R.C. Hendricks

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Alternate-Fueled Flight: Halophytes, Algae, 

Bio-, and Synthetic Fuels

NASA/TM—2012-215222

August 2012
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R.C. Hendricks

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Alternate-Fueled Flight: Halophytes, Algae, 

Bio-, and Synthetic Fuels

NASA/TM—2012-215222

August 2012

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

Prepared for the

Workshop on Alternate Fueling Sustainable Supply and Halophyte Summit

sponsored by Atlantic Green Fuels

Twinsburg, Ohio, October 18–19, 2007
Available from

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Trade names and trademarks are used in this report for identifi cation 

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This work was sponsored by the Fundamental Aeronautics Program 

at the NASA Glenn Research Center.

Level of Review: This material has been technically reviewed by technical management. 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 1 

Alternate-Fueled Flight: Halophytes, Algae, 

Bio-, and Synthetic Fuels 

 R.C. Hendricks 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Glenn Research Center 

Cleveland, Ohio 44135 

Abstract 

Synthetic and biomass fueling are now considered to be near-term aviation alternate fueling. The 

major impediment is a secure sustainable supply of these fuels at reasonable cost. However, biomass 

fueling raises major concerns related to uses of common food crops and grasses (some also called 

“weeds”) for processing into aviation fuels. These issues are addressed, and then halophytes and algae are 

shown to be better suited as sources of aerospace fuels and transportation fueling in general. Some of the 

history related to alternate fuels use is provided as a guideline for current and planned alternate fuels 

testing (ground and flight) with emphasis on biofuel blends. It is also noted that lessons learned from 

terrestrial fueling are applicable to space missions. 

Introduction 

These materials represent an update (to 2009) and additions to the Workshop on Alternate Fueling 

Sustainable Supply and Halophyte Summit at Twinsburg, Ohio, October 17 to 18, 2007 (ref. 1). 

In the brief discussion herein, we will look at reasons why halophytes and algae are being 

investigated as fuel, food, and energy sources. 

To produce biomass fuels, sources of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nutrients, and sunlight are required. 

Basically for fuels we need glucose, C6H12O6, or cellulose, (C6H10O5)n.

In this respect (stoichometrically), glucose ties up six waters and six carbons for every unit of glucose 

produced. When the carbon input is from CO2, 

 12H2O + 6CO2  C6(H2O)6 + 6H2O + 6O2 

Cellulose ties up five waters and six carbons in form of a polymer: 

 2H2O + 6CO2  C6(H2O)5 + 7H2O + 6O2 

In round numbers, to make 2 kg of biomass one ties up about 1 kg of water and 3 kg of CO2 plus 

nutrients (fertilizer), which complicates matters. So to actually produce the biomass, in addition to water 

and CO2, one needs nutrients and photons (400 to 700 nm)—all in the proper proportions. 

 H2O + CO2 + NH3 + Photons  Biomass(CNxHyOz) + O2

This elementary notion of conversion points out that sustainable biomass sources require sunlight, 

suitable “soils,” nutrients, CO2, water, symbiosis, and a lot of care—all of which become major concerns. 

How do we address these major concerns? Do we pump water from freshwater aquifers, use waste and 

brackish waters, use seawater, or what? Do we use open-air CO2 capture, exhaust stack capture, well 

capture, ponds, reactors, or what? Do we locate in hot dry, hot humid or cool, moist climates for growth 

or what? Do we pump water, CO2, or nutrients to the “fuel factory,” use conventional farming techniques, 

grow in vertical arrays, or what? Should we really process biomass into fuels at the expense of our food 

supply or what? Should we permit climate changing deforestation to produce biomass fuels or what? 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 2 

While these questions are both scientific and political, they also require a paradigm shift in our production 

and use of energy, water, and food resources. 

From this very simple illustration of biomass needs, questions, and major concerns, we will show that 

common food crops and grasses (some also called “weeds”) have already been processed into aviation 

fuels in limited quantities. We then show why halophytes and algae are better suited as sources of 

aerospace fuels and transportation fueling in general. We will then provide some of the history related to 

alternate fuels use as a guideline to some current and planned alternate fuel testing, both ground and 

flight, with emphasis on blended biofuels. 

We will not discuss, to any extent, the coal-to-liquid (CTL) or gas-to-liquid (GTL) synthetic fueling 

processing to S8 (synthetic JP8 or now being referred to as synthetic paraffinic kerosene (SPK) and used 

interchangeably herein) or JP900 techniques, as these have been addressed (e.g., refs. 2 to 6). 

Glycophyte Crop and Grass Fuels 

Glycophytes are sweet water (freshwater) plants, and they represent common sources of food. 

UOP-Honeywell, University of North Dakota (UND), General Electric (GE), and Inventurechem 

(ref. 7) all have processing technologies to convert common food-based crops and grasses to biojet. Three 

of these (UOP, UND, and GE) were sponsored under DARPA proposal BAA06-43, for crop and weed 

conversion to JP8. These common crops include plant nuts, fruits, and seeds, for example, with palm oil, 

canola oil, and waste fats having potential for processing to S8 (synthetic JP8) (ref. 8). The same process 

could be applied to a variety of bio-oil-based feedstocks, yet sustainability, transport logistics, and costs 

require consideration. 

It appears that all cited processors have provided fuels to Boeing and the Air Force Research 

Laboratory (AFRL) for testing, most under the designation of fuel 1, 2, 3, and so forth. Jet fuels will 

benefit from commercialization of the Department of Defense (DOD) need for JP8 and S8. 

The major problems with glycophyte crop and grasses conversion to fuels are 

(1) Lack of sustainable sources, as assessments and processes assume feedstock availability 

(2) Lack of realistic business (commercialization) model for total biomass product 

(3) Competition with demands for (i) arable land that produces food and (ii) freshwater 

(4) Process is energy intensive 

Potentially sustainability and commercialization issues could be overcome, yet human energy, food, 

and water demands are inevitable sources of conflict with using crops for fueling. 

Halophytes, Algae, and Cellulosic Feedstocks 

In view of the competitive nature of glycophyte fuel sources with the Triangle of Conflicts (energy, 

water, and food), we seek alternatives in plants that thrive in brackish and saltwater with the ability to 

survive in arid lands. These represent major concerns that are raised in the Introduction. A nice summary 

is given by Whitfield (ref. 6). 

Of the Earth’s landmass, ~43 percent is arid or semi-arid, and 97 percent of the Earth’s water is 

seawater. Halophytes are salt-tolerant plants (micro and macro) that can prosper in seawater or brackish 

waters and are currently common feedstocks for fuel and food (fuel-food feedstocks) in depressed 

countries. Two types, broadly classed as coastal and desert, can be found in marshes, coastal planes, 

inland lakes, and deserts. Major arid or semi-arid halophyte agriculture problems include pumping and 

draining the required high volumes of irrigation water from sea or ocean sources. Also, not all arid or 

semi-arid lands are suitable for crops. Benefits of halophyte agriculture include freeing up arable land and 

freshwater resources, cleansing the environment, decontaminating soils, desalinating brackish waters, and 

carbon sequestration. Sea and ocean halophyte agriculture problems include storms, transport, and diffuse 

harvesting. Benefits include available nutrients along with ample water and sunlight. 
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in size to wheat seeds, are planted and harvested using conventional farm machinery with adjustments for 

planter plates and combine operating speeds. The oil content of seashore mallow is also similar to that of 

soybeans (about 18 percent) with fatty acid composition more like cottonseed. 

A very concise summary of the Gallagher and Seliskar halophyte work, background, halophytes 

merits, and recent successful harvest is seen on their one-page summary (fig. 5 in the appendix) (ref. 14) 

and a more complete discussion of the seashore mallow (KV) work is found in (ref. 15). See the 

appendix. 

In correspondence with Prof. Gallagher regarding seashore mallow, more agricultural details evolved. 

Considering about 13 percent scatter-loss before harvest, replicate plot yields were 14 bu/acre. This 

reasonably good yield was without irrigation on Delaware farmland at a time when the county agent 

estimate on soybeans without irrigation “at least a 75 percent reduction in normal yield” because of 2007 

summer drought. The previous year (2006), soybeans yielded about 40 bu/acre. Prof. Gallagher did not 

think KV would have benefited as much as beans with freshwater irrigation because of its drought 

tolerance. The KV would have benefited from salt-water irrigation for two reasons: (1) weed control and 

(2) a boost in growth from some salt. Very little fertilizer was used on the replicate plot in the spring so as 

to not encourage the weeds since farming was no-till and they did not have salt water to control the 

weeds. The older plants grow quickly in the spring, and the plant-canopy closes quickly. Except for the 

mare’s tail, which is roundup resistant, weeds really did not cause a lot of problems. 

An objective of growing seashore mallow is low-maintenance, twice-in-the-field equipment (plant 

and harvest) biomass production. Higher productivity can result from irrigation, monitoring, insecticides, 

and nutrient care. 

In the first year of Prof. Gallagher’s field trials, a single KV shoot emerges that fills out into multiple 

shoots the following year and eventually the rows become indistinguishable (ref. 13). 

The first time KV was planted, the soil was tilled before planting and eventually weeds took control. 

The next time, conventional no-till agriculture was practiced: weeds were just sprayed, and KV was 

planted in the spring. The second year for the no-till crop (Spring 2007), the KV was sprayed and a little 

fertilizer spun on just before the shoots broke the surface in late April. The next time Prof. Gallagher took 

machinery to the field, it was to combine (harvest). The third-year plant shoots look very promising and 

are becoming an established crop. 

 Prof. Gallagher feels that KV agriculture would thrive on the coastal plains and that the potential for 

rapid increase in yield from just simple (KV) selection is very good. Future work includes testing within 

and between the established lines and collecting more samples from the range of genotypes in the wild. 

When comparing soybeans grown in the 1950s to the modern beans, keep in mind that we do not want to 

go from today’s KV to a plant that needs the water, fertilizer, and insecticide pampering the sweet corn 

farms around Delaware require. 

Halophyte: Salicornia Bigelovii 

Salicornia bigelovii, a leafless annual salt-marsh plant with green jointed and succulent stems, is 

indigenous to the Arabian Sea coasts of Pakistan and India on the margin of salt lakes and Celon (Sri 

Lanka) (ref. 16), the U.S. Southwest, and other parts of the world. Similar varieties have been developed 

and are grown by Hodges (ref. 11) and Yensen (refs. 17 and 18). See also Hendricks and Bushnell (ref. 1) 

and reference 19. 

 Scalicornia bigelovii (author’s hybrid variety sos-10) seed collected from field trials in five areas on 

the Arabian Sea coast were processed by hexane extraction, producing 27.2 to 32.0 percent oil. The oil 

acid content is given in table I; it has a refractive index of 1.4680 and a density 0.9054 g/cm3

. It can be 

seen many parameters were found to be quite compatible with those of safflower oil, which had slightly 

higher oil (4 percent), fiber (2 percent), and ash (0.5 percent), with 2 percent lower protein (ref. 16). The 

safflower seeds were from four different harvests (MSDS oil density, 0.921 g/cm3

). 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 5 

TABLE I.—PERCENTAGE ACID CONTENT OF SEED OILS 

[After ref. 16.] 

Fatty 

acids 

Salicornia 

bigelovii 

Safflower Soybeana,b

Commercial Refined 

C16:0 palmitic 7.52±0.24 

(7.00–8.50) 

6.70±0.25 

(6.03–7.81) 

11 11.76 

C18:0 stearic 1.45±0.07 

(1.24–1.69) 

2.50±0.10 

(2.05–3.00) 

4.1 4.64 

C18:1 oleic 13.42±0.56 

(12.33–16.83) 

12.30±0.70 

(9.50–15.70) 

22 24.98 

C18:2 linoleic ω6 75.50±2.04 

(74.66–79.49) 

78.00±3.50 

(73.60–80.04) 

54 55.41 

C18:3 linolenic ω3 1.98±0.09 

(1.50–2.30) 

 7.5 3.8 

a

reference 20, http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/soybean-composition.html, 

soybean commercial products. b

reference 21, http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0103-

90162005000300014&script=sci_arttext, soybean refined oil. 

Both salicornia bigelovii and safflower seed have greater oil content than cotton (15 to 24 percent) 

and soybeans (17 to 21 percent). Salicornia bigelovii saponin detoxification can be accomplished by 

pre-extraction soaking the seed in 1% NaOH permitting use of protein residual as animal feed. 

Sustainable Halophyte Grasses (Distichlis Spicata) 

Many arable land areas are at risk or affected by salinity, due to shallow or rising water tables, 

underground pumping, and climate changes. For example, in the year 2000 Australia had an estimated 

5.7 million saline-affected hectares, with potential to reach 17 million hectares (170 000 km2

) by 2050 

(ref. 22). According to Sargeant, Tang, and Sale (ref. 23), these sites are generally regarded as degraded 

from a chemical and physical perspective, with high concentrations of dissolved salts within the rootzone, and are commonly waterlogged. There are very few ways that landholders can use these degraded 

areas for commercial use. In most cases, they are abandoned and lost from the farming system. 

Distichlis spicata (fig. 2) is the only C4 species most suited to the high temperatures and highradiation regimes during the warm summer months of southern Australia (ref. 23). This species not only 

has the ability to grow and spread in saline waterlogged soils, but it also produces valuable green feed in 

moist saline discharge soils during the summer period. Such forage has real value for a mixed farming 

system. 

Sargeant, Tang, and Sale (ref. 23) have found that Distichlis spicata var. yensen-4a is sustainable in 

saline and seasonally waterlogged sites and becomes a productive option for landholders as a way of 

utilizing an otherwise abandoned unproductive land. They found significant improvements in soil 

conditions for Distichlis spicata (var. yensen-4a (NyPa Forage) is a halophytic pasture grass) growing in 

saline discharge. Fields planted 2 to 8 years were investigated at three different sites. The fields have been 

under landowner observation, where the largest improvements are found in the 8-year sward within soil 

depths of 0.1 m. Soil measurements included saturated hydraulic conductivity, water-stable aggregates, 

root length and dry weight, electrical conductivity, pH, and soil nitrogen and carbon. Results showed a 

12-fold increase in saturated hydraulic conductivity, with increases in both nitrogen and carbon without 

noticeable increases in salt accumulations in the rooting zones. The magnitudes varied between soil type, 

age topography of field. The baselines were adjacent no-grass zones. 

These improvements are consistent with the results of research conducted in Pakistan, where the salttolerant Kallar grass (Leptochloa fusca) was shown to improve the physical properties of saline-sodic 

soils (refs. 25 and 26). 

Seashore saltgrass is also native to the United States. 
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numbers, 2 kg biomass requires 1 kg water and 3kg CO2 plus maybe up to 1 kg nutrient fertilizers 

(questionable). For complete capture and stoichiometric conversion, a natural-gas-fired 4000 mt-CO2/hr 

powerplant has the potential to produce 2660 mt biomass/hr while consuming 1330 mt water/hr 

(16 000 mt biomass, 7980 mt water, and about 8000 mt nutrients, assuming 6 hr/day production). 

In a Vertigro system, a flat-surface greenhouse is essentially turned into a series of vertical surfaces. 

Plants can be grown in containers attached to vertical transparent sheets suspended from an overhead 

conveyor system. In the algal growth system, the suspended sheets become vertical multipass horizontal 

tubular plastic-encased bioreactors. The fluid containing algae is pumped up, and it cascades down 

through the series of horizontal tubes with a high degree of mixing at the end turnaround and entry to the 

next horizontal passage. The arrays are spaced to allow maximum light penetration and flow rates, CO2, 

and nutrients adjusted to provide optimum algal growth. The algae are reported to consume up to 

90 percent their weight CO2 with 50 percent dried weight as lipid or oil content. The system conserves 

both land and water, as little or no water is lost to evaporation and is somewhat immune to foreign algal 

strains. Estimates are that a fully operational plant may produce to 4000 bbl bio-oil/acre/year, three orders 

of magnitude more than soybeans (refs. 32 and 33). A similar scaleable modular photobioreactor system 

concept is discussed by Kodner (ref. 34). 

The 2007 Algae Biomass Summit in San Francisco was like a road map of potential ways, along with 

partnerships, to make cellulosic and algal oils for processing into JP8 (ref. 35). 

Other Research and Developments 

North Carolina State University has developed a process to turn virtually any lipidic compound 

(e.g., algae) into fuels for aviation (includes oil from algae) (ref. 36). The process is licensed to 

Diversified Energy Corp. (ref. 37) of Gilbert Arizona. Principles in the North Carolina group include 

Profs. William Roberts, Henry Lamb, Larry Stikeleather, and Tim Turner of Turner Engineering in 

Carrboro, N.C. 

Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation (New Zealand) (ref. 38) harvests algae directly from settling ponds 

with significant oil yields. Similar efforts are found at Solix Biofuels and Colorado State University 

(ref. 39; see also ref. 40) for commercializing algae to biodiesel. Solix photobioreactors and ponds are 

based on the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Aquatic Specie Program. Both Aquaflow 

and Solix should be massively scalable. 

 GreenFuel Technologies Corporation (ref. 41) and Arizona Public Service Company (APS) (ref. 42) 

were able to grow algae successfully at APS’s Redhawk natural gas power plant. GreenFuel Technologies 

also has an agreement with Institut fur Getreideverarbeitung Potsdam (ref. 43) Germany for algae 

production. 

 Trident Exploration Corp. (ref. 44) and Menova Energy Inc. (ref. 45), are to develop a 

photobioreactor. Menova systems are applicable to photovoltaic, solar thermal, or light piping. 

The National Science Foundation (NSF) has published a roadmap for the production of hydrocarbon 

biofuels, liquid transportation fuels derived from lignocellulosic biomass that are close analogs to their 

petroleum-derived hydrocarbon counterparts (refs. 46 and 47). 

The Bali Indonesia Red Cross volunteers are planting tens of thousands of mangroves to inhibit costal 

soil erosion (ref. 48). It would be good if the project also envisioned aqua- and agriculture similar to that 

of Hodges (ref. 11) to enhance regional development, conserve freshwaters, and provide energy and food 

to fracture the Triangle of Conflicts (energy, food, and water). 

Potential for Dead Sea and Death Valley Community Projects 

Several prospective algae-oil consortiums are investigating the nutrient rich Sultan Sea in California 

for algae growth, there other areas that could benefit from seawater agriculture and aquaculture. Basically 

most areas near oceans or seas could benefit from the work of Hodges (ref. 11). 

 
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 A recent alliance between ICM Inc., and Coskata, Inc., has set an ethanol price target at $1/gal with 

plant production in 2010. Coskata (ref. 55) is a next-generation ethanol developer using biological 

fermentation technology, and ICM (ref. 56) designs and constructs commercial ethanol plants. The 

Coskata three-step conversion process turns cellulosic material and carbon based feedstocks into ethanol. 

The patents are claimed and may be similar to those issued to University of California (UC), Berkeley, 

and Evers Tech. Using patented microorganisms and efficient bioreactor designs, Coskata uses a unique 

three-step conversion process that turns virtually any carbon-based feedstock, including biomass, 

municipal solid waste, and other agricultural waste, into ethanol (ref. 57). See also cellulosic and 

processing work of Downing (ref. 58). 

Combining cellulosic feedstocks along with halophyte and algal feedstocks and their oils will enhance 

total energy cycle efficiencies and in some cases prove more efficient than delaying harvests to extract the 

oils. For example in a very wet or very dry season, seed oils may be too expensive to harvest yet biomass 

could salvage the agriculture expenses. 

Cellulosic and biomass conversion is being investigated by the Joint Bio-Energy Initiative (JBEI), a 

consortium of UC Berkeley, UC San Francisco, UC Davis, Stanford University, Lawrence Livermore 

National Laboratory, and Sandia National Laboratory with potential for State support (ref. 59). 

The Department of Energy- (DOE-) JEBI bio-energy proposal lead is Jay Keasling of the Lawrence 

Berkeley National Lab (LBNL). Prof. Keasling is director of Berkeley Lab’s Physical Biosciences 

Division and an expert in synthetic biology, and UC Davis’s Prof. Rodman is an expert on rice genome. 

The DOE also supports two other centers, the BioEnergy Research Center (Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory is the lead center) and the Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center (University of WisconsinMadison lead and with Michigan State University). 

The DOE’s Samuel Bodman feels these centers will provide cellulosic ethanol technology for 

standard crops, crop Stover and wastes by 2012 to decrease petroleum-based gasoline consumption by 

20 percent in 10 years (refs. 59 and 60). 

The JBEI research is housed within a single location with major objectives: development of 

feedstock’s, feedstock’s conversion to sugars and aromatics, conversion of sugar and aromatics to biofuel, 

data analysis and imaging, and experimental natural and synthetic biology. Major areas of investigation 

include plant cell synthesis (genomics, lignin polymerization, enzyme, and chemical depolymerization), 

pretreatment methods (lignocellulolytic enzymes microbial communities nurtured for degradation of 

lignin), conversion of sugar monomers from depolyermiztona or lignocellulosic biomass of selected 

feedstocks, and yeast pathways. 

Many of these areas are also being worked on at NREL; however, whereas ethanol is the initial fuel 

molecule of JBEI interest, butanol, isopentanol, hexadecane, and geranyl decanoate ester are potential 

substances for biodiesel and biojet fuel (refs. 59 and 60). 

The NREL is also developing processes and genetically engineered microorganisms to more 

efficiently convert starch, sugar crops (sugarcane), and cellulosic biomass principally to ethanol. In the 

presence of new catalysts, vegetable oils derived from high-lipid, genetically modified seed react with 

methanol or ethanol produce biodiesel. Other prolific biomass such as algae can also provide the oils that 

can be further refined to biojet (ref. 61). 

Many of the production processes are self-limiting in that they develop inhibitors (too much alcohol) 

or byproducts that are toxic to the conversion of cellulosic ethanol, requiring significant investments in 

research. Biochemical pretreatment methods include hydrolysis and fermentation, which involve 

chemicals, enzymes, and fermentative microorganisms. The thermochemical processes requires catalysts 

and process optimization tradeoffs between pressure and temperature, for example, in hydrolyzing 

hemicellulose, where in a dilute acid pretreatment is used to fracture the sheath that surrounds the 

cellulose and lignin. A proper mix of enzymes can enhance the process in treating stover for example and 

new yeasts are now available (ref. 62). The Biomass Refining Consortium for Applied Fundamentals and 

Innovation (CAFI) shares production information (refs. 63 and 64). Among the new tools being 

developed is a molecular dynamic biomass model (cellulose-cellulase system) based on surface imaging 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 10 

visualizing the biomass structure and near-infrared spectroscopy to provide biomass composition 

(ref. 62). 

With such recent advances in cellulosic wastes conversion, it is suggested that local biomass and 

alternate fueling journals be closely monitored along with the activities of Atlantic Greenfuels (ref. 1). 

The lessons we learn in synthetic and biomass developments for terrestrial fueling, including water 

conservation and food production, are applicable to space missions, where very harsh environments will 

require processing and reprocessing of wastes as sources of energy. While we have much to learn even 

about our own Earth habitat, knowing how to use algae, halophytes, and symbiotic bacteria (e.g., 

cyanobacteria) on space missions will enable greater mission independence and potential for survival 

(perhaps even a space colony?). Such efforts require experimentation and mission demonstrations some of 

which could be carried out by the NASA Life Science Group (ref. 65). We suggest a close partnership 

with these groups in order to integrate knowledge gained in alternative fueling for aviation. 

Dr. Nicholas Yensen, in conjunction with Agriculture Research Services U.S. Salinity Laboratory of 

the United States Department of Agriculture and NyPa International, has assembled a searchable database 

of halophytes and salt-water plants and their uses (ref. 66). The Web site also contains an information 

section with a wealth of resource books and papers. Other biomass oils and productions characteristics are 

provided in references 67 and 68. 

Whitfield (ref. 69), summarizing the Future Fuels Aviation Conference in London on April 14 and 15, 

2008 (ref. 70), breaks down the fueling issues according to consumer (upper), supplier (middle), and 

producer (lower), (table II) The roles played by each are in turn driven by consumer demands, some of 

which are illustrated in table III. Consumer demands reflect those of the public community as a whole and 

in this case in response to climatic changes associated with environmental affects of aviation emissions. 

We now turn our attention to applications of alternative fueling with respect to aviation and will 

provide some background and recent, current, and planned activities. 

TABLE II.—ALTERNATE FUELING: ROLES OF CONSUMERS, SUPPLIERS, AND PRODUCERS 

Tier Represented by State 

Upper Airlines, aircraft manufacturers and those 

representing demand 

A straight forward role of encouragement, 

facilitation, and leadership. 

Middle Those at the interface: fuel developers and 

converters, engine companies, and the 

certification community 

Under stress, being pressured from both sides to 

deliver, each with roles to play in an old game being 

played with new players, and possibly new rules. 

Lower Feedstock suppliers Keen to offer their proposals—but seeking 

agreement that their product is sustainable 

 

TABLE III.—ROLES OF CONSUMER DEMANDS REFLECT PUBLIC 

COMMITMENT TO CLIMATE CONTROL 

Criteria KLMa

 Virginb

Water No use of drinking water Should not divert water away from food 

agriculture or drinking water 

Deforestation No deforestation or forced relocation of people Should not lead to deforestation 

Soil No soil degradation Should apply sustainable agronomy principles 

(e.g., equivalent of FSCc

) 

Land and food No competition with food or use of arable land Should not conflict with staple food crops 

Other No negative influence on biodiversity Should have lower life cycle carbon emissions a

Refers to KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, reference 71, http://www.klm.com/travel/klm_splash/splashpage.html. b

Refers to Virgin Atlantic (Airlines), reference 72, http://www.virgin-atlantic.com/en/us/index.jsp. c

FSC is Forest Stewardship Council, reference 73, www.fsc.org. 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 11 

Alternative Fueling Demonstration Projects 

The use of alternate fueling is neither new nor novel, yet the feedstock and fuel conditioning can be. 

Prior to the discovery of cheap oil, synthetic fuels and lubricant plants dotted the U.S. eastern landscape. 

In the late 1930s, the war machines realized the necessity of secure sustainable fueling and developed 

new processes for making synthetic fuels based on ample supplies of coal. Synthetic fuels have been used 

to power both piston and gas-turbine engines. The point is that synfuels powered aircraft over 60 years 

ago without adverse effects, but the “know-how” technology has been lost. 

Historical Ground and Flight 

Prior to the 1860s, some 50 coal-to-liquid (CTL) fuel plants produced oil, gas, grease, and waxes for 

Americans. Boston had five low-temperature carbonization (LTC) plants. The Titusville Drake well in 

1859 ushered in cheap oil, however, that by 1873 forced the CTL plants to shut down (refs. 74 and 75). 

Von Ohain’s 1939 He.S3B jet engine was designed for gasoline, whereas Whittle’s 1941 

(Gloster/Whittle) engine used illuminating kerosene. Some advocates claimed that jet engines could run 

on any fuel from whiskey to peanut butter (oil) (refs. 76 to 78). (See also recent biofueled jet flight, 

ref. 79.) 

In early 1944, 25 synfuel plants produced more than 124 000 barrels per day largely from coal. By 

February 1945, however, that level had “bombed” to 620 bbl/day. Ninety-two percent of Germany’s 

aviation gasoline came from synthetic fuel plants. 

In 1944, General George Patton used ersatz gasoline (substitute gasoline), synthetic fuel 

manufactured from coal, to operate his armored vehicles (ref. 80). 

In November 1943, Congressman Jennings Randolph flew from Morgantown West Virginia to 

Washington, DC, in a synfueled airplane inaugurating a U.S. synfuels program in 1944 (ref. 80). 

In 1944, Whittle’s kerosene fueling approached standardizing with the specification for JP–1 with 

–60 °C freezing point. Because of the limited availability of such fuels, mixtures of naphtha and kerosene 

distillates came into use and eventually evolved into military JP8+100 and commercial Jet-A. 

JP–7 is an example of a nondistillate blended fuel (ref. 81). It is a very clean blend of hydrocarbons, 

low in aromatics (typically 3 percent), with a low vapor pressure and excellent thermal oxidative stability 

and nearly devoid of the sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen impurities. The mixture consists of alkanes, 

cycloalkanes, alkylbenzenes, indanes/tetralins, and naphthalenes, with addition of fluorocarbons to 

increase its lubricant properties. With <3 percent highly volatile aromatics like benzene or toluene, 

triethylborane (TEB) has to be injected through the engine and afterburner in order to light-off the 

combustor. 

Recent Flight 

Prof. Expedito Parentee, Tecbio, Fortaleza Brazil, from 1980 to1984—The first applicability trials 

using biodiesel and the development of PROSENE, an alternative combustible lipofuel (vegetable oil) 

used as an alternative to aviation kerosene. The first flight was taken using pure biokerosene in an 

EMBRAER turbobiokerosene turboprop-powered aircraft, between the cities of São José dos Campos dos 

and Brasíília. This accomplishment was considered to be of strategic national interest, and the results 

could not be published (ref. 82). 

Dr. Max Shauck (at that time, the Baylor Institute Director) reported that in the 1990s, Baylor 

University in Texas Institute for Air Science flew a Beech King Air turboprop for 60 hr with a Pratt & 

Whitney Canada PT6A running a 20:80 blend of biodiesel and kerosene and the other, 100 percent Jet-A. 

The aircraft was flown to 25 000 ft (7600 m) and appeared to have no problems (ref. 83). 

In response to the 1980s oil embargo, South Africa picked up the German Fischer-Tropsch (FT) 

technology, and Sasol became the leading producer of synfuel from coal and more recently from gas. 

South African Airlines used blended fuels, and international aircraft flying in and out of Johannesburg 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 12 

Airport were refuelled with 18 to 25 percent blends and in some cases to 50 percent of Jet-A and synfuel. 

There are no reported (public) maintenance or aircraft limitations due to the fueling regime. 

Cliff Moses, Southwest Research Laboratories, has tested Sasol synjet and found these fuels to 

behave similar to Jet A and certification to be eminent (ref. 84). On April 12, 2008, Sasol Ltd. received 

approval from the global aviation fuel specification stakeholders to supply airlines at 100 percent CTL 

synjet fuel. Sasol’s high-temperature Fischer-Tropsch (HTFT) is used to convert coal into four primary 

streams: isoparaffinic kerosene; heavy naphtha kerosene with 10 percent aromatics; light distillate #1 with 

24 percent aromatics; and naphtha #2 with 39 percent aromatics. Synjet is low in sulfur (<5 ppm) with 8 

to 25 percent aromatics (to protect fuel line sealing) (refs. 85 to 87). Aircraft ground emissions testing is 

planned for 2008 to 2009. (Note that the military specification MIL–DTL–83133F approves both CTL 

and GTL fuels, see below.) 

See also the subsequent section on Airbus-Quatar Airways flight test where GTL fuel was used. 

On 11 April 2008, military fuel specification MIL–DTL–83133F (ref. 88) was released, which 

specifically states in section 3.1.1 “....up to 50 volume % of the finished fuel may consist solely of 

Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) derived from a Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process meeting requirements 

of Appendix A....” The blend is designated as JP8/SPK. The specification allows for SPK to be derived 

from a FT process without feedstock restraints, which is important for fuel suppliers for two reasons: 

(1) feedstocks could include GTL and CTL, as well as ShaleTL, TarSandTL, and biomass as long as the 

liquid fuel satisfies the FT requirements and meets the specifications set forth in MIL–DTL–83133F, 

Appendix A; and (2) commercial aviation has a propensity to follow military designations because many 

of the engines have similar cores. The downside of this is it will be difficult to certify other fuels and 

engine configurations and aircraft that would use these fuels. 

While commercial aviation could adapt MIL-DTL-83133F, currently (2008) there is no world-wide 

consensus on specifications on alternate fueling for commercial aviation. Roots for the alternate fueling 

for commercial aviation program grew out of discussions between NASA and Boeing. Subsequently, 

FAA and Boeing inaugurated meetings that later became the Commercial Aviation Alternate Fuels 

Initiative (CAAFI) group (ref. 89), which is also supported by military aviation. The Air Transport 

Association of America’s (ATA) Earth Day release underscores its commitment and principles for the 

adoption of alternative fuels (see also Whitfield (ref. 69) and tables II and III) while entrusting CAAFI as 

the focal point to address sustainable secure fuel supplies with price stability (ref. 90).

 Current and Planned Testing 

First certification of Synthetic Fuel JP8 Blends: On August 8, 2007, a B52H was certified to fly on 

JP8 + synjet blends (50:50). There are engine and aircraft maintenance records but unavailable. (For 

reports contact William Harrison and James “Tim” Edwards, Edwards, James T Civ USAF AFMC 

AFRL/RZTG, AFRL Wright Patterson Airforce Base, Ohio (James.Edwards@WPAFB.AF.MIL). 

The United States Air Force (USAF) plans tests with C17 and other aircraft in a manner similar to 

B52H fight and ground tests with certification of all aircraft by 2010 on blended fuels; the B52H is 

powered by Pratt & Whitney TF33 engines (refs. 79, 83, and 91 to 96). (Recall that commercial flights in 

and out of Johannesburg have flown uncertified synthetic-Jet-A blends for many years.) 

 First Biofueled Jet Flight 

On October 2, 2007, Green Flight International’s Chief Pilot Carol Sugars and Douglas Rodante 

successfully completed the world’s first biofuel jet aircraft flight (ref. 79). The test program included 

various blends of Jet-A and biofuel up to 100 percent biofueling. They flew their L–29 aircraft at 25, 50, 

and 100 percent biofuel to 17 000 ft (5.18 km) without difficulties. The Czechoslovakian L–29 is a retried 

military aircraft. The powerplant, Motorlet M-701C, is an early-generation single-stage centrifugal 

compressor and single-stage axial-flow turbine capable of operating on different fuels including heating 

oil (refs. 92 to 94). The L–29 airframe underwent recent certification along with a new engine (25 hr). 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 13 

The aircraft has heated fuel tanks that maintained 24 °C with an environmental ambient at –4 °C; an 

additive to the fuel enhanced the margin of safety by 20 °C. The biofuel was recycled restaurant oils 

consisting of assorted cooking oils such as canola, sunflower, palm, soy, and so forth (ref. 95) with no 

reported flight difficulties, yet the time at 17 000 ft (5.180 km) was short. The fuels were preblended and 

loaded into the aircraft. The fuel filtering indicators, indicative of fuel plugging, never even blinked. 

One of the major issues, as with the B–52 flights, centers on sealing. Rubber “O” rings are used in the 

fuel pump, and neoprene is used in some lines. Here the issues are degradation and lack of aromatics for 

swelling, which are added to synfuels to maintain seal swell. Fuel leaks can lead to fires in areas not 

covered by extinguishing equipment or air fire-walls in military aircraft. These issues are being watched 

carefully as will be fuel injector coking and component wear. 

In general, biofuels and blends are more viscous than Jet-A, and at power levels less than 55 percent 

the L–29 combustors ran rich with higher smoke emissions. Ground and flight testing on the L–29 was 

carried out at 25, 50, and 100 percent biofueling where it was noted that smoke emissions increased with 

increased biofueling. These results differ from those cited by Dr. Max Shauck (ref. 83) for the 

PWC–PT6A Beech King Air: Shauck noted a decrease in smoke with increase in biodiesel. These 

inconsistencies may be due to the fuel refining, Shuck’s biodiesel and Sugars-Rodante’s recycled 

restaurant oil. In an effort to operate the L–29 with a lower fuel-to-air ratio (f/a) at low power, the fuel 

nozzles will be changed with smaller injection holes. Future flight plans call for a U.S. cross-country 

flight in early November 2007, followed by an around-the-world flight of 22 000 miles, most likely in a 

Learjet or Gulfstream. 

At the Paris Air Show, CFM displayed their CFM56–7B green engine program with methyl ester fuel 

blends (no hard data has been released). The CFM56–7B used on the Boeing 737 models has had an 

initial test in which it ran off a mixture of 30 percent biofuel (methyl ester) and 70 percent standard jet 

fuel (refs. 96 and 97). 

On October 22, 2007, a C–17 Globemaster III took off from Edwards Air Force Base in California on 

a successful 4-hr flight using a blend of synthetic and JP8 fuels. This is the first time a C–17 using PW 

2040 engines has flown using a FT JP8 fuel blend in all four tanks. On October 19, 2007, the C–17 flew 

with the fuel blend in one tank to validate engine and fueling performance. The C–17 and PW 2040 

turbofan engines are similar to the PW 2037 commercial turbofan-engines used in the Boeing 767, for 

example. The mission included ground operation of the auxiliary power unit and evaluations over the 

C–17 operational envelope (ref. 98). The synfuel was supplied by Shell UK. Shell’s commercial 

low-temperature FT GTL plant at Bintulu, Malaysia, open in 1993, produced 14 700 barrels per day (in 

2005) of high-quality liquid products (ref. 99). 

The USAF is still on track for fleet certification by first quarter 2008, with all USAF aircraft certified 

by 2011. Note that 50-50 blends provide sufficient aromatics from the JP8 to contain fuel swell. (The 

alternate fuel specification is now at 8 percent aromatics, and it may be relaxed if 100 percent synfuel 

tests prove satisfactory.) 

The AFRL Arnold Air Force Base in Tullahoma, TN, is also planning testing sequence with alternate 

fuels. 

Pratt & Whitney (Florida) and NASA will be in a co-operative venture to test engines with blended 

fuels. “Flight International” reports that NASA Glenn is going to purchase a PWC308 engine for 

synthetic fuels testing. The basic engine configuration is a single-stage fan, driven by a three-stage 

low-pressure turbine, supercharging a four-stage axial, single-stage centrifugal high-pressure compressor, 

driven by a two-stage high-pressure turbine. An annular combustor is featured. Some versions have an 

unmixed exhaust, but the PW306 and PW308 (7 klbf, fan diameter 33.2 in.) include a forced mixer. A 

full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) system is incorporated. Applications of the 300 series 

include the Learjet 60, Cessna Citation Sovereign, Gulfstream G200, Hawker 1000, Dassault Falcon 7X, 

Fairchild-Dornier 328JET, and White Knight Two (ref. 100). 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 14 

Commercial Alternate Fueled Flight Tests 

Boeing and Virgin Atlantic Fuels plan a 747 test scheduled for 2008 with biofuel to be selected. 

Initially, one engine will be run on alternate fuel (refs. 101 and 102). Boeing and Air New Zealand have 

also scheduled similar 747 tests in 2008 with biofuel to be selected (ref. 103). 

On February 24, 2008, Virgin Atlantic became the first commercial carrier to fly on biojet fueling of 

one of four GE CF6-80C2B5F turbofan engines. The fuel blend was 80 percent Jet-A and 20 percent 

processed babassu nut-coconut oils (Parente biojet) provided by Imperium Renewables (ref. 104) and was 

based on the work of Parente (ref. 82). Ground tests to 60 percent Jet-A and 40 percent biojet showed no 

discernable problems (ref. 105). The 747–400 flew from London Heathrow to Amsterdam Schiphol 

(320 km or 200 miles), reaching altitudes of 25 000 ft (7.6 km) in 40 min. Full-up-engine tests are 

planned in 2008. The collected flight data will be analyzed to assess engine performance, emissions, and 

maintenance issues (ref. 106). Engine alternate fueling tests with algae oils processed to biojet are 

anticipated to occur in 2008 (ref. 105), and Continental and General Electric plan CFM56–7B biofuel 

flight testing with 737 aircraft in 2009 (ref. 107). 

Air New Zealand 747 testing in 2008 will be more directed toward fuel sustainability issues. Air New 

Zealand engines are usually Rolls-Royce RB211–524H turbofan engines (ref. 108). 

On October 31, 2007, Qatar Airlines announced it would fly on “natural gas,” which is most likely 

Shell GTL. 

On February 1, 2008, an Airbus A380 flew from Bristol to Toulouse (a 3-hr flight) on one of four 

Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines fueled with 50 percent Jet-A and 50 percent Synjet to assess the 

environmental impact of alternative fuels. The GTL synthetic fuels program is part of a November 2007 

fuels consortium agreement between Airbus, Qatar Airways, Qatar Petroleum, Qatar Fuels, Qatar Science 

& Technology Park, Rolls Royce, and Shell International Petroleum Company. The goal is regulatory 

approval of 50:50 blended fueling by 2009 with 100 percent GTL fueling by 2013 (ref. 109). 

JP8 represents about 60 percent of the DOD fuel consumption, and with rising fuels costs the USAF 

estimates cost increases of at least $60 million/$bbl-oil-increase. The DOD is currently (2008) committed 

to alternate fuels, and in March 2008 the B1B flew supersonic on a 50:50 blend (50 percent JP8 and 

50 percent Synfuel), emphasizing that commitment. 

Fuel 100, low-lead (LL) aviation fuel (avgas), has been a stable, dependable piston-engine aircraft 

fuel and the only allowable fuel approved by the FAA that contains carcinogenic tetra-ethyl lead. A 1990 

memo states the lead is to be phased out. The FAA has certified a blended fuel, AGE85 (85 percent 

ethanol and 15 percent high-octane petroleum (not specified)), for use in several Cessna models with 

Continental engines (ref. 110). The FAA also approved AGE85 for the Piper Pawnee powered by 

Lycoming IO–540 engines, (ref. 111). Ethanol-fueled cropdusters have logged thousands of hours in 

Brazil (ref. 112). 

The piston engine fuel market is 600 to 700 million gallons per year and will require sustainable 

secure supply of the AGE85 fuel to become effective. 

Summary 

Halophytes and algae are fast becoming biomass plant matter of interest in aviation fueling studies. 

The potentially high oil yields of algae are up to 150 times that of soybeans and advanced halophytes 

promise yields beyond soybeans on saltwater- (or brackish-water-) irrigated, otherwise arid land, 

conserving both freshwater and arable crop lands. 

Synthetic fueling has been used for many years and was heavily used during wars. The most recent 

application is with South African Airlines and all commercial flights out of Johannesburg, where blends 

up to 30 percent have fueled commercial aircraft without noted detrimental effects. A commercial flight 

demonstration with one of four engines operating on blended synthetic fuels (50% synthetic: 50% JetA) 

has been accomplished. The United States Air Force has certified the B52H (turbojet engines) to fly on 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 15 

blends of 50 percent synthetic fuel and 50 percent JP8 and has flown the C117 on the same fueling blends 

(turbofan engines). 

Biofuels derived directly from waste oils have been used to fuel the L–29 bioflight. However, 

normally these triglyceride fuels, biodiesel, must be processed with freezing point suppressants to enable 

them to withstand the low temperatures of high-altitude flying. Several commercial flight demonstrations 

with one of four engines operating on blended biojet fuel (20 percent) with 80 percent JetA have been 

accomplished. Other follow-up flight demonstrations are eminent. 

A series of laboratory and flight testing demonstrations are planned. These tests are designed to 

validate the usefulness of biofuels and synthetic fuel blends with petroleum-based fuels in commercial 

aviation. The major impediment at this point in time is a secure, sustainable, renewable economically 

beneficial supply of these fuels. 

Developments for synthetic and biomass terrestrial fueling, including water conservation and food 

production, are applicable to space missions where very harsh environments will require processing and 

reprocessing of wastes as sources of energy. While we have much to learn even about our own Earth 

habitat, knowing how to use algae, halophytes, and symbiotic bacteria (e.g., cyanobacteria) on space 

missions will enable greater mission independence and potential for survival. 

NASA/TM

A

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NASA/TM—2012-215222 18 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 19 

References 

1. Atlantic Greenfuels Workshop, Twinsburg, OH, Oct. 2007. www.atlanticgreenfuels.com. 

Sustainable alternate fuels development and application, halophyte summit. 

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Commercial Aircraft. ISABE–2007–1196, Beijing, China, Sept. 2007. 

3. Edwards, T.; and Maurice, L.Q.: Surrogate Mixtures to Represent Complex Aviation and Rocket 

Fuels. J. Prop. P., vol. 17, no. 2, 2001, pp. 461466. 

4. Harrison, W.E.; and Zabarnick, S.: The OSD Assured Fuels Initiative Military Fuels Produced From 

Coal. Proceedings of 2006 Clearwater Coal Conference, May 2006. 

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Future. Energy and Fuels, vol. 21, no. 3, 2007, pp. 14481453. 

6. Whitfield, Robert: The Fuel Route to Sustainable Aviation, 2007. 

www.atlanticgreenfuels.com [robert@envirostrat.co.uk] 

7. Biofuels Processing. Inventure Inc. http://www.inventurechem.com/ 

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ISROMAC12–2008–20241, The 12th International Symposium on Transport Phenomena and 

Dynamics of Rotating Machinery, Honolulu, HI, Feb. 2008. (See also Atlantic Greenfuels Inc. 

Workshop, Twinsburg OH, Oct. 2007.) www.atlanticgreenfuels.com 

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14. Seliskar, Denise M.; and Gallagher, John L.: An Oil-Seed Biofuel Multi-Use Crop Grown With 

Saltwater. Atlantic Green Fuels Halophyte Summit, Atlantic Green Fuels Inc., Twinsburg OH, Oct. 

2007. www.atlanticgreenfuels.com 

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Irrigation, Halophyte Biotechnology Center College of Marine and Earth Studies, University of 

Delaware, jackg@udel.edu. (See also Atlantic Green Fuels Halophyte Summit, Oct. 2007, Atlantic 

Greenfuels Inc. Workshop, Twinsburg OH, Oct. 2007. www.atlanticgreenfuels.com) 

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soluble components from a solid sample into an organic solvent. Place a sample in the thimble and 

heat the solvent contained in the flask. As the solvent vapors rise (passing through the extraction 

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reaches the top of the siphon tube, siphoning action returns the extract-enriched solvent to the flask, 

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Biology of Salt Tolerant Plants, 1995, M. Ungar, ed., Department of Botany, University of Karachi, 

Karachi, 1995. 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 20 

19. Salicornia, Oil-Yielding Plant for Coastal Belts. The Hindu. 

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26. Akhter, J.; Murray, R.; Mahmood, K.; Malik, K.A.; and Ahmed, S.: Improvement of Degraded 

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28. Eshel, Amram (http://www.tau.ac.il/~amram/ AmramE@tauex.tau.ac.il): 

Credits for Israeli halophyte information and thanks go out to Professors Yoav Waisel 

(waisel@post.tau.ac.il) and Moshe Silberbush (silberbu@bgu.ac.il). 

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Prof. Ben-Amotz home page http://www.ocean.org.il/Eng/Researchers/page_ami.asp 

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34. Kodner, R.: A Scaleable Modular Photobioreactor. Algae Biomass Summit, San Francisco, CA, 

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35. Algae Biomass Summit. Wison Sonsini Goodrich & Rosati. 

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Biomass summit providing background and support papers for celluosic and algal biomass. 

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to fuels technology. 

37. Diversified Energy. http://www.diversified-energy.com/. Biomass energy and economic engineering 

support. 
NASA/TM—2012-215222 21 

38. Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation. http://www.aquaflowgroup.com/. Harvesting Algae From 

Nutrient Rich Settling Ponds. 

39. Oil From Algae: The Next Generation of Biofuel. Colorado State University. 

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algae ponds. 

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55. Coskata, Inc. http://www.coskata.com/. Biomass energy development. 

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62. Research Advances Cellulosic Ethanol. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 

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72. Virgin Atlantic Airways Ltd. http://www.virgin-atlantic.com/en/us/index.jsp 

73. Forest Stewardship Council A.C. http://www.fsc.org 

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75. Titusville, Pennsylvania. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titusville,_Pennsylvania. 

Titusville and U.S. Participation in Oil Industry. 

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NASA/TM—2012-215222 23 

86. Sasol100% Synthetic Fuel Wins First-Time Approval for Use Internationally in Commercial 

Aviation. Aircraft Maintenance Technology. 

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87. Sasol Receives International Recognition for Introduction of World's First 100% Synthetic Jet Fuel. 

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Commercial airlines approval of Sasol synthetic fuel, local and international. 

88. MILDTL83133F Detail DescriptionTurbine Fuel, Aviation, Kerosene Type, JP8(NATO 

F34), NATO F35 and JP8+100 (NATO F37). Military Turbine Engine Aviation Fuel 

Specification (Supersedes MILDTL83133E 1999), 2008. 

89. Altman, Richard L.: Alternative Fuels in Commercial Aviation The Need, the Approach, Progress. 

Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative, 2007. 

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%20Rich%20Altman.pdf 

90. Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels: The ATA Commitment. Air Transport Association. 

 http://www.airlines.org/economics/energy/altfuelsprinciples.htm 

91. Alternative fuel research: C-17 tests to follow B-52 certification. Charleston Air Force Base. 

http://public.charleston.amc.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123067810. C–17 turbofan testing regime 

follows B–52 flight (turbojet) testing program. 

92. Aero L-29 Delfín. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aero_L-29_Delf%C3%ADn. 

Characteristics of L29 Delfin. 

93. ETS News. http://www.ets-news.com/third.php?id=375. Czechoslovakia L29 aircraft. 

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open via reference 92 

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other oils. 

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6191773-4.html. Green fuels and green energy at Paris Air Show. 

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99. Shell GTL plant in Bintulu, Malaysia. Shell GTL. 

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Medium-scale, commercial low-temperature Fischer-Tropsch GTL plant Bintulu, Malaysia. 

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102. Boeing, Virgin pushing biofuel-run planes. United Press International. 

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Virgin 747 flight testing. 

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NASA/TM—2012-215222 24 

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http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2005/03/15/Ethanoljet-050315.html

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14. ABSTRACT

Synthetic and biomass fueling are now considered to be near-term aviation alternate fueling. The major impediment is a secure sustainable 

supply of these fuels at reasonable cost. However, biomass fueling raises major concerns related to uses of common food crops and grasses 

(some also called “weeds”) for processing into aviation fuels. These issues are addressed, and then halophytes and algae are shown to be 

better suited as sources of aerospace fuels and transportation fueling in general. Some of the history related to alternate fuels use is provided 

as a guideline for current and planned alternate fuels testing (ground and flight) with emphasis on biofuel blends. It is also noted that lessons 

learned from terrestrial fueling are applicable to space missions. These materials represent an update (to 2009) and additions to the 

Workshop on Alternate Fueling Sustainable Supply and Halophyte Summit at Twinsburg, Ohio, October 17 to 18, 2007. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Biofuels; Halophytes; Renewable fuels; Alternate fuels; Aviation; Emissions 

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