U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Circular 1338

Hydrogeology and Groundwater Resources of the Coastal 

Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

Prepared in cooperation with the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection
Cover. Great Neck, Wareham MA. View is to the north with the Agawam River in the background. 

Photograph (copyright) Joseph R. Melanson of www.skypic.com.
Hydrogeology and Groundwater Resources 

of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern 

Massachusetts

By John P. Masterson and Donald A. Walter

Prepared in cooperation with the 

Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection 

Circular 1338

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2009

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reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Masterson, J.P., and Walter, D.A., 2009, Hydrogeology and groundwater resources of the coastal aquifers of 

southeastern Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1338, 16 p.

Masterson, John P.

 Hydrogeology and ground-water resources of the coastal aquifers of southeastern Massachusetts / by John P. 

Masterson and Donald A. Walter.

 p. cm. -- (Circular ; 1338)

 Includes bibliographical references.

 ISBN 978-1-4113-2510-4 (alk. paper)

 1. Hydrogeology--Massachusetts. 2. Groundwater--Massachusetts. 3. Groundwater flow--Massachusetts. I. Walter, 

Donald A. II. Geological Survey (U.S.) III. Title. IV. Title: Hydrogeology and ground water resources of the coastal 

aquifers of southeastern Massachusetts. V. Series: U.S. Geological Survey circular ; no. 1338. 

 GB1025.M4M365 2009

 551.4909744--dc22

 2009027918
iii

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................1

Hydrogeologic Setting...................................................................................................................................2

Groundwater Resources...............................................................................................................................3

Source of Water ...................................................................................................................................4

Water Table............................................................................................................................................4

Water Budget ........................................................................................................................................6

Effects of Changes in Pumping and Recharge ................................................................................7

Potential Effects of Climate Change ................................................................................................11

Summary........................................................................................................................................................15

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................15

Figures

1. Map showing simulated water-level contours in the Cape Cod and PlymouthCarver-Duxbury-Kingston aquifer systems in southeastern Massachusetts for 

current (2000–2005) conditions...................................................................................................2

2. Map showing location of continental ice sheets and direction of ice movement 

across southeastern Massachusetts 15,000 years ago.........................................................3

3. Diagrams showing ice sheets and terminal moraines...........................................................4

4. Diagrams showing groundwater-flow paths in unconfined aquifer 

systems such as (A) the outer part of Cape Cod and (B) western Cape Cod and 

the coastal areas in Plymouth and Duxbury in southeastern Massachusetts...................5

5. Diagrams showing the area at the water table contributing recharge to the 

pumped well in (A) cross-sectional view and in (B) map view.............................................6

6. Photograph showing the kettle-hole ponds of Lower Cape Cod, Massachusetts ............7

7. Map showing simulated recharge areas in southeastern Massachusetts........................8

8. Graphs showing average monthly (A) water levels (1961–2006) at observation well 

WFW–51 in Wareham; (B) streamflow (1966–2005) at Jones River, Kingston; 

recharge and precipitation (1931–2006) at the weather station in East 

Wareham, Massachusetts..........................................................................................................9

9. Graph showing total annual precipitation and recharge at East Wareham weather 

station, and annual mean water levels at well WFW–51, Wareham, Massachusetts ...10

10. Charts showing the hydrologic budget of the coastal aquifers of southeastern 

Massachusetts............................................................................................................................11

11. Map showing changes in water levels between current (2005) and proposed 

(2030) pumping and recharge conditions in the Plymouth-Carver-Kingston-Duxbury 

aquifer system in southeastern Massachusetts ...................................................................12

12. Diagram of an unconfined aquifer before and after pumping under conditions of 

(A) no pumping, (B) pumping at a low rate, and (C) pumping at an increased rate ........13
iv

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

13. Graph showing simulated monthly changes in streamflow in the Eel River, 

Plymouth, Massachusetts, with and without wastewater return flow..............................14

14. Photograph showing algal bloom in Salt Pond, Eastham, Massachusetts. .....................14

15. Photograph showing cranberry bogs in Mashpee, southeastern Massachusetts.........15

Conversion Factors, Datum, and Abbreviations

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer

Area

acre 4,047 square meter (m2)

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) 

Flow rate

inch per year (in/yr) 25.4 millimeter per year (mm/yr)

million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.04381 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 

(NGVD 29).

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27).
Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

Hydrogeology and Groundwater Resources of the Coastal 

Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

By John P. Masterson and Donald A. Walter 

Abstract

The glacially derived aquifer systems of southeastern 

Massachusetts compose the largest groundwater reservoir 

in the State. Population increases, land-use changes, and 

climate change in this area could lead to three primary 

environmental effects that relate directly to groundwater 

resources—(1) increases in pumping that could adversely affect 

environmentally sensitive groundwater-fed surface waters, such 

as ponds, streams, and wetlands; (2) changes in land use that 

could affect the quality of water in the aquifer; and (3) changes 

in precipitation and mean sea level that can affect water 

levels, streamflow, and the position of the freshwater/saltwater 

boundary. Therefore, understanding groundwater flow and the 

factors that can affect it is critical to managing and protecting 

this vital resource.

Introduction 

The coastal aquifers of southeastern Massachusetts 

are known for their abundant water resources and unique 

ecosystems. Groundwater is the sole source of drinking water 

for many communities in this area and also is the primary 

source of water for the numerous kettle-hole ponds, streams, 

and wetlands throughout the region (fig. 1). Groundwater 

discharge also helps to maintain the biological diversity and 

productivity of estuaries and salt marshes. 

Rapid population growth, however, has resulted in 

increased competition among agricultural, commercial, 

ecological, and residential demands for water resources. As land 

development and water demand increase, and as wastewater 

continues to be returned to these coastal-aquifer systems 

through domestic septic systems and centralized wastewatertreatment facilities, water-resources managers are becoming 

concerned about possible long-term effects of these activities 

on the water resources of this region. Possible effects include 

the (1) depletion of streamflow, (2) lowering of surface-water 

levels in ponds and wetlands, (3) decrease in freshwater flow to 

coastal waters, (4) increase in the risk for saltwater intrusion, 

and (5) degradation of water quality owing to land disposal 

of wastewater.

 In response to these concerns, the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) has conducted water-resources investigations of the 

Cape Cod and Plymouth-Carver-Kingston-Duxbury aquifer 

systems in cooperation with the Massachusetts Department 

of Environmental Protection (MassDEP), National Park 

Service, Installation Restoration Program at the Massachusetts 

Military Reservation, Cape Cod Commission, and the Towns 

of Eastham, Provincetown, Truro, and Wellfleet. Groundwaterflow models were developed as part of these investigations and 

served as valuable tools to describe the hydrogeology of this 

region and to assess the possible hydrologic effects of proposed 

water-management strategies. 

This report, produced in cooperation with the MassDEP, 

provides a brief overview of the hydrogeology of the coastal 

aquifers of southeastern Massachusetts and the importance of 

groundwater levels and flow to the ecology of the freshwater 

and estuarine ecosystems of the region. The report also includes 

a discussion of the effects of potential future changes to the 

groundwater system on the water resources of the region. 

For a more detailed description and analysis of the 

hydrogeology of the Lower Cape Cod aquifer system, refer to 

USGS Scientific Investigations Report 2004–5014 (Masterson, 

2004); for the Mid- and Upper Cape Cod aquifer system, refer 

to USGS Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA–741 (Masterson 

and others, 1997) and USGS Scientific Investigations Report 

2004–5181 (Walter and Whealan, 2005); and for the PlymouthCarver-Kingston-Duxbury (PCKD) aquifer system, refer to 

USGS Scientific Investigations Report 2009–5063 (Masterson 

and others, 2009).
2

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

Hydrogeologic Setting

The shallow, unconfined aquifers that underlie this region 

are composed mostly of glacially deposited sediments, ranging 

in size from clay to boulders, and are the result of a complex 

series of retreats and readvances of three large sheets of ice—

the Buzzards Bay, Cape Cod Bay, and South Channel ice sheets 

(Oldale, 1992). These sediments were deposited approximately 

15,000 years ago as meltwater from glaciers carried sediments 

that were originally trapped in the ice and deposited them in 

large deltas in glacial lakes in the present-day Cape Cod Bay 

and Nantucket Sound (Oldale, 1992) (fig. 2). The surficial 

deposits overlie Paleozoic crystalline bedrock that ranges 

in altitude from about 100 ft above the National Geodetic 

Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29, referred to as sea level 

in this report) in Middleborough to more than 1,000 ft below 

NGVD 29 in Truro (Larson, 1980). 

At the time when the glacial sediments were being 

deposited, global sea levels were lower than current levels 

because of the large quantity of water contained in the 

enormous ice sheets. As the ice sheets melted and retreated, 

sea level rose, and erosion of the glacial shoreline began. The 

remnants of the once much larger deltaic deposits, or outwash 

plains, continue to be eroded. In areas such as the Lower Cape, 

the Atlantic Ocean coastline has been retreating about 2 to 3 ft 

per year because of this erosion (Giese and Aubrey, 1987), and 

this rate of retreat is likely to increase as sea level continues to 

rise in the future (Thieler and Hammar-Klose, 2000).

The primary water-bearing deposits in the coastal-aquifer 

systems of southeastern Massachusetts are the large glacial 

outwash-plain deposits found throughout the area. These 

deposits are composed of sediments that were transported by 

meltwater from the retreating Buzzards Bay, Cape Cod Bay, and 

South Channel ice sheets and created deltas in a large glacial 

lake that formed in the wake of the retreating ice sheets (fig. 3). 

The general trend in grain size in the outwash-plain deposits 

is a decrease with distance from the retreating ice margin 

and with depth as the deltas advanced farther into the glacial 

lakes and deposited coarser sediments on top of older, finer 

grained sediments.

Figure 1. Simulated water-level contours in the Cape Cod and Plymouth-Carver-Duxbury-Kingston aquifer systems in southeastern 

Massachusetts for current (2000–2005) conditions. The water table in these unconfined sand and gravel aquifers forms a series of mounds 

that range in height from more than 120 feet above sea level in the Plymouth-Carver-Duxbury-Kingston aquifer to about 6 feet above sea 

level in the Pilgrim lens of the Cape Cod aquifer. Groundwater flows radially outward from the tops of the mounds to the coast. 

Base from U.S. Geological Survey and Massachusetts Geographic Information

System data sources, Massachusetts State Plane Coordinate System, Mainland Zone

70°30' 70°

42°

41°30'

Nantucket Sound

Atlantic Ocean

Buzzards Bay

Town 

Cove

Bass

River

Cape Cod Bay

Cape Cod aquifer

Cape Cod 

Canal

Jones River.

Eel River.

20

40

30

10

50

60

30

10

20

5

10

5

5

Pilgrim

lens

Sagamore

lens

Plymouth-CarverKingston-Duxbury

aquifer system

Nauset

lens

Pamet

lens

Chequesset

lens

Monomoy

lens

Line of equal simulated water

level, in feet above NGVD 29.

Contour interval is variable

EXPLANATION

80

40

100

60

120

20

10

WFW-51

WFW-51

Provincetown

Observation well and number

0

0 8 KILOMETERS

4 8 MILES

4

MASSACHUSETTS

73° 71°

43°

41° 0 25 50 MILES

0 25 50 KILOMETERS

Study Area

CONNECTICUT

RHODE

ISLAND

NEW YORK

VERMONT NEW

HAMPSHIRE
Figure 2. Location of continental ice sheets and direction of 

ice movement across southeastern Massachusetts 15,000 years 

ago. The glacial sediments that constitute the coastal aquifers 

of southeastern Massachusetts were deposited as a result of a 

complex series of retreats and readvances of three large sheets 

of ice—the Buzzards Bay, Cape Cod Bay, and South Channel ice 

sheets. The positions of the ice sheets shown above resulted in the 

deposition of the sediments that constitute the Plymouth-Carver 

area and that of eastern Cape Cod.

20 KILOMETERS

0

0

20 MILES

10

10

70°30' 70°

DIRECTION OF ICE 

MOVEMENT

71°

42°

41°30'

ATLANTIC OCEAN

CAPE COD BAY

Buzzards Bay 

lobe

Cape Cod Bay 

lobe

 South 

Channel

lobe

NANTUCKET SOUND

BUZZARDS BAY

Martha’s Vineyard

Nantucket

Cape Cod

Middleborough

Truro

Base from U.S. Geological Survey and

Massachusetts Geographic Information

System data sources, Massachusetts State

Plane Coordinate System, Mainland Zone

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

3

The flat surfaces of the outwash plains are altered by the 

numerous kettle holes that were formed as collapse structures 

by the melting of buried blocks of ice stranded by the retreating 

ice lobes. These ice blocks, stranded directly on basal till 

and bedrock, subsequently were buried by prograding deltaic 

sediments. When the buried ice blocks melted, coarse sands and 

gravels collapsed into the resulting depressions. The kettle holes 

that intercept the water table now are occupied by kettle-hole 

ponds (fig. 3). 

Unlike the outwash-plain sediments that were deposited 

by meltwater streams flowing from the retreating ice sheets, 

moraine deposits were formed by the collapse of ice blocks and 

sediment along the unstable edge of the retreating ice sheets, 

resulting in the deposition of debris-flow sediments consisting 

of gravel, sand, silt, and clay. These deposits mark the 

recessional positions of the retreating ice sheets, and therefore 

have a hummocky topography of hills and depressions; these 

generally are the areas of greatest topographic relief in the 

region (fig. 3). Whereas outwash sediments generally are well 

sorted and show some stratigraphic continuity, moraine deposits 

have a more variable lithology and generally, on a regional 

scale, are finer grained than outwash deposits. 

Grain size and degree of sorting determine the watertransmitting properties of aquifer sediments. Previous 

investigations have identified general relations between 

sediment grain size and hydraulic conductivity, as determined 

from aquifer tests on Cape Cod (Masterson and others, 1997; 

Masterson, 2004; Walter and Whealan, 2005). The trends in 

hydraulic conductivity, a measure of the ease with which water 

moves through a porous medium, are similar to the trends in 

grain size of outwash sediments; the hydraulic conductivity of 

sediments generally decreases with depth and with increasing 

distance from sediment sources. 

Groundwater Resources

The coastal-aquifer systems of southeastern Massachusetts 

consist of the six flow lenses of the Cape Cod aquifer, the 

Plymouth-Carver-Kingston-Duxbury (PCKD) aquifer (fig. 1), 

and the aquifers of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket Island 

(not shown). These aquifer systems are bounded laterally by the 

Atlantic Ocean, Cape Cod Bay, Cape Cod Canal and, on Cape 

Cod, coastal inlets that separate the flow lenses. In the case of 

the PCKD aquifer, the inland or western boundary coincides 

with the major surface-water drainage divides in southeastern 

Massachusetts. These aquifer systems are bounded vertically by 

the water table, bedrock, and the freshwater/saltwater interface, 

as is the case in the outer part of Cape Cod. Streams, ponds, 

and wetlands are important features of these aquifers. Although 

they are surface-water bodies, they can represent groundwater 

divides in these aquifers. 

The primary source of freshwater to these aquifer systems 

is precipitation. The portion of precipitation that is not lost 

to evaporation or transpiration by plants (herein referred to 

as evapotranspiration) and percolates through the ground to 

the water table is referred to as aquifer recharge. All of the 

water that enters these aquifer systems as recharge ultimately 

discharges to the coast. Some of this water may be pumped and 

returned to the aquifer as wastewater return flow or discharge 

to ponds, streams, or coastal marshes, but ultimately all water 

flowing through these aquifers discharges to coastal waters.

Depending on the areal extent of the aquifer and the depth 

to underlying bedrock, the coastal-aquifer systems, such as the 

flow lenses on the outer part of Cape Cod (fig. 4A), may be 

underlain by saline groundwater, or the freshwater-flow system 

may be truncated below by bedrock, as is true for the aquifers 

underlying the upper part of Cape Cod and the coastal area of 

the PCKD region (fig. 4B). The position and movement of the 

boundary between fresh groundwater and saline groundwater 

are controlled by the hydrologic balance between fresh 
4

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

groundwater and the surrounding denser saline groundwater. 

Changes to the freshwater-flow system that alter this balance 

result in shifts in the position of this boundary.

Source of Water 

The source of water to pumped wells, streams, coastal 

marshes, and beaches can be determined by mapping the watertable area that, multiplied by the recharge rate, equals the total 

flow to the receptor. The concept of the source of water to a 

pumped well is illustrated schematically in figure 5; the amount 

of water pumped from the well must be provided by a watertable area that is sufficiently large to capture enough aquifer 

recharge to equal the amount of pumped water. This concept can 

be applied to any hydrologic feature that receives groundwater 

discharge, such as kettle-hole ponds, streams, and coastal areas 

(figs. 6 and 7) (Masterson and Walter, 2000; Walter and others, 

2004). Identifying the sources of water to all hydrologic features 

in the coastal-aquifer systems of southeastern Massachusetts 

is necessary to prevent land-use activities from degrading the 

quality of water that discharges to these resources. 

Water Table

The height of the water table is typically referred to as the 

altitude above mean sea level—the National Geodetic Vertical 

Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29). The height of the water table 

varies throughout the coastal-aquifer systems of southeastern 

Massachusetts and ranges from a high of about 120 ft in 

Plymouth to a low of about 6 ft above NGVD 29 in Truro 

(fig. 1). The height and configuration of the water table are 

affected by factors such as recharge and pumping conditions, 

the interaction between groundwater and surface water, and the 

hydrogeologic framework. In general, groundwater flows from 

the highest point of the water table toward natural discharge 

boundaries such as streams and coastal water bodies. Some 

water flows through kettle-hole ponds prior to discharging to 

the coast, and some water is removed from the system for water 

supply. 

The height of the water table varies seasonally and 

annually because aquifer-recharge rates vary with changes 

in precipitation and evapotranspiration. These rates also may 

vary throughout the coastal-aquifer systems of southeastern 

Massachusetts because of differences in land use, vegetation, 

depth to the water table, and local rainfall. Changes in 

precipitation and evapotranspiration and therefore aquifer 

recharge also result in changes in water levels, which are 

generally highest in the spring months and lowest in the 

fall months.

Water levels at observation well WFW–51 in Wareham and 

streamflow in the Jones River at Kingston (fig. 1), in general, 

correlated with rainfall measured at the national weather station 

in East Wareham; the declines in water levels and streamflows 

from April to July were consistent with the decrease in 

precipitation over the same period (fig. 8). From August to 

November, however, water levels and streamflows continued to 

decline even though precipitation amounts were similar to those 

in the spring months. 

Stagnant, melting ice

Outwash plain

Knob-and-kettle

Crevasse

Tunnel

Ice

Till

Ice block

Outwash

channel

Ice block

Terminal moraine

Pitted outwash plain

Kettle ponds

Till

Old channel

Figure 3. Ice sheets and terminal moraines. As ice sheets melt, thick deposits of unsorted boulders, gravels, sands, silts, and clays 

form moraines along the ice margin. These moraines represent the recessional positions of the retreating ice sheets and therefore 

have a hummocky topography of hills and depressions. As meltwater flows from retreating ice sheets, sand and gravel sediments 

are deposited as deltas into large lakes adjacent to the ice sheets. These sediments fill in the lakes and form outwash plains. The 

flat surfaces of the outwash plains are altered by the numerous kettle holes that form as collapse structures by the melting of buried 

blocks of ice stranded by the retreating ice sheets. The kettle holes that intercept the water table now are occupied by ponds

(modified from Strahler, 1966).
Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

5

Figure 4. Groundwater-flow paths in unconfined aquifer systems in southeastern Massachusetts. Recharge from 

precipitation enters the groundwater system of the shallow unconfined coastal aquifers at the water table. Groundwaterflow paths originating inland from the coast travel deeper than those originating closer to the coast. All groundwater that 

is not captured by pumped wells will discharge to streams or directly to the coast. In areas such as (A) the outer part of 

Cape Cod, freshwater is underlain by saline water, whereas in areas such as (B) western Cape Cod and the coastal areas in 

Plymouth and Duxbury, freshwater flow is bounded below by bedrock . 

SALINE

GROUNDWATER

CAPE COD

BAY

ATLANTIC OCEAN

WATER TABLE

LAKE

SALINE

GROUNDWATER

BEDROCK

Schematic diagram, not to scale

FRESH

GROUNDWATER

SEA LEVEL

-100

-200

-300

-400

-500

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

A

SALINE

GROUNDWATER

Saline groundwater

Streams Ponds

Bedrock Freshwater/saltwater interface

SEA

LEVEL

-100

-200

-300

200

100

North South

NANTUCKET

SOUND

CAPE COD

BAY

-400

-500

-600

Schematic diagram, not to scale

ALTITUDE, IN FEET

Freshwater/saltwater interface

Fresh groundwater

Water table

Land surface Recharge

B
6

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

Figure 5. The area at the water table contributing recharge to the pumped well can be delineated in (A) cross-sectional view and in 

(B) map view (modified from Reilly and Pollock, 1993). The area contributing recharge can be disconnected from the well site in map view. 

The location, shape, and size of this area depends on the pumping rate, slope of the water table, and depth of the well screen below the 

water table. 

Well screen

Areal

recharge Area

contributing

recharge

Pumping

well

Land

surface

Water table

Saturated

zone

Area

contributing

recharge Pumping

well

Bounding

flow lines

Not to scale

Not to scale

A Cross-sectional view

B Map view of saturated zone

Well screen

Water table

Saturated

zone

Area

contributing

recharge Pumping

well

Bounding

flow lines

Not to scale

Not to scale

B Map view of saturated zone

Although variations in precipitation have some effect 

on water levels and streamflows, particularly during wet and 

dry periods, water levels and streamflows on a seasonal basis 

respond mostly to the balance between precipitation and 

evapotranspiration; precipitation varies somewhat seasonally on 

average, but evapotranspiration varies greatly. This difference 

causes a substantial average seasonal variation in recharge. 

In addition to seasonal changes, water levels and 

streamflows also vary annually in response to long-term 

changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration. Water levels 

at observation well WFW-51 varied annually by as much 4 ft 

between the drought of the mid-1960s and the subsequent wet 

period in the early 1970s (fig. 9). Changes in water levels and 

streamflows also occur in response to changes in groundwater 

withdrawals and the return of treated wastewater to the aquifer. 

These changes are superimposed on natural seasonal and longterm variations; therefore, long-term data are needed to identify 

the causes of water-level and streamflow fluctuations. 

Water Budget

Precipitation is the primary source of freshwater to the 

coastal-aquifer systems of southeastern Massachusetts. On 

average, the rainfall rate ranges from about 42 to 47 in/yr 

from west to east across the region. It is assumed that about 

43 percent of the water (18–20 in/yr) is removed by evaporation 

and plant transpiration before reaching the water table; the 

remaining water (24–27 in/yr) enters the aquifer as recharge. 

If a recharge rate of 24–27 in/yr is assumed over the region, 

then freshwater continually flows through and discharges from 

this entire coastal-aquifer system at a rate of about 270 billion 

gallons per year, or about 740 Mgal/d. 

Groundwater-flow simulations were conducted to 

determine how much of this freshwater discharges directly to 

the coast through the seabed or reaches the coast as streamflow 

(Masterson, 2004; Walter and Whealan, 2005; Masterson and 

others, 2009). The total water budget for each coastal-aquifer 

system can be subdivided into individual flow components 

(fig. 10). This division allows for a better understanding of 

the distribution of flow to the various hydrologic features 

than can be obtained from the total water budget for the entire 

aquifer system. For instance, the total amount of groundwater 

discharge to streams is about 318 Mgal/d, or 43 percent of 

the total water budget for the entire coastal-aquifer system, 

but nearly 66 percent of that streamflow occurs in the PCKD 

aquifer system. 

Groundwater withdrawals account for about 44 Mgal/d 

of water in the entire coastal-aquifer system and represent 

about 6 percent of the total water budget; however, most of the 

water pumped for water supply is returned to the aquifers as 

wastewater return flow through septic systems and centralized 

wastewater-treatment facilities. Although the total withdrawals 

represent a small percentage of the total groundwater flow 

through the aquifer systems, and most of the pumped water is 

returned to the aquifer systems, the effects of pumping need to 

be considered locally on a site-by-site and well-by-well basis.
Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

7

Effects of Changes in Pumping and Recharge

Withdrawals of groundwater from these coastal aquifers 

change the water levels, the flow directions, and the rate of 

groundwater discharge into streams and coastal water bodies. 

Although most pumped water is returned to the aquifer at the 

water table, the effects of pumping and redistribution of water 

on the hydrologic system are greatest near pumped wells, 

where there are local net losses of water, and near centralized 

wastewater-treatment facilities, where there are local net gains 

of water. 

An example from the PCKD aquifer system shows the 

predicted water-level changes that could result from pumpingrate increases between 2005 and 2030 (fig. 11). Negative 

water-level changes, or drawdowns (shown in red), result from 

increases in pumping rates at existing wells or from the addition 

of new wells. Increases in water levels (shown in blue) result 

from the redistribution of water from the areas being pumped 

to the areas receiving wastewater return flow along waterdistribution lines or at wastewater-treatment facilities and from 

decreases in pumping at wells from current to future conditions.

The pumping of a well can alter groundwater discharge 

to downgradient surface-water bodies by capturing water that 

would otherwise have discharged to these bodies (figs. 12A, 

B) and if the pumping rate is great enough, by reversing the 

flow direction so that the surface-water bodies contribute water 

directly to the pumped well (fig. 12C). This pumping can cause 

declines in pond levels, increases in the depth to the water 

table beneath inland wetlands, reductions in streamflow, and 

reductions in groundwater discharge to the coast. These changes 

can reduce the water available to shoreline plants, decrease the 

flooding depth and duration of vernal pools, impede migratoryfish passage, and alter the salinity of estuaries; all of these 

changes can reduce the diversity of a biotic community.

Saltwater intrusion is another potentially adverse effect of 

increased pumping on the groundwater-flow system. Saltwater 

Figure 6. The kettle-hole ponds of Lower Cape Cod, Massachusetts, hydraulically connect with the 

underlying aquifer; therefore, they are surface-water expressions of the water table. Groundwater discharges 

into the ponds along their upgradient shores, flows through the ponds, then reenters the groundwater system 

along the downgradient shore. View looking southwest. 

Photo courtesy of John Portnoy, National Park Service, Cape Cod National Seashore.
8

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

intrudes locally into freshwater when a pumped well removes 

enough fresh groundwater to cause the interface between 

freshwater and saltwater to move in from the coast or upward 

from the underlying saline part of the aquifer. Saltwater 

intrusion also can occur regionally if enough groundwater is 

pumped and removed from the aquifer, thereby affecting the 

amount of groundwater discharge that occurs along the coast. 

This is of particular concern in the flow lenses of the outer part 

of Cape Cod, where groundwater is pumped from the Pamet 

flow lens and exported to the Pilgrim flow lens to provide 

drinking water to the residents of Provincetown (fig. 1).

Pumped water returned to the aquifer as wastewater return 

flow by way of domestic septic systems or as treated effluent 

from centralized wastewater-treatment facilities can lessen the 

effects of pumping on water quantity in these coastal aquifers 

in that most of the water pumped is returned to the groundwater 

system. Wastewater return flow can, in some cases, raise water 

levels in areas where water that was distributed for public 

supply is returned to the aquifer away from the area where it 

was withdrawn. In some instances water levels may actually 

increase above their prepumping levels, as is the case in the 

western part of the Town of Duxbury and the central part of the 

town of Kingston (fig. 11).

Streamflow also can be augmented by the return of 

wastewater to the aquifer. An example of this is the Eel 

River in Plymouth, where model simulations were made of 

streamflow under current (2005) pumping conditions during 

a drought similar to the one that occurred in the mid-1960s 

with and without wastewater returned to the aquifer. Results 

indicate that the return of wastewater to the aquifer accounts 

for about 7 percent of the streamflow during dry periods such 

as August of drought YEAR4 (fig. 13). These results indicate 

Figure 7. Simulated recharge areas in southeastern Massachusetts. All groundwater flowing in the coastal 

aquifers of can be tracked from where it enters as recharge across the water table to its discharge location at a 

pumped well, stream, pond, or coastal area. The recharge areas shown here were delineated from numericalmodel simulations for current (2000–05) average pumping and recharge conditions. The sizes and shapes of 

these contributing areas may change in response to changes in pumping and recharge conditions.

Cape Cod Bay

Atlantic 

 Ocean

Nantucket Sound

EXPLANATION

RECHARGE AREAS

Coastal Areas

Streams

Ponds

Wells

Plymouth-Carver-KingstonDuxbury aquifer system

Sagamore lens Monomoy lens

Pamet

lens

Pilgrim 

lens

Chequesset

lens

Nauset

lens

Buzzards 

 Bay

70°30' 70°00'

42°00'

41°30'

0

0 8 KILOMETERS

8 MILES
Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

9

Figure 8. Average monthly (A) water levels (1961–2006) at observation well WFW–51 in Wareham; 

(B) streamflow (1966–2005) at Jones River, Kingston; recharge and precipitation (1931–2006) at 

the weather station in East Wareham, Massachusetts. Changes in water levels and streamflow, 

in general, are correlated to changes in precipitation from November to April when losses to 

evaporation and plant transpiration are low and most of the precipitation during these months 

reaches the water table as recharge. During the months of May through October, when losses 

to evaporation and plant transpiration are high, changes in water levels and streamflows are 

correlated more closely to changes in recharge rather than precipitation because most of the 

precipitation during those months never reaches the water table as recharge. 

 Precipitation

 Recharge

 Mean water level

A

B

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

AVERAGE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION AND

RECHARGE, IN INCHES

JONES RIVER

0

1

2

3

4

5

 Precipitation

 Recharge

 Mean streamflow

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

WATER-LEVEL ALTITUDE,

IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

AVERAGE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION AND

RECHARGE, IN INCHES

WFW-51

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

0

1

2

3

4

5

DATE
10

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

that wastewater returned to the aquifer moderates the effects 

of pumping on streamflow; the moderating effects are greatest 

during dry periods, when streamflows are lowest; and the 

additional flow represents a greater percentage of streamflow 

than in the wetter periods when streamflows are higher. This 

effect may result from wastewater return flow that contributes 

water directly to the stream or indirectly by raising water levels 

in the surrounding aquifer, thereby increasing groundwater 

discharge to the stream.

As land development increases and wastewater continues 

to be returned to the aquifer through domestic septic systems, 

there is a growing concern that increased amounts of 

contamination dispersed over large areas may degrade the 

water supply in the aquifer system. Increases in the amounts 

of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, in the aquifer 

is of particular concern because of the potential for increased 

eutrophication of inland and coastal surface-water bodies. 

Eutrophication is the process by which nutrient loading to 

surface-water bodies stimulates excessive plant and algal 

growth; the resulting accumulation of organic matter can 

lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen and to fish kills. In 

coastal waters, nutrient enrichment has caused nuisance algal 

blooms (fig. 14) and the loss of eelgrass beds, an important 

submerged aquatic habitat for shellfish and finfish (Short and 

Burdick, 1996). In response to the growing concern about 

increased eutrophication in the coastal waters of southeastern 

Massachusetts, the State began the Massachusetts Estuaries 

Project in 2001 to quantify the amount of nutrient loading to 

coastal waters and to assist the local communities in developing 

strategies to reduce nutrient loading to these waters (Howes and 

others, 2003; Walter, 2007).

In addition to concerns regarding nutrient loading from 

domestic wastewater are concerns regarding the disposal 

through septic systems and centralized wastewater-treatment 

facilities of pharmaceuticals and personal care products 

(PPCPs), which include many compounds intended for 

household or medicinal use. These contaminants may affect 

groundwater supplies and downgradient surface-water 

ecosystems and could have chronic or acute effects on 

individual species and entire ecosystems (Zimmerman, 2005).

An additional alteration to natural hydrologic conditions 

can result from the manipulation of surface waters for 

agricultural purposes. Historically, southeastern Massachusetts 

has been one of the most important centers of cranberry 

production in the United States. Cranberries produced in this 

region account for most of the harvests in Massachusetts and in 

2001 constituted about one-third of the Nation’s harvest (New 

England Agricultural Statistics Service, 2002).

 Cranberry operations encompass about 10,000 acres 

(16 mi2) or about 6 percent of the total area of the PCKD 

aquifer. The current (2005) annual average water use for the bog 

operations in this area is about 80 Mgal/d (James McLaughlin, 

Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection, written 

commun., 2006). However, unlike water pumped for public 

Precipitation

Recharge

Mean water level in WFW−51

1931

1935193919431947195119551959196319671971197519791983198719911995199920032006

WATER-LEVEL ALTITUDE,

IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AND RECHARGE, IN INCHES

9 0

17 80

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Figure 9. Total annual precipitation and recharge at East Wareham weather station, and annual mean water 

levels at well WFW–51, Wareham, Massachusetts. 
Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

11

Figure 10. The hydrologic budget of the coastal aquifers of southeastern Massachusetts, reported in million gallons per day 

(Mgal/d), can be subdivided by individual aquifers, and in the case of Cape Cod, by flow lenses to show the relative importance 

of the different flow components throughout the region. The map of the recharge areas shown in figure 7 is based on the flow 

components presented graphically in this illustration.

Sagamore

(269.2 Mgal/d)

Plymouth-Carver

(297.3 Mgal/d)

Monomoy

(110.6 Mgal/d)

Chequesset

(24.2 Mgal/d)

Nauset

(19.0 Mgal/d) Pilgrim

(12.5 Mgal/d)

Pamet

(12.4 Mgal/d)

Aquifer Flow, in Discharge (percent)

 Mgal/d To coast To streams

Plymouth-Carver 297.3 24.7 70.5 4.8

Cape Cod flow lenses

Chequesset 24.2 49.2 50.8 0.0

Monomoy 110.6 77.2 15.9 6.9

Nauset 19.0 73.7 26.3 0.0

Pamet 12.4 71.0 21.8 7.2

Pilgrim 12.5 91.2 8.8 0.0

Sagamore 269.2 66.0 27.6 6.4

Cape Cod total 448.0 69.0 24.3 6.7

To wells

supply, most of this water consists of locally manipulated 

flow in surface-water bodies, such as diverted and impounded 

streamflow, rather than water exported for use away from the 

pumping source (fig. 15). Where the pumping of groundwater 

for cranberry irrigation does occur, it typically is adjacent to the 

bog areas, thereby capturing water that otherwise would have 

discharged naturally to the bogs.

Potential Effects of Climate Change

The potential effects of climate change are of great 

concern in the United States and throughout the world and are 

of particular concern to coastal communities such as those in 

southeastern Massachusetts. The Intergovernmental Panel on 

Climate Change (IPCC) predicts that global sea levels could 

rise by as much as 0.5 m by 2100 (Intergovernmental Panel 

on Climate Change, 2007); however, in light of more recent 

studies, the IPCC is now giving serious consideration to the 

possibility that sea levels could rise by several meters by the 

end of this century as a result of the rapid melting of both the 

Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets. As the wide range 

of potential effects associated with climate change is better 

understood, the need to develop long-term plans to adapt 

to these changes becomes more pressing. To that end, the 

Commonwealth of Massachusetts launched the Coastal Hazards 

Commission (CHC) in February 2006 to address current and 

future coastal-hazards issues facing the communities that share 

the 1,500 miles of Massachusetts coastline. 

The CHC completed their mission in May 2007 and 

released their recommendations in a report entitled “Preparing 

for the Storm: Recommendations for Management of Risk 

from Coastal Hazards in Massachusetts” (Coastal Hazards 

Commission, 2007). The recommendations, such as that the 

Commonwealth begin “mapping and modeling of climate 

change and sea-level-rise data related to coastal hazards in 

Massachusetts,” were focused primarily on increased rates of 

shoreline erosion and flooding from higher storm surges and 

the landward inundation of seawater at the coastal zone. What 

was not addressed by this report, and yet may have widespread 

impacts on areas well inland of the shoreline, are the potentially 

adverse effects of a combined increase in sea level and aquifer 

recharge on the water resources of the coastal aquifers of 

southeastern Massachusetts. 

Recent studies on Cape Cod have begun to focus on the 

potential changes in groundwater flow and the position of 

the freshwater/saltwater interface in response to changes in 

mean sea level over time (Masterson, 2004; Masterson and 

Garabedian, 2007). The results of these preliminary analyses 

indicate that rising sea levels will result in (1) increases in 

water-table heights inland from the shoreline, (2) increases in 

groundwater discharge to streams, and (3) saltwater intrusion 

into coastal aquifers. These studies, however, assessed only 

the effects of changes in mean sea level with a constant rate of 

aquifer recharge. 
12

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

70°47'30" 70°37'30"

42°00'

41°45'

From USGS and MassGIS data sources, Massachusetts State Plane

Coordinate System, Mainland Zone. 

Inactive model area

Surface water

Stream

Water-level change (in feet)

Wastewater-treatment facility

EXPLANATION

Model cells with year2030 water-distribution lines

Production well

2005 and 2030

2030 only

2005 only

> 3 to 5

> 5

> 1 to 3

> 0.7 to 1

> 0.5 to 0.7

> 0.3 to 0.5

> 0.1 to 0.3

0.1 to < -0.1

-0.1 to < -0.3

-0.3 to < -0.5

-0.5 to < -0.7

-0.7 to < -1

-1 to < -3

-3 to < -5

< -5

Plymouth Carver

Rochester

Plympton

Middleborough

Halifax

Pembroke

Duxbury

Marshfield

Marion

Wareham

Kingston

Bourne

0 2 MILES

0 2 KILOMETERS

Figure 11. Changes in water levels between current (2005) and proposed (2030) pumping and recharge conditions in the 

Plymouth-Carver-Kingston-Duxbury aquifer system in southeastern Massachusetts. Changes are presented in plan view to depict areas 

where water levels will be lower in the future (shown in red) and where they will be higher in the future (shown in blue) than they are at 

present (2005). Decreases in water levels are the result of increased groundwater withdrawals, whereas increases in water levels are 

the result of increased recharge of wastewater from centralized wastewater-treatment facilities and domestic septic systems and future 

reductions in current pumping from existing wells.
Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

13

Schematic diagram, not to scale

Unconfined aquifer

Unconfined aquifer

Q1

Q2

Recharge area

Land surface

Water table

C

B

A

Land surface

Land surface

Surface-water

body

Surface-water

body

Surface-water

body

Unconfined aquifer

Water table

Water table

Bedrock

Bedrock

Bedrock

Recharge area

Recharge area

Figure 12. Schematic diagram of an unconfined aquifer before and after pumping. 

Pumping from groundwater can affect discharge to nearby surface-water bodies. 

In the prepumping condition (A), all the water that enters the aquifer discharges 

to the surface-water body. Pumping at a low rate (B) reduces discharge to the 

surface-water body by capturing water that otherwise would have discharged to 

the surface-water body. When the pumping rate is increased (C), a condition may 

occur where the flow direction reverses, and water from the surface-water body is 

pumped directly from the well (modified from Alley and others, 1999).

Recent findings also indicate that precipitation rates in 

the northeastern United States could increase by as much as 

20 percent by the end of this century (Hayhoe and others, 

2006; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007). 

The effects of this increase would be most apparent in shallow, 

unconfined aquifers where small changes in the height of the 

water table can have large effects on groundwater discharge to 

ponds, streams, and coastal wetlands and on the position of the 

freshwater/saltwater interface. The areas most susceptible to 

these changes in sea level and precipitation in Massachusetts are 

the coastal-aquifer systems of southeastern Massachusetts, the 

largest groundwater reservoirs in the Commonwealth. 

Potential effects that may result from changes in sea level 

and aquifer recharge include the loss of potable water supplies 

from increased saltwater intrusion, as well as subsurface 

flooding of infrastructure from an increase in the height of the 

underlying water table. Potential socioeconomic consequences 

of these effects may include the loss of developable property, 

including areas currently suitable for septic systems, as well as 

effects on the public-works infrastructure.
14

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

Figure 14. Algal bloom in Salt Pond, Eastham, Massachusetts. Increased discharge of nutrients to surface-water bodies 

has caused eutrophication and resulted in nuisance algal blooms, such as the one shown here. These human-derived 

nutrients are transported through the groundwater system from wastewater-disposal sites and domestic septic systems to 

surface-water bodies. 

Without wastewater return flow

With wastewater return flow

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

J M M

YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3 YEAR 4 YEAR 5

J S N J M M J S N J M M J S N J M M J S N J M M J S N

STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

14

Figure 13. Simulated monthly changes in streamflow in the Eel River, Plymouth, Massachusetts, with and without 

wastewater return flow. Simulated streamflow increases in the Eel River when wastewater is returned to the aquifer 

by centralized wastewater-treatment facilities and domestic septic systems in relation to simulated streamflow when 

wastewater is not returned to the aquifer. During drought conditions similar to those of the mid-1960s, the return of treated 

wastewater to the aquifer can increase streamflow by as much as 7 percent during dry periods.

Photo courtesy of Barbara Dougan, National Park Service, Cape Cod National Seashore.
Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

15

Summary

Groundwater is a vital resource in the coastal areas of 

southeastern Massachusetts because it is the only source of 

drinking water and the primary source of freshwater that 

discharges into kettle-hole ponds, streams, and estuaries. 

Because of the importance of this resource, the U.S. Geological 

Survey began a series of investigations to describe the 

hydrogeology of the coastal-aquifer systems of southeastern 

Massachusetts and to assess the possible hydrologic effects of 

proposed water-management strategies in this region. 

This report briefly details the hydrogeology of the coastalaquifer systems and discusses the importance of groundwater 

levels and flow to the functioning of freshwater and estuarine 

ecosystems. It includes a discussion of the implications of 

future changes to the groundwater system, including land 

development, population growth, and climate change, and 

their potential effects on groundwater flow and the water 

resources of southeastern Massachusetts. The potential effects 

of increased groundwater withdrawals include declines in pond 

levels, increases in the depth to the water table beneath inland 

wetlands, reductions in streamflow, reductions in groundwater 

discharge to the coast, and increased saltwater intrusion. The 

potential effects of increased loading of nutrients, such as 

nitrogen and phosphorus, include the eutrophication of fresh 

and coastal surface-water bodies. Finally, the potential effects 

of climate change, such as rising sea levels and increases in 

aquifer recharge, may result in the loss of potable water supplies 

as a result of increased saltwater intrusion, as well as subsurface 

flooding of public-works infrastructure owing to an increase in 

the height of the underlying water table. 

References Cited

Alley, W.M., Reilly, T.E., and Franke, O.L., 1999, Sustainability 

of ground-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 

1186, 79 p.

Coastal Hazards Commission, 2007, Preparing for the storm— 

Recommendations for management of risk from coastal 

hazards in Massachusetts: Boston, Mass., Coastal Hazards 

Commission, 40 p. 

Figure 15. Cranberry bogs in Mashpee, southeastern Massachusetts. 

Photo courtesy of Dennis LeBlanc, U.S. Geological Survey.
16

Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts

Geise, G.S., and Aubrey, D.G., 1987, Bluff erosion on outer 

Cape Cod, in Kraus, N.C., ed., Coastal Sediments ’87, 

v. 2: New York, American Society of Civil Engineers, 

p. 1871–1875.

Hayhoe, K., Wake, C.P., Huntington, T.G., Lou, L., Schwartz, 

M.D., Sheffield, J., Wood, E., Anderson, B., Bradbury, J., 

DeGaetano, A., Troy, T.J., and Wolfe, D., 2006, Past and 

future changes in climate and hydrological indicators in the 

U.S. Northeast: Climate Dynamics, v. 28, no. 4, p. 381–407.

Howes, D.L., Samimy, Roland, and Dudley, Brian, 2003, 

Massachusetts Estuary Project—Site specific nitrogen 

thresholds for southeastern Massachusetts embayments—

critical indicators: Dartmouth, Mass., University of 

Massachusetts School of Marine Science and Technology, 

28 p.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, Working 

Group I—The physical science basis of climate change, 

accessed January 11, 2007, at http://www.ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/

wg1/wg1-report.html

Larson, G. J., 1980, Nonsynchronous retreat of ice lobes from 

southeastern Massachusetts, in Larson, G.J. and Stone, 

B.D., eds., Late Wisconsinan glaciation of New England: 

Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall/Hall Publishing Co., p. 101–114.

Masterson, J.P., Carlson, C.S., Massey, A.J., and Walter, D.A., 

2009, Hydrogeology and simulation of groundwater flow 

in the Plymouth-Carver-Kingston-Duxbury aquifer system, 

southeastern Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey 

Scientific Investigations Report 2009–5063, 116 p.

Masterson, J.P., 2004, Simulated interaction between 

freshwater and saltwater and effects of ground-water 

pumping and sea-level change, Lower Cape Cod aquifer 

system, Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific 

Investigations Report 2004–5014, 72 p.

Masterson, J.P., and Garabedian, S.P., 2007, Effects of sealevel rise on ground-water flow in a coastal aquifer system: 

Ground Water, v. 45, no. 2, p. 209–217.

Masterson, J.P., Stone, B.D., Walter, D.A., and Savoie, Jennifer, 

1997, Hydrogeologic framework of western Cape Cod, 

Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic 

Investigations Atlas 741, 1 pl.

Masterson, J.P., and Walter, D.A., 2000, Delineation of groundwater recharge areas, western Cape Cod, Massachusetts: 

U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 

Report 00–4000, 1 pl.

New England Agricultural Statistics Service, 2002, U.S. 

cranberry production down 5 percent, in Cranberries: 

East Wareham, Mass., NEASS, a field office of the 

National Agricultural Statistics Service, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, 2 p.

Oldale, R.N., 1992, Cape Cod and the islands—The geologic 

story: East Orleans, Mass., Parnassus Imprints, 205 p.

Reilly, T.E., and Pollock, D.W., 1993, Factors affecting areas 

contributing recharge in shallow aquifers: U.S. Geological 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 2412, 21 p. 

Short, F.T., and Burdick, D.M., 1996, Quantifying eelgrass 

habitat loss in relation to housing development and nitrogen 

loading in Waquoit Bay, Massachusetts: Estuaries, v. 19, 

p. 730–739.

Strahler, A.N., 1966, A geologist’s view of Cape Cod: 

Garden City, New York, The Natural History Press, 115 p.

Theiler, E.R., and Hammar-Klose, E.S., 2000, National 

assessment of coastal vulnerability to sea-level 

rise—Preliminary results for the U.S. Atlantic coast: 

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 99–593, 1 sheet.

Walter, D.A., 2007, Use of numerical models to simulate 

transport of sewage-derived nitrate in a coastal 

aquifer, central and western Cape Cod, Massachusetts: 

U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 

2007–5254, 54 p.

Walter, D.A., Masterson, J.P., and Hess, K.M., 2004, Groundwater recharge areas and travel times to pumped wells, ponds, 

streams, and coastal water bodies, Cape Cod, Massachusetts: 

U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map I–2857, 

1 sheet.

Walter, D.A., and Whealan, A.T., 2005, Simulated water 

sources and effects of pumping on surface and ground 

water, Sagamore and Monomoy flow lenses, Cape Cod, 

Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific 

Investigations Report 2004–5181, 85 p.

Zimmerman, M.J., 2005, Occurrence of organic wastewater 

contaminants, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products 

in selected water supplies, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, June 

2004: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005–1206, 

16 p.
Prepared by the Pembroke Publishing Service Center.

For more information concerning the research in this report, contact:

Director 

USGS Massachusetts-Rhode Island 

Water Science Center

10 Bearfoot Road

Northborough, MA 01532

or visit our Web site at:

http://ma.water.usgs.gov
Masterson and Walter—Hydrogeology and Ground-Water Resources of the Coastal Aquifers of Southeastern Massachusetts—Circular 1338