Preliminary Characterization Study 

Traditional Fuels and Key Derivatives 

 

Prepared in Support of the 

Proposed Rulemaking – 

Identification of Nonhazardous Secondary Materials That Are Solid Waste

March 18, 2010 

 

1 Introduction 

 This document summarizes the features, composition, and characteristics of both 

traditional fuels used in stationary combustion sources and their key derivatives. 

Traditional fuels include fossil fuels (coal, fuel oil and natural gas) and wood. 

Derivatives include: 

• Coal-based derivatives: bituminous coke, coal tar oil, blast furnace gas, and 

coke oven gas, and 

• Petroleum-based derivatives: petroleum coke, refinery gas, and asphalts. 

 For each fuel, this memorandum presents the following information to the extent 

readily available: 

 

1. Chemical Composition. Fuels are often described by an ultimate and/or 

proximate analysis. An ultimate analysis is an elemental analysis of major 

components, typically carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur as well as 

ash.1

 Meanwhile a proximate analysis determines the moisture, volatile matter, 

fixed carbon and ash content of the fuel. Gaseous fuels and some liquid fuels can 

also be described by their constituent compounds. In general, the compositional 

analysis is presented on a weight basis for liquid and solid fuels and on a 

volumetric basis for gaseous fuels. 

2. Heating Value (Calorific Value). The heating value of a fuel is its energy value 

or its heat of combustion (i.e., the energy released when a unit mass (or volume) 

of the fuel is burned). The heating value of a fuel may be measured according to 

its higher heating value (HHV) or its lower heating value (LHV). The HHV, or 

the gross heat of combustion, is the energy released when the products of 

combustion are brought to a standard temperature and any water produced from 

 

1

 For example a typical ultimate analysis might be: 60% carbon, 15% hydrogen, 10% oxygen, 3% nitrogen, 

2% sulfur, and 10% ash. Ash, while part of the ultimate analysis, is shown separately because it represents 

a fraction of the fuel that does not burn. 
 

the process is condensed. The LHV, also referred to as the net heat of 

combustion, treats the moisture produced from combustion as vapor. Unless 

specified otherwise, all heating values presented in this document are HHVs and 

will be presented on an as-received basis (i.e., with moisture and ash included). 

3. Composition of Non-Fuel Constituents and Impurities. Non- fuel constituents 

include gases with no fuel value such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide and inert gases 

as well as moisture and ash. Impurities (i.e., contaminants) may include sulfur 

compounds and trace metals such as mercury, vanadium, cadmium, chromium 

and lead. Impurity levels are typically presented as parts per million by weight 

(ppm) or parts per million by volume (ppmv) 

We present this information by the major fuel groupings outlined above. Section 

2 describes coal and its derivatives. Petroleum-derived fuels are detailed in 

Section 3, while Section 4 presents information on natural gas. Section 5 

provides the composition and other characteristics of wood. 

Limitations of this Analysis: 

 

• This document presents information that is readily available from engineering 

reference publications and reputable online sources. A search of scientific, peerreviewed journals was not performed due to time and budget constraints. 

• When possible, we present composition and heating values that are representative 

of the values associated with a given fuel. However, for some fuels where the 

available data were limited, we present data from specific samples that were readily 

available. These sample data may or may not be representative. 

2
 

2 Coal & Derivatives 

2.1 Coal 

The ASTM (Method D-388) classification for coal ranks coal into four primary 

classes based on its volatile matter and fixed carbon content as well as its heating value. 

The four categories (highest to lowest rank) are: 

I. Anthracite 

II. Bituminous 

III. Sub-bituminous 

IV. Lignite 

Each of these classes is further divided into subclasses by the ASTM 

classification. In general the higher rank coals have higher carbon content and lower 

hydrogen and oxygen content in comparison to the lower ranked coals. Most coals burned 

in combustion units are either sub-bituminous or bituminous. 

 

Anthracite: Anthracite coal is glossy black, hard, and by definition has a fixed 

carbon content of more than 86% (dry, ash free basis) and a volatile content of 

less than 14% (dry, ash free basis). Heating values typically are on the order of 

13,000 Btu/lb. Anthracite coal is primarily found in northeastern Pennsylvania, 

and represents less than 2% of the US coal demonstrated reserve base.2

 

Bituminous: Bituminous coal in general has lower fixed carbon (<86%, dry, ash 

free) and higher volatiles than anthracite. This coal has banded layers that 

alternate between glossy black and dull black. Heating values for bituminous coal 

range from 10,500 to 14,000 Btu/lb.3 Bituminous coals are the most abundant 

class of coal in the US and make up 53% of the demonstrated US coal reserve. 

Bituminous coal is found in many states east of the Mississippi River, including 

Illinois, Kentucky, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. 

Sub-bituminous: These coals are also black in color but with less banding and a 

higher moisture content than bituminous coals. Heating values range from 8,500 

to 11,000 Btu/lb. Although heating values are lower than for bituminous coal, 

sub-bituminous varieties in the US tend to have a relatively lower sulfur content 

than bituminous coals. Sub-bituminous coal represents approximately 37% of US 

coal reserves; sub-bituminous reserves are highest in the states of Montana and 

Wyoming. 

Lignite: This is the lowest ranked coal. Lignite has a brown-black color and is soft 

relative to the other types of coal. Heating values may range from 4000-8000 

 

2 http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/reserves/reserves.html, Accessed Nov 2008 3 Coal’s color is indicative of its age. As coal ages in the ground, its color changes from brown to dull 

black to glossy black. 

3
 

Btu/lb. Lignite is found in North Dakota, Montana and Texas and accounts for 

about 9% of US coal reserves. 

 

 Table 2-1 presents composition and heating value data from Avallone & 

Baumeister for select US Coals for each of the classes described above.4,5 Note that the 

data in Table 2-1 are sample values; properties may vary widely within each rank. 

Chemical Composition. As indicated in Table 2-1, most ranks of coal consist primarily of 

carbon. 

Non- Fuel Constituents. Moisture and ash represent the non-combustible constituents in 

coal. The primary components of ash are silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, ferric oxide, 

and calcium oxide. (See Table 2-1) 

Contaminants. One trace constituent of particular concern in coal is mercury. The 

mercury content of coal ranges from less than 0.1 ppm to 1.8 ppm with a median value of 

0.11 ppm.6 Approximately 80% of samples tested below 0.25 ppm. Coal may also 

contain several other metals such as arsenic, chromium and manganese as shown in Table 

2-1. 7

Trace Organics: Data on trace organics in U.S. coal are not readily available. One study 

from Spain, however, analyzed five Spanish and South African coal samples for volatile 

organics.8 Of the several organics detected, only two were 40 CFR 261 Appendix VIII 

hazardous constituents. Results for these two organics are shown in Table 2-1. 

Additional information on the characteristics of coal is available in the US 

Geological Survey coal quality database, which has information on over 7,000 Coal 

samples.9

 

4

 Avallone, E.A., & Baumeister, T.(eds), “Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers,” 9th

Edition, 1987, p 7-19 

5

 The values shown in the table only describe the specific samples shown although they were selected to be 

representative of the rank in general. 

6

 US Geological Survey, 2001 “Mercury in Coal- Abundance, Distribution, and Modes of Occurrence, 

USGS Fact Sheet FS-095-01 

7

 Davidson, R. A., “Trace Elements in Coal” 1996, Energeia, v.7, No.3, University of Kentucky, Center for 

Applied Research. 

8 Fernandez-Martinez , G., et al, 2000, “Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in Coal, Fly Ash, 

and Slag Samples by Direct Thermal Desorption/GC/MS, Analusis, v 28, pp 953-959

9

 Bragg,L., et al, USGS Coal Quality (COALQUAL) Database: Version 2.0, 

http://energy.er.usgs.gov/products/databases/CoalQual/index.htm, accessed Nov 2008. 

4
 

5
 

2.2 

 

 Fuels Derived from Coal 

 

Bituminous Coke – Bituminous coke is 

derived from the destructive distillation 

or pyrolysis of bituminous coal. This 

involves heating coal to very high 

temperatures (over 1000 °C) in the 

absence of air in a furnace. Much of the 

moisture and volatile components are 

driven off leaving behind a product high 

in carbon. While coke is the desired end 

product of the distillation/pyrolysis 

process, fuel gases, tar and oil with fuel 

value are also typically produced. A 

large fraction of bituminous coke 

(approximately 90%) is burned in blast 

furnaces for steelmaking. The remainder 

is largely used in foundries and for space 

heating. 

Table 2-2 shows the typical chemical 

composition and heating value of 

bituminous coke. Unsurprisingly, the 

fixed carbon and ash content are much 

higher than the corresponding values for 

coal. The heating value of bituminous coke is comparable to coal. Table 2-2 also 

presents composition and heating value estimates for coke breeze, an undersized coke 

(particle size < 15 mm), comprising about 5% of the total bituminous coke production. 

Coke breeze is not suitable for firing in a blast furnace but is typically used for steam 

generation. Information on the impurities contained in blast furnace coke is not readily 

available, but such information is available for coke breeze, as shown in Table 2-2.10

10 Ocean Surveys Inc., 2005, Site Demonstration of the AQUABLOKTM Sediment Capping Technology, 

http://www.hsrc-ssw.org/6MonthAppH.pdf, accessed November 2008 

6
 

Coal Tar Oil: Coal tars are liquid products of the carbonization process to produce coke. 

They may range from free-flowing, low viscosity liquids to highly viscous coal tar pitch. 

Table 2-3 shows an ultimate analysis of coal tar fuels CTF 50 and CTF 400.11, 12 The 

table also presents estimates of the heating value for CTF 50 and CTF 400, as well as 

information on the non-fuel constituents and trace metals in these fuels. 

Table 2-3 also presents viscosity values 

for CTF 50 and CTF 400, expressed in 

centistokes (cSt). For comparison, water 

has a viscosity of about 1 cSt at 20°C 

and a liquid with a viscosity of 2 cSt at 

20° would have twice the viscosity of 

water.13

Because coal tar oil is made up of a 

complex mixture of more than a 

thousand individual compounds, 

fractional distillation of coal tar oil can 

yield a spectrum of compounds for use 

in resins, polymers, motor fuel, wax and 

electrode compounds.14

Coke Oven Gas: Coke oven gas is the 

gaseous non-condensable fraction 

generated from the coke production 

process. As the analysis (by component) 

in Table 2-4 shows, coke oven gas is 

primarily composed of hydrogen and methane. The heating value is approximately 600 

Btu/ft3 and is about 55-60% that for natural gas (on a volume basis). 

Impurities in coke oven gas may include hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and hydrogen 

cyanide.15,16 Table 2-4 also shows the specific gravity of coke oven gas.17

 

11 Perry, R.H., Green, D.W., Mahoney, J.O., “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 1997, 7th Edition, 

McGraw Hill.. 

12 CTF stands for coal tar fuel. The designation CTF 50 and CTF 400 indicate the temperature to which the 

oil must be pre-heated (50 °F and 400°F, respectively) in order to be atomized in a burner. 13 Viscosity values shown is for kinematic viscosity = dynamic viscosity/density. Note viscosity decreases 

with temperature for liquids. 

14 Skov, E.R., et al, “Coal Tar Chemicals and Syncrude Oil Production from Low-Rank Coals using MildTemperature Pyrolysis,” Proc of AICHE Spring National Meeting, Houston, TX, April 2007. AICHE 

Session 16002.

15 Kohl, A., et al, 1997 “Gas Purification,” Gulf Professional Publications. 16 Note that for many gaseous fuels, impurities such as ammonia, and hydrogen cyanide are mostly 

removed prior to being used as a fuel in a boiler 

17 Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the substance to a reference substance. The reference 

substance is air for a gas and water for a liquid. 

7
 

Blast Furnace Gas: Blast furnace gas is a low quality gas that is a by-product of the 

blast furnace reduction process. Table 2-4 presents volumetric composition and heating 

value estimates for this fuel. Although the heating value is low, the amount of gas 

generated by blast furnaces makes it economically feasible to recover the energy.18 The 

energy value is low because approximately 70% of the volume of this fuel is made up of 

nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Blast furnace gas may include small quantities of impurities 

including hydrogen cyanide.19 Table 2-4 also shows the specific gravity of blast furnace 

gas. Blast furnace gas is either burnt as fuel or flared. 

 

18 Culp, A.W., 1979, “Principles of Energy Conversion,” McGraw Hill. 

19 Gupta, C.K., 2006, Chemical Metallurgy: Principles and Practice,Wiley-VCH 

8
 

3 Petroleum Fuels 

This section presents characterization data for fuels produced by petroleum 

refineries as well as their derivatives. Although transportation fuels (e.g., gasoline and 

diesel) make up most of the petroleum-based fuel sold in the U.S., this section focuses on 

petroleum fuels utilized by stationary combustion sources. 

3.1 Fuel Oil 

The term fuel oil may refer to any product derived from petroleum that has 

volatility lower than that of gasoline. The ASTM D396-2(a) specification divides fuel oil 

into several classes, from fuel oil No.1 to fuel oil No. 6, based on boiling range, 

composition, and other physical properties. Fuel oils are generally classified as either 

distillate or residual based on whether they are vaporized in normal refining operations. 

Usually, fuel oils No. 1 and 2 are distillate fuels; No. 5 and No. 6 fuel oils are residual 

fuels, and No.4 is a blend of distillate and residual fuels.20 Note that diesel has similar 

but not identical properties and specifications to fuel oil No.2. 

Table 3-1 provides the chemical composition, heating values, and typical physical 

properties of various classes of fuel oil such as flash point, specific gravity, API gravity, 

and viscosity.21 The flash point is the temperature to which the liquid must be heated to 

produce vapors that flash but do not burn continuously. API gravity is calculated by: 

5.131

60@

5.141 = − specific gravity F

API Gravity

Composition: Fuel oils are primarily composed of hydrocarbons, specifically paraffins, 

isoparafins, napthenes and aromatics. Table 3-1 shows an ultimate analysis for different 

types of fuel oil from Perry et al. 

Heating Values. Fuel oil heating values range from 18,000 to 20,000 Btu/lb or 130,000 to 

150,000 Btu/gallon. As indicated in the table, residual fuel oils are extremely viscous and 

must be heated in order to be transported and atomized in a burner. 

 

20 USEPA, “AP 42: Compilation of Air Pollution Emissions Factors, Vol I: Stationary Point and Area 

Sources,” 5th Edition, 1995, Ch.1.3 Fuel Oil Combustion. Distillate fuels are lighter, less viscous, and have 

a lower boiling range when compared with residual fuels. 

21 Property values from, Stultz & Kitto, eds, “Steam: It’s Generation and Use,” 40th Edition, 1992, p 8-14. 

9
 

Moving along the scale from No. 1 fuel oil to No. 6 fuel oil, the characteristics of fuel oil 

changes as follows: 

• The boiling point increases. For No. 1 oil, the boiling points of the different 

constituents range from 150-300 °C, while for No. 6 oil this range is 200-550 °C. 

• The density increases (i.e., API gravity decreases) 

• Viscosity increases from an average of about 1.8 centistokes (cSt) for No. 1 Oil to 

90-400 cSt for No. 6 oil. 

• Heating values decrease slightly. 

10
 

Impurities: As indicated in Table 3-1, the heavier fuel oils have higher levels of sulfur 

than the lighter fuel oils. The trace metal levels shown in the table are from testing 

performed in 1998 for the development of the comparable fuels specification, which was 

published in 1999.22 This testing involved eleven samples for No. 2 fuel oil, one sample 

of #1 fuel oil, and seven samples of #6 fuel oil. Note that Perry et al. indicate that the 

nickel content of No. 6 Fuel Oil ranges from 10-500 ppm and that vanadium 

concentrations in No. 6 Fuel Oil range from 10-500 ppm. 

Trace Organics: In developing the specifications for comparable fuels, EPA tested 

samples of fuel oil for most of the hazardous organics listed in Appendix VIII of 40 CFR 

Part 261. Specifications were developed for almost 200 individual volatile and semivolatile toxic organic compounds (including hydrocarbons, oxygenates, nitrogenated 

organics, sulfonated organics, halogenated organics, and PCBs). Table 3-1 includes the 

concentrations for the Appendix VIII organics that were detected.23

3.2 

 

Other Petroleum Derivatives 

Petroleum Coke – Petroleum coke is 

produced when vacuum distillation 

residues from the petroleum refining 

process are sent through a coker where 

most of the volatiles are burned off. 

Petroleum coke may be called delayed 

coke or fluid coke, depending on the 

type of process/reactor used. Table 3-

2 provides an ultimate and proximate 

analysis for petroleum coke based on 

data from Avallone & Baumeister and 

Stultz & Kitto. 

Petroleum coke is used as the primary 

fuel or as supplementary fuel in 

fluidized bed boilers as well as a 

supplementary fuel in pulverized coal 

boilers and cyclone boilers.24 

Table 3-2 also provides a detailed ash 

analysis for petroleum coke.25 As 

22 See USEPA, 1999 “Final Technical Support Document for Hazardous MACT Standards,” Vol. IV: 

Compliance with the HWC MACT Standards” Ch.17 

23Table 3-1 shows the highest level detected. Most of the compounds that EPA tested for were not 

detected. Comparable fuel specifications are based on either the highest detected value or the highest 

detection limit among all samples. See USEPA (1999) op cit. 24 Tilman, D.A., et al, 2004, “Fuels of Opportunity, Elsevier. 25 Ibid.

11
 

indicated in the table, nickel and vanadium levels are high similar to the residual fuel oils 

because heavy metals tend to concentrate in the heavier fraction of crude oil from which 

petroleum coke is produced. 

 

Refinery Gas – Refinery gas is a general term describing the non-condensable fractions 

from various refinery processes, including atmospheric distillation, coking, reforming and 

cracking. These gases are sometimes blended together and are typically used by 

refineries for their energy value. 

The composition of refinery gas 

is highly variable, although the 

primary constituents are C1-C4 

hydrocarbons26 (methane, ethane 

and propane in particular). Table 

3-3- presents composition 

information for two blended 

refinery gas samples and 

composition data from a 2003 

lifecycle emissions study.27,28 

Estimated heating values for 

refinery gas are on the order of 

1300-1500 Btu/scf. On a 

volume basis this is a little h

than natural gas because refinery

gas contains a greater fraction of heavier gases. 

igher 

alues 

 

Asphalts – Asphalt is made from the residue 

that remains after the vacuum distillation 

process at petroleum refineries. It has a 

consistency ranging from a viscous liquid to a 

glassy solid.29 Table 3-4 presents an ultimate 

analysis range for four asphalt samples.30 

Impurities include sulfur, vanadium and nickel 

and their reported concentrations are highly 

dependent on the source crude. Heating v

for asphalt are on the order of 17,000-18,000 

Btu/lb.31

26 Hydrocarbons with one to four carbon atoms. 

27 Baukal & Schwartz, 2001, “The John Zink Combustion Handbook” CRC Press 

28 Delucchi, M., 2003 “A Lifecycle Emissions Model: LifeCycle Emissions from Transportation Fuels, 

Motor Vehicles, Transportation Modes, Electricity Use, Heating and Cooking Fuels, and Materials., UCDITS-RR-03-17, available from http://www.repositories.cdlib.org/itsdavis

29 Speight, J.G. 2006, “The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum,” CRC Press. 

30 Wess, J., et al, 2004, “Asphalt (Bitumen), Concise International Assessment Document 59, World 

Health Organization” 

31 Cross, R., 1919, “A Handbook of Petroleum, Asphalt, and Natural Gas” Kansas City Testing Laboratory. 

12
 

Asphalt is primarily used as a paving and roofing material. Asphalt is also used in 

asphalt-based paints, in lining irrigation canals and water reservoirs, and in adhesives in 

electrical laminates.32 Although the use of asphalt as a fuel is not common, boilers have 

been designed to burn asphalt.33

 

32 Wess, op cit. 33 Hunt, P.J., et al, 1999, “Boiler Designs for Asphalt Fuels,” POWER-GEN ‘99 International, New 

Orleans, Louisiana, November, 1999.

13
 

4 Natural Gas 

Natural gas is widely used by boilers due to its low content of ash, ease of 

handling, and ease of combustion. In addition, natural gas is a cleaner burning fuel than 

other fossil fuels. The primary constituent of natural gas is methane. Other paraffinic 

hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane, and butane, as well as other diluents gases (e.g., 

nitrogen), may be also present. The composition of natural gas field samples as well as 

pipeline gas is shown in Table 4-1. 

Heating Value: The heating value of natural gas, like its composition, varies by region 

but usually is in the range from 950-1150 Btu per cubic feet. Diluents include carbon 

dioxide and nitrogen. 

Impurities: Trace contaminants found in natural gas include hydrogen sulfide and other 

sulfur compounds. If naturally occurring levels are high, these compounds are removed 

using various processes because most pipeline specifications limit the level of sulfur 

14
 

compounds that may be contained in pipeline gas.34 Other impurities may include 

mercury in very low levels. As Table 4-1 indicates, mercury levels are well below one 

part per billion (ppbv).35 Trace levels of odorants (eg. mercaptans) are often added to 

pipeline gas, which allows natural gas leaks to be easily detected. 

Trace organics: Only limited information on the organics content of natural gas was 

readily available. The one organics analysis identified examined volatile organics 

concentrations in natural gas samples from three California utility plants.36 Only two 40 

CFR 261 Appendix VIII hazardous organics were detected. (See Table 4-1). 

 

34 Natural gas with a high level of hydrogen sulfide is called sour gas. 

35 Kidnay, A.J., et al, 2006 “Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing” CRC Press. 36 Chow, W., & Conner, K.K., 1993, “Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants: State of the Art, CRC Press. 

15
 

5 Wood 

Wood is burned primarily in industries 

where wood residues are obtained as a byproduct.37 

Table 5-1 shows the properties of wood on a 

dry basis and an ash analysis based on data 

from Stultz & Kitto. Wood has a lower 

carbon content and a much higher oxygen 

content compared to coal. 

Heating values for wood (on a dry basis) are 

in the range 8000-9000 Btu/lb. Wet wood 

can have a significantly lower heating value. 

As indicated in Table 5-1, the sulfur content 

of wood is relatively low. Trace metals in 

wood may include lead and cadmium. 

 

37 USEPA, 2003, AP-42, Ch.1.6, “Wood Residue Combustion in Boilers”, 

http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch01/final/c01s06.pdf, accessed Nov 2008. 

16
 

References 

1. Avallone, E.A., & Baumeister, T.(eds), “Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical 

Engineers,” 9th Edition, 1987, p 7-19. 

2. Baukal & Schwartz, 2001, “The John Zink Combustion Handbook” CRC Press. 

3. Bragg, L., et al, USGS Coal Quality (COALQUAL) Database: Version 2.0, 

http://energy.er.usgs.gov/products/databases/CoalQual/index.htm, accessed Nov 2008. 

4. Chevron Products Company, 2007, “Diesel Fuels Technical Review.” 

5. Chow, W., & Conner, K.K., 1993, “Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants: State of the Art, 

CRC Press. 

6. Cross, R., 1919, “A Handbook of Petroleum, Asphalt, and Natural Gas” Kansas City 

Testing Laboratory. 

7. Culp, A.W., 1979, “Principles of Energy Conversion,” McGraw Hill. 

8. Davidson, R. A., “Trace Elements in Coal” 1996, Energeia, v.7, No.3, University of 

Kentucky, Center for Applied Research. 

9. Delucchi, M., 2003 “A Lifecycle Emissions Model: LifeCycle Emissions from 

Transportation Fuels, Motor Vehicles, Transportation Modes, Electricity Use, Heating and 

Cooking Fuels, and Materials., UCD-ITS-RR-03-17, available from 

http://www.repositories.cdlib.org/itsdavis. 

10. Fernandez-Martinez , G., et al, 2000, “Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in 

Coal, Fly Ash, and Slag Samples by Direct Thermal Desorption/GC/MS, Analusis, v 28, pp 

953-959. 

11. Gupta, C.K., 2006, Chemical Metallurgy: Principles and Practice,Wiley-VCH. 

12. Hunt, P.J., et al, 1999, “Boiler Designs for Asphalt Fuels,” POWER-GEN ‘99 International 

New Orleans, Louisiana, November, 1999. 

13. Kidnay, A.J., et al, 2006 “Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing” CRC Press. 

14. Kohl, A., et al, 1997 “Gas Purification,” Gulf Professional Publications. 

15. Ocean Surveys Etc., 2005, Site Demonstration of the AQUABLOKTM Sediment Capping 

Technology, http://www.hsrc-ssw.org/6MonthAppH.pdf, accessed November 2008. 

16. Perry, R.H., Green, D.W., Mahoney, J.O., “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 1997, 

7th Edition, McGraw Hill. 

17. Skov, E.R., et al, “Coal Tar Chemicals and Syncrude Oil Production from Low-Rank Coals 

using Mild-Temperature Pyrolysis,” Proc of AICHE Spring National Meeting, Houston, 

TX, April 2007. AICHE Session 16002. 

18. Speight, J.G. 2006, “The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum,” CRC Press. 

19. Stultz & Kitto, eds, 1992 “Steam: It’s Generation and Use,” 40th Edition. 

20. Tilman, D.A., et al, 2004, “Fuels of Opportunity, Elsevier. 

21. US DOE, EIA, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/reserves/reserves.html, Accessed Nov 

2008. 

22. USDOE, EIA, http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/ng/hist/n9190us3m.htm, accessed November 

2008. 

23. USEPA, 2003, AP-42, Ch.1.6, “Wood Residue Combustion in Boilers”, 

http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch01/final/c01s06.pdf, accessed Nov 2008.

24. USEPA, “AP 42: Compilation of Air Pollution Emissions Factors, Vol I: Stationary Point 

and Area Sources,” 5th Edition, 1995, Ch.1.3 Fuel Oil Combustion. 

25. USEPA, 1999 “Final Technical Support Document for Hazardous MACT Standards,” Vol. 

IV: Compliance with the HWC MACT Standards” Ch.17. 

26. US Geological Survey, 2001 “Mercury in Coal- Abundance, Distribution, and Modes of 

Occurrence, USGS Fact Sheet FS-095-01. 

27. Wess, J., et al, 2004, “Asphalt (Bitumen), Concise International Assessment Document 59, 

World Health Organization.” 

17