NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy 

Efficiency & Renewable Energy, operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC.

Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

Clean Energy Policy Analyses: 

Analysis of the Status and 

Impact of Clean Energy Policies 

at the Local Level 

S. Busche

Technical Report

NREL/TP-6A20-49720

December 2010
NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy 

Efficiency & Renewable Energy, operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC.

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

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Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308

Clean Energy Policy Analyses: 

Analysis of the Status and 

Impact of Clean Energy Policies 

at the Local Level 

S. Busche

Prepared under Task No. IGST.0103

Technical Report

NREL/TP-6A20-49720

December 2010
NOTICE

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iii

Acknowledgments

This report was produced with funding from, and in coordination with, the Department of Energy 

(DOE) Weatherization and Intergovernmental Program (WIP) in the Office of Energy Efficiency 

and Renewable Energy (EERE). The author is grateful for the comments provided by multiple 

reviewers and especially for the guidance provided by Elizabeth Doris throughout all stages of this 

report.

Reviewers:

Lynn Billman, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Jonathan Cohen, Department of Energy

Elizabeth Doris, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Rusty Haynes, North Carolina State University, Database of State Incentives for Renewables and 

Efficiency

Joyce McLaren, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Robin Newmark, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Dave Peterson, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Kim Peterson, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Tammy Zborel, National League of Cities

In addition to these reviewers, the author appreciates the assistance of NREL’s Technical 

Communications Office and would specifically like to thank Mary Lukkonen for providing editing 

support and Stacy Buchanan for designing the graphics. Of course, any remaining errors are the 

responsibility of the author.

NREL’s Clean Energy Policy Analyses (CEPA)

The CEPA suite of analyses and activities explore clean energy development and policy 

implementation at the regional, state, and local levels and disseminate that information to 

interested stakeholders. The activities gauge the effectiveness of and interactions between clean 

energy policies, provide insight into regional activities, investigate the interactions between local 

and state-level policies, and convene leading thought leaders to develop innovative regional, state, 

and local clean energy policies. The goal is to provide information to decision makers, researchers, 

and other stakeholders regarding the status of, barriers to, and possibilities for increased energy 

efficiency and renewable energy development at various levels of governance. For more 

information, see http://www.nrel.gov/cepa.
iv

List of Acronyms

ARRA American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirConditioning Engineers

BCAP Building Codes Assistance Project

CCP Cities for Climate Protection

DSIRE Database of State Incentives for Renewables and 

Efficiency

GHG greenhouse gas

ICLEI ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability 

(formerly International Council for Local 

Environmental Initiatives)

IECC International Energy Conservation Code

NASEO National Association of State Energy Officials

PACE Property Assessed Clean Energy

RE renewable energy

RPS renewable portfolio standard

SAC Solar America Cities

USMCPA U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement
v

Executive Summary

Interest in facilitating the adoption of energy efficient and renewable energy (henceforth, “clean 

energy”) technologies has grown rapidly in recent years throughout the United States at all levels 

of government. Policy is one of the tools available to governments to address barriers to clean 

energy adoption and to drive market transformation, and the local, state, and federal governments

have employed a variety of policies to support clean energy adoption. While substantial research 

on state level clean energy policies and local level climate change initiatives exists, to date there 

has been no comprehensive analysis of the effectiveness of local clean energy policy action.1

Local governments can play an important role in developing an environment conducive to clean 

energy adoption because decentralized policy development allows for policies to be designed to 

better meet the unique needs of various municipalities. Decentralized policy development also 

provides an opportunity for greater policy experimentation than policy development does at the 

federal level alone. Furthermore, local governments are uniquely positioned to frame the clean 

energy discussion in a way that connects it to the values of local citizens, building support for 

clean energy technology adoption. Policy development at the local level may also be initially more 

effective than pursuing policy development at the state or federal levels because it could be easier 

to address social acceptance issues on a smaller scale. While local governments can play an 

important role in driving market transformation, policy implementation at both the state and 

federal level continues to be important. As such, complementary policy development at multiple 

levels of government is critical to developing a consistent market for clean energy.

This 

report aims to provide an initial overview of the current local clean energy policy landscape to 

develop a better understanding of the current policy environment and identify areas for further 

research.

State governments are implementing policies to drive market transformation in the clean energy 

sector through the adoption of market transforming clean energy policies. Between 2008 and 2010,

there was a nearly 30% increase in the number of states that had implemented all three renewable 

energy market transformation policies (renewable portfolio standard, interconnection standards, 

and net-metering policies) with 28 states having implemented the policies as of February 2010, as 

shown in Table ES-1 (DSIRE 2010). As of July 2010, 13 states had adopted the most energy 

efficient commercial building codes (ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007 or better) and 10 had adopted 

the most energy efficient residential building codes (2009 IECC or better) (BCAP 2010a; BCAP 

2010b). 

Table ES-1. Number of States that have Implemented All Three Renewable Energy Market 

Transformation Policies

 1 Local clean energy policies have been addressed in many reports as they relate to climate mitigation strategies (e.g., 

Betsill and Bulkeley 2007) and in other studies focusing on specific local policy types such as those driving green job 

growth (e.g., Hess et al. 2010). However, to date the author is unaware of a published research that comprehensively 

analyzes local clean energy policies in depth.
vi

While climate change policies and energy policies are not one in the same, an overview analysis of 

local action in the climate change arena is included due to the limited data on local clean energy 

policies. It appears that local governments in states supporting clean energy policy tend to be more 

likely to adopt climate change mitigation goals. For example, of the 1,042 signatories to the U.S. 

Mayors Climate Protection Agreement (USMCPA), 77% of the signatories are municipalities in 

states that have implemented the three renewable energy market transformation policies above. As 

research on the effectiveness of local climate change initiatives rather than just the adoption of 

climate initiatives is just beginning to be published, the data on signatories to the USMCPA is used 

as a proxy to represent local climate mitigation action although signing the agreement does not 

necessarily translate into actions.

2

Currently, local clean energy policies are not tracked comprehensively. The Database of State 

Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE), which tracks over 2,400 state, federal, local, and 

utility clean energy policies, tracks only a limited number of local policies because local policies 

are beyond the scope of the DSIRE project. Of the 156 local policies tracked, 61 are categorized as 

financial policies and 95 are categorized as “rules, regulations, or policies” (DSIRE 2010). Only 28 

states are represented by the local governments implementing these policies. It is unclear if this is a 

reflection of the methodology of DSIRE’s local data collection or if the actual incentives are 

concentrated in these states. Comprehensive data on local clean energy policy implementation is 

necessary to better understand the interaction between state and local clean energy policy 

development.

To augment the limited data currently available, a questionnaire was sent to officials in 54 

different local governments. The local governments were chosen to represent cities of various 

sizes, from different regions, and with different state clean energy policy environments. The main 

information gleaned from the responses includes:

3

• Local government officials and/or departments and community members have been the 

main entities driving the adoption of clean energy policy at the local level.

• Clean energy options are typically framed as a way to reduce energy related costs and to 

mitigate climate change.

• The major barrier to the adoption of clean energy continues to be related to cost, and local 

governments are often using funds received through the American Recovery and 

Reinvestment Act 2009 to offer financial incentives to address this barrier as well as 

tapping into state and federal funding assistance.

• Substantial interaction between local governments occurs on clean energy policy 

development. The interaction of local governments with state governments varies greatly,

with only a few local governments interacting frequently with their state government.

Local governments are in a position to drive clean energy technology adoption and are active in 

promoting clean energy through policy; however, little is known about the extent and effectiveness 

of this activity. Further research is necessary to understand the influence that state clean energy 

policies have on the development of local policies and vice versa. This knowledge will be critical 

as policy activity at the local level has increased rapidly in recent years.

 2 An in-depth analysis of the effectiveness of local climate change initiatives is beyond the scope of this report. 3 There was a 31% response rate to the questionnaire.
vii

Table of Contents

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. viii

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................... viii

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 1

Multi-level Governance: The Pros and Cons of Decentralized Policy on Clean Energy Deployment .. 2

Influences on Local Clean Energy Policy Development............................................................................ 5

The Status and Influence of State Clean Energy Policies.............................................................5

The Status and Influence of Local Climate Change Mitigation Policies......................................9

Local Clean Energy Policy .........................................................................................................13

Questionnaire Results................................................................................................................................. 19

Methodology...............................................................................................................................19

Results.........................................................................................................................................21

Main Proponents (17) ...........................................................................................................21

Framing Clean Energy (17) ..................................................................................................22

Identifying Barriers (17) .......................................................................................................22

Overcoming Barriers (17).....................................................................................................22

Interaction with State Government (16) ...............................................................................23

Interaction with Local Governments (15).............................................................................23

Additional Support (15)........................................................................................................24

Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................... 25

References.................................................................................................................................................... 28

Appendix A: Local Governments Contacted for Survey.......................................................................... 31

Appendix B: Survey Questions .................................................................................................................. 33
viii

List of Figures

Figure 1. Number of market transformation policy types for renewable energy in each state in 2010 7

Figure 2. Residential building codes ........................................................................................................... 8

Figure 3. Commercial building codes.......................................................................................................... 9

Figure 4. Local financial incentives for clean energy (as tracked by DSIRE)........................................ 15

Figure 5. Local rules, regulations, and policies for clean energy (as tracked by DSIRE).................... 15

List of Tables

Table 1. Pros and Cons of Decentralized Policy Development (Lutsey and Sperling 2008).................. 3

Table 2. States (including the District of Columbia) with Renewable Portfolio Standards, 

Interconnection, and Net-metering Policies ......................................................................................... 6

Table 3. States with Progressive Building Codes ...................................................................................... 8

Table 4. U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement Signatories .......................................................... 11

Table 5. States with the Most Efficient Building Codes ........................................................................... 12

Table 6. States with Local Policies Tracked by DSIRE ............................................................................ 17

Table 7. Local Clean Energy Policies in States Supporting Clean Energy............................................ 18

Table 8. Distribution of Localities Contacted and Responses................................................................ 20

Table A-1. Local Governments Contacted................................................................................................. 31
1

Introduction

Interest in energy efficiency and renewable energy (henceforth, “clean energy”4

The role of local governments in supporting clean energy is critical because they often have 

authority over policy areas such as transportation, land-use planning, building codes, and other 

areas that impact community-wide energy use (Coenen and Menkveld 2002).

) has grown 

rapidly in recent years throughout the United States at all levels of government. There are 

multiple barriers to the deployment of clean energy technologies, many of which can be 

addressed through policy. Historically, clean energy policy research has focused on policy 

development, implementation, and effectiveness at the state and national level, with limited 

effort focused on the local clean energy policy arena (e.g., Carley 2009; Fischlein et al. 2010; 

Menz 2005; Peterson and Rose 2006). Although it is more difficult to track the myriad clean 

energy policies instituted throughout the nearly 20,000 cities and towns and over 3,000 counties

(USCB 2010) than it is to track and therefore analyze state and federal policy development, 

developing a better understanding of local policy development and interaction with state and 

federal policies is critical to a full understanding of the role of policy in clean energy 

development.

5

Furthermore, there has been a substantial increase in clean energy activity in local governments 

throughout the country over the last year due to the increase in federal funding for clean energy 

under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA).

 Local 

governments often own or manage a substantial amount of infrastructure and can provide public 

education to inform residents of the impacts of personal energy choices (van Staden and Musco 

2010). Although state governments can also employ public education campaigns, local 

governments are uniquely positioned to develop a campaign that more directly resonates with 

local citizens because it can be tailored to the local circumstances.

6

This report aims to provide an initial overview of the current local clean energy policy landscape

to develop a better understanding of the current policy environment and identify areas for further 

research. Research for this report was conducted in the summer and fall of 2010. The first section 

provides background on the role that local governments play in clean energy policy 

development. The second section provides an overview of the current status of clean energy 

policy at the state level and of climate change and clean energy policies at the local government 

level. The third section presents results from a questionnaire sent to local government officials to 

provide insight into the clean energy policy environment from the local government perspective. 

The report concludes with a discussion of further research opportunities to understand the role of 

local policy in clean energy development.

This increase in activity 

amplifies the importance of better understanding how energy policies at one level of governance 

(e.g., state) impact the development of policies at other levels (e.g., local), as they can be 

complementary or in conflict with each other (Betsill and Rabe 2009; Doris et al. 2009a). 

 4 This report is limited to the discussion of policies addressing clean electricity and does not include a discussion of 

clean fuels for the transportation sector.

5 The authority that a local government has in these and other areas is determined by the constitution of the state in 

which the locality is located (Betsill and Rabe 2009). 6 For more information on ARRA funded programs, see http://www.recovery.gov/Pages/home.aspx.
2

Multi-level Governance: The Pros and Cons of Decentralized

Policy on Clean Energy Deployment

Policy levers can be implemented at multiple levels of government to address barriers to clean 

energy development. Decentralized policy—that is, policy implemented at any sub-national 

level—can provide many benefits when compared to purely national-level policy 

implementation, as seen in Table 1. For example, local policy development allows for greater 

experimentation as each government designs the policy to best fit the locality’s unique context

(Lutsey and Sperling 2008). In contrast, a policy developed at the state or national level to be 

implemented by local governments may not provide sufficient flexibility or funding to best fit 

the local context, resulting in reduced policy effectiveness. Implementing the appropriate and 

complementary policy at each level of government, based on each government’s competencies, 

allows for the creation of a synergistic policy environment that addresses multiple barriers to 

clean energy development. Furthermore, policy experimentation at the local level can provide 

insight into the effectiveness of innovative policies and unique policy design components that

can be adopted by other governments, at the local, state, or federal levels. While decentralized 

policies can refer to those implemented at any sub-national level (e.g., local, state, or regional), 

this report focuses specifically on policies implemented by local governments.

Summary of Main Points

• Decentralized policy development allows for policies to be designed to better 

meet the unique needs of various municipalities and provides an opportunity for 

greater policy experimentation.

• Local governments are uniquely positioned to frame the clean energy discussion 

in a way that connects it to the values of local citizens.

• Complementary policy development at the multiple levels of government is 

critical to developing a consistent market for clean energy.
3

Table 1. Pros and Cons of Decentralized Policy Development (Lutsey and Sperling 2008)

Relying solely on local governments to implement policy, however, can have negative outcomes

(Lutsey and Sperling 2008). Negative outcomes can include inconsistent requirements for 

industry, difficulties in enforcement due to policy overlap and uncertainty, and potential 

relocation of operations to localities with less stringent requirements, negatively impacting 

economic efficiency. Furthermore, if the various levels of government are not sufficiently aware 

of policies developed by other levels of government, policies can be established that are 

duplicative of existing policies, wasting valuable time and resources. As such, it is critical that 

policies implemented at all levels of government complement each other and, like any other 

issue, all levels of government develop appropriate policies based on their realm of authority.

Barriers to clean energy adoption can be financial, technical, social, or policy issues that inhibit 

technology adoption and behavior change. Technical and financial barriers are perhaps the 

barriers that are most often discussed. However, the barriers to clean energy development also 

include social and cultural aspects that can be just as difficult to overcome because these barriers 

impact how citizens and policymakers alike weigh in on the clean energy debate (Sovacool 

2009). The current dialogue often does not include an adequate discussion of how our existing 

energy system interacts with the environment nor the impact this has on the present and future 

economy, thus, the national discussion surrounding the comparison of clean energy and 

conventional sources often occurs on an unlevel playing field (Wüstenhagen et al. 2007). 

Framing the dialogue around clean energy to demonstrate how benefits of clean energy 

technologies link to local social and cultural imperatives, which are often difficult if not 

impossible to quantify, may be a solution to address some of these barriers. Local governments 

are uniquely positioned to do so because of their knowledge of local social and cultural issues, 

which vary by locality. 

As the framing of the clean energy discussion can impact the adoption of clean energy 

technologies, a few questions arise regarding local government’s role in framing the discussion:
4

• For localities that experience high levels of support for clean energy, is this in part 

due to the clean energy discussion being framed at the local level to address core 

local government imperatives and local values?

• Do localities that experience high levels of support for clean energy have unique core 

imperatives that make clean energy options more attractive?

• How can reframing the issue at the local level influence the clean energy discussion at 

the state and federal levels? How can it impact the framing of clean energy 

discussions in other local governments?

Further research is necessary to better understand the role local governments play in reframing 

the clean energy discussion. Understanding this is important for technology and policy 

development because both are subject to social acceptance barriers (Wüstenhagen et al. 2007).

As such, policy development at the local level may be initially more effective in addressing some 

barriers than pursuing policy development at only the state and federal level because it may be 

easier to achieve social acceptance on a smaller scale. Framing the issue as a local issue 

increases citizen involvement in the clean energy discussion because they have the ability to be 

more directly involved in the local decision-making process than they often do at the federal 

level (Saha 2009). Furthermore, powerful lobbies frequently have less influence over state and 

local governments, allowing for greater citizen influence of policy development at the local level

(Byrne et al. 2007). As social acceptance of clean energy grows in many localities, it may then 

become easier to implement clean energy policies at the state and national levels. This is not to 

say that action at the state and federal levels is unimportant, but simply that local governments 

may be uniquely positioned to impact the framing of the clean energy discussion by the actions 

they take at the local level.

Not only are local governments increasingly active in implementing clean energy policies, but 

they are uniquely positioned to play a complementary role in driving clean energy technology 

adoption. Policy implementation at the local level allows for greater flexibility to meet local 

needs. Local governments’ knowledge of their constituents’ needs can help frame the local 

discussion surrounding clean energy in a way that demonstrates the potential benefits it can have 

to address local issues. Citizens are also more likely to interact directly with their local 

government, providing greater opportunities for addressing local social acceptance issues by 

gaining support for local clean energy programs.
5 

Influences on Local Clean Energy Policy Development 

The Status and Influence of State Clean Energy Policies 

Analysis of state clean energy policies has grown rapidly in recent years. Until recently, there 

have not been sufficient data points to conduct statistical analyses of state-level clean energy 

policies because these policies were new in many states and there were a limited number of 

states implementing clean energy policies. In the last few years, however, statistical analyses of 

individual state clean energy policies have been published (e.g., Carley 2009; Doris et al. 2009b). 

Perhaps the most comprehensive analysis of state clean energy policies can be found in the 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s annual State of the States report, now in its third 

edition (Doris and Gelman Forthcoming). Based on the data analyzed in the 2010 State of the 

States report, this report identifies states that may be developing an environment through policy 

selection and implementation that enables localities to further clean energy deployment. 

While there are a wide variety of clean energy policies that are currently implemented at the state 

level, four appear to target large scale, as opposed to incremental, market change toward clean 

energy development (also called “market transformation” policies):7

 

 Renewable portfolio standards (RPS) 

 Net-metering policies 

 Interconnection policies 

 Energy efficient building codes 

 

7

 Project financing policies (e.g., grants, rebates, loans, loan guarantees) also have the ability to transform markets, 

as they reduce the barrier to the high first cost of new technologies and the high initial capital cost of energy 

efficiency and renewable energy technologies when compared to some traditional technologies. These policies, 

however, vary greatly in their design, application, and effectiveness and are therefore not included in this assessment 

of a state’s policy environment. For additional information, please see State of the States 2010, a companion report 

to this analysis, at www.nrel.gov/cepa. 

Summary of Main Points 

 States are developing markets conducive to clean energy through implementation 

of market transforming policies. 

 Substantial analysis of state clean energy policies and local climate change 

initiatives exists, but there has not been any comprehensive analysis of local 

clean energy policies on their own. 

 Based on the limited data available, it appears that localities that are 

implementing local clean energy policies tend to be in states that have adopted 

renewable energy market transformation policies. 

 Further research is necessary to understand the influence that state clean energy 

policies have on the development of local policies and vice versa. Tracking local 

policy development and implementation activities will be necessary to conduct 

this research. 
6

Table 2 illustrates the growing number of states that have implemented the three market 

transforming policies (RPS, interconnection, and net metering) that apply to renewable energy. 

The data on renewable energy market transformation policies was collected from the Database of 

State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency (DSIRE).8 As of 2010, 28 states have 

implemented all three policies, suggesting that these states are developing a policy environment 

that is supportive of renewable energy.9 Figure 1 shows the number of these policies in place in 

each state in 2010. 

Table 2. States (including the District of Columbia) with Renewable Portfolio Standards, 

Interconnection, and Net-metering Policies (DSIRE 2010)

 8 www.dsireusa.org

9 The data on RPS, interconnection, and net-metering policies was collected in February of 2010 for the 2010 State 

of the States report. To maintain consistency with the companion report, the same data is used here. The data for the 

State of the States is collected at the same time each year to maintain consistent analyses between years.
7

Figure 1. Number of market transformation policy types for renewable energy in each state in 2010

While the three policies mentioned above are specific to renewable energy market 

transformation, building codes are considered to be market transformational policies for energy 

efficiency. The Building Codes Assistance Project (BCAP) tracks state-level adoption of 

building codes, identifying which states have adopted the most stringent national building 

codes.10 Table 3 lists the number of states in each year that implemented the most efficient 

building code to date (BCAP 2010a; BCAP 2010b).11

Table 3

For 2010 commercial building codes, 

BCAP defines the most efficient codes as those that meet or exceed ASHRAE Standard 90.1-

2007 or equivalent (BCAP 2010a). For 2010 residential codes, BCAP defines the most efficient 

codes as those that meet or exceed 2009 IECC or equivalent. The standards for the most 

efficient codes vary by year, becoming increasingly stringent based on the most efficient code 

recognized at the national level (see for further explanation). Due to this, the number of 

states having implemented the most efficient building codes in 2009 is low because it often takes 

a while for states to adopt the newest available codes. As of 2010, 10 states had implemented the 

most progressive energy building codes for both commercial and residential buildings.

 10 The most up-to-date information on state-level building code implementation can be found at http://bcapenergy.org/. 11 The BCAP data was collected in July 2010 and is the same data used in the 2010 State of the States report. To 

maintain consistency with this companion report, the same data is used here. The data for the State of the States is 

collected at the same time each year to maintain consistent analyses between years and is based on when updates are 

made available by the data sources.
8

Table 3. States with Progressive Building Codes (BCAP 2010a; BCAP 2010b)

Figure 2 and Figure 3 illustrates the diversity of building code adoption at the state level. For 

additional information on the status of renewable energy and energy efficiency policy at the state 

level in 2010, please see Doris and Gelman (Forthcoming).

Figure 2. Residential building codes
9

Figure 3. Commercial building codes

States are clearly taking action to facilitate the development of clean energy projects by adopting 

market transformational policies such as RPSs, net metering, interconnection, and progressive 

building codes. As state policies continue to evolve and further analysis is completed, valuable 

insight into the effectiveness of state-level policies will be revealed. Developing a better 

understanding of local clean energy policies and the interaction between policies at multiple 

levels will enhance the ability of local, state, and federal governments to develop complementary 

policies and provide information on how state policy clean energy implementation impacts local 

policy development and vice versa. 

The Status and Influence of Local Climate Change Mitigation Policies

With little action at the national level, state and local governments have led the way in climate 

change policy in the United States (Byrne et al. 2007). These actions have included the 

promotion and adoption of clean energy technologies. While there is limited published research 

on local clean energy policy in the United States, there has been extensive research on climate 

change policy and sustainability in cities (e.g., Byrne et al. 2007; Krause 2010; Lindseth 2004). 

Although energy policy can be, and often is, a central part of any government’s climate change 

policy, they are not one and the same, and policies affecting energy use often exist beyond those 

in climate change initiatives. The research that does cover local clean energy policy development 

focuses on it as a component of broader climate change policies. As there is limited published 

research on clean energy policies alone, the following section provides an overview of the status 

of local climate policy, finding that localities in states that support clean energy policy may be 

more likely to develop local climate policies. This section is not meant to be a comprehensive 
10

analysis of local climate change policies but is included to provide additional insight into the 

policy environment within which clean energy policies are being developed.

Two of the main programs referenced as demonstrations of the growth of local action on climate 

change are ICLEI’s Cities for Climate Protection (CCP) campaign and the U.S. Mayors Climate 

Protection Agreement (USMCPA). The CCP program, which was launched in 1993, grew out of 

the recognized need for local governments to take an active role in mitigating and adapting to 

climate change (ICLEI 2010). The CCP is a voluntary program under which members commit to 

achieving ICLEI’s five milestones designed to guide a community towards reducing carbon 

emissions. There were 166 U.S. member cities in the CCP program in 2005, at which point it 

evolved into other ICLEI programs (Ode 2010). 

Similarly, the USMCPA is a voluntary agreement that commits signatories to reduce their 

emissions by 7% from 1990 levels by 2012. The USMCPA, with 1,042 signatories as of July 

2010, has the largest membership of any domestic municipal climate change program (Betsill 

and Rabe 2009; USCM 2010). There is at least one signatory from each state as well as

Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico, and the Northern Marianas Islands (see Table 4). The total 

population represented by the signatories is over 87 million citizens, with individual signatory 

populations ranging from 80 to over 8 million (USMCPA 2010). 
11

Table 4. U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement Signatories (USMPCA 2010)

While the program’s reach is noteworthy, over 50% of the cities are in just eight states 

(highlighted in blue in Table 4). These states are located in different regions, have varied 
12

renewable resource availability, and have varied needs for energy efficiency. Although current 

research of the CCP and USMCPA focuses on the number of members and not the effectiveness 

in driving measurable greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions, these programs currently 

provide the best proxy data to determine local interest in climate change mitigation and, 

therefore, possibly clean energy deployment. A number of different ways to identify the breadth 

of action on climate change initiatives at the local level was considered for this report. Because 

there is not a comprehensive analysis of the actions that either the CCP or USMCPA programs 

have led to, it was decided to use the number of USMCPA signatories as a data point for better 

understanding the breadth of interest in climate change mitigation activities.

Analyzing the state clean energy policies in the states with the greatest number of USMCPA 

signatories reveals that these states have created an environment supportive of clean energy 

deployment. Of the eight states, all but Florida and Illinois had the three market transforming 

policies for renewable energy (RPS, interconnection, and net metering) in place in 2008, 2009,

and 2010. As of 2010, only Florida had not implemented all three policies. However, Florida is 

the only of these states to be ranked by BCAP as having the most efficient commercial building 

codes in place in 2008, 2009, and 2010 (see Table 5). Furthermore, 77% of the signatories are 

municipalities in states that had adopted the three renewable energy market transforming policies 

as of February 2010. This suggests that local governments in states that support clean energy 

through policy implementation are more likely to take a proactive role in supporting climate 

policy at a local level, although further research is necessary to confirm this hypothesis.

12

Table 5. States with the Most Efficient Building Codes (BCAP 2010a; BCAP 2010b)

It has 

not yet been investigated whether or not the local governments' actions are influencing the state 

government's actions or vice versa.

 12 The number of total municipalities in each state was also analyzed to see if it might explain why these states have 

the greatest number of signatories. However, only two of the states (New Jersey and California) were in the top 10 

states in terms of percentage of municipalities that are USMCPA signatories (ranked 8th and 9th, respectively). The 

other states are ranked as follows: Florida – 11th, North Carolina – 16th, New York – 17th, Minnesota – 21st, Illinois –

24th, and Iowa – 26th. The state populations were not analyzed to determine if there is a relationship between state 

population and the number of USMCPA signatories because this report is interested in the number of signatories not 

the total number of people that reside in municipalities that are signatories, and it is not expected that a state’s 

population will impact the number of USMCPA signatories there are in a single state. 
13

Recent analysis of these programs, and more generally, of the action taken by local governments 

to reduce GHG emissions, is critical of their ability to achieve significant reductions (e.g.,

Portney 2009; Betsill and Rabe 2009; Saha 2009). While both the CCP and USMCPA have 

increased the awareness of climate change mitigation at the local level, neither necessarily results

in implementation of clean energy policies, and therefore, adoption of these initiatives should not 

be equated with deployment of clean energy technologies. 

At the local level, climate change and clean energy policies are often intertwined because 

emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels represents 79% of the country’s global warming 

potential weighted GHG emissions, 42% of which is a result of fossil fuel combustion to 

generate electricity (EPA 2010). Interestingly, though, of the main policies included in city 

sustainability plans, the least action has occurred in promoting renewable energy deployment 

(Saha 2009).13

Local Clean Energy Policy

This is contrasted with the fact that the majority of plans call for an increase in 

clean energy. For example, in an analysis of 40 climate action plans adopted by U.S. cities, Tang 

et al. (2010) found that 80.0% of the plans called for increasing the use of renewable energy and 

82.5% identified increased energy efficiency as part of their strategy to reduce GHG emissions. 

State clean energy policies and a local desire to have policies mitigating climate change are not 

the only motivators for local clean energy policies. In the National League of Cities 2008 survey 

of municipal officials, 51% of city officials stated that fuel and energy costs were a “major” 

problem for their community (NLC 2008).14

Unlike for state clean energy policies, there is not currently a database that extensively tracks 

local government clean energy policies. Tracking policy developments at the local level would 

be difficult due to the sheer number of local governments and the increasing role that local 

governments are taking to deploy clean energy through policy measures. Although tracking local 

government policies is undoubtedly difficult, it is an increasingly important task to tackle since it 

is necessary to our understanding of local policy impact on clean energy development.

The survey also revealed that local government 

officials believe that their ability to fund other programs has been negatively impacted by 

increased and volatile energy-related costs. To minimize the impact, city governments are 

implementing strategies to reduce energy use. According to the same survey, 43% of cities 

increased restrictions on public vehicle use, 32% increased the use of alternative fuels and “green 

technologies,” and 25% increased the use of alternative transportation, including bicycles. While 

the results of the NLC study highlight local government action in reducing transportation-related 

energy use more than in reducing electricity use or generating electricity with renewable source, 

it demonstrates that local governments are concerned with energy costs.

 13 There is a common belief that cities with municipal utilities are more easily able to take action to increase the 

amount of renewable energy generated and reduce the GHG emissions within their community, and therefore, are 

more likely to do so. However, current research is questioning this theory. In fact, according to a recent report, 

statistical analysis of the factors impacting whether or not a city joined the USMCPA indicate that there is actually a 

negative relationship between cities that have a municipal electric utility and their propensity for joining the 

USMCPA (Krause 2010). While the cities with municipal utilities may be better positioned to implement changes 

that would increase clean energy deployment in their service area, it is unclear whether or not they are taking these 

actions at a greater rate than cities without a municipal utility. 14 The NLC survey is an annual survey of local officials. A random sample, a total of 1,617 local officials, was sent 

surveys and the response rate was 23%.
14

Local clean energy policies vary in design and implementation. Examples of common local clean 

energy policies currently implemented in the United States include:

• Financial incentives (e.g., grants, rebates, loans, and tax incentives)

• Green power purchasing requirements

• Building energy codes

• Permitting standards

• Energy standards for public buildings.

DSIRE tracks a limited number of local clean energy policies. DSIRE’s methodology for

tracking local incentives is to include policies from municipalities and counties with large 

populations and those that are especially innovative in an effort to capture the most important 

policies. As of July 2010, DSIRE has 61 local financial incentives and 95 local rules, regulations,

and policies tracked on their Web site, compared to over 950 state clean energy policies (DSIRE 

2010).15

The majority of local clean energy policies focus on rebates, green building, and green power 

purchasing programs (

While this is a limited sample, it is the most comprehensive database of local incentives 

available and is therefore used in this review. In order to develop a better understanding of the 

diversity and breadth of local clean energy policy development, it is imperative that some type of 

a tracking mechanism be designed.

Figure 4 and Figure 5). While a variety of sectors (e.g., commercial, 

residential, industrial, and non-profit) are eligible for most of the local financial incentives

tracked by DSIRE, about 50% of the rules, regulations, and policies apply only to local 

governments. These policies typically set some type of requirement to increase either energy 

efficiency or renewable energy generation in municipal operations. They are often called “leadby-example” policies because they do not set any requirements for energy use in the broader 

community but are instead used as a tool to improve energy efficiency or increase renewable 

energy generation in municipal operations. While effective in altering energy use in municipal 

operations, which can be a substantial impact on energy use as many local governments own 

considerable infrastructure, lead-by-example policies do not mandate change in the broader 

community. They are often valuable in demonstrating the benefits and feasibility of 

implementing clean energy projects, which can lead to successful adoption of community-wide 

mandates in the future, but the policies themselves do not result in direct community-wide 

energy savings.

Of the 61 financial incentives, 60% are either rebates or incentives offered for green building 

(Figure 4). Of the 95 rules, regulations, and policies, 55% are for green power purchasing or 

energy standard requirements for public buildings (Figure 5). Only 16 states are represented by 

the local financial incentives and only 26 states are represented by the local rules, regulations, 

and policies as tracked by DSIRE (Table 6). It is unclear if this is a reflection of the methodology 

of DSIRE’s local data collection or if the actual incentives at the local level are concentrated in 

 15 DSIRE tracks over 2,450 clean energy policies in total, including federal, local, and utility incentives and policies, 

updating policies at least once a year and adding new policies as they are implemented. The municipal utility 

policies that DSIRE tracks are not included in this analysis because they are not technically local government 

policies as they are offered by a utility. 
15

these states and may be a combination of both factors. In order to develop a better understanding 

of the diversity, breadth, and impact of local clean energy policy development, it is imperative 

that there is some type of comprehensive tracking of local clean energy policies.

Figure 4. Local financial incentives for clean energy (as tracked by DSIRE)

Figure 5. Local rules, regulations, and policies for clean energy (as tracked by DSIRE)

It is difficult to determine if there are any trends between state and local clean energy policy 

developments due to the limited data. While it appears that there may be a connection between 

states developing a policy environment supportive of clean energy technology deployment and 

local governments promoting climate change mitigation (see the State Clean Energy Policy sub-
16

section above), more comprehensive data on local clean energy policies is necessary to analyze 

potential relationships between local and state clean energy policy development. Of the local 

policies tracked by DSIRE, 75% of the financial policies are in states that have had all three 

renewable energy market transformation policies in place from 2008–2010, but only 38% of the 

financial policies are in states that had adopted the most efficient building code by 2010 (see 

Table 6 and Table 7). For the local rules, regulations, and policies, 65% are in states that have 

had all three renewable energy market transformation policies in place from 2008–2010, and 

27% are in states that had adopted the most efficient building code by 2010. Initial analysis of 

this data seems to say that localities in states supporting renewable energy through policy are 

themselves implementing policies to support renewable energy. However, without 

comprehensive tracking of local policies, it is difficult to draw conclusions based on this data.
17

Table 6. States with Local Policies Tracked by DSIRE (BCAP 2010a; BCAP 2010b; DSIRE 2010; 

Doris and Gelman Forthcoming)
18

Table 7. Local Clean Energy Policies in States Supporting Clean Energy

Further research on why local governments in these states are using policy to promote clean 

energy may provide insight on the interaction between state government clean energy policies 

and those at the local government level. While analysis of the effects of horizontal policy 

diffusion at the local government level exist, there is little research on the vertical interaction 

between state and local governments in any area, energy, climate, or otherwise and its impact on 

policy diffusion (Betsill and Rabe 2009). As there is increasing activity at the local level in clean 

energy policy implementation, it would be useful to better understand the vertical impacts of 

policy diffusion.16 In their analysis of vertical diffusion of anti-smoking policies, Shipan and 

Volden (2006) find that there is both a positive and negative impact associated with policy 

development at the local level. Their research found that in states with professional legislatures17

 16 State and local governments interested in implementing Property Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) policies are 

currently experiencing the impacts of local, state, and federal policy interactions as Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac 

have raised concerns about PACE financing options, effectively bringing state and local PACE programs to a halt. 

As this issue is currently evolving, it will be intriguing to see how it plays out.

or strong interest groups, policy development at the local level is likely to lead to development at 

the state level. However, in other states, policy development at the local level is likely to obstruct 

development at the state level because the local policies are sufficient to decrease the pressure 

from the local constituents (serve as a substitute for state-level policy). The literature review 

completed for this report did not reveal any published research analyzing vertical policy 

diffusion of clean energy policies in the United States or elsewhere.

17 Professional legislatures are typically associated with such features as higher salaries for legislators, larger staffs, 

and longer session lengths.
19

Questionnaire Results

The majority of research on local government sustainability initiatives continues to focus on the 

municipalities that are considered to be sustainability leaders, such as Boulder, Colorado, 

Portland, Oregon, and Austin, Texas (Saha 2009). Due to this, the author made an effort to get 

input from a broader group of communities, including those not typically considered as leaders 

in sustainability. To augment the limited information available on local clean energy policy, a 

short questionnaire was developed and sent to a number of local government officials 

representing communities of various sizes, regions, and involvement in existing sustainability 

and clean energy organizations.

Methodology

Questionnaires were sent to one official in 54 different local governments (see the Appendix for 

the list of local governments that were contacted).18

• All cities with a population over 500,000 were included.

The cities and towns were chosen based on 

the following:

• A random sample of cities with populations of 30,000–100,000 and 100,000–500,000 

(see Table 8) was chosen in order for the questionnaire participants to broadly 

represent the following:

o U.S. states

o National Association of State Energy Officials (NASEO) regions

o States with all three market transformation policies for renewable energy in 

place from 2008–2010

o States with the most efficient building codes in 2010

 18 Seven of the largest counties were also contacted. However, as only one response was received, the answers from 

this recipient are not included in the results below because they cannot be compared with the results from other 

counties.

Summary of Main Points

• Local government officials, departments, and community members have been the 

main entities driving the adoption of clean energy policy at the local level.

• Clean energy options are typically framed as a way to reduce energy related costs 

and to mitigate climate change.

• The major barrier to the adoption of clean energy continues to be related to cost, and 

local governments rely on offering financial incentives to address this barrier.

• There is substantial interaction between local governments on clean energy policy 

development. The interaction with state governments varies greatly with only a few 

local governments interacting frequently with their state government.
20

o USMCPA members

o Solar America Communities (SAC) members.

19

Energy issues are not institutionalized in the same manner across local governments. For some 

local governments, it was difficult to determine what department or individual was the 

appropriate person to contact as energy policy is intertwined with the activities of many different 

municipal departments (e.g., planning and development, transportation, waste management, and 

sustainability departments). The author searched city Web sites to determine the most relevant 

department to contact and, in the cases where it was not obvious, queried the most likely 

department for suggestions on the best individual to contact.

There was a 31% response rate, with 15 questionnaires returned and 2 personal interviews 

completed. However, some respondents did not answer every question. While the majority of 

respondents provided input through the questionnaire, two preferred to be interviewed 

personally.

Table 8. Distribution of Localities Contacted and Responses

 19 For information on the SAC program, see EERE 2010.
21

Results

The results from the questionnaire are meant to provide a representation of clean energy policy 

development at the local government level. Local governments vary greatly, and these limited 

results are not meant to represent the experience for most local governments, but to act as a 

snapshot of the current environment. The responses are those of a single individual and reflect 

his or her individual opinion. If a different individual from the same local government were to 

respond to the same questions, they may provide unique responses. The questions focus on local 

clean energy policy adoption and address the following topics: 

• Main proponents driving clean energy policy adoption

• How support for clean energy is framed in the community

• The identification of barriers to clean energy policy adoption

• How barriers are addressed

• Interaction with the state government

• Interaction with other local governments

• Other support that aids local governments in developing policies to support clean 

energy.

As the number of respondents to each question varied, the number of completed responses is 

listed in parentheses next to each topic below.

Main Proponents (17)

When asked what entities were considered to be the main proponents driving the promotion of

clean energy policy in their locality:

• 13 (76%) stated that local government, either individuals in the government or 

departments, were the main drivers

• 8 (47%) identified the community and/or non-profit organizations

• 2 (12%) cited the state government

• 1 (6%) cited the federal government

• 1 (6%) identified local utilities.

It is interesting to see that only two respondents mentioned that the state government was a 

driver for clean energy development at the local level. As demonstrated earlier, the majority of 

USMCPA members are in states that, through policy, have developed a positive environment for 

clean energy. This implies that local governments in states that support clean energy 

development tend to be supportive of climate change mitigation. However, the results from this 

questionnaire reveal that the majority of these respondents do not view the state as a main driver 

for clean energy development at the local level. A broader analysis of policy development at the 

local level would provide more robust data to better understand this interaction.
22

Framing Clean Energy (17)

When asked how support for clean energy has been framed in the local community:

• 10 (59%) stated as a way to reduce costs associated with energy use

• 10 (59%) said as a part of a local climate change initiative

• 8 (47%) said in terms of economic development

• 4 (24%) identified quality of life or other sustainability ideals

• 1 (6%) said as a part of a local strategic energy plan.

Not surprisingly, most of the local communities are framing clean energy as a way to reduce 

future energy costs associated with conventional sources as well as a way to mitigate climate 

change. 

Identifying Barriers (17)

When asked to identify the main barriers to the development of clean energy policy at the local 

level:

• 13 (76%) identified cost and economic concerns with promoting clean energy

• 3 (18%) said there were clean energy acceptance issues

• Other barriers identified by only 1 respondent each include split incentives,

20

Beyond cost and economic concerns, each community is experiencing unique barriers to the 

development of clean energy in their locality. This points to the difficulties that a single state or 

federal policy will have in addressing myriad barriers that can vary greatly between 

communities. To overcome this, it is preferable for local, state, and federal governments to work 

together to develop complementary policies with the flexibility to address varying barriers. This, 

however, can be very difficult. Surprisingly, only 18% of the respondents identified local 

acceptance issues as a barrier because acceptance issues continue to be a barrier to clean energy

development (Sovacool 2009; Wüstenhagen et al. 2007).

a lack 

of unbiased information, opposition from organized interests, abundance of cheap 

energy from other sources, and a lack of skilled labor.

Overcoming Barriers (17)

When asked to identify how the local government has overcome these barriers, the responses 

focused mainly on innovative funding mechanisms:

• 8 (47%) said innovative funding mechanisms, such as grant programs and energy 

performance contracting

• 5 (29%) named education, information, and outreach programs

 20 The term split incentives, also known as a “principal-agent” problem, describes a situation where the different 

entities making decisions that affect energy use have different incentives impacting their choices. For example, a 

landlord may be incentivized to purchase the least expensive appliances regardless of their energy efficiency 

because the tenant is responsible for the costs associated with the use of those appliances. In reverse, a tenant is not 

likely to invest in energy efficiency improvements in the residence because they do not own the home and will not 

likely reap the long-term financial benefits of the investment. 
23

• Other ways cited for overcoming barriers identified by only 1 respondent each

include developing partnerships with other entities, providing job training, and 

through developing policy.

The responses tended to focus on overcoming barriers to clean energy project development 

rather than just clean energy policy development (e.g., financial incentive programs are policies 

designed to support project development). Only one respondent identified policy as a tool for 

addressing existing barriers, potentially signifying that local officials are not aware of the policy 

tools, such as adopting more stringent energy codes and improving permitting processes, which 

exist to drive the development of clean energy. 

Interaction with State Government (16)

When asked to identify the type and extent of interaction with their respective state government

on clean energy:

• 6 (38%) said the majority of interaction is through financial support from the state

• 5 (31%) said that they have only limited interaction with the state

• 2 (13%) said they have no interaction with their state government

• 1 (6%) said that their state is very supportive and they interact frequently.

Forty-four percent of the respondents said they have little to no interaction with their respective 

state government on clean energy issues; although, every state has implemented some sort of 

policy to promote clean energy. This lack of interaction between state and local governments 

could result in conflicting or duplicative policies.

Interaction with Local Governments (15)

When asked to explain the extent of interaction they have with other local governments on clean 

energy:

• 15 (100%) said that they do interact with other local governments, although 2 said 

only on a limited basis

• 6 (46%) responded that they interact with local governments across the country

• 4 (29%) said they interact with neighboring governments

• 2 (13%) said that they interact mostly with similarly sized cities

• Other interactions listed by only 1 respondent each included through Council of 

Governments, Clean Cities, SAC, and ICLEI.

It appears that local governments are reaching out to each other to learn from each other’s 

experiences and share information on developing clean energy policy, be it through one-on-one 

interactions or through more formalized organizations like ICLEI. This type of interaction can 

lead to horizontal policy diffusion, increasing support for clean energy at the local level. This 

type of broad support sends the market signal that clean energy support is becoming increasingly 

more stable.
24

Additional Support (15)

When asked to identify the areas in which additional support would be the most beneficial, most 

focused on financial support, which was identified by the majority of respondents as a main 

barrier to clean energy:

• 9 (60%) identified financial support

• 6 (40%) said general technical assistance

• 3 (20%) said state support in general or through specific policy development 

• A variety of others were identified by only 1 respondent each, including the need for 

a federal renewable energy policy, standardization of certifications for energy 

efficiency paraprofessionals, a uniform way to measure GHG emissions reductions, 

and opportunities for networking with other local governments.
25

Conclusion

Local governments are in a position to be a driver in the deployment of clean energy 

technologies. They are uniquely able to demonstrate how clean energy can address some of the 

issues specific to their local constituents, such as job growth, increasing the use of local energy 

resources, and improving environmental quality. Where federal or state policies must be broad 

enough to be applicable across multiple municipalities, local policies can be designed to meet 

local needs and fit the local context. If the multiple levels of government work together to 

implement complementary policies, a synergistic policy framework can be established that 

addresses multiple barriers to clean energy development. 

Many states have created an environment conducive to the development of clean energy projects 

by implementing a suite of market transformative policies: RPS, interconnection, net metering, 

and advanced building energy codes. Using the data on the number of municipalities that have 

signed the USMCPA as a proxy to determine the interest and support for climate change 

mitigation in municipalities, it appears that a substantial portion of the signatories are in states 

that have implemented the clean energy market transformative policies. While simply signing 

onto the USMCPA does not signify that the municipality actually takes any action, it is 

interesting to see there may be a relationship between the state in which a municipality resides 

and whether or not the municipality is supportive of reducing GHG emissions. Conversely, it 

may be that the clean energy market transformative policies are adopted in states in which the 

municipalities have adopted climate change mitigation initiatives. Additional analysis is 

necessary to delve into this interaction and determine if there is a causal relationship in one 

direction or the other.

The surveys completed by local officials to supplement the limited data on local clean energy 

policies revealed that a variety of municipalities are implementing clean energy policies, often 

associated with ARRA funds. At the local level, support for clean energy is predominantly 

framed as a way to reduce energy-related costs, mitigate GHG emissions, and increase local 

economic development. Localities continue to face barriers, particularly in regard to a lack of 

financial resources and information on the costs and benefits of clean energy. And, although 

many municipalities interact with other local governments when developing clean energy 

policies and programs, only one local official responded that their city interacted frequently with 

the state government. This indicates that there may be a disconnect between state and local 

policy development, making it difficult to ensure that the policies developed at multiple levels 

are complementary and not duplicative.

While the questionnaire submitted to local governments revealed they are interacting with other 

local governments through a variety of arenas, the literature review for this report identified no 

research on clean energy policy innovation21

 21 Policy innovation refers to policies that are adopted by one government after they were implemented in another 

locality. Policy invention is defined as the development of a completely new policy.

and diffusion (although similar studies exist on 

smoking bans, gun laws, and other regulatory policies; Krause 2010). Understanding how and 

why some local governments adopt certain policies that other governments have already 

implemented may reveal important trends in how clean energy policies are spreading across local 

governments and what the policy adoption barriers are in specific contexts.
26

Although understanding the interaction between local, state, and federal policies is critical to 

developing a complementary policy environment, to date there has been no analysis of these 

types of interactions in regard to clean energy policy (Betsill and Rabe 2009). Moreover, across 

public policy in general, political scientists have focused research on horizontal policy diffusion,

and little research has been completed on vertical policy diffusion from the bottom up (Shipan 

and Volden 2006). Further analysis on vertical policy diffusion and interaction between policies 

at various levels of government may reveal important insight on the impact and development of 

local clean energy policies. Although the data on local clean energy policies remains sparse, 

understanding the impact that local clean energy policy development has on state and federal 

policies will improve the ability of policymakers to develop an environment supportive of clean 

energy development.

This report identifies a gap in the existing knowledge: there is insufficient analysis of local clean 

energy policy beyond climate change initiatives to understand the relationship between state- and 

federal-level policies and local-level policies. This is likely in part due to the fact that there is no 

comprehensive tracking system for local clean energy policy activities. While DSIRE tracks a 

limited number of local policies, it is currently beyond the scope of their project to track all local 

policy development. The development of a similar tracking mechanism for local policies would 

allow for in-depth analysis of the impact and effectiveness of local clean energy policies. 

Furthermore, as local policy activity increases, it is important for the research on clean energy 

policy to move from reporting the policies and goals that are adopted to understanding policy 

interactions, identifying best practices in local policy design, and analyzing the reasons that some 

policies are successfully implemented in certain localities while not in others. The first step in 

this process will require comprehensive data collection of local clean energy policies.

Other potential next steps in the nascent clean energy policy arena include:

• Analyzing the relationship between local clean energy policy implementation in 

“home rule”22

• Analyzing the interaction between state and local clean energy policy adoption and 

implementation. This research could provide insight on how to best develop 

complementary policies based on jurisdictional competencies and existing policy 

environment.

states as compared with other states. Are localities in home rule states 

more likely to adopt clean energy policies? 

• Delving deeper into the role that local governments can play in reducing energy use 

through transportation initiatives. Research on the interaction between the policies of 

neighboring municipalities may provide information on the importance of 

complementary policies as alternative fuel infrastructures are developed.

• Determining how municipal utility incentives interact with local policies and the 

impact that they have on driving clean energy adoption.

 22 “Home rule” refers to the degree to which the state delegates power to sub-state units of government (NLC 2010). 

Some states allow for local governments to have more autonomy than do other states, resulting in local governments 

in home rule states having greater freedom to develop and implement local policy.
27

This report provides an initial overview of the current local clean energy policy landscape to 

develop a better understanding of the current policy environment and identify areas for further 

research. While there is a lot of activity in the policy arena at the local level, the current research 

continues to focus on either state and federal clean energy policy development or on local 

climate initiatives. Developing a better understanding of the potential impact of local clean 

energy policies and the complementary role they can play with state and federal policies will 

provide local governments with information necessary to designing more appropriate and 

impactful clean energy policies. Furthermore, state and federal governments can benefit from 

lessons learned in decentralized policy development as local governments may be implementing 

innovative policies that can be replicated by other local and state governments or even the 

federal government. As clean energy policy development continues to expand at the local level, 

it will become increasingly important for policymakers to better understand the role that local 

policy plays in supporting the development of clean energy technologies.
28

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Appendix A: Local Governments Contacted for Survey

Table A-1. Local Governments Contacted

City State NASEO 

Region Population

State w/ RPS, 

Net-metering, 

and 

Interconnection

Policies 

(2008–2010)

USMPCA 

Member

Solar 

America 

City 

Member

Response 

Received*

Albuquerque NM Southwest 528,497 Y Y N Y

Allentown PA MidAtlantic 107,815 Y Y N Y

Anchorage AK Northwest 286,174 N Y N N

Ann Arbor MI Midwest 112,852 N Y Y Y

Atlanta GA Southeast 540,921 N Y N N

Austin TX Central 786,382 N Y Y Y

Baltimore MD MidAtlantic 637,418 Y Y N Y

Bellingham WA Northwest 80,055 Y Y N Y

Bend OR Northwest 76,621 Y Y N N

Birmingham AL Southeast 230,130 N N N N

Boise City ID Northwest 205,707 N Y N N

Boston MA Northeast 645,169 Y Y Y N

Burlington VT Northeast 38,647 Y Y N N

Charleston WV MidAtlantic 50,267 N Y N N

Charlotte NC Southeast 709,441 Y N N N

Chicago IL Midwest 2,851,268 N Y N N

Coeur d'Alene ID Northwest 43,805 N N N N

Columbus OH Midwest 769,360 N Y N N

Concord NH Northeast 42,463 Y Y N N

Dallas TX Central 1,299,543 N Y N N

Denver CO Central 610,345 Y Y Y N

Detroit MI Midwest 910,920 N Y N N

Dover DE MidAtlantic 36,560 Y Y N Y

El Paso TX Central 620,447 N Y N N

Fort Smith AR Southeast 85,544 N Y N N

Fort Worth TX Central 727,575 N Y N N

Gresham OR Northwest 102,295 Y Y N N

Honolulu HI Northwest 374,701 Y Y N N

Houston TX Central 2,257,926 N N Y Y

Indianapolis City IN Midwest 807,584 N Y N N

Jacksonville FL Southeast 813,518 N Y N N

Las Vegas NV Southwest 567,641 Y Y N N
32

Los Angeles CA Southwest 3,831,868 Y Y N N

Louisville/Jefferson 

County metro 

government

KY Southeast 566,503 N Y N N

Lowell MA Northeast 104,400 Y Y N Y

Lynchburg VA MidAtlantic 73,933 Y N N N

Manchester NH Northeast 109,395 Y Y N N

Memphis TN Southeast 676,640 N N N N

Milwaukee WI Midwest 604,133 Y Y Y N

Minneapolis MN Midwest 385,542 Y Y Y N

NashvilleDavidson 

metropolitan 

government

TN Southeast 605,473 N Y N N

New York NY Northeast 8,391,881 Y Y Y Y

Oklahoma City OK Central 560,332 N N N Y

Philadelphia PA MidAtlantic 1,547,297 Y Y Y N

Phoenix AZ Southwest 1,601,587 N Y N N

Portland ME Northeast 63,008 N Y N Y

Portland OR Northwest 566,141 Y Y Y N

Richmond VA MidAtlantic 204,451 Y Y N N

Salt Lake City UT Southwest 183,171 N Y Y N

San Antonio TX Central 1,373,668 N Y Y N

San Diego CA Southwest 1,306,301 Y Y Y N

San Francisco CA Southwest 815,358 Y Y Y N

San Jose CA Southwest 964,695 Y Y Y Y

Seattle WA Northwest 617,334 Y Y Y Y

Springfield MA Northeast 155,575 Y Y N N

Toledo OH Midwest 316,238 N Y N N

Tucson AZ Southwest 548,555 N Y Y Y

Washington DC MidAtlantic 599,657 Y Y N N

*There were two responses received for which the locality was not identified.

Population Color Key: 30,001–100,000; 100,001–500,000; 500,001–1,000,000; > 1,000,001
33

Appendix B: Survey Questions

This questionnaire is part of a project to assess the development of renewable energy and energy 

efficiency policies at the local level throughout the United States. Thank you for taking the time 

to respond to this short questionnaire; we greatly value your responses. Your responses will be 

kept confidential. If you have any questions, please contact Sarah Busche at 

sarah.busche@nrel.gov.

Question #1

Has your community implemented any renewable energy or energy efficiency policies?

Question #2

What group has been the driver for developing renewable energy and/or energy efficiency policy 

in your locality? (For example, has it been community-driven; state-driven or mandated; or 

driven by an individual within the government, etc.)

Question #3

How has the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency been framed within your 

community? (For example, has the need to promote clean energy arisen as a result of a need to 

mitigate climate change, or to increase energy security, or for economic development purposes, 

etc.)

Question #4

What have been the major barriers to implementing renewable energy and energy efficiency 

policy in your locality?

Question #5

How has the local government overcome these barriers?

Question #6

What type of support and/or interaction do you have with your state government for developing 

and implementing renewable energy and energy efficiency policy in your community?

Question #7

Does your local government interact with other local governments to learn from each others' 

efforts in developing and implementing renewable energy and energy efficiency policy? If so, 

please explain. Also, do you interact mostly with neighboring communities or with communities 

in other regions?

Question #8

What type of support would be most helpful to your local government in developing and 

implementing renewable energy and energy efficiency policy at a local level? (For example, 

technical assistance, information, support from your state or the federal government, etc.).

Question #9

While your responses will be kept confidential, could you please list your city and state for 

recording purposes? Also, if you wouldn't mind being contacted for follow-up questions, please 

include your contact information below.
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4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Clean Energy Policy Analyses: Analysis of the Status and Impact of 

Clean Energy Policies at the Local Level

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DE-AC36-08-GO28308

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S. Busche

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This report takes a broad look at the status of local clean energy policies in the United States to develop a better 

understanding of local clean energy policy development and the interaction between state and local policies. To date, 

the majority of clean energy policy research focuses on the state and federal levels. While there has been a 

substantial amount of research on local level climate change initiatives, this is one of the first analyses of clean 

energy policies separate from climate change initiatives. This report is one in a suite of reports analyzing clean 

energy and climate policy development at the local, state, and regional levels.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

clean energy; renewable energy; policy; energy efficiency; building codes; local government; state government; 

federal government; climate change; DSIRE

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