initiatives. Postdoctoral scholars 

are also mentored by DHS scientists. 

2003 $4.7 $10.7

Department of the Interior 

Cooperative Research Units 

Program 

The program links graduate science training with the research needs 

of state and federal agencies, and provides students with one-onone mentoring by federal research scientists working on both 

applied and basic research needs of interest to the program. 

Program cooperators and partners provide graduate training 

opportunities and support. 

1936 $15.3 $15

Department of Labor 

Community 

College/Community Based 

Job Training Grant Initiative 

To build the capacity of community colleges to train in high-growth, 

high-demand industries and to actually train workers in those 

industries through partnerships that also include workforce 

investment boards and employers. 

2005 $0 $250

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Minority University Research 

Education Program 

To expand and advance NASA’s scientific and technological base 

through collaborative efforts with Historically Black Colleges and 

Universities (HBCU) and other minority universities (OMU), including 

Hispanic-serving institutions and Tribal colleges and universities. 

This program also provides K-12 awards to build and support 

successful pathways for students to progress to the next level of 

mathematics and science, through a college preparatory curriculum, 

and enrollment in college. Higher-education awards are also given 

that seek to improve the rate at which underrepresented minorities 

are awarded degrees in STEM disciplines through increased 

research training and exposure to cutting-edge technologies that 

better prepare them to enter STEM graduate programs, the NASA 

workforce pipeline, and employment in NASA-related industries. 

2002 $106.6 $73.6
Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 

Page 68 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Funding (in millions of dollars)a

Program Description First year 2004 2005

Higher Education The Higher Education Program focuses on supporting institutions of 

higher education in strengthening their research capabilities and 

providing opportunities that attract and prepare increasing numbers 

of students for NASA-related careers. The research conducted by 

the institutions will contribute to the research needs of NASA’s 

Mission Directorates. The student projects serve as a major link in 

the student pipeline for addressing NASA’s human capital strategies 

and the President’s management agenda by helping to build, 

sustain, and effectively deploy the skilled, knowledgeable, diverse, 

and high-performing workforce needed to meet the current and 

emerging needs of government and its citizens. 

2002 $77.4 $62.4

Elementary and Secondary 

Education 

To increase the rigor of STEM experiences provided to K-12 

students through workshops, summer internships, and classroom 

activities; provide high-quality professional development to teachers 

in STEM through NASA programs; develop technological avenues 

through the NASA Web site that will allow families to have common 

experiences with learning about space exploration; encourage 

inquiry teaching in K-12 classrooms; improve the content and focus 

of grade level/science team meetings in NASA Explorer Schools; 

and share the knowledge gained through the Educator Astronaut 

Program with teachers, students, and families. 

2002 $31.3 $23.2

Informal Education The principal purpose of the informal education program is to 

support projects designed to increase public interest in, 

understanding of, and engagement in STEM activities. The goal of 

all informal education programs is an informed citizenry that has 

access to the ideas of science and engineering and understands its 

role in enhancing the quality of life and the health, prosperity, 

welfare, and security of the nation. Informal learning is self-directed, 

voluntary, and motivated mainly by intrinsic interests, curiosity, 

exploration, and social interaction. 

2002 $5.5 $10.2

National Science Foundation 

Math and Science 

Partnership (MSP)Program 

The MSP is a major research and development effort that supports 

innovative partnerships to improve kindergarten through grade 12 

student achievement in mathematics and science. MSP projects are 

expected to both raise the achievement levels of all students and 

significantly reduce achievement gaps in the mathematics and 

science performance of diverse student populations. Successful 

projects serve as models that can be widely replicated in 

educational practice to improve the mathematics and science 

achievement of all the nation’s students. 

2002 $138.7 $79.4

Graduate Research 

Fellowship Program (GRFP) 

The purpose of the GRFP is to ensure the vitality of the scientific 

and technological workforce in the United States and to reinforce its 

diversity. The program recognizes and supports outstanding 

graduate students in the relevant science and engineering 

disciplines who are pursuing research-based master’s and doctoral 

degrees. NSF fellows are expected to become knowledge experts 

who can contribute significantly to research, teaching, and 

innovations in science and engineering. 

1952 $96 $96.6
Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 

Page 69 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Funding (in millions of dollars)a

Program Description First year 2004 2005

Integrative Graduate 

Education and Research 

Traineeship Program 

This program provides support to universities for student positions in 

interdisciplinary areas of science and engineering. Traineeships 

focus on multidisciplinary and intersectoral research opportunities 

and prepare future faculty in effective teaching methods, 

applications of advanced educational technologies, and student 

mentoring techniques. 

1998 $67.7 $69

Teacher Professional 

Continuum 

The program addresses critical issues and needs regarding the 

recruitment, preparation, induction, retention, and lifelong 

development of kindergarten through grade 12 STEM teachers. Its 

goals are to improve the quality and coherence of teacher learning 

experiences across the continuum through research that informs 

teaching practice and the development of innovative resources for 

the professional development of kindergarten through grade 12 

STEM teachers. 

2004 $61.5 $60.2

Research Experiences for 

Undergraduates 

This program supports active participation by undergraduate 

students in research projects in any of the areas of research funded 

by the National Science Foundation. The program seeks to involve 

students in meaningful ways in all kinds of research—whether 

disciplinary, interdisciplinary, or educational in focus—linked to the 

efforts of individual investigators, research groups, centers, and 

national facilities. Particular emphasis is given to the recruitment of 

women, minorities, and persons with disabilities. 

1987 $51.7 $51.1

Graduate Teaching Fellows in 

K-12 Education 

This program supports fellowships and associated training that 

enable graduate students in NSF-supported STEM disciplines to 

acquire additional skills that will broadly prepare them for 

professional and scientific careers. Through interactions with 

teachers, graduate students can improve communication and 

teaching skills while enriching STEM instruction in kindergarten 

through grade 12 schools. This program also provides institutions of 

higher education with an opportunity to make a permanent change 

in their graduate programs by including partnerships with schools in 

a manner that will mutually benefit faculties and students. 

1999 $49.8 $49.9

Advanced Technological 

Education (ATE) 

With an emphasis on 2-year colleges, the ATE program focuses on 

the education of technicians for the high-technology fields that drive 

our nation’s economy. The program involves partnerships between 

academic institutions and employers to promote improvement in the 

education of science and engineering technicians at the 

undergraduate and secondary school levels. The ATE program 

supports curriculum development, professional development of 

college faculty and secondary school teachers, career pathways to 

2-year colleges from secondary schools and from 2-year colleges to 

4-year institutions, and other activities. The program also invites 

proposals focusing on applied research relating to technician 

education. 

1994 $45.9 $45.1

Course, Curriculum, and 

Laboratory Improvement 

This program emphasizes projects that build on prior work and 

contribute to the knowledge base of undergraduate STEM education 

research and practice. In addition, projects should contribute to 

building a community of scholars who work in related areas of 

undergraduate education. 

1999 $40.7 $40.6
Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 

Page 70 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Funding (in millions of dollars)a

Program Description First year 2004 2005

Research on Learning and 

Education 

The program seeks to capitalize on important developments across 

a wide range of fields related to human learning and to STEM 

education. It supports research across a continuum that includes (1) 

the biological basis of human learning; (2) behavioral, cognitive, 

affective, and social aspects of STEM learning; (3) STEM learning in 

formal and informal educational settings; (4) STEM policy research; 

and (5) the diffusion of STEM innovations. 

2000 $39.4 $38.2

Computer Science, 

Engineering, and 

Mathematics Scholarships 

This program supports scholarships for academically talented, 

financially needy students, enabling them to enter the hightechnology workforce following completion of an associate, 

baccalaureate, or graduate-level degree in computer science, 

computer technology, engineering, engineering technology, or 

mathematics. Academic institutions apply for awards to support 

scholarship activities and are responsible for selecting scholarship 

recipients, reporting demographic information about student 

scholars, and managing the project at the institution. 

1999 $33.9 $75

Louis Stokes Alliances for 

Minority Participation 

The program is aimed at increasing the quality and quantity of 

students successfully completing STEM baccalaureate degree 

programs and increasing the number of students interested in, 

academically qualified for, and matriculated into programs of 

graduate study. It also supports sustained and comprehensive 

approaches that facilitate achievement of the long-term goal of 

increasing the number of students who earn doctorates in STEM, 

particularly those from populations underrepresented in STEM 

fields. 

1991 $33.3 $35

Centers for Learning and 

Teaching 

The program focuses on the advanced preparation of STEM 

educators, as well as the establishment of meaningful partnerships 

among education stakeholders, especially Ph.D.-granting 

institutions, school systems, and informal education performers. Its 

goals are to renew and diversify the cadre of leaders in STEM 

education; to increase the number of kindergarten through 

undergraduate educators capable of delivering high-quality STEM 

instruction and assessment; and to conduct research into STEM 

education issues of national import, such as the nature of learning, 

teaching strategies, and reform policies and outcomes. 

2000 $30.8 $28.4

Instructional Materials 

Development 

This program contains three components. It supports (1) the 

creation and substantial revision of comprehensive curricula and 

supplemental materials that are research-based, enhance 

classroom instruction, and reflect standards for science, 

mathematics, and technology education developed by professional 

organizations; (2) the creation of tools for assessing student learning 

that are tied to nationally developed standards and reflect the most 

current thinking on how students learn mathematics and science; 

and (3) research for development of this program and projects. 

1983 $29.3 $28.5
Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 

Page 71 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Funding (in millions of dollars)a

Program Description First year 2004 2005

Science, Technology, 

Engineering, and 

Mathematics Talent 

Expansion Program 

The program seeks to increase the number of students (U.S. 

citizens or permanent residents) receiving associate or 

baccalaureate degrees in established or emerging fields within 

STEM. Type 1 proposals that provide for full implementation efforts 

at academic institutions are solicited. Type 2 proposals that support 

educational research projects on associate or baccalaureate degree 

attainment in STEM are also solicited. 

2002 $25 $25.3

Historically Black Colleges 

and Universities (HBCU) 

Undergraduate Program 

This program provides awards to enhance the quality of STEM 

instructional and outreach programs at HBCUs as a means to 

broaden participation in the nation’s STEM workforce. Project 

strategies include curriculum enhancement, faculty professional 

development, undergraduate research, academic enrichment, 

infusion of technology to enhance STEM instruction, collaborations 

with research institutions and industry, and other activities that meet 

institutional needs. 

1998 $23.8 $25.2

Interagency Education 

Research Initiative 

This is a collaborative effort with the U.S. Department of Education. 

The goal is to support scientific research that investigates the 

effectiveness of educational interventions in reading, mathematics, 

and the sciences as they are implemented in varied school settings 

with diverse student populations. 

1999 $23.6 $13.8

Information Technology 

Experiences for Students and 

Teachers 

The program is designed to increase the opportunities for students 

and teachers to learn about, experience, and use information 

technologies within the context of STEM, including information 

technology courses. It is in direct response to the concern about 

shortages of technology workers in the United States. It has two 

components: (1) youth-based projects with strong emphasis on 

career and educational paths and (2) comprehensive projects for 

students and teachers. 

2003 $20.9 $25

Enhancing the Mathematical 

Sciences Workforce in the 

21st Century 

The long-range goal of this program is to increase the number of 

U.S. citizens, nationals, and permanent residents who are well 

prepared in the mathematical sciences and who pursue careers in 

the mathematical sciences and in other NSF-supported disciplines. 

2004 $20.6 $20.7

Centers of Research 

Excellence in Science and 

Technology 

This program makes resources available to significantly enhance the 

research capabilities of minority-serving institutions through the 

establishment of centers that effectively integrate education and 

research. It promotes the development of new knowledge, 

enhancements of the research productivity of individual faculty, and 

an expanded diverse student presence in STEM disciplines. 

1987 $19.8 $15.9

ADVANCE: Increasing the 

Participation and 

Advancement of Women in 

Academic Science and 

Engineering Careers 

The program goal is to increase the representation and 

advancement of women in academic science and engineering 

careers, thereby contributing to the development of a more diverse 

science and engineering workforce. Members of underrepresented 

minority groups and individuals with disabilities are especially 

encouraged to apply. 

2001 $19.4 $19.8
Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 

Page 72 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Funding (in millions of dollars)a

Program Description First year 2004 2005

Federal Cyber Service: 

Scholarship for Service 

This program seeks to increase the number of qualified students 

entering the fields of information assurance and computer security 

and to increase the capacity of the United States’ higher education 

enterprise to continue to produce professionals in these fields to 

meet the needs of our increasingly technological society. The 

program has two tracks: provides funds to colleges and universities 

to (1) award scholarships to students to pursue academic programs 

in the information assurance and computer security fields for the 

final 2 years of undergraduate study, or for 2 years of master’s-level 

study, or for the final 2 years of Ph.D.-level study, and (2) improve 

the quality and increase the production of information assurance and 

computer security professionals. 

2001 $15.8 $14.1

Alliances for Graduate 

Education and the 

Professoriate 

This program is intended to increase significantly the number of 

domestic students receiving doctoral degrees in STEM, with special 

emphasis on those population groups underrepresented in these 

fields. The program is interested in increasing the number of 

minorities who will enter the professoriate in these disciplines. 

Specific objectives are to develop (1) and implement innovative 

models for recruiting, mentoring, and retaining minority students in 

STEM doctoral programs, and (2) effective strategies for identifying 

and supporting underrepresented minorities who want to pursue 

academic careers. 

1998 $15.3 $14.8

Research on Gender in 

Science and Engineering 

The program seeks to broaden the participation of girls and women 

in all fields of STEM education by supporting research, 

dissemination of research, and extension services in education that 

will lead to a larger and more diverse domestic science and 

engineering workforce. Typical projects will contribute to the 

knowledge base addressing gender-related differences in learning 

and in the educational experiences that affect student interest, 

performance, and choice of careers, and how pedagogical 

approaches and teaching styles, curriculum, student services, and 

institutional culture contribute to causing or closing gender gaps that 

persist in certain fields. 

1993 $10 $9.8

Tribal Colleges and 

Universities Program 

This program provides awards to enhance the quality of STEM 

instructional and outreach programs, with special attention to the 

use of information technologies at Tribal colleges and universities, 

Alaskan Native-serving institutions, and Native Hawaiian-serving 

institutions. Support is available for the implementation of 

comprehensive institutional approaches to strengthen STEM 

teaching and learning in ways that improve access to, retention 

within, and graduation from STEM programs, particularly those that 

have a strong technological foundation. Through this program, 

assistance is provided to eligible institutions in their efforts to bridge 

the digital divide and prepare students for careers in information 

technology, science, mathematics, and engineering fields. 

2001 $10 $9.8
Appendix III: Federal STEM Education 

Programs Funded at $10 Million or More 

Page 73 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Funding (in millions of dollars)a

Program Description First year 2004 2005

Department of Transportation 

University Transportation 

Centers Program (UTC) 

The UTC program’s mission is to advance U.S. technology and 

expertise in the many disciplines comprising transportation through 

the mechanisms of education, research, and technology transfer at 

university-based centers of excellence. The UTC program’s goals 

include (1) developing a multidisciplinary program of coursework 

and experiential learning that reinforces the transportation theme of 

the center; (2) increasing the numbers of students, faculty, and staff 

who are attracted to and substantially involved in the undergraduate, 

graduate, and professional programs of the center; and (3) having 

students, faculty, and staff who reflect the growing diversity of the 

U.S. workforce and are substantially involved in the undergraduate, 

graduate, and professional programs of the center. 

1998 $32.5 $32.5

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies. 

a

The dollar amounts for fiscal years 2004 and 2005 contain actual and estimated program funding 

levels. 
Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates 

in STEM Fields 

Page 74 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 23 provides estimates for the numbers of students in science, 

technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields by education 

level for the 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 academic years. Tables 24 and 25 

provide additional information regarding students in STEM fields by 

gender for the 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 academic years. Table 26 provides 

additional information regarding graduates in STEM fields by gender for 

the 1994-1995 and 2002-2003 academic years. Appendix V contains 

confidence intervals for these estimates. 

Table 23: Estimated Numbers of Students in STEM Fields by Education Level for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 

Education level/STEM field 

Academic year

1995-1996

Academic year 

2003-2004 Percentage change

Bachelor’s level 

Total 2,218,510 2,876,721 30

Agricultural sciences 101,885 87,025 b 

Biological sciences 407,336 351,595 -14

Computer sciences 261,139 456,303 75

Engineering 363,504 422,230 16

Mathematics 57,133 64,307 b 

Physical sciences 107,832 129,207 b 

Psychology 309,810 409,827 32

Social sciences 536,487 825,495 54

Technology 73,384 130,733 78

Master’s level 

Total 321,293 403,200 25

Agricultural sciences a 12,977 a 

Biological sciences 34,701 19,467 -44

Computer sciences 49,071 58,939 b 

Engineering 66,296 90,234 b 

Mathematics a 12,531 a 

Physical sciences a 22,008 a 

Psychology 30,008 31,918 b 

Social sciences 82,177 144,895 76

Technology a 10,231 a 

Doctoral level 

Total 217,395 198,504 b 

Agricultural sciences a 5,983 a 

Biological sciences a 33,884 a 

Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates 

in STEM Fields 
Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates 

in STEM Fields 

Page 75 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Education level/STEM field 

Academic year

1995-1996

Academic year 

2003-2004 Percentage change

Computer sciences a 9,196 a 

Engineering 32,181 35,687 b 

Mathematics a 9,412 a 

Physical sciences 38,058 24,973 b 

Psychology 30,291 33,994 b 

Social sciences 54,092 42,464 b 

Technology a 2,912 a 

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data. 

Note: Enrollment totals differ from those cited in table 9 because table 9 includes students enrolled in 

certificate, associate’s, other undergraduate, first-professional degree, and post-bachelor’s or postmaster’s certificate programs. 

a

Sample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates. 

b

Changes between academic years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 are not statistically significant at the 

95-percent confidence level. See table 30 for significance of percentage changes. 

Table 24: Estimated Percentages of Students by Gender and STEM Field for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 

 Male Female 

Percent: 1995-1996 Percent: 2003-2004 Percent: 1995-1996 Percent: 2003-2004

Agricultural sciences 

Total 58 55 42 45

Bachelor’s 56 54 44 46

Master’s a a a a 

Doctorate a 61 a 39

Biological sciences 

Total 46 42 54 58

Bachelor’s 45 42 55 58

Master’s a 26 a 74

Doctorate a 50 a 50

Computer sciences 

Total 67 76 33 24

Bachelor’s 69 77 31 23

Master’s a 69 a 31

Doctorate a 72 a 28

Engineering 

Total 83 83 17 17

Bachelor’s 83 83 17 17

Master’s a 81 a 19
Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates 

in STEM Fields 

Page 76 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

 Male Female 

Percent: 1995-1996 Percent: 2003-2004 Percent: 1995-1996 Percent: 2003-2004

Doctorate a 78 a 22

Mathematics 

Total 62 55 38 45

Bachelor’s 57 54 43 46

Master’s a a a a 

Doctorate a 68 a 32

Physical sciences 

Total 62 56 38 44

Bachelor’s 56 53 44 47

Master’s a a a a 

Doctorate a 68 a 32

Psychology 

Total 26 26 74 74

Bachelor’s 26 26 74 74

Master’s a 21 a 79

Doctorate a 30 a 70

Social sciences 

Total 54 41 46 59

Bachelor’s 52 42 48 58

Master’s 51 35 49 65

Doctorate 83 46 17 54

Technology 

Total 89 81 11 19

Bachelor’s 88 81 12 19

Master’s a a a a 

Doctorate a a a a 

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data. 

a

Sample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates. 
Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates 

in STEM Fields 

Page 77 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 25: Estimated Number of Women Students and Percentage Change by Education Level and STEM Field for Academic 

Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 

 Number of women students 

Education level/STEM field 1995-1996 2003-2004 

Percentage change in 

women students

Bachelor’s level Agricultural sciences 44,444 39,702 b 

 Biological sciences 222,323 203,038 b 

 Computer sciences 82,013 104,824 b 

 Engineering 59,985 70,353 b 

 Mathematics 24,597 29,791 b 

 Physical sciences 47,421 60,203 b 

 Psychology 229,772 304,712 +33

 Social sciences 258,023 475,544 +84

 Technology 8,871 25,227 +184

Master’s level Agricultural sciences a a a 

 Biological sciences a 14,415 a 

 Computer sciences a 18,000 a 

 Engineering a 17,042 a 

 Mathematics a 5,562 a 

 Physical sciences a 8,497 a 

 Psychology 23,857 25,342 b 

 Social sciences 40,395 94,169 +133

 Technology a 1,280 a 

Doctoral level Agricultural sciences a 2,353 a 

 Biological sciences a 17,074 a 

 Computer sciences a 2,556 a 

 Engineering a 7,868 a 

 Mathematics a 3,042 a 

 Physical sciences a 8,105 a 

 Psychology a 23,843 a 

 Social sciences 9,440 22,931 +143

 Technology a 692 a 

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data. 

a Sample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates. 

b

Changes between academic years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 are not statistically significant at the 

95-percent confidence level. See table 29 for confidence intervals. 
Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates 

in STEM Fields 

Page 78 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 26: Comparisons in the Percentage of STEM Graduates by Field and Gender for Academic Years 1994-1995 and 2002-

2003 

STEM Degree/field 

Percentage 

graduates, men, 

1994-1995

Percentage 

graduates, men, 

2002-2003 

Percentage 

graduates, women, 

1994-1995 

Percentage 

graduates, women, 

2002-2003

Bachelor’s degree 

Biological/agricultural sciences 50 40 50 60

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 66 58 34 42

Engineering 83 80 17 20

Mathematics and computer sciences 65 69 35 31

Physical sciences 64 58 36 42

Psychology 27 22 73 78

Social sciences 50 45 50 55

Technology 90 88 10 12

Master’s degree 

Biological/agricultural sciences 52 45 48 55

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 70 59 30 41

Engineering 84 79 16 21

Mathematics and computer sciences 70 66 30 34

Physical sciences 70 64 30 36

Psychology 28 23 72 77

Social sciences 51 45 49 55

Technology 81 73 19 27

Doctoral degree 

Biological/agricultural sciences 63 57 37 43

Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences 78 72 22 28

Engineering 88 83 12 17

Mathematics and computer sciences 80 76 20 24

Physical sciences 76 73 24 27

Psychology 38 31 62 69

Social sciences 62 55 38 45

Technology 89 100 11 0

Source: GAO calculations based upon IPEDS data. 
Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of Students at the Bachelor’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 

Page 79 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Because the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) sample is 

a probability sample of students, the sample is only one of a large number 

of samples that might have been drawn. Since each sample could have 

provided different estimates, confidence in the precision of the particular 

sample’s results is expressed as a 95-percent confidence interval (for 

example, plus or minus 4 percentage points). This is the interval that 

would contain the actual population value for 95 percent of the samples 

that could have been drawn. As a result, we are 95 percent confident that 

each of the confidence intervals in this report will include the true values 

in the study population. The upper and lower bounds of the 95 percent 

confidence intervals for each estimate relied on in this report are 

presented in the following tables. 

Table 27: Estimated Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of Students in the STEM and Non-STEM Fields across All 

Education Levels, Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent confidence intervals) 

Lower and upper bounds of 95 percent confidence interval STEM field Non-STEM field

Lower bound: number of students: 1995-1996 3,941,589 14,885,171

Upper bound: number of students: 1995-1996 4,323,159 15,601,065

Lower bound: percentage of students: 1995-1996 20 78

Upper bound: percentage of students: 1995-1996 22 80

Lower bound: number of students: 2003-2004 4,911,850 16,740,049

Upper bound: number of students: 2003-2004 5,082,515 17,025,326

Lower bound: percentage of students: 2003-2004 22 77

Upper bound: percentage of students: 2003-2004 23 78

Lower bound: percentage change: 1995/96-2003/04 15 8

Upper bound: percentage change: 1995/96-2003/04 26.9 13.5

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data. 

Note: The totals for STEM and non-STEM enrollments include students in addition to the bachelor’s, 

master’s, and doctorate education levels. These totals also include students enrolled in certificate, 

associate’s, other undergraduate, first-professional degree, and post-bachelor’s or post-master’s 

certificate programs. The percentage changes between the 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 academic 

years for STEM and non-STEM students are statistically significant. 

Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of Students at the Bachelor’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 
Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of Students at the Bachelor’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 

Page 80 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 28: Numbers of Students by Education Level in all STEM Fields for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 

percent confidence intervals) 

Total Bachelors Masters Doctorate

Lower bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 2,633,867 2,114,316 271,208 171,824

Upper bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 2,880,529 2,322,704 377,821 271,230

Lower bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 3,411,004 2,819,206 366,141 185,230

Total 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 3,545,844 2,934,236 442,938 212,471

Lower bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 93,346 78,241 a a 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 151,132 130,144 a a 

Lower bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 93,543 76,472 7,296 4,661

Agricultural Sciences 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 119,613 98,590 21,202 7,553

Lower bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 416,315 360,553 18,883 a 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 524,615 454,119 57,066 a 

Lower bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 383,277 330,834 13,728 30,401

Biological Sciences 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 427,502 372,355 26,694 37,367

Lower bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 275,804 224,616 31,634 a 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 363,084 297,662 71,242 a

Lower bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 495,359 428,927 47,669 7,427

Computer Sciences 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 554,747 483,679 70,210 11,243

Lower bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 411,868 321,464 45,912 16,620

Upper bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 516,391 405,544 90,768 54,155

Lower bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 514,794 400,252 63,632 32,113

Engineering 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 583,058 444,208 116,835 39,261

Lower bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 68,083 42,910 a a 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 119,165 74,456 a a

Lower bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 75,705 55,314 7,869 7,687

Mathematics 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 97,848 74,318 18,867 11,392

Lower bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 139,416 87,966 a 21,279

Upper bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 214,274 130,658 a 60,546

Lower bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 160,895 116,479 14,944 22,043

Physical Sciences 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 192,534 142,894 31,092 27,903

Lower bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 327,359 271,188 17,600 16,929

Upper bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 416,804 348,432 47,037 48,601

Lower bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 449,858 385,660 24,218 27,846

Psychology 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 502,696 433,995 41,116 40,142

Lower bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 608,199 478,659 60,792 33,489

Upper bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 742,107 594,315 103,562 79,414

Social Sciences 

Lower bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 974,279 791,462 125,457 38,291
Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of Students at the Bachelor’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 

Page 81 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Total Bachelors Masters Doctorate

Upper bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 1,052,506 859,527 164,333 46,636

Lower bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 63,910 57,446 a a 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 1995-1996 104,308 92,251 a a 

Lower bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 130,347 118,492 5,556 1,814

Technology 

Upper bound: Number of Students: 2003-2004 158,418 143,848 17,158 4,421

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data. 

a

Sample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates. 

Table 29: Estimated Numbers and Percentage Changes in Women Students in STEM Fields, Academic Years 1995-1996 and 

2003-2004 (95 percent confidence intervals) 

Lower bound: 

Number of 

Students: 

1995-1996 

Upper bound: 

Number of 

Students: 

1995-1996

Lower bound: 

Number of 

Students: 

2003-2004

Upper bound: 

Number of 

Students: 

2003-2004

Lower bound: 

Percentage 

Change: 

1995/96-2003/04 

Upper bound: 

Percentage 

Change:

 1995/96-2003/04

Total 

Total 1,100,766 1,260,962 1,546,340 1,638,269 24.9 44.8

Agricultural sciences 33,541 67,797 39,678 56,710 -41.2 31.4

Biological sciences 215,624 293,386 217,669 251,384 -23.4 7.7

Computer sciences 78,956 129,858 110,119 140,642 -12.6 52.8

Engineering 60,568 100,683 84,556 105,970 -14.3 55

Mathematics 21,805 46,907 31,207 45,593 -34.1 57.6

Physical sciences 42,352 91,230 66,408 87,203 -29.9 59.9

Psychology 236,730 311,792 331,616 376,179 9.6 48.5

Social sciences 267,155 348,561 562,529 622,759 65.2 119.8

Technology 5,136 13,993 21,339 33,060 52.3 361

Bachelor’s 

Total 909,030 1,045,868 1,271,939 1,354,847 24.1 44.7

Agricultural sciences 27,943 60,945 32,293 47,111 -47.8 26.4

Biological sciences 188,204 256,442 187,283 218,793 -24.4 7

Computer sciences 61,719 102,307 90,851 118,798 -8.1 63.7

Engineering 45,013 74,957 61,142 79,563 -15.8 50.3

Mathematics 16,558 32,636 23,487 36,094 -26 68.3

Physical sciences 32,641 62,201 51,259 69,147 -16.9 70.8

Psychology 197,530 262,014 284,138 325,287 12 53.3

Social sciences 220,004 296,042 449,103 501,985 55.3 113.3

Technology 5,185 13,867 19,582 30,872 40.2 328.6
Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of Students at the Bachelor’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 

Page 82 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Lower bound: 

Number of 

Students: 

1995-1996 

Upper bound: 

Number of 

Students: 

1995-1996

Lower bound: 

Number of 

Students: 

2003-2004

Upper bound: 

Number of 

Students: 

2003-2004

Lower bound: 

Percentage 

Change: 

1995/96-2003/04 

Upper bound: 

Percentage 

Change:

 1995/96-2003/04

Master’s 

Total 109,116 183,302 170,116 210,777 -5.6 66.1

Agricultural sciences a a a a a a 

Biological sciences a a 11,330 16,806 a a 

Computer sciences a a 11,907 24,093 a a 

Engineering a a 10,989 24,604 a a 

Mathematics a a 2,979 8,336 a a 

Physical sciences a a 4,713 12,802 a a 

Psychology 15,901 28,488 21,284 28,384 -58.1 70.5

Social sciences 26,605 54,185 79,619 108,720 45.8 220.5

Technology a a 235 3,485 a a 

Doctorate 

Total 38,103 79,875 81,553 95,377 -6.3 115.6

Agricultural Sciences a a 1,441 3,265 a a 

Biological Sciences a a 14,455 19,692 a a 

Computer Sciences a a 1,745 3,503 a a 

Engineering a a 5,870 9,867 a a 

Mathematics a a 1,999 4,085 a a 

Physical Sciences a a 6,298 9,913 a a 

Psychology a a 19,198 28,489 a a 

Social Sciences 4,098 17,371 19,778 26,083 4.2 281.6

Technology a a 254 1,339 a a 

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data. 

a

Sample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates. 
Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of Students at the Bachelor’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 

Page 83 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 30: Estimated Percentage Changes in Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctoral Students in STEM Fields, Academic Years 

1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent confidence intervals) 

Lower and upper bounds of 95 percent confidence interval

STEM fields 

Percentage change in academic 

 years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 Total Bachelor’s Master’s Doctoral

Lower bound: percentage change -34.8 -38.7 a a 

Upper bound: percentage change 11.9 9.5 a a 

Agricultural sciences 

Statistically significant no no a a 

Lower bound: percentage change -24.4 -24.8 -79.6 a 

Upper bound: percentage change -2.6 -2.5 -8.3 a 

Biological sciences 

Statistically significant yes yes yes a 

Lower bound: percentage change 41.1 48.1 -34.8 a 

Upper bound: percentage change 89.5 101.3 75 a 

Computer sciences 

Statistically significant yes yes no a 

Lower bound: percentage change 3.5 1.4 -27.5 -55.4

Upper bound: percentage change 33.8 30.9 99.7 77.2

Engineering 

Statistically significant yes yes no no

Lower bound: percentage change -33.5 -21.8 a a 

Upper bound: percentage change 23 46.9 a a 

Mathematics 

Statistically significant no no a a 

Lower bound: percentage change -21.7 -6.6 a -70.2

Upper bound percentage change 24.4 46.3 a 1.4

Physical sciences 

Statistically significant no no a no

Lower bound: percentage change 11.7 14 -51.2 -48.8

Upper bound: percentage change 45.4 50.5 63.9 73.3

Psychology 

Statistically significant yes yes no no

Lower bound: percentage change 34.6 36.1 24.7 -59.3

Upper bound: percentage change 66.5 71.6 127.9 16.3

Social sciences 

Statistically significant yes yes yes no

Lower bound: percentage change 30 33.4 a a 

Upper bound: percentage change 119.6 122.9 a a 

Technology 

Statistically significant yes yes a a 

Lower bound: percentage change 20 23.1 1.8 -29.5

Upper bound: percentage change 32.3 36.3 49.2 12.1

Total 

Statistically significant yes yes yes no

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data. 

a

Sample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates. 
Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of Students at the Bachelor’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 

Page 84 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 31: Estimates of STEM Students by Gender and Field for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent 

confidence intervals) 

Men: 1995-1996 

academic year 

Men: 2003-2004 

academic year 

Women: 1995-

1996 academic 

year 

Women: 2003-

2004 academic 

year 

STEM fields 

Lower 

bound 

Upper 

bound 

Lower 

bound

Upper 

bound

Statistically

significant

Lower 

bound

Upper 

bound 

Lower 

bound 

Upper 

bound

Statistically 

significant

Agricultural sciences 

Bachelor’s 44 69 48 61 no 31 56 39 52 no

Master’s a a a a a a a a a a 

Doctoral a a 49 72 a a a 28 51 a 

Biological sciences 

Bachelor’s 40 51 39 45 no 49 60 55 61 no

Master’s a a 14 46 a a a 54 89 a 

Doctoral a a 44 55 a a a 45 56 a 

Computer sciences

Bachelor’s 62 75 74 80 no 25 38 20 26 no

Master’s a a 61 78 a a a 22 39 a 

Doctoral a a 62 81 a a a 19 38 a 

Engineering 

Bachelor’s 80 87 81 85 no 13 20 15 19 no

Master’s a a 73 88 a a a 12 27 a 

Doctoral a a 73 83 a a a 17 27 a 

Mathematics

Bachelor’s 44 70 46 61 no 30 56 39 54 no

Master’s a a a a a a a a a a 

Doctoral a a 59 77 a a a 23 41 a 

Physical sciences

Bachelor’s 46 66 48 59 no 34 54 41 52 no

Master’s a a a a a a a a a a 

Doctoral a a 62 73 a a a 27 38 a 

Psychology

Bachelor’s 20 32 23 28 no 68 80 72 77 no

Master’s a a 10 35 a a a 65 90 a 

Doctoral a a 20 39 a a a 61 80 a 

Social sciences

Bachelor’s 46 57 40 45 yes 43 54 55 60 yes

Master’s 38 64 28 42 no 36 62 58 72 no
Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of Students at the Bachelor’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 

Page 85 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Men: 1995-1996 

academic year 

Men: 2003-2004 

academic year 

Women: 1995-

1996 academic 

year 

Women: 2003-

2004 academic 

year 

STEM fields 

Lower 

bound 

Upper 

bound 

Lower 

bound

Upper 

bound

Statistically

significant

Lower 

bound

Upper 

bound 

Lower 

bound 

Upper 

bound

Statistically 

significant

Doctoral 70 91 41 51 yes 9 30 49 59 yes

Technology

Bachelor’s 81 93 77 85 no 7 19 15 23 no

Master’s a a a a a a a a a a 

Doctoral a a a a a a a a a a 

Total students

Total 55 60 53 55 yes 40 45 45 47 yes

Bachelor’s 54 58 53 55 no 42 46 45 47 no

Master’s 46 63 48 57 no 37 54 43 52 no

Doctoral 63 82 53 58 yes 18 37 42 47 yes

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data. 

a

Sample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates. 
Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of Students at the Bachelor’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 

Page 86 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 32: Estimates of Students for Selected Racial or Ethnic Groups in STEM Fields for All Education Levels and Fields for 

the Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2002-2003 (95 percent confidence intervals) 

Race or ethnicity 

Lower bound: number 

of students, academic 

year, 1995-1996

Upper bound: number 

of students, academic 

year, 1995-1996

Lower bound: number 

of students, academic 

year, 2003-2004 

Upper bound: number 

of students, academic 

year, 2003-2004

African American 303,832 416,502 577,854 639,114

Hispanic 285,381 446,621 461,738 515,423

Asian/Pacific Islander 247,347 330,541 322,738 367,377

Native American 11,464 28,103 30,064 47,694

Other/multiple minorities 17,708 44,434 150,264 183,174

. 
Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of Students at the Bachelor’s, 

Master’s, and Doctoral Levels 

Page 87 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Lower bound: 

percentage 

change 

Upper bound: 

percentage change 

Lower bound: 

percentage of 

students, academic 

year 1995-1996

Upper bound: 

percentage of 

students, academic 

year 1995-1996

Lower bound: 

percentage of 

students, academic 

year 2003-2004 

Upper bound: 

percentage of 

students, academic 

year 2003-2004

41 97 7 10 12 13

3 64 7 11 9 10

1 38 6 8 6 7

8 206 0 1 1 1

219 732 0 1 3 4

Source: GAO Calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data. 

Table 33: Estimates of International Students in STEM Fields by Education Levels for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-

2004 (95 percent confidence intervals) 

Education level 

Lower bound: 

number of 

students, 

 1995-1996 

Upper bound: 

number of 

students,

 1995-1996

Lower bound: 

number of 

students,

 2003-2004

Upper 

 bound: number 

of students, 

 2003-2004 

Lower bound: 

percentage 

change

Upper bound: 

percentage 

change

Total 80,812 142,192 154,466 186,322 12 102

Bachelor’s 20,254 47,684 125,950 154,911 155 523

Master’s 23,063 64,587 16,359 29,899 -76 -13

Doctoral 20,525 59,861 5,168 10,735 -90 -68

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data. 
Appendix VI: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of STEM Employment by Gender, 

Race or Ethnicity, and Wages and Salaries 

Page 88 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

The current population survey (CPS) was used to obtain estimates about 

employees and wages and salaries in science, technology, engineering, and 

mathematics (STEM) fields. Because the current population survey (CPS) 

is a probability sample based on random selections, the sample is only one 

of a large number of samples that might have been drawn. Since each 

sample could have provided different estimates, confidence in the 

precision of the particular sample’s results is expressed as a 95 percent 

confidence interval (e.g., plus or minus 4 percentage points). This is the 

interval that would contain the actual population value for 95 percent of 

the samples that could have been drawn. As a result, we are 95 percent 

confident that each of the confidence intervals in this report will include 

the true values in the study population. We use the CPS general variance 

methodology to estimate this sampling error and report it as confidence 

intervals. Percentage estimates we produce from the CPS data have 95 

percent confidence intervals of plus or minus 6 percentage points or less. 

Estimates other than percentages have 95 percent confidence intervals of 

no more than plus or minus 10 percent of the estimate itself, unless 

otherwise noted. Consistent with the CPS documentation guidelines, we 

do not produce estimates based on the March supplement data for 

populations of less than 75,000. 

Table 34: Estimated Total Number of Employees by STEM Field between Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 

STEM fields 

Lower bound: 

calendar year 

1994 

Upper bound: 

calendar year 

1994

Lower bound: 

calendar year 

2003

Upper bound: 

calendar year 

2003 

Statistically 

significant

Science 2,349,605 2,656,451 2,874,347 3,143,071 yes

Technology 1,285,321 1,515,671 1,379,375 1,568,189 no

Engineering 1,668,514 1,929,240 1,638,355 1,843,427 no

Mathematics/ 

computer sciences 1,369,047 1,606,395 2,520,858 2,773,146 yes

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1994 and 2003 CPS data. 

Appendix VI: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of STEM Employment by Gender, 

Race or Ethnicity, and Wages and Salaries 
Appendix VI: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of STEM Employment by Gender, 

Race or Ethnicity, and Wages and Salaries 

Page 89 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 35: Estimated Numbers of Employees in STEM Fields by Gender for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 

STEM fields 

Lower 

bound: 

calendar 

year 

1994, 

women 

Upper 

bound: 

calendar 

year 

1994, 

women 

Lower 

bound: 

calendar 

year 

2003, 

women 

Upper 

bound: 

calendar 

year 

2003, 

women

Statistically 

significant

Lower 

bound: 

calendar 

year 

1994, 

men

Upper 

bound: 

calendar 

year 

1994, 

men

Lower 

bound: 

calendar 

year 

2003, 

men 

Upper 

bound: 

calendar 

year 

2003, 

men

Statistically 

significant

Science 1,594,527 1,827,685 2,031,124 2,327,390 yes 708,673 875,171 733,358 925,548 no

Technology 385,433 505,329 357,805 489,899 no 863,785 1,046,445 941,960 1,157,900 no

Engineering 107,109 174,669 126,947 210,407 no 1,538,198 1,777,778 1,440,510 1,703,920 no

Mathematics/ 

computer 

sciences 372,953 491,053 610,649 779,525 yes 959,765 1,151,681 1,805,505 2,098,325 yes

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1994 and 2003 CPS data. 

Table 36: Estimated Changes in STEM Employment by Gender for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 

STEM fields 

Lower bound: 

calendar year 1994 

Upper bound: 

calendar year 1994

Lower bound: 

calendar year 

2003

Upper bound: 

calendar year 

2003 

Statistically 

significant

Men Men 

Science 28.87 34.40 24.84 30.30 yes

Technology 64.50 71.90 67.29 75.19 no

Engineering 90.28 94.05 87.93 92.69 no

Mathematics/ 

computer sciences 67.46 74.46 70.87 76.61 no

Women Women 

Science 65.71 71.01 69.81 75.05 yes

Technology 28.26 35.35 24.97 32.55 no

Engineering 6.03 9.64 7.41 11.97 no

Mathematics/ 

computer sciences 25.69 32.39 23.51 29.01 no

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1994 and 2003 CPS data. 
Appendix VI: Confidence Intervals for 

Estimates of STEM Employment by Gender, 

Race or Ethnicity, and Wages and Salaries 

Page 90 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Table 37: Estimated Percentages of STEM Employees for Selected Racial or Ethnic Groups for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 

Race or Ethnicity 

Lower bound: 

calendar year 1994 

Upper bound: 

calendar year 1994

Lower bound: 

calendar year 2003

Upper bound: 

calendar year 2003 

Statistically 

significant

Black or African 

American 6.49 8.46 7.66 9.79 no

Hispanic or Latino 

origin 4.76 6.60 8.83 11.09 yes

Other minorities 3.64 5.28 5.89 7.81 yes

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1994 and 2003 CPS data. 

Table 38: Estimated Changes in Median Annual Wages and Salaries in the STEM Fields for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 

STEM fields 

Lower bound: 

calendar year 

1994 

Upper bound: 

calendar year 

1994

Lower bound: 

calendar year 

2003

Upper bound: 

calendar year 

2003 

Statistically 

significant

Science $42,212 $45,241 $44,650 $47,008 yes

Technology $36,241 $39,769 $38,554 $41,286 yes

Engineering $59,059 $63,134 $67,634 $71,749 yes

Mathematics/computer 

sciences $51,922 $55,905 $58,801 $61,679 yes

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1994 and 2003 CPS data. 
Appendix VII: Comments from the 

Department of Commerce 

Page 91 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Appendix VII: Comments from the 

Department of Commerce 
Appendix VII: Comments from the 

Department of Commerce 

Page 92 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 
Appendix VII: Comments from the 

Department of Commerce 

Page 93 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 
Appendix VII: Comments from the 

Department of Commerce 

Page 94 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 
Appendix VIII: Comments from the Department of Health and Human Services 

Page 95 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Appendix VIII: Comments from the 

Department of Health and Human Services 
Appendix VIII: Comments from the Department of Health and Human Services 

Page 96 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 
Appendix IX: Comments from the National 

Science Foundation 

Page 97 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Appendix IX: Comments from the National 

Science Foundation 
Appendix IX: Comments from the National 

Science Foundation 

Page 98 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 
Appendix IX: Comments from the National 

Science Foundation 

Page 99 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 
Appendix X: Comments from the National Science and Technology Council 

Page 100 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Appendix X: Comments from the National 

Science and Technology Council 
Appendix XI: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

Page 101 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Cornelia M. Ashby (202) 512-7215 

In addition to the contact named above, Carolyn M. Taylor, Assistant 

Director; Tim Hall, Analyst in Charge; Mark Ward; Dorian Herring; Patricia 

Bundy; Paula Bonin; Scott Heacock; Wilfred Holloway; Lise Levie; John 

Mingus; Mark Ramage; James Rebbe; and Monica Wolford made key 

contributions to this report. 

Appendix XI: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

GAO Contact 

Staff 

Acknowledgments 
Bibliography 

Page 102 GAO-06-114 Federal STEM Education Programs 

Congressional Research Service, Foreign Students in the United States: 

Policies and Legislation, RL31146, January 24, 2003, Washington, D.C. 

Congressional Research Service, Immigration: Legislative Issues on 

Nonimmigrant Professional Specialty (H-1B) Workers, RL30498, May 5, 

2005, Washington, D.C. 

Congressional Research Service, Monitoring Foreign Students in the 

United States: The Student and Exchange Visitor Information System 

(SEVIS), RL32188, October 20, 2004, Washington, D.C. 

Congressional Research Service, Science, Engineering, and Mathematics 

Education: Status and Issues, 98-871 STM, April 27, 2004, Washington, 

D.C. 

Council on Competitiveness, Innovate America, December 2004, 

Washington, D.C. 

Council of Graduate Schools, NDEA 21: A Renewed Commitment to 

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Jackson, Shirley Ann, The Quiet Crisis: Falling Short in Producing 

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Education Policy for the United States: International Education in an 

Age of Globalism and Terrorism, May 2003, Washington, D.C. 

National Center for Education Statistics, Qualifications of the Public 

School Teacher Workforce: Prevalence of Out-of-Field Teaching 1987-88 

to 1999-2000, May 2002, revised August 2004, Washington, D.C. 

National Science Foundation, The Science and Engineering Workforce 

Realizing America’s Potential, National Science Board, August 14, 2003, 

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National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Indicators, 2004, 

Volume 1, National Science Board, January 15, 2004, Arlington, Virginia. 

Report of the Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women 

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Seymour, Elaine, and Nancy M. Hewitt, Talking about Leaving: Why 

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