L a k e E ri e

L

a

k e M i c h i g

a

n

A T L A N T I C

O

C E A

N

L a k e S u p e r i o r

L a k e O n t a r i o

L a k e

H u r o n

WISCONSIN

ILLINOIS

IOWA

MINN.

MISSOURI

ARKANSAS

LOUISIANA

INDIANA

KENTUCKY

TENNESSEE

ALABAMA

GEORGIA

SOUTH

CAROLINA

FLORIDA

MISSISSIPPI

OHIO

WEST

VIRGINIA

VIRGINIA

P E N N S Y LVA N I A

NEW YORK

N.J.

DEL.

VERMONT

CANADA

UNITED STATES

CANADA

UNITED STATES

N.H.

MASS.

CONN.

MARYLAND

D.C.

NORTH CAROLINA

MICHIGAN

EXPLANATION

Source Rock Maturity

Immature (%Ro values < 0.6)

Oil window (%Ro values 0.6 to 1.3)

Gas window (%Ro values 1.3 to 2.0)

Overmature (%Ro values > 2.0)

Outline of basin

Outline of maximum extent of Devonian shale—

Dashed where concealed

Sample with %Ro

 value

Sample with conodont CAI value

Sample with SCI value

0 50 100 150 200 250 miles

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 kilometers

Michigan basin

Illinois basin

Appalachian basin

Conodont 

Color 

Alteration 

Index

(CAI)

Liptinite

Fluorescence

Thermal

Alteration

Index

(TAI)

Hydrocarbon

Generation / Preservation

Events

Vitrinite

Reflectance

in %Ro

(mean)

Coal

Rank

Transition

Lignite Bituminous Sub-Bituminous High Volatile Low Volatile Medium Volatile

SemiAnthracite

Anthracite

3.0

2.0

1.5

1.2

1.0

0.7

0.8

0.9

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2 1

1+

2

3

3

2

1

1+

1.5

5

2+

4

0.1

Thermally Immature Rocks

Yellow to

Orange

Dark

OrangeGreen / Pale Yellow No Fluorescence

Prolific Oil

Generation

Thermal Gas Generation

Dry

Wet

Increasing

API Gravity

Increasing

Dryness

4

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Spore

Colour

Index

(SCI)

Thermally Overmature Rocks

ILLINOIS INDIANA

Grassy Creek Shale

Sweetland Creek Shale

Sylamore Sandstone

Lingle Formation

Grand Tower Limestone

Rockford Limestone

Selmier Member

Sellersburg Limestone

North Vernon Limestone

Jeffersonville Limestone

T

Alto Fm.

T

Morgan Trail Member

Camp Run Member

Clegg Creek Member

F

Blocher Shale

Hannibal Shale

Chouteau Limestone

Nutwood Member

New Albany Group

Saverton Shale

Louisiana Limestone

Dutch Creek Sandstone Member

Blocher Member

ILLINOIS BASIN

Lower

Mississippian

Upper

Devonian

Middle

Devonian

New Albany

Shale

359.2 Ma

385.3 Ma

397.5 Ma

Oriskany Sandstone

Onondaga Limestone

APPALACHIAN BASIN

Ohio

Shale

Sunbury Shale

Berea Sandstone

Bedford Shale

Java Formation

West Falls

Formation

Sonyea

Formation

Genesee

Formation

Three Lick Bed

Hamilton Group

Needmore Shale

Chagrin Shale

Hanover Shale Member

upper

Olentangy

Shale

Harrell Shale

Mahantango Formation

Millboro

Shale

Angola Shale Member

Cashaqua Shale Member

Brallier Formation

Columbus

Limestone

lower

Olentangy

Shale

Huntersville Chert

Tully Limestone

Burket Member of Harrell Shale

Tully Ls.

Greenland Gap

Formation

(Chemung Formation)

Cuyahoga Formation Price Formation

Java Formation

West Falls

Formation

Sonyea Formation

Genesee Formation

Pipe Creek Shale Member

Rhinestreet Shale Member

Middlesex Shale Member

Geneseo Shale Member

Cleveland Member

Huron Member

Marcellus Shale

F

T T Tioga Bentonite

upper Perrysburg Formation

Lower

Mississippian

Upper

Devonian

Middle

Devonian

359.2 Ma

385.3 Ma

NORTHWEST SOUTHEAST

Dunkirk Shale Member 

of Perrysburg Formation

NORTHWEST SOUTHEAST

K

Sylvania Sandstone

MICHIGAN BASIN

Lower

Mississippian

Upper

Devonian

Middle

Devonian

Amherstburg Formation

Traverse Formation (undivided)

Traverse limestone

Bell Shale

Dundee Limestone

Berea Sandstone

Bedford Shale

Lucas Formation

Paxton Member

Lachine Member

Norwood Member

Ellsworth Shale upper Antrim Shale

F

Sunbury Shale

Coldwater Shale

359.2 Ma

385.3 Ma

397.5 Ma

Detroit River

Group

Traverse

Group

Antrim

Shale

Filer Member Meldrum Member

Bois Blanc Formation

Horner Member

L. Devonian L. Devonian

397.5 Ma

L. Devonian

EXPLANATION

Black shale

Gray or red shale

Bentonite

Chert

Evaporitic strata

Carbonate strata

Sandstone

Regional unconformity

Foerstia bed within unit

Tioga Bentonite within unit

Kawkawlin Bentonite (equivalent to the 

Tioga Bentonite of the Appalachian basin) 

within Lucas Formation

F

T

K

Figure 1. Thermal maturity map of Devonian shale in the Illinois, Michigan, and Appalachian basins. Abbreviations are as follows: %Ro, vitrinite reflectance reported as mean percent reflectance in oil; CAI, conodont color alteration index; SCI, spore colour index. 

The basin outlines are compiled from Thomas and others (1989) and Swezey (2008, 2009). In the Illinois basin, the thermal maturity values are based on vitrinite reflectance (VR) measurements from the basal interval of the Middle Devonian to Lower Mississippian 

New Albany Shale (Barrows and Cluff, 1984; Nuccio and Hatch, 1996; Strapoc and others, 2010). In the Michigan basin, the thermal maturity values are based on VR measurements and SCI measurements from the basal interval of the Upper Devonian Antrim Shale 

(Moyer, 1982; Cercone, 1984; Cercone and Pollack, 1991; Wang and others, 1994; Everham, 2004; Hayba, 2005). In the Appalachian basin, the thermal maturity values are based on VR measurements from Devonian shale and conodont CAI measurements from Devonian limestone that is stratigraphically near the Middle Devonian Marcellus Shale and correlative units (Harris and others, 1978; Harris, 1979; Bayer, 1982; Repetski and others, 2008). These values from Middle Devonian strata in the Appalachian basin are generally 

consistent with VR values from the Upper Devonian West Falls Formation (Gerlach and Cercone, 1993; Curtis and Faure, 1997) and from the Upper Devonian Ohio Shale (Rimmer and others, 1993; Curtis and Faure, 1997).

Figure 3. Middle Devonian through Lower Mississippian stratigraphy of the Illinois, Michigan, and Appalachian basins. Stratigraphic data are compiled from Willman and others (1975), Shaver and others (1986), Devera and Hasenmueller (1990), Hasenmueller (1993), 

Matthews (1993), de Witt and others (1993), Swezey (2002, 2008, 2009), Ryder and others (2009), and Swezey and others (in press). Time scale is from Gradstein and others (2004). Fm., Formation; L, Lower; Ls., Limestone; Ma, million years before present.

Figure 2. Diagram that shows the relations among various thermal maturity indicators (including conodont CAI 

and %Ro

) and associated zones of hydrocarbon generation (modified from Fisher and others, 1980; Repetski and 

others, 2008). The zone boundaries are approximate and are based on oil generation from Type II kerogen. The 

color scheme corresponds to the thermal maturity values in figure 1.

DISCUSSION

Much of the oil and gas in the Illinois, Michigan, and Appalachian basins of 

eastern North America is thought to be derived from Devonian shale that is within 

these basins (for example, Milici and others, 2003; Swezey, 2002, 2008, 2009; 

Swezey and others, 2005, 2007). As the Devonian strata were buried by younger 

sediments, the Devonian shale was subjected to great temperature and pressure, and 

in some areas the shale crossed a thermal maturity threshold and began to generate 

oil. With increasing burial (increasing temperature and pressure), some of this 

oil-generating shale crossed another thermal maturity threshold and began to 

generate natural gas. Knowledge of the thermal maturity of the Devonian shale is 

therefore useful for predicting the occurrence and the spatial distribution of oil and 

gas within these three basins.

This publication presents a thermal maturity map of Devonian shale in the 

Illinois, Michigan, and Appalachian basins (fig. 1). The map shows outlines of the 

three basins (dashed black lines) and an outline of Devonian shale (solid black lines). 

The basin outlines are compiled from Thomas and others (1989) and Swezey (2008, 

2009). The outline of Devonian shale is a compilation from Freeman (1978), 

Thomas and others (1989), de Witt and others (1993), Dart (1995), Nicholson and 

others (2004), Dicken and others (2005a,b), and Stoeser and others (2005).

Thermal maturity of the Devonian shale is depicted in figure 1 as based on 

measurements of vitrinite reflectance reported as mean percent reflectance in oil 

(%Ro), conodont color alteration, and sporopollen coloration. Maturity values are 

depicted using the following four colors: (1) yellow, %Ro = < 0.6 (thermally 

immature for oil generation); (2) green, %Ro = 0.6 to 1.3 (thermal maturity for oil 

generation); (3) red, %Ro = 1.3 to 2.0 (thermal maturity for gas generation); and (4) 

gray, %Ro = > 2.0 (thermal maturity beyond gas generation). The information 

depicted in figure 1, however, is only a general approximation of the thermal 

maturity because of uncertainty in interpretation of thermal maturity indices and 

uncertainty in correlation among different thermal maturity indices. There is also 

uncertainty associated with the thresholds for hydrocarbon generation, which vary 

with kerogen type (Dow, 1977; Murchison, 1987; Petersen, 2002). Despite these 

uncertainties, the thermal maturity interval for oil generation is defined in this study 

(figs. 1 and 2) as vitrinite reflectance values of 0.6 to 1.3 %Ro, as based on the work 

of Stach and others (1975), Dow (1977), Harris and others (1978), Fischer and others 

(1980), Cole and others (1987), Horsfield and Rullkötter (1994), Peters and Cassa 

(1994), Hunt (1996), Tobin and Claxton (2000), Peters and others (2005a,b), and 

Repetski and others (2008). The thermal maturity interval for gas generation is 

defined in this study (figs. 1 and 2) as vitrinite reflectance values of 1.3 to 2.0 %Ro, 

based on the work of Stach and others (1975), Dow (1977), Harris and others (1978), 

Fischer and others (1980), Cole and others (1987), Horsfield and Rullkötter (1994), 

Peters and Cassa (1994), Hunt (1996), Tobin and Claxton (2000), Peters and others 

(2005a,b), and Repetski and others (2008).

Vitrinite reflectance (VR) is the most widely used technique to estimate thermal 

maturity of organic matter in post-Silurian rocks (Dow, 1977; Teichmüller, 1987; 

Tissot and others, 1987). This technique is based on measurements of the reflective 

properties of terrestrial organic matter, and values are reported as mean percent 

reflectance in oil. Conventional VR measurements are conducted on randomly 

oriented phytoclasts in nonpolarized light under oil immersion. The most reliable 

VR measurements are obtained from the vitrinite maceral collotelinite (Dow, 1977; 

Buiskool Toxopeus, 1983). This maceral can be identified readily in rocks such as 

coal that contain relatively high concentrations of organic matter, but the maceral 

may be difficult to identify in rocks such as shale that contain relatively low 

concentrations of dispersed organic matter (Bostick and Alpern, 1977; Barker, 1996). 

Other characteristics of rocks that may contribute to difficulties in measurement of 

VR include the complexity of organic matter, the compositional variety of organic 

matter, and the presence of reworked vitrinite mixed with indigenous vitrinite 

(Bostick, 1979; Dembicki, 1984; Utting and others, 2004). Furthermore, in the use 

of conventional VR techniques, some types of organic matter (for example, 

perhydrous vitrinite) tend to yield suppressed VR values, whereas other types of 

organic matter (for example, subhydrous vitrinite) tend to yield enhanced VR values 

(McTavish, 1978; Newman and Newman, 1982; Buiskool Toxopeus, 1983; Price and 

Barker, 1985; Wenger and Baker, 1987; Murchison and others, 1991; Fang and 

Jianyu, 1992; Lo, 1993; Carr, 2000a,b). Vitrinite suppression may be particularly 

pronounced in alginite-rich shale (Hutton and Cook, 1980; Kalkreuth, 1982; Price 

and Barker, 1985; Petersen and others, 2006). Several explanations have been 

suggested for causes of suppressed and enhanced vitrinite values, and multiple 

causes are likely (for example, Price and Barker, 1985; Raymond and Murchison, 

1991; Carr, 2000a,b; Wilkins and others, 2002; Fedor and Hámor-Vidó, 2003; Quick 

and Tabet, 2003).

The conodont color alteration index (CAI) is an index of thermal maturity that 

is often used for marine rocks of Ordovician to Triassic age (Epstein and others, 

1977; Harris and others, 1978; Harris, 1979; Rejebian and others, 1987). Conodonts 

are phosphatic marine microfossils that are thought to be the teeth elements of an 

eel-like marine vertebrate (Briggs and others, 1983; Briggs, 1992; Gabbott and 

others, 1995). These teeth elements (conodonts) contain trace amounts of organic 

matter that changes color with increasing thermal maturity. Charts showing the 

correlation of conodont CAI data with other thermal maturity indices have been 

published by Harris (1979) and Repetski and others (2008).

Spores and pollen exhibit changes in color and opacity with increasing 

temperature and depth of burial (Grayson, 1975; Lerche and McKenna, 1991). This 

phenomenon has been quantified using a number of indices, including the Etat de 

Conservation (EC) index of Correia (1967), the organic matter thermal alteration 

index (TAI) of Staplin (1969), the spore colour index (SCI) of Fisher and others 

(1980), the palynomorph colour index of Batten (1980), and the thermal alteration 

scale (TAS) of Batten (1982). Several publications include charts that show 

comparisons among the various spore and pollen color indices (for example, Smith, 

1983) and comparisons of spore and pollen color indices with other thermal maturity 

indices such as vitrinite reflectance and conodont CAI data (Fisher and others, 1980; 

Batten, 1982; Utting and others, 1989; Marshall, 1991).

Stratigraphic nomenclature for Devonian shale in the three basins is shown in 

figure 3. In the Illinois basin, the thermal maturity values are based on VR 

measurements from the basal interval of the Middle Devonian to Lower 

Mississippian New Albany Shale (Barrows and Cluff, 1984; Nuccio and Hatch, 

1996; Strąpoć and others, 2010). In the Michigan basin, the thermal maturity values 

are based on VR measurements and SCI measurements from the basal interval of the 

Upper Devonian Antrim Shale (Moyer, 1982; Cercone, 1984; Cercone and Pollack, 

1991; Wang and others, 1994; Everham, 2004; Hayba, 2005). In the Appalachian 

basin, the thermal maturity values are based on vitrinite reflectance measurements 

from Devonian shale and conodont CAI measurements from Devonian limestone 

that is stratigraphically near the Middle Devonian Marcellus Shale and correlative 

units (Harris and others, 1978; Harris, 1979; Bayer, 1982; Repetski and others, 

2008). These values from Middle Devonian strata in the Appalachian basin are 

generally consistent with VR values from the Upper Devonian West Falls Formation 

(Gerlach and Cercone, 1993; Curtis and Faure, 1997) and from the Upper Devonian 

Ohio Shale (Rimmer and others, 1993; Curtis and Faure, 1997).

Although there is uncertainty in the thermal maturity data presented in figure 1 

(and the interpretations from these data), some general patterns may be discerned. In 

the Illinois basin, the Devonian shale is within the oil window of thermal maturity in 

the central and southern portions of the basin, and the shale is immature elsewhere 

within the basin (Barrows and Cluff, 1984). This pattern suggests that oil in 

Devonian or younger strata along the margins of the Illinois basin may have migrated 

from the central or southern portions of the basin, and natural gas within Devonian 

or younger strata is likely to be of biogenic (rather than thermogenic) origin because 

there is very little Devonian shale that is within the gas generation window. In 

support of these conclusions, various geochemical studies have documented the 

presence of biogenic gas in the Devonian shale of the Illinois basin (McIntosh and 

Martini, 2008; Martini and others, 2008). In the Michigan basin, the Devonian shale 

is within the oil window in the central part of the basin, and the shale is immature 

elsewhere in the basin. This pattern suggests that oil in Devonian or younger strata 

along the margins of the Michigan basin may have migrated from the central part of 

the basin, and natural gas within Devonian or younger strata is likely to be of 

biogenic (rather than thermogenic) origin because there is no Devonian shale that is 

within the gas generation window. In support of these conclusions, various 

geochemical studies have documented the presence of biogenic gas in the Devonian 

shale of the Michigan basin (Martini and others, 1996, 1998, 2003, 2008; McIntosh 

and others, 2004, 2011). In the Appalachian basin, the Devonian shale is immature 

on the western margin of the basin and overmature on the eastern margin of the basin. 

This observation suggests that oil in Devonian or younger strata on the western 

margin of the basin (west of the area where Devonian shale is in the oil window) is 

likely to have migrated from the east. Furthermore, in Devonian and younger strata, 

oil should be more common in the western portion of the basin (where the Devonian 

shale is in the oil window), and thermogenic gas should be more common in the 

eastern portion of the basin (where the Devonian shale is in the gas window). Also, 

gas-prone kerogen is more common in the eastern portion of the basin, and oil-prone 

kerogen is more common in the western portion of the basin (Zielinski and McIver, 

1982). Thus, any natural gas within Devonian or younger strata on the western 

margin of the basin is likely to have migrated from the eastern part of the basin or to 

be of biogenic (rather than thermogenic) origin because of the low thermal maturity 

on the western margin of the basin. In support of these conclusions, various 

geochemical studies have documented some small accumulations of biogenic gas in 

the Devonian shale of the northern Appalachian basin, along the southern shore of 

Lake Erie and in western New York (Osborn and McIntosh, 2010). 

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Scientific Investigations Map 3214

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Thermal Maturity Map of Devonian Shale in the Illinois, Michigan, and Appalachian Basins of North America

By

Joseph A. East, Christopher S. Swezey, John E. Repetski, and Daniel O. Hayba

2012

Albers Equal-Area Conic projection

Standard Parallels 29°30’N and 45°30’N

Central Meridian 96°00’W

Printed on recycled paper 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only 

and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government

For sale by U.S. Geological Survey, Box 25286, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225; 

http://store.usgs.gov; 1–888–ASK–USGS (1–888–275–8747)

Suggested citation: East, J.A., Swezey, C.S., Repetski, J.E., and Hayba, D.O., 2012, Thermal 

maturity map of Devonian shale in the Illinois, Michigan, and Appalachian basins of North 

America: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3214, 1 sheet, scale 1:24,000 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/

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