669

Sports and Recreational Opportunities

Chapter 25

SPORTS AND RECREATION 

OPPORTUNITIES

ANDY KRIEGER*; FRANK BRASILE, PhD†; CAIBRE McCANN, MD‡; and RORY A. COOPER, PhD§

INTRODUCTION

THERAPEUTIC BENEFITS

CLASSIFICATION

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY

ACTIVITIES

SUMMARY

ATTACHMENT: ORGANIZATIONS PROMOTING SPORTS AND RECREATION FOR 

PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 

*Director, Department of Sports and Recreation, Paralyzed Veterans of America, 801 18th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20006; formerly, Adapted Athletic 

Specialist, Wright State University, 3640 Colonel Glenn Highway, Dayton, Ohio

†Professor, University of Nebraska, 6001 Dodge Street, Omaha, Nebraska 68182

‡Physiatrist-in-Chief (Retired), Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Maine Medical Center, Portland, Maine

§

Senior Career Scientist, US Department of Veterans Affairs, and Distinguished Professor, Department of Rehabilitation Science and Technology, University of Pittsburgh, 5044 Forbes Tower, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
670

Care of the Combat Amputee

By participating in the Hawaii Ironman World Championships, I was accomplishing several things at 

multiple levels. As an example to all amputees, I was able to highlight the great things that anyone can 

accomplish through training and dedication to fitness. To my soldiers, I showed that heart and determination can serve you through the toughest challenges and as an Ironman, I was fit to fight. Most importantly, I was proving to myself that I could achieve more as an amputee than I had ever done in my 

able-bodied life.

—US Army Major David M Rozelle, the first war amputee to ever complete the grueling Ironman World Championship triathalon in Hawaii, on the impact of sports and recreation to his rehabilitation. The event, held in October 2007, included 2.4 miles of 

swimming, 112 miles of biking, and 26.2 miles of running.

INTRODUCTION

known as the National Wheelchair Athletic Association, was established in 1956 to accommodate athletes 

with disabilities who wanted to participate in sports 

other than basketball. Many of the athletes who helped 

create the organization were World War II veterans, as 

well as individuals with quadriplegia. WSUSA now 

offers sporting events to youth with disabilities, having 

hosted its first youth competition in 1984.3

The National Veterans Wheelchair Games, with 16 

events, is the largest annual wheelchair sporting event 

in the world. It now includes an amputee clinic, developed with emphasis on amputees competing on prostheses in various track and field events and facilitated 

by athletes and coaches of the US Paralympic team. The 

US Paralympics is the highest caliber sporting event 

for elite athletes with disabilities. 

In spite of their traumatic injuries, individuals who 

incur amputations as a result of their military service 

have access to sports and recreation opportunities 

that enable them to lead active, healthy, and productive lives. Sports and recreation for Americans with 

disabilities was introduced in the 1870s, when deaf 

athletes competed in the sport of baseball at a school for 

the deaf in Ohio. In the late 1940s, at the close of World 

War II, famed neurosurgeon Sir Ludwig Guttmann of 

Stoke Mandeville, England, introduced wheelchair 

sports as a means to rehabilitate veterans with disabilities, including those with amputations.1

 Since then, 

sports and recreation for the disabled has proved to be 

a powerful tool in the rehabilitation process, providing 

a number of significant therapeutic benefits.2

Wheelchair Sports, USA (WSUSA), originally 

THERAPEUTIC BENEFITS

Guttmann stated, “...the aims of sport embody the 

same principles for the disabled as they do for the 

able-bodied; in addition, however, sport is of immense 

therapeutic value and plays an essential part in the 

physical, psychological, and social rehabilitation of 

the disabled.”1(p12) Coyle et al4 cite a number of studies 

documenting the following therapeutic benefits related 

to sports and recreation for the disabled:

• Improvement in physical health status: participation in various exercise and fitness activities resulted in significant improvements 

in cardiovascular and respiratory functioning, and increased strength, endurance, and 

coordination for persons with disabilities 

including paraplegia, cystic fibrosis, and 

asthma.

• Reduction in complications related to secondary disability: physical activity has been 

demonstrated to reduce secondary medical 

complications arising from spinal cord injury 

and other physical disabilities.

• Improvement in long-term health status 

and reduction in health risk factors: lowered 

cholesterol levels, reduced heart disease risk, 

and improved ability to manage chronic pain 

were reported for persons with physical disabilities.

• Improvement in psychosocial health and 

well-being: decreased depression, improved 

body image, and increased acceptance of 

disability have been reported for physically 

disabled participants in fitness and athletic 

activities.

• Reduction in reliance on the healthcare 

system: participation in exercise and other 

physical recreation interventions by persons 

with disabilities resulted in reduced use of 

asthma medication, and in decreased anxiety 

and stress of a magnitude equal to or greater 

than that accomplished through medication. 

A group of wheelchair athletes demonstrated 

a rehospitalization rate that was one-third that 

of a matched group on nonathletes. 
671

Sports and Recreational Opportunities

CLASSIFICATION

vidual physical deficits. However, this approach led to 

insufficient numbers of competitors in each class and 

was unworkable. A decision to reduce the number of 

classes to 12 was made after the Toronto Olympiad 

in 1976, and in the 1992 Barcelona Paralympics the 

number was further reduced to nine, as follows1,5:

Class A1: double above-knee (A/K)

Class A2: single above-knee (A/K)

Class A3: double below-knee (B/K)

Class A4: single below-knee (B/K)

Class A5: double above-elbow (A/E)

Class A6: single above-elbow (A/E)

Class A7: double below-elbow (B/E)

Class A8: single below-elbow (B/E)

Class A9: combined lower and upper limb 

amputations 

As disability sport has developed, the role of 

the individual sports federations has become more 

prominent, and the classification process has become 

incorporated into the rules of individual sports. In 

sitting volleyball for lower extremity amputation, for 

example, the regulations allow all eligible competitors 

to participate as one class. In wheelchair sports, lower 

extremity amputees are governed by the rules of the 

wheelchair sports organization that pertains primarily 

to spinal paralysis. Winter sports classification is based 

on the amount of technical device assistance used to 

allow the amputee to ski, such as the use of one or two 

adapted ski poles or sitting position for sledge racing. 

As the rules in specific sports change, classification 

may become more complex, but the anatomical details 

of amputation have remained the key determinant in 

amputee sports classification. 

Classification for disabled athletes including amputees is a concept that applies to competitive sports 

and not to the wide range of recreation and sport 

activities encompassed in therapeutic, recreational, or 

fitness sport. The element of competition introduces 

such factors as rules and regulations for the sport, 

fairness, and equal opportunity for success despite 

great difference in individual impairments. Examples 

of this concept in able-bodied sport include grouping 

of participants by gender or age, and in certain sports 

such as weight-lifting, by body weight. When this 

concept is applied to amputee sports, it seems obvious, 

for example, that the competitor with an above-knee 

level of limb loss will be disadvantaged in competition 

with a below-knee amputee in a sport in which lower 

limb function is a factor. 

From the earliest days of amputee sport, the process 

of determining the individual’s degree of limb loss, or 

conversely the degree of residual limb function, was 

quite familiar in trauma surgery, so the first step in classification was considered a medical one. The language 

of amputee classification has not changed, based as it 

is on the anatomical facts of limb loss or preservation. 

Anatomical details, such as extremity or extremities 

involved and the level of loss within an extremity, 

represent the basic first step in grouping amputees in 

fair sport competition. This is sometimes described as 

“general classification.” 

Organized amputee competitive sports and classification was created and developed within the International 

Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD), founded 

in 1964. The ISOD classification system changed over 

time. Originally, amputee competitors internationally 

were divided into 27 classes according to their indiASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY

Today, the number of sports and recreation opportunities for veterans with disabilities is extensive, 

due in large part to advances in assistive technology 

that compensates for impairments. The Department of 

Veterans Affairs (VA) Veterans Health Administration 

is exemplary within the United States in the provision 

of adaptive recreational and sports equipment. The 

VA provides a variety of adaptive sports and recreation 

equipment to facilitate healthy living. Devices include 

sports wheelchairs, handcycles, skiing equipment, 

bowling equipment, and adaptations for archery, just 

to name a few. The Clinical Practice Recommendations 

for Issuance of Recreational and Sports Equipment, 

written by an interdisciplinary team with the VA 

Prosthetics Clinical Management Program and approved by the under secretary for health, outlines the 

recommended approach for providing adaptive equipment to beneficiaries. Key concepts are summarized 

below. The entire document, including comprehensive 

information about recreation and sports equipment 

provided by the VA and the process for purchasing 

equipment, see www.prosthetics.va.gov.

Each veteran is entitled to an individualized assessment for adaptive recreation and sports equipment. 

The evaluation includes examining the veteran’s medical diagnoses, prognosis, functional abilities, and goals. 

Veterans and active duty service members enrolled 

for VA care with loss or loss of use of a body part or 
672

Care of the Combat Amputee

function for which an adaptive recreation device is 

appropriate may be prescribed and provided equipment. Adaptive sports or recreation technology may be 

issued to veterans seeking to enhance or maintain their 

health and attain a higher rehabilitation goal through 

sports or recreation and who meet eligibility criteria. 

Eligibility criteria includes (but is not limited to):

• medical clearance to perform the activity;

• completed education on appropriate activity 

and equipment options;

• demonstrated commitment to the activity 

through regular participation;

• opportunity to participate in the activity consistently (for example, snow must be adequate 

for cross-country skiing);

• trial of appropriate equipment options configured for specific needs and abilities;

• sports and recreation goals supported by the 

device; and

• demonstrated ability to use, transport, and 

store the equipment.

The VA defines “recreational leisure equipment” as 

any specialized equipment intended for recreational 

activities that does not inherently exhibit an athletic 

or physical rehabilitative nature. Examples include 

adaptive devices for hobbies and crafts or adaptive 

fishing or hunting devices. The VA defines “recreational sports equipment” as any specialized equipment intended to be utilized in a physically active or 

competitive environment. Examples include sports 

wheelchairs, handcycles, sit skis, and artificial limbs 

for recreational or sports applications. Powered devices 

for sport participation can potentially be provided 

to individuals whose activities are severely limited 

without their use when the individual meets general 

criteria for power mobility. An example of powered 

sports equipment is an electric-powered wheelchair 

for powered wheelchair soccer. Recreation and sports 

technologies provided by the VA must be adaptive in 

nature to specifically compensate for loss of or loss of 

use of a body part or body function. Standard nonadaptive equipment such as skis, boats, and two-wheeled 

bicycles are not provided by VA. 

Accessories for adaptive equipment can also be 

provided when justified. For example, a car carrier to 

transport the device to a safe training area or indoor 

rollers for handcycles or racing wheelchairs in areas 

with inclement weather may be considered. Seating 

interventions for postural support and skin protection or specific adaptations for limited hand function 

may also qualify. The VA Prosthetics and Sensory Aids 

Service covers repairs and service on sports and recreation equipment per standard policy and procedure. A 

knowledgeable clinical professional (recreation therapist, rehabilitation engineer, kinesitherapist, physical 

therapist, or occupational therapist) must be involved 

in the comprehensive physical evaluation, equipment 

trials, selection and modification of devices, and education and training. The clinician works closely with 

the athlete, other equipment experts, and coaches to 

support the long-term goals of sports and recreation 

participation. 

ACTIVITIES

The information provided below is intended to be a 

general introduction to sports and recreation opportunities available to amputees in the United States.6–8

Aerobics/Physical Fitness

Aerobics is a system of exercise designed to improve 

respiratory and circulatory function. Disabled Sports, 

USA (DSUSA) has developed a series of aerobic and 

strength training videotapes for amputees, paraplegics, 

quadriplegics, and those with cerebral palsy. DSUSA 

also has established fitness clinics in several cities 

across the United States.

Air Guns/Shooting

Air rifle and pistol shooting came onto the US 

competitive sports scene when WSUSA created a 

program in 1982. Competition requires shooting 

from three positions, using a specially designed 

shooting table or a wheelchair attachment on the 

athlete’s wheelchair. These positions are in accordance with the International Shooting Committee 

for the Disabled. The sport is organized nationally 

through the National Wheelchair Shooting Federation/WSUSA. Shooting is a Paralympic sport 

(Figure 25-1). 

Archery

Archery is organized by Disabled Archery USA, in 

accordance with Fédération Internationale Tir à l’Arc 

rules. Archers shoot 72 arrows from a distance of 70 m 

at a target of 122 cm. The National Archery Association 

has made a commitment to the US Olympic Committee/US Paralympics to act as the national governing 

body on behalf of archers with disabilities. Archery is 

a Paralympic sport (Figure 25-2). 
673

Sports and Recreational Opportunities

Basketball

The National Wheelchair Basketball Association, 

which organizes the sport nationally, currently consists of 185 teams competing in 21 conferences. Conference play culminates in annual men’s, women’s, 

youth, and collegiate national tournaments held each 

spring. Wheelchair basketball rules are a slightly 

modified form of the National Collegiate Athletic 

Association rules to accommodate the use of a wheelchair. Wheelchair basketball is a Paralympic sport 

(Figure 25-3). 

Bicycling/Handcycling

Handcycling is a form of adaptive cycling that 

enables athletes of all abilities to ride a “bike” exclusively using the upper body. Bicycle adaptations for 

hand propulsion include tandem cycles, units that 

attach to a wheelchair, and some true bicycles. Some 

models are designed for children. Handcycling follows the rules of the US Handcycling Federation and 

is governed by WSUSA. Both cycling and handcycling 

are Paralympic sports; handcycling, which made its 

first appearance in Athens, Greece, in 2004, is one of 

the newest competitions at the Paralympic Games 

(Figure 25-4).

Billiards

Billiards is regulated by the Wheelchair Poolplayers Association. All players must use a wheelchair for 

pool competition and must remain seated at all times 

while at the table (Figure 25-5). 

Bowling

Wheelchair bowling is regulated by the American 

Wheelchair Bowling Association using modified 

American Bowling Congress rules. The Association 

hosts an annual national tournament and sanctions 

numerous other tournaments and local league play 

(Figure 25-6). 

Camping

The Office of Special Populations of the National 

Park Service maintains up-to-date information on 

accessible parks and offers an individualized search 

Figure 25-1. Air rifle shooting, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska. 

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-2. Archery, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-3. Basketball, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.
674

Care of the Combat Amputee

service for a particular geographic area. Many groups 

organize camping trips into the wilderness for individuals with disabilities. 

Canoeing

Canoeing offers freedom to explore areas where a 

wheelchair will not go. Open canoes offer easy entry 

and exit and provide room for friends and gear, including wheelchairs. 

Curling

Wheelchair curling is a game of great skill and 

strategy. The first World Cup in Curling for wheelchair 

players was held in January 2000 in Crans-Montana, 

Switzerland. Wheelchair curling had its debut at the 

Torino 2006 Paralympic Winter Games. The sport 

is open to male and female athletes with a physical 

disability in the lower part of the body, including 

athletes with significant impairments in lower leg/

gait function (eg, spinal injury, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, double leg amputation) who require a 

wheelchair for daily mobility. Each team must include 

male and female players. The game is governed by 

and played according to the rules of the World Curling 

Federation, with only one modification—no sweeping 

(Figure 25-7).

Fencing 

Through the sport of wheelchair fencing, athletes 

practice the centuries-old art of swordsmanship. 

Wheelchair fencing was developed by Sir Ludwig 

Figure 25-4. Handcycling, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-5. Billiards, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-6. Bowling, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.
675

Sports and Recreational Opportunities

Guttmann at the Stoke Mandeville Hospital and introduced at the 1960 Paralympic Games in Rome. In 2006, 

24 countries practiced wheelchair fencing. Requiring 

a combination of agility, strength, and concentration, 

fencers compete on one or more of the three weapons, 

foil, epee, or saber. Athletes compete in wheelchairs 

that are fastened to the floor. The official governing 

body is the International Wheelchair and Amputee 

Sports Federation. Wheelchair fencing is a Paralympic 

sport.

Fishing

Fishing is a sport that can be fully enjoyed by 

people with disabilities; a variety of assistive devices are available to meet their needs. Competitive 

bass fishing tournaments for anglers with physical 

disabilities are held throughout the United States, 

including the Paralyzed Veterans of America (PVA) 

Bass Tour (Figure 25-8).

Flying 

Hand-controlled flying has grown in popularity 

since the Federal Aviation Administration approved 

the use of portable hand controls.

Football

Although it is a fledgling sport in terms of national 

organization, wheelchair football has been played for 

many years. Only a few modifications of the National 

Collegiate Athletic Association rules have been made 

for the sport. These include a 60-yard surface playing 

field with 8-yard end zones, six-person teams, twohand touch tackles, down-field throws to simulate 

kicks, and 15 yards for a first down.

Figure 25-7. Curling, 27th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2007, Wisconsin.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-8. Southeastern Paralyzed Veterans of America 

BASS Tournament, 2008.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.
676

Care of the Combat Amputee

Golf

Golf is easily adapted for people with disabilities 

through the use of modified golf equipment. Instructional clinics are popular throughout the United States. 

Hockey

Sled hockey is played at the regional, sectional, 

national, international, and Paralympic levels. Ice sled 

(sledge) hockey was invented at a Stockholm, Sweden, 

rehabilitation center in the early 1960s by a group of 

Swedish men who, despite their physical impairment, 

wanted to continue playing hockey. The group modified a metal-frame sled, or sledge, with two regularsized ice hockey skate blades that allowed the puck to 

pass underneath. Just as in ice hockey, sled hockey is 

played with six players (including a goalie) at a time. 

Players propel themselves on their sledge by using 

spikes on the ends of two 3-foot-long sticks, which 

also allow the player to shoot and pass ambidextrously. 

Rinks and goals are regulation Olympic-size, and 

games consist of three 15-minute stop-time periods. 

Sled hockey is a Paralympic sport.

Horseback Riding

Horseback riding for the disabled is a popular therapeutic activity offered at a number of stables throughout the United States. Equestrian is a Paralympic sport.

Hunting

Hunting with either a bow-and-arrow or gun is 

regulated by state law. Many states and organizations 

have programs designed specifically for the disabled. 

For more information, contact individual state wildlife 

management services.

Kayaking

Opportunities for competitive kayaking—both 

whitewater and flat water—are expanding. The sport 

demands primarily upper-body strength, and athletes 

with lower level disabilities can compete equally with 

nondisabled competitors. The Disabled Paddlers Committee of the American Canoe Association governs 

the sport.

National Disabled Veterans Winter Sports Clinic

The National Disabled Veterans Winter Sports 

Clinic is currently the largest rehabilitative program 

of its type in the world and includes adaptive physical 

activities as well as workshops and educational sessions that aid in the rehabilitation of severely disabled 

veterans. Activities such as Alpine and Nordic skiing, 

snowmobiling, scuba diving, fly fishing, wheelchair 

golf, wheelchair self-defense, rock wall climbing, sled 

hockey, trapshooting, blues harmonica instruction, dog 

sledding, goal ball for the visually impaired, curling, 

wheelchair fencing, and amputee volleyball are only 

a small sampling of adaptive sports and activities 

that have been offered over the past 20 years. Set in 

the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, the Winter Sports 

Clinic targets disabled veterans with spinal cord injuries, amputations, neurological disorders, and visual 

impairments to improve physical well-being, mental 

health, and self-esteem. Copresented by the VA and 

Disabled American Veterans, the event hosts over 400 

disabled veterans each year.

National Veterans Wheelchair Games

Developed by the VA in conjunction with the International Year of Disabled Persons, the National Veterans Wheelchair Games made its debut on the grounds 

of the McGuire VA Hospital in Richmond, Virginia, 

in 1981. There, 74 veterans participated in track, field, 

swimming, table tennis, slalom, bowling, and billiards. 

With each successive year, the number of competitors 

has grown, and now more than 500 veterans compete 

annually. In 1985 PVA became a copresenter, lending 

expertise in sports management and fundraising. 

The National Veterans Wheelchair Games is now 

the largest annual wheelchair sporting event in the 

world, with 16 core events, including archery, basketball, bowling, handcycling, nine ball, quad rugby, 

softball, swimming, track and field, and weightlifting, 

conducted in a 4-day meet. Athletes range in experience from novice to master (age 40 and up), and seven 

physical classification levels ensure equal competition. 

In 2006 the VA and the US Olympic Committee signed 

a memorandum of understanding pledging mutual 

cooperation on training opportunities for veterans 

to qualify for future Paralympic teams. In 2007 an 

amputee clinic emphasizing amputees competing on 

prostheses was held for the first time, with various 

track and field events conducted and demonstrated by 

athletes and coaches of the US Paralympic team.

The National Veterans Wheelchair Games is open 

to all veterans eligible for healthcare through VA 

who have a physical disability requiring the use of a 

wheelchair for sports competition. The secretary of 

Veterans Affairs can and has made exceptions to this 

requirement to include active duty service members in 

their initial stages of rehabilitation who may not have 

been officially discharged from the service. This could 
677

Sports and Recreational Opportunities

include men and women who served in Operation 

Iraqi Freedom, Operation Enduring Freedom, or other 

conflicts. Veterans and service members attending the 

National Veterans Wheelchair Games for the first time 

receive an opportunity to gain knowledge from other 

veteran athletes and to acquire sports skills.9

Paralympic Games

The Paralympic Games is an international competition among each nation’s elite athletes with physical 

disabilities, including amputees, and is second in size 

only to the Olympic Games. The Paralympic Games 

and the Paralympic Winter Games follow the Olympic 

Games and Olympic Winter Games at the same venues and facilities. The Paralympic Games have been 

played since 1960 and now feature competition in 19 

sports. The Paralympic Winter Games, which showcase four sports, were first held in 1976. The following 

Paralympic sports include competition for amputees: 

archery, basketball, curling, cycling, equestrian, fencing, powerlifting, rowing, rugby, sailing, shooting, 

skiing (Alpine and Nordic), sled hockey, swimming, 

table tennis, tennis, track and field, and volleyball. 

The Paralympic Games has three guiding principles: 

quality, quantity, and universality. The principle of 

quality is associated with the Games’ grade of excellence, accomplishment, and attainment, achieved 

by the exciting and inspirational showcasing of elite 

athletes. Quantity is ensuring that athletes have the 

support and tools necessary for success, and universality is establishing conditions that reflect the diverse 

nature of the athletes, including gender and disability 

types.10,11

Power Soccer

With the growth of wheelchair sports, power chair 

users now have a competitive sport of their own. 

Power soccer is played with four players on a team 

trying to push an 18-in physio-ball over the end line of 

a regulation basketball court for a score. Thick plexiglas 

guards protect the players’ feet and wheelchairs and 

allow the player to control the ball (Figure 25-9).

Quad Rugby

Quad rugby is a unique, competitive sport for quadriplegics. The game is played on a basketball court by 

four-member teams using a volleyball. The objective 

is to carry the ball across the opponent’s goal line. 

WSUSA is the national governing body for this sport. 

Quad rugby is governed by the US Quad Rugby Association and is a Paralympic sport (Figure 25-10).

Road Racing

Wheelchair road racing is generally run in conjunction with established road races, and wheelchair 

athletes compete in a separate division against other 

wheelchair athletes.

Sailing

New designs in sailboats and adaptive equipment 

allow sailors with disabilities to get on and off and maneuver around sailboats with no or minimal assistance, 

enabling them to handle a boat much as a nondisabled 

person would. Sailing is a Paralympic sport. 

Figure 25-9. Power soccer, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-10. Quad rugby, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.
678

Care of the Combat Amputee

Figure 25-11. Slalom, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-12. Softball, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-13. Swimming, 23rd National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2003, Long Beach, California.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-14. Table tennis, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Scuba Diving

Scuba diving has become readily available to people 

with disabilities as instructors become more aware of 

these divers’ capabilities. 

Skiing

Both competitive and recreation skiing is available 

for people with disabilities. Athletes can compete in 

downhill racing, slalom, and giant slalom. Amputees 

compete standing up in either three- or four-track (ie, 

with outriggers skis) competition or use a sit-ski or 

mono-ski, depending on their disability. Nordic and 

Alpine skiing are governed by DSUSA and are Paralympic sports. 

Slalom

Slalom is a unique wheelchair sport that does not 

parallel an established able-bodied sport. It is a timed 

test of speed, dexterity, and maneuverability in which 

competitors follow an obstacle course clearly marked 

by arrows, flags, and gates. Slalom competition is 

governed by Wheelchair Athletics of the USA and 

WSUSA (Figure 25-11).

Softball

Competitive wheelchair softball is played under 

the official rules of 16-inch slow-pitch softball as approved by the Amateur Softball Association (Figure 

25-12).
679

Sports and Recreational Opportunities

Swimming

Competitive and recreational swimming can be 

enjoyed by those with disabilities. Swimmers compete in a variety of distances in the standard strokes 

of freestyle, backstroke, butterfly, and breaststroke. 

Swimming is governed by USA Swimming and is a 

Paralympic sport (Figure 25-13).

Table Tennis

Singles and doubles competition for men and women is played regionally, nationally, and internationally, 

in accordance with US Table Tennis Association rules. 

Quadriplegics and others with impaired hand function 

play table tennis by strapping or taping the paddle to 

their hand. Table tennis is governed by the American 

Wheelchair Table Tennis Association and is a Paralympic sport (Figure 25-14).

Tennis

Wheelchair tennis can be enjoyed with nondisabled 

family and friends. The sport follows the rules of the 

US Tennis Association with one exception: the wheelchair tennis player is allowed two bounces instead of 

one. Athletes are classified according to their performance in competition. Introductory lessons are often 

available at community tennis programs. Wheelchair 

tennis is a Paralympic sport.

Track and Field

Track events are run on a hard surface, 400-m oval 

tack, ranging from 100 m to 10,000 m. Field events include the javelin, shot put, and discus. Track and field 

is governed by Wheelchair Track & Field, USA, and is 

a Paralympic sport (Figures 25-15 and 25-16).

Trap and Skeet Shooting

Trap and skeet shooting are two sports that allow 

wheelchair users to compete alongside nondisabled 

shooters under the same rules. Tournaments are held 

throughout the United States, including the PVA National Trapshoot Circuit (Figure 25-17). 

Figure 25-15. Javelin, track and field, 28th National Veterans 

Wheelchair Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-16. Shot put, track and field, 28th National Veterans 

Wheelchair Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.
680

Care of the Combat Amputee

Waterskiing

People with disabilities who have the desire to 

learn to water ski can do so using a modified ski or 

technique.

Weightlifting

Athletes competing in the conventional bench press 

are placed in divisions based on body weight. Weightlifting is governed by US Wheelchair Weightlifting 

Association, and powerlifting is a Paralympic sport 

(Figure 25-18). 

Figure 25-18. Weightlifting, 28th National Veterans Wheelchair Games, 2008, Omaha, Nebraska.

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

Figure 25-17. Trapshooting, 27th National Veterans Wheelchair Games, 2007, Wisconsin. 

Photograph: Courtesy of National Veterans Wheelchair 

Games.

SUMMARY

Originating in the wheelchair games developed 

by World War II veterans, a wide variety of sports 

and recreational opportunities are available today 

to veterans and others with disabilities. Both recreational and competitive activities have documented 

therapeutic benefits for participants. Athletes participate in competitive sports according to classification 

systems based on the extent of their disabilities. Ongoing development of assistive technology increases 

the capabilities of amputees to engage in recreational 

as well as practical activities. An extensive list of organizations dedicated to promoting access to these 

activities for all Americans follows in the attachment 

to this chapter

REFERENCES

1. Guttmann L. Textbook of Sport for the Disabled. Aylesburg, England: HM&M Publishers; 1976.

2. Winnick JP, ed. Adapted Physical Education and Sport. 4th ed. Champaign, Ill: Human Kinetics Publishers; 2005. 

3. About Wheelchair Sports, USA. Wheelchair Sports, USA Web site. Available at: http://www.wsusa.org/. Accessed 

January 4, 2008.

4. Coyle CP, Kinney WB, Riley B, Shank JW, eds. Benefits of Therapeutic Recreation: A Consensus View. Philadelphia, Pa: 

Temple University; 1991.
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Sports and Recreational Opportunities

5. Scruton J. Stoke Mandeville: Road to the Paralympics. Aylesbury, England: Peterhouse Press; 1998.

6. Paralyzed Veterans of America. A Guide to Wheelchair Sports and Recreation. Waldorf, Md: PVA Distribution Center; 

1997.

7. Sports associations. Sports ‘N Spokes. 2007;33(1):40.

8. Sports & recreation programs. Active Living. 2007; 5(1):87–88

9. National Veterans Wheelchair Games face sheet. National Veterans Wheelchair Games Web site. Available at: http://

www1.va.gov/vetevent/nvwg/2008/default.cfm. Accessed January 6, 2008. 

10. Paralympic Games principles. Paralympic Games Web site. Available at: http://www.paralympic.org/release/

Main_Sections_Menu/Paralympic_Games/Games_Principles/. Accessed January 4, 2008.

11. Steadward R, Peterson C. Paralympics: Where Heroes Come. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: One Shot Holdings; 1997.
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ATTACHMENT: ORGANIZATIONS PROMOTING SPORTS AND 

RECREATION FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 

In addition to the activities described in this chapter, a number of organizations provide sports and recreation programming for individuals with disabilities. The information provided is a general introduction to organizations that offer sports 

and recreation programs for amputees in the United States.

Access to Sailing

6475 E Pacific Coast Highway

Long Beach, CA 90803

(562) 433-0561

www.accesstosailing.org

Access to Sailing provides therapeutic rehabilitation to disabled and disadvantaged children and adults through interactive sailing outings.

AccessSportAmerica

Acton, MA

(978) 264-0985

www.accessportamerica.org

AccesSportAmerica, a national nonprofit organization, is dedicated to the discovery and achievement of higher function and fitness for children and adults of all disabilities through high-challenge sports. 

Achilles Track Club

New York, NY

(212) 354-0300

Achilles is a worldwide organization, represented in 60 countries. Its mission is to enable people with all types of disabilities to participate in mainstream athletics, to promote personal achievement, enhance self-esteem, and lower barriers 

between people.

Adapted Adventures

Evergreen, CO

(877) 679-2770

www.adaptiveadventures.org

Founded by a group of physically challenged individuals in 1999, Adaptive Adventures saw a need to increase awareness and participation in disabled sports and recreation for people of all ages. The organization improves the quality of 

life of individuals with disabilities through year-round adaptive sports and recreation programs.

Adapted Sports Association

Durango, CO

(970) 259-0374

www.asadurango.org 

The Adaptive Sports Association (ASA) was founded in 1983 by Dave Spencer, a ski instructor who lost a leg to cancer 

as a young man. Spencer believed that skiing could challenge and increase the self-esteem of all individuals with disabilities. ASA helps to enrich and transform the lives of people with disabilities through sports. Through sports and recreation, participants meet positive role models, increase socialization skills, improve body image, and combat depression. 

Through the use of state-of-the-art equipment, ASA is able to offer its services to individuals with every type of disability. 

Over 50 ASA ski and snowboard instructors are nationally certified through Professional Ski Instructors of America and 

the American Association of Snowboard Instructors. ASA is also a member of DSUSA. Quality instruction and safety are 

primary concerns of ASA. 

Adapted Sports Center

Crested Butte, CO

(866) 349-2296

www.adaptivesports.org
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The Adaptive Sports Center is a nonprofit organization that provides year-round recreation activities for people with 

disabilities and their families.

Adaptive Aquatics

Wilsonville, AL

(205) 807-7519

www.adaptiveaquatics.org

Each year from April to October, Adaptive Aquatics provides nationwide water skiing instruction through comprehensive clinics and workshops. With the use of specialized equipment and expert instruction, Adaptive Aquatics opens 

avenues to greater independence and allows people with disabilities to experience the excitement of water sports. 

Adventure Pursuit

Parkersburg, WV

(304) 485-0911

www.adventurepursuit.org

Adventure Pursuit is a nonprofit corporation that offers adventures in boating, biking, and swimming. 

All Out Adventures

Easthampton, MA

(413) 527-8980

www.alloutadventures.org

All Out Adventure’s mission is to provide individuals of all abilities unlimited opportunities to build confidence, foster 

independence, and promote wellness while exploring new environments. It offers summer and winter recreation programs throughout the New England area.

America’s Athletes With Disabilities

Silver Spring, MD

(301) 589-9042

www.americasathletes.org 

Founded in 1985, America’s Athletes With Disabilities is a consortium of both single and multiple disability groups, 

organizations, individuals, and corporate sponsors who passionately advocate both single and multiple sport activities 

and programs to better serve persons with physical disabilities. The organization improves the quality of life for children, 

young people, and adults with physical disabilities and their families through sports, recreation, leisure, and fitness programs.

American Canoe Association

7432 Alban Station Boulevard, Suite B-232

Springfield, VA 22150

(703) 451-0141

www.acanet.org

Established in 1980, the American Canoe Association has a strong commitment to making all aspects of canoe sports—

canoeing, river kayaking, and sea kayaking—accessible. The organization serves as a clearinghouse for information on 

paddling, as well as with paddlers on a one-to-one basis to recommend specific adaptations, instruction sites, and trip 

opportunities.

American Dancewheels Foundation, Inc

Bala-Cynwyd, PA

(215) 588-6671

www.americandancewheels.org 

The foundation provides wheelchair dancing instruction to the disabled community.
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American Wheelchair Bowling Association

PO Box 69

Clover, VA 24534

(434) 454-2269

www.awba.org

The American Wheelchair Bowling Association was formed in 1962 to organize and coordinate wheelchair bowling 

and provide national competition. Local and sectional tournaments are held across the country. Members receive a newsletter, rulebook, and a how-to guidebook on wheelchair bowling.

American Wheelchair Table Tennis Association

23 Parker Street

Port Chester, NY 10573

(914) 937-3932

American Wheelchair Table Tennis Association, a member organization of WSUSA, sanctions and conducts wheelchair 

table tennis tournaments throughout the United States. Membership entitles the individual to a quarterly newsletter, 

rulebook, and liability insurance, plus other benefits. The association organizes the American wheelchair table tennis team 

each year and also maintains a national athlete ranking system.

BlazeSports America

Atlanta, GA

(770) 850-8199

www.blazesports.com 

BlazeSports America is a direct legacy of the 1996 Paralympic Games held in Atlanta, Georgia, the first Paralympic 

Games held in the United States. In 1993 the Atlanta Paralympic Organizing Committee established the US Disabled 

Athlete’s Fund (USDAF) to develop a national program making community-based adaptive sports a reality for children 

and adults with physical disabilities. Following the 1996 Paralympic Games, USDAF, in partnership with the Georgia 

Recreation and Parks Association, introduced BlazeSports Georgia in 1997. BlazeSports America provides sports training, 

competitions, summer camps, and other sports and recreational opportunities for youth and adults who use wheelchairs 

or have a visual impairment, amputation, or neurological disability such as cerebral palsy or spina bifida. 

Breckenridge Outdoor Education Center 

PO Box 697 

Breckenridge, CO 80424

(970) 453-6422 

www.boec.org

Breckenridge Outdoor Education Center offers year-round wilderness adventure programs throughout the Rocky 

Mountains. Activities include backpacking, rock climbing, rafting, downhill and cross-country skiing, winter camping, 

and mountaineering.

Challenge Aspen

Aspen, CO

(970) 923-0578

www.challengeaspen.com 

Established in 1995, Challenge Aspen provides access for all to a wide variety of seasonal sports and recreational and 

cultural activities for adults and children. Thanks to Challenge Aspen and a dedicated volunteer staff and board of directors, those with physical and mental challenges have access to recreational sports such as downhill and cross-country skiing, whitewater rafting, horseback riding, swimming, gymnastics, hiking, and fishing. Seasonal camps include a mono-ski 

camp and a rock climbing camp for paraplegics and amputees and a ski festival for the visually impaired. Based in Snowmass Village, with access to the area’s four ski mountains, Challenge Aspen currently serves more than 400 participants 

each year, with over 2,100 participant days.
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Challenged Athletes Foundation

San Diego, CA

(858) 866-0959

www.challengedathletes.org

It is the mission of the Challenged Athletes Foundation to provide opportunities and support to people with physical 

disabilities so they can pursue active lifestyles through physical fitness and competitive athletics. The Foundation believes 

that involvement in sports at any level increases self-esteem, encourages independence, and enhances quality of life. 

Colorado Discover Ability Integrated

Outdoor Adventure

Fruita, CO

(970) 858-0200

www.coloradodiscoverability.com 

Colorado Discover Ability is a nonprofit organization whose mission is to promote increased independence and selfworth through outdoor recreation for individuals with disabilities, as well as their families and friends. Its programs have 

been serving the disabled in the Grand Valley area of Colorado for over 20 years.

Cooperative Wilderness Handicapped Outdoor Group

Idaho State University

Box 8128

Pocatello, ID 83209

(208) 282-3912

Cooperative Wilderness Handicapped Outdoor Group offers a year-round calendar of whitewater rafting, camping, 

all-terrain vehicle trips, waterskiing, and Alpine skiing in rugged Idaho terrain. Activities span a half-day to a week.

Courage Center

Minneapolis, MN

(763) 520-0262

www.courage.org 

Since 1928, Minneapolis-based Courage Center, a nonprofit rehabilitation and resource center, has improved the lives 

of people experiencing barriers to health and independence. Its continuum of care includes rehabilitation therapies; transitional rehabilitation; pain management; vocational and community-based services; and camping, sports, and recreation 

programs, including fitness centers and aquatic therapy, for people of all ages and abilities. Courage Center specializes in 

pain management, brain injury, spinal cord injury, and congenital disabilities. 

Department of Veterans Affairs

810 Vermont Ave, NW

Washington, DC 20420

www.va.gov

The VA is the second largest cabinet department in the US government. The VA strives to meet the needs of America’s 

veterans and their families in a responsive, timely, and compassionate manner in recognition of their service to the nation. 

With 220,000 employees, more than 160 hospitals, hundreds of outpatient clinics, and 58 regional offices, the department 

responds to the healthcare and benefits needs of the nation’s 25 million veterans.

Wheelchair sports originated after World War II when disabled veterans began playing wheelchair basketball in VA 

hospitals throughout the United States. Wheelchair recreation and competition soon spread to other sports, such as track 

and field, bowling, swimming, and archery. The National Veterans Wheelchair Games, along with the VA’s three other 

national rehabilitation special events (the National Disabled Veterans Winter Sports Clinic, the National Veterans Golden 

Age Games, and the National Veterans Creative Arts Festival) are outgrowths of VA’s historical involvement in wheelchair sports. Since they were founded, these events have been on the cutting edge of innovative rehabilitative programs.
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Disabled Archery, USA

PO Box 698

Langley, WA 98260

(360) 321-5979

www.da-usa.org

Disabled Archery USA’s mission is to discover, develop, and support disabled men and women in the United States in 

their pursuit of world-class archery. As a part of this mission, and in coordination with USA Archery, Disabled Archery 

USA names athletes to the US national disabled archery team each year. Members from this national pool of athletes are 

then eligible for selection to various national archery teams that compete in events such as the International Paralympic 

Committee World Championships and the Paralympic Games. The selection process for these teams is a coordinated effort among Disabled Archery USA, USA Archery, and US Paralympics.

Disabled Sports, USA

451 Hungerford Drive, Suite 100

Rockville, MD 20850

(301) 217-0960

www.dsusa.org

A national, nonprofit, 501(c)(3) organization established in 1967 by disabled Vietnam veterans to serve the war injured, 

DSUSA now offers nationwide sports rehabilitation programs to anyone with a permanent disability. Sports and recreational activities include snow and water skiing, aerobics, canoeing, river rafting, biking, and horseback riding. Participants include those with visual impairments, amputations, spinal cord injury, dwarfism, multiple sclerosis, head injury, 

cerebral palsy, and other neuromuscular and orthopedic conditions.

In most cases, instruction and use of equipment are offered free of charge or at minimal cost. DSUSA organizes regional and national ski competitions from which the US disabled ski team is selected. DSUSA also organizes regional and 

national competitions for amputees, as well as fitness clinics for people with a wide range of disabilities. DSUSA members 

receive a newsletter three times each year and a reduction in program fees.

Like WSUSA, DSUSA is a member of the US Olympic Committee and therefore responsible for the sanctioning and 

conduct of competitions and training camps to prepare and select athletes to represent the United States at Summer and 

Winter Paralympic Games. Both groups function as umbrella organizations for their national governing bodies. DSUSA 

oversees Alpine and Nordic skiing, track and field, volleyball, swimming, cycling, and powerlifting.

In partnership with the Wounded Warrior Project, DSUSA conducts the Wounded Warrior Disabled Sports Project, 

which aims to work with wounded service members as soon as they enter occupational and physical therapy. With the 

proper adaptive equipment and trained instructors, patients can successfully learn the basics of almost any sport in just 1 

day. This immediate success provides a foundation for the development of a positive self-image and outlook on life, key 

factors leading to an independent, full, and productive life. Even those suffering from the most severe injuries (eg, triple 

amputee, blindness, paralysis) are able to compete in the most extreme of sports. Rock climbing, kayaking, snow skiing, snowboarding, water skiing, golf, basketball, track and field, cycling, sailing, outrigger canoeing, scuba, wheelchair 

basketball, sled hockey, hunting and fishing are just a small sample of the different types of sports that the project offers. 

The project provides wounded service members and their families and friends these opportunities free of charge, including transportation, lodging, adaptive equipment, and individualized instructions. Family members are taught the sport as 

well. Programs take place at sites throughout the United States. 

Eastern Amputee Golf Association

Bethlehem, PA

(888) 868-0992

www.eaga.org 

The Eastern Amputee Golf Association was formed by Bob Buck, retired National Amputee Golf Association’s eastern 

trustee, and others. The organization was formed with the same guidelines as the National Amputee Golf Association but 

has its own officers, constitution, bylaws, and membership dues. Its prime purpose is to organize and conduct amputee 

golfing events and “learn to golf” clinics for any physically challenged individual, provide communication between its 

members, and act as a bridge between its members and the National Association.
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Sports and Recreational Opportunities

Electric Wheelchair Hockey Association

Minneapolis, MN

(763) 535-4736

www.powerhockey.com

Electric Wheelchair Hockey’s mission is to provide a quality hockey program for persons requiring the use of an power 

wheelchair in daily life. Power Hockey is based on basic hockey rules with a few adaptations to allow everyone in a 

power wheelchair the ability to participate.

Fishing Has No Boundaries

Hayward, WI

(800) 243-3462

www.fhnbinc.org 

Fishing Has No Boundaries provides recreational fishing opportunities for all anglers with disabilities regardless of 

age, race, gender, or disability. A resource for information on adaptive fishing equipment and accessibility, the organization promotes research and development of specialized adaptive equipment to enhance fishing experiences for anglers 

with disabilities.

Freedom’s Wings International

P.O. Box 7076

East Brunswick, NJ 08816

(800) 382-1197

www.freedomswings.org

Freedom’s Wings International is a nonprofit organization run by and for people with physical disabilities that provides the opportunity for those who are physically challenged to fly in specially adapted sailplanes, either as a passenger 

or as a member of the flight training program. For an annual membership fee, Freedom’s Wings International provides 

flight training with certified instructors, hand-control–equipped aircraft, and support equipment for those who wish to 

become sailplane pilots.

Handicapped Scuba Association

1104 El Prado

San Clemente, CA 92672

(949) 498-4540

www.hsascuba.com

Since 1974 the nonprofit Handicapped Scuba Association has held diving classes pairing nondisabled with disabled 

divers. It also operates as a dive club, offering refresher courses and coordinating excursions. The organization can provide lectures and video presentations to any group. A videotape on scuba diving for people with disabilities is available. 

Dedicated to improving the physical and social well-being of people with disabilities through the exhilarating sport of 

scuba diving, the organization has become the worldwide authority in the field.

International Wheelchair Aviators

PO Box 2799

Big Bear Lake, CA 92314

(909) 585-9663

www.wheelchairaviators.org

Members of International Wheelchair Aviators, open to anyone interested in learning to fly, receive a monthly newsletter plus a roster of the group and are encouraged to participate in monthly fly-ins.

John’s Golf Course

Eureka, MT

(406) 889-3685

www.johnsgolfcourse.com

John’s Golf Course is a nonprofit course for the handicapped with no greens fees.
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Care of the Combat Amputee

Kayak Adventures

Jacksonville Beach, FL

(904) 249-6200

www.kayakadventuresllc.com/disable.htm 

With specialized paddling skills, technical knowledge, and adaptive equipment, Kayak Adventures offers kayaking to 

people with disabilities. 

National Ability Center

Park City, UT

(435) 649-3991

Founded in 1985, the National Ability Center is a nonprofit, tax-exempt organization offering activities for the disabled at an affordable rate, with scholarships available, to ensure participation for all applicants. Programs are supported 

through special events, grants from private corporations and foundations, individual donations, and program fees.

National Alliance for Accessible Golf

Reston, WA

(703) 234-4136

www.accessgolf.org 

Formed in 2001 by leaders of the golf industry and representatives of organizations serving people with disabilities, 

the National Alliance for Accessible Golf works to increase participation of people with disabilities in the game of golf.

National Amputee Golf Association

11 Walnut Hill Road

Amherst, NH 03031

(800) 633-6242

www.nagagolf.org

Begun in 1947, the National Amputee Golf Association is open to anyone who has lost a hand or foot at a major joint. It 

conducts learn-to-golf clinics for any physically disabled individual in the country. Members receive an annual magazine, 

newsletters, and tournament information.

National Rifle Association Disabled Shooting Services

11250 Waples Mill Road

Fairfax, VA 22030

(703) 267-1495

www.nrahq.org/compete/disabled.asp

The programs offered by the National Rifle Association’s Disabled Shooting Services department have enabled thousands of Americans with physical disabilities to enjoy a variety of shooting activities, including competitive events and 

hunting. The organization has also worked to ensure that many shooting facilities are wheelchair-accessible.

National Sports Center for the Disabled

Winter Park, CO

(970) 726-1548

www.nscd.org 

The National Sports Center for the Disabled began in 1970 as a one-time ski lesson for children with amputations for 

the Children’s Hospital of Denver. Today it is one of the largest outdoor therapeutic recreation agencies in the world. Each 

year, thousands of children and adults with disabilities take to the ski slopes, mountain trails, and golf courses to learn 

more about sports, and themselves. With specially trained staff and its own adaptive equipment laboratory, the Center 

teaches a variety of winter and summer sports and activities to individuals with almost any physical, cognitive, emotional, or behavioral diagnosis.
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Sports and Recreational Opportunities

National Wheelchair Basketball Association

8245 Charles Crawford Lane

Charlotte, NC 28262

(704) 547-0176

www.nwba.org

Founded in 1948, the National Wheelchair Basketball Association (NWBA) is the nation’s oldest and largest disability 

sport organization. Based in Colorado Springs, Colorado, the NWBA is a nonprofit organization that serves as the national 

governing body for men’s, women’s, intercollegiate, and youth wheelchair basketball in the United States. The NWBA’s 

mission is to provide persons with permanent lower limb disabilities the opportunity to play, learn, and compete in 

wheelchair basketball. Today over 2,000 member athletes compete on more than 185 teams throughout the United States.

In 1978 the NWBA established the Central Intercollegiate Conference—the only collegiate conference for disabled 

sport—to provide student-athletes with disabilities the opportunity to compete at the collegiate level. Since then, Conference member teams and their players have consistently competed at the sport’s highest competitive levels while adhering 

to National Collegiate Athletic Association academic and eligibility standards. Today, the NWBA continues to be a major 

force in wheelchair basketball with the development of players and the dedication of a group of highly respected professionals in the areas of coaching and organization.

National Wheelchair Poolplayers Association

4370 Majestic Lane

Fairfax, VA 22033

(703) 817-1215

www.nwpainc.org

Established in 1994, the National Wheelchair Poolplayers Association is the governing body for all organized wheelchair pool. The association has nearly 400 members worldwide, including players of all ages and disability. All players 

must use a wheelchair for pool competition and must remain seated at all times while at the table.

National Wheelchair Shooting Federation

102 Park Avenue

Rockledge, PA 19046

(215) 379-2359

A member of WSUSA, the National Wheelchair Shooting Federation conducts and sanctions air rifle and pistol shooting in the United States. Members receive WSUSA services, the constitution and bylaws, and a bimonthly newsletter. Each 

year the Federation selects and organizes the US Wheelchair Shooting Team, which competes in international competition.

National Wheelchair Softball Association

6000 West Floyd Avenue #110

Denver, CO 80227

(303) 936-5587

www.wheelchairsoftball.org

Founded in 1976, the National Wheelchair Softball Association is the national governing body for wheelchair softball 

in the United States. Membership is open to competing teams and associate members. Members receive newsletters and 

other information throughout the year. The National Wheelchair Softball Tournament, held each year in September, is a 

double elimination tournament of 10 or more teams.

North American Riding for the Handicapped Association

PO Box 33150

Denver, CO 80233

(800) 369-RIDE

www.narha.org

North American Riding for the Handicapped Association has chapters nationwide, with specially trained teachers and 

horses available for use by riders with disabilities. Several types of membership are available, and the association provides a bimonthly newsletter, an annual journal, and discounts on related publications.
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Northeast Passage

Durham, NH

(603) 862-0070

www.nepassage.org 

Northeast Passage, founded in 1990, is a nationally recognized leader in the provision of innovative therapeutic recreation services. The organization delivers disability-related health promotion and adapted sports programs throughout 

New England. It is a program of the University of New Hampshire’s School of Health and Human Services and an affiliate of DSUSA. Based at the University of New Hampshire’s Durham campus, Northeast Passage runs six core programs 

for people with disabilities, their families, and friends.

Paralyzed Veterans of America

801 Eighteenth Street, NW

Washington, DC 20006

(800) 424-8200

www.pva.org

The PVA was founded in 1946 with the vision of a better life for paralyzed veterans and others with disabilities. In 

pursuing this goal, PVA has been instrumental in achieving significant advances in the areas of accessibility, employment, 

spinal cord injury/dysfunction research, and sports and recreation, so that people with disabilities have opportunities 

for full participation in society. Since its earliest days, PVA has been a leader in the development of wheelchair sports in 

the United States. Today PVA sponsors many major national wheelchair sports championship events and supports such 

organizations as the National Wheelchair Basketball Association, US Quad Rugby Association, National Wheelchair Softball Association, American Wheelchair Bowling Association, and the National Wheelchair Poolplayers Association. PVA 

also publishes Sports ’n Spokes, a full-color magazine that covers exciting events, personalities, training, and equipment in 

wheelchair sports. PVA and VA annually copresent the National Veterans Wheelchair Games. 

PVA’s boating and fishing program introduces people to recreational and competitive fishing. Its hallmark event is the 

PVA Bass Tour, an event sanctioned by the Bass Anglers Sportsman Society (BASS), through which PVA chapters across 

the country host fishing tournaments for people with disabilities. Anglers may fish from a boat or from shore, paired 

with able-bodied boat partners or volunteers on shore to provide any necessary assistance with fishing tasks. Each year 

an angler of the year earns a coveted spot in the BASS Federation Nation National Championship and the opportunity to 

qualify in the Bassmasters Classic. 

The PVA shooting sports program has activities ranging from recreational and competitive shooting to big- and 

small-game hunts. The cornerstone of the program is the PVA National Trapshoot Circuit, which consists of tournaments 

throughout the country that give individuals with disabilities a chance to participate in the recreational and competitive 

sport of trapshooting. Trapshooting is one of the few sports where there are no rule distinctions between competitors using wheelchairs or standing.

In 2004 PVA implemented the Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation Enduring Freedom Injured Troop Support program 

to provide outreach to Walter Reed Army Medical Center and financially support the participation of recently injured 

troops from the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan in the National Veterans Wheelchair Games, PVA Bass Tour, PVA National Trapshoot Circuit, Vermejo Park Ranch-PVA Elk Hunt, assorted hunting opportunities, and the Outdoor Channel 

Offshore Classic Sailfish Tournament. In 2007 PVA partnered with the National Wheelchair Poolplayers Association and 

the American Wheelchair Bowling Association to implement a billiards tournament series and a bowling tournament 

series, hosted by PVA chapters.

As part of its outdoor sports development program, PVA provides adaptive sporting equipment to military installations and state wildlife agencies. Such equipment provides a critical bridge of accessibility, enabling those with disabilities 

to participate in outdoor sports. For example, Huntmasters, wheelchair-accessible compartments that elevate to 20 ft, 

afford occupants a vantage point for hunting or wildlife viewing. PVA’s commitment to wheelchair sports and recreation 

is recognized by the sporting industry, government agencies, and other organizations dedicated to providing outdoor 

experiences, sports, and recreational activities for their members. 

Physically Challenged Bowhunters of America, Inc

New Alexandria, PA

(724) 668-7439

www.pcba-inc.org

Founded in 1993, the nonprofit Physically Challenged Bowhunters of America Inc has opened the outdoor sports 

of target archery, competitive archery, and bowhunting to tens of thousands of physically challenged people across the 

United States and Canada.
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US Adaptive Recreation Center

Big Bear Lake, CA

(909) 584-0269

www.usarc.org 

The US Adaptive Recreation Center was founded in 1983 (as California Handicapped Skiers) to ensure that access to 

skiing is available to people with all types of disabilities. The Center believes people are empowered when they undertake 

and succeed at challenging outdoor recreation. In 1989 the Center established the first full-time on-site adaptive ski school 

in southern California at Bear Mountain Resort. Adaptive watersports and summer camping programs were added in 

1993.

US Disabled Alpine Ski Team

PO Box 100

Park City, UT 84060

(435) 649-9090

www.usskiteam.com

Begun after World War II, the US Disabled Alpine Ski Team is composed of athletes with disabilities who receive training with the US Ski Team.

US Fencing Association

1 Olympic Plaza

Colorado Springs, CO 80909

(719) 866-4511

www.usfencing.org

Wheelchair fencing in the United States is governed by the WSUSA. US Fencing Association wheelchair fencers are 

chosen to compete at the Paralympic and international levels.

US Golf Association

Colorado Springs, CO

(719) 471-4810, ext 15

www.resourcecenter.usga.org 

The US Golf Association believes that golf’s enjoyment should be accessible to all. The Association’s Resource Center 

for Individuals with Disabilities, created to make golf more accessible for the growing population of individuals with disabilities, gathers and makes available information vital to potential or current golfers with disabilities and other interested 

members of the golf and medical communities.

US Handcycling Federation

PO Box 3538

Evergreen, CO 80439

(303) 459-4159

www.ushf.org

The US Handcycling Federation, governed by WSUSA, was formed in 1998 by wheelchair athletes, coaches, and supporters to promote integration of athletes with and without disabilities in the sport of cycling. The Federation is an association of individuals and organizations who share a common goal of health, fitness, and well-being for cyclists of all ages, 

abilities, and backgrounds. Handcycling is a form of adaptive cycling that enables athletes of all abilities to ride a “bike” 

exclusively using the upper body. Handcycling is also one of the newest competitions at the Paralympic Games, where it 

made its first appearance in Athens, Greece, in 2004.

US Olympic Committee/US Paralympics

One Olympic Plaza

Colorado Springs, CO 80909

(719) 632-5551

www.usoc.org

The US Olympic Committee, composed of 72 member organizations, is the coordinating body for Olympic-related 
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athletic activity in the United States. The Committee’s vision is to assist in finding opportunities for every American to 

participate in sport, regardless of gender, race, age, geography, or physical ability. US Paralympics is a division of the US 

Olympic Committee, formed in 2001 to increase support for Paralympic sport. 

The Paralympic military program is conducted in coordination with the VA and Department of Defense. Under a current proposal, the US Olympic Committee would coordinate Paralympic sport activities for service members at Walter 

Reed Army Medical Center, Brooke Army Medical Center, and US Navy Medical Center–San Diego, including daily 

coaching in multiple sports, on-site coordination of sport activities, and transition assistance to service members being 

discharged to home installations or civilian life. Existing activities are listed below.

Military Sport Camps

Paralympic military sports camps, held twice a year, provide opportunities for injured service members and veterans 

to demonstrate their abilities through clinics and low-impact competition. There is no cost to the service member. 

World-Class Athlete Programs

The Army and Air Force world-class athlete programs allow a military athlete full-time training for up to 3 years 

prior to an Olympic Games. In 2005 both the Air Force and the Army programs became available for Paralympic-eligible 

athletes on active duty. Paralympic-eligible service members are identified by the Paralympic coaching staff at various 

qualification events across the country.

Veterans’ Paralympic Performance Program

The Veterans’ Paralympic Performance Program (VP3) is a new venture to cultivate and support Paralympic-eligible 

military veterans at upcoming Paralympic Games. VP3 is being created primarily to serve veterans under the age of 35 

who have been injured in current overseas military actions, but the program will be open to any Paralympic-eligible, 

athletically qualified veteran with an honorable discharge who meets the other requirements and commitments of the 

program.

US Quad Rugby Association

1702 Lincoln Drive

Voorhees, NJ 08043

(856) 491-4210

www.quadrugby.com

In 1988, the US Quad Rugby Association was formed to help promote and regulate the sport of quad rugby on both a 

national and international level. Since its organized inception, the sport has grown from an original four teams to more 

than forty-five teams in the United States today! In addition to the growth of the sport in the United States, it has grown 

internationally as well. It is now played in more than 24 nations. 

US Sled Hockey Association

710 N Lake Shore Drive, 3rd Floor

Chicago, IL 60611

(312) 908-4292

www.sledhockey.org

The US Sled Hockey Association organizes and sanctions sled hockey competition in the United States.

US Tennis Association

70 W Red Oak Lane

White Plains, NY 10604

(914) 696-7000

www.usta.com

Wheelchair tennis is one of the fastest growing and most challenging of all wheelchair sports. To meet this demand, the 

US Tennis Association offers programs geared toward the wheelchair player. Rules are the same as stand-up tennis, except 

the wheelchair player is allowed two bounces of the ball. A wheelchair tennis player must have a medically diagnosed, 

mobility-related disability, with a substantial or total loss of function in one or more extremities. In wheelchair tennis, the 

player must master the game and the wheelchair. Learning mobility on the court is exciting and challenging, and helps 

build strength and cardiovascular ability. Proficient wheelchair users can actively compete against stand-up players. 

Wheelchair tennis provides persons with disabilities the opportunity to share in activities with their peers and family, 

whether able-bodied or disabled. 
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Sports and Recreational Opportunities

USA Volleyball

Colorado Springs, CO

(719) 228-6800

www.usavolleyball.org

USA Volleyball offers sitting and standing volleyball.

US Wheelchair Swimming, Inc

PO Box 5266

Kendall Park, NJ 08824

(732) 422-4546

www.wsusa.org 

This member organization of WSUSA conducts and sanctions swimming competition for individuals with disabilities 

in the United States. Members receive a quarterly newsletter, rulebook, and other benefits. US Wheelchair Swimming 

selects and organizes swimmers with disabilities for international and Paralympic competition.

US Wheelchair Weightlifting Federation

PO Box 5266

Kendall Park, NJ 08824

(732) 422-4546

www.wsusa.org

This member organization of WSUSA conducts and sanctions weightlifting in the United States.

Universal Wheelchair Football Association

UC Raymond Walters College

Disability Services Office

9555 Plainfield Road

Cincinnati, OH 45236-1096

(513) 792-8625

The Universal Wheelchair Football Association promotes a version of wheelchair football for individuals with all types 

and levels of disabilities. Association football is played indoors or outdoors with a foam football.

Veterans on the Lake Resort

161 Fernberg Road

Ely, MN 55731

(800) 777-7538

www.veterans-on-the-lake.com 

Veterans on the Lake Resort, a not-for-profit organization, provides a barrier-free setting for outdoor recreation experiences for disabled veterans, veterans, their families, friends, and supporters.

Water Skiers With Disabilities Association

1251 Holy Cow Road

Polk City, FL 33868

(800) 533-2972

www.usawaterski.org

The Water Skiers With Disabilities Association was created in 1949 as an official sport division of the American Water 

Ski Association (now USA Water Ski). Its purpose is to organize, promote, and direct water skiing for individuals with disabilities from learn-to-ski clinics to international competition. The US Olympic Committee and the International Water Ski 

Federation recognize USA Water Ski as the national governing body for the sport of water skiing in the United States. 
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Care of the Combat Amputee

Wheelchair Dancesport USA Association

Irvington, NY

(212) 245-0004

www.wheelchairdancesportusa.org 

The mission of the nonprofit Wheelchair Dancesport USA is to promote, initiate, and stimulate the growth and 

development of wheelchair “dancesport” in the United States. The organization provides wheelchair dance programs 

and organizes classes, performances, training camps, and seminars for those serving children and adults with disabilities, as well as supporting recreational and competitive wheelchair dancers and able-bodied dancers, while emphasizing the healthful physical, mental, and social benefits of wheelchair ballroom dancing. Wheelchair Dancesport 

prepares wheelchair athletes and coaches to participate in regional, national, and international competitions. 

Wheelchair Sports, USA

PO Box 5266

Kendall Park, NJ 08824

(732) 422-4546

www.wsusa.org

WSUSA and DSUSA are disabled sports organizations that function as umbrella organizations for their respective 

national governing bodies. Both are members of the US Olympic Committee and therefore responsible for the sanctioning and conduct of competitions and training camps to prepare and select athletes to represent the United States at 

summer and winter Paralympic Games. WSUSA was established in 1956, and oversees the following national governing bodies: Wheelchair Archery, USA; Wheelchair Track & Field, USA; National Wheelchair Shooting Federation; USA 

Swimming; American Wheelchair Table Tennis Association; and US Wheelchair Weightlifting Association. 

Wheelchair Track & Field, USA

2351 Parkwood Road

Snellville, GA 30039

(770) 972-0763

This member organization of WSUSA conducts and sanctions track and field in the United States.

Wilderness Inquiry

808 14th Avenue, SE

Minneapolis, MN 55414-1586

(800) 728-0719

Headquartered in Minneapolis, Wilderness Inquiry conducts integrated outdoor adventures throughout North 

America for people with a wide range of physical abilities.

Wilderness on Wheels

Wheat Ridge, CO

(303) 403-1110

www.wildernessonwheels.org 

The Wilderness on Wheels Foundation was established as a not-for-profit corporation in 1986. Its mission is to 

improve access for disabled persons to natural outdoor environments by constructing a model wilderness-access 

facility consisting of an 8-ft boardwalk starting at 9,100 ft and extending to the top of a 12,300-ft mountain. To date, 

over 116,000 hours have been invested in the project by some 3,500 volunteers. The boardwalk is just over a mile long. 

Wilderness on Wheels has provided advice and counsel to entities nationwide including the US Forest Service and the 

National Park Service.

World Curling Federation/US Curling Federation

1100 Center Point Drive

Suite 102, Box 866

Stevens Point, WI 54481

(715) 344-1199

The World Curling Federation is the world governing body for curling accreditation. It was formed out of the International Curling Federation during the campaign for Olympic winter sport status for the sport.