AFDD Template Guide

20 September 2002

.

LEADERSHIP AND 

FORCE DEVELOPMENT

Air Force Doctrine Document 1-1

8 November 2011
BY ORDER OF THE AIR FORCE DOCTRINE DOCUMENT 1-1

SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE 8 NOVEMBER 2011

SUMMARY OF CHANGES

This document is substantially revised and must be completely reviewed. The 

structure of the document has been changed to present information in a more cohesive 

manner, reducing the number of chapters from four to three. The discussion on the 

meaning of the term ―Airman‖ has been completely revised (Chapter 1). The discussion 

on leadership has been expanded to include a historical review of leadership doctrine 

for the Air Force (Chapter 2). Enduring competencies have been replaced by 

institutional competencies (Chapter 3 and Appendix C). A new appendix has been 

added: The Institutional Competency List (Appendix C). The appendix containing case 

studies has been renamed ―leadership studies‖ to more accurately reflect the contents, 

and new studies have been added (Appendix E).

Supersedes: AFDD 1-1, 18 Feb 06

OPR: LeMay Center/DDS

Certified by: LeMay Center/CC (Maj Gen David S. Fadok)

Pages: 92

Accessibility: Available on the e-publishing website at www.e-publishing.af.mil for downloading

Releasability: There are no releasability restrictions on this publication

Approved by: NORTON A. SCHWARTZ, General, USAF 

 Chief of Staff
FOREWORD

The Air Force develops leaders. Leadership is a skill that we learn, develop, and 

practice; it is not necessarily inherited nor ingrained in our DNA. This doctrine 

document presents the Air Force‘s best practices for creating leaders and applying 

leadership. 

Leaders do not abruptly appear fully developed and ready to perform. A growth 

period must occur to allow young leaders time to mature into the responsibilities

required of senior institutional leaders and commanders. The force development 

process provides the means to develop leadership. Our Air Force requires leaders who 

can take warfighting to the highest possible level of success in support of our national 

security objectives. Those leaders are created through a process of development 

involving education, training, and experience coupled with ongoing mentoring by more 

experienced leaders. The end result is the development of Airmen capable of excelling

as leaders at all levels, anywhere, anytime. 

The Air Force core values are the bedrock of leadership. Integrity First is the 

basis of trust, and trust is the vital bond that unifies leaders with their followers and 

commanders with their units. Trust makes leaders effective, and integrity underpins 

trust. Service Before Self is the essence of our commitment to the nation. Leaders who 

serve selflessly inspire support from everyone in their command and promote a spirit 

that binds organizations into an effective warfighting team. Excellence in All We Do is 

our commitment to the highest standards of service to our country. Leaders set the 

standard for excellence in their organizations. 

This document is the Air Force statement of leadership principles. Your personal 

leadership is the key to our Service‘s success in fulfilling our mission to fly, fight, and 

win.

General, USAF

Chief of Staff

NORTON A. SCHWARTZ

General, USAF

Chief of Staff
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE .......................................................................................................................iv

CHAPTER ONE—The Airman ........................................................................................ 1

The Airman‘s Perspective............................................................................................ 2

The Total Force ........................................................................................................... 3

The Air Force Core Values .......................................................................................... 9

Integrity First .......................................................................................................... 10

Service Before Self ................................................................................................ 12

Excellence in All We Do ......................................................................................... 13

Warfighting and the Profession of Arms .................................................................... 15

Valor....................................................................................................................... 18

Courage ................................................................................................................. 19

Sacrifice ................................................................................................................. 20

The Airman‘s Creed................................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER TWO—Leading Airmen ............................................................................... 22

Foundations of Air Force Leadership......................................................................... 23

Levels of Air Force Leadership.................................................................................. 27

Tactical Expertise................................................................................................... 28

Operational Competence ....................................................................................... 29

Strategic Vision ...................................................................................................... 31

Leadership Components............................................................................................ 34

Institutional Competencies ..................................................................................... 34

Leadership Actions................................................................................................. 35

CHAPTER THREE—Force Development ..................................................................... 37

Force Development Construct................................................................................... 37

The Continuum of Learning ....................................................................................... 39

Institutional Competencies......................................................................................... 40

Institutional Competency Proficiency Levels .......................................................... 41

Institutional Competency Assessment Strategy ..................................................... 43

Common Guiding Principles ...................................................................................... 43

CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 47

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 48

APPENDIX A. The Oaths of Office and Enlistment ...................................................... 49

APPENDIX B. Code of Conduct for Members of the Armed Forces of the 

 United States........................................................................................ 51

APPENDIX C. Institutional Competency List................................................................ 53

APPENDIX D. Education and Training......................................................................... 61

APPENDIX E. Leadership Studies ............................................................................... 66

GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 85
iv

PREFACE

Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 1-1, Leadership and Force Development, 

is the Air Force‘s capstone doctrinal publication on leadership and how the Service uses

force development to build leaders. AFDD 1-1 is a direct descendant in a line of Air 

Force documents chronicling leadership for the Service dating back to its earliest days. 

It presents the best practices of how an Airman leads and why leadership for an Airman 

differs from those of other Services. The three chapters and the appendices describe 

what an Airman is, how Airmen lead, what force development is, and how it is put into 

practice. 

 Chapter 1, The Airman, explains what an Airman is and how the Airman‘s 

perspective is integral to his or her thinking. It gives an overview of the total force, 

explaining the differences in leadership by officers, enlisted members, and 

Department of the Air Force civilians, along with a description of the specialized 

leadership needs and limitations when dealing with contractors. It provides the 

authoritative source for the Air Force core values, along with the supporting 

characteristics of valor, courage, and sacrifice that are fundamental to what an 

Airman is. It describes the mindset an Airman needs to conduct warfighting and how 

the profession of arms is key to what an Airman does. The Airman‘s Creed is 

located in this chapter to show its relationship to both the concept of what an Airman 

is and how this creed is vital to leadership in the Air Force.

 Chapter 2, Leading Airmen, defines leadership for the Air Force. It discusses the 

foundations of leadership for the Service, with a historical analysis of the origins of 

leadership in the Air Force. It introduces the levels of leadership used in the Air

Force for force development: tactical expertise, operational competence, and 

strategic vision. This expands the discussion of levels of leadership from the 

previous edition to provide greater fidelity to the concepts, along with more 

descriptive terminology that is more representative of how leadership is executed. It 

describes institutional competencies and leadership actions, and how these 

leadership components are key to developing leaders.

 Chapter 3, Force Development, defines the term force development for the Air 

Force. It describes the force development construct and the continuum of learning 

with its three elements of education, training, and experience. The corporate body 

for ensuring there is a deliberate process employed in developing the workforce is 

explained. Institutional competencies and how they are used to identify desired 

expectations for the total workforce are clarified. The institutional competency 

assessment strategy illustrates how graduates are surveyed to determine how well 

the military education and training schools have taught them to perform the 

institutional competency descriptive behaviors at the prescribed proficiency levels. 

Common guiding principles demonstrate how education, training, and experience 

affect the development of Airmen.
v

 The appendices provide supporting material for the discussion of leadership and 

force development. The oaths of office and enlistment provide a source of 

leadership for the Air Force. The code of conduct for members of the Armed Forces 

of the United States grounds all members of the Armed Forces with the same 

requirements of conduct. The institutional competency list is the definitive listing of 

the Air Force‘s institutional competencies and their subcompetencies, along with 

their definitions. The discussion of education and training is provided to differentiate 

between these concepts so they can be better understood in the context of force 

development. The leadership studies provide real-world examples of the three levels 

of leadership practiced by Airmen. 

The principal audience for this AFDD is all Airmen in the US Air Force. To 

differentiate US Air Force Airmen from other individuals in other Services and other 

nations who support airpower, the term Airman is reserved for US Air Force personnel 

and airman is used for those from other Services and nations.

As the capstone document on leadership, its application crosses all lines of rank, 

component, or status. This is the defining document for leadership in the US Air Force, 

using force development as its means of building leaders. 
1

Today, we have more than 39,000 Airmen 

deployed to 260 locations across the globe, as an 

additional 130,000 Airmen support combatant 

command operations from their home stations. While 

our operations tempo is high, you, our Nation's Airmen, 

continue to set the standard for excellence. We are 

continuously reminded of the courage, commitment, 

and sacrifice you offer on a daily basis.

—Michael B. Donley,

Secretary of the Air Force (SECAF), 

Memorial Day 2010

CHAPTER ONE

THE AIRMAN

All Airmen, military and civilian, support and defend the Constitution of 

the United States and live by the Air Force core values. Airmen are the foundation 

of the Air Force organizations and units that enable the Department of Defense to 

support the National Security Strategy. The term Airman has historically been 

associated with uniformed members of the US Air Force (officer or enlisted; regular, 

Reserve, or Guard) regardless of rank, component, or specialty.1 Today, Department of 

the Air Force (DAF) civilians are incorporated within the broader meaning of the term 

when there is a need to communicate to a larger audience within the Service, either for 

force development purposes or for clarity and inclusiveness by senior leaders when 

addressing a larger body of personnel. 

Airmen recognize and value airpower in its application, which is fundamentally 

different and more flexible than other forms of military power and instruments of national 

power.

2

 This inherent flexibility allows our force to be applied independently or in 

concert with other forms of military power. The application and integration of airpower 

produce effects across multiple domains and theaters. Air Force forces are employed 

at different speeds and closure rates and over greater distances and should be applied 

by those who appreciate the breadth and scope of that power across the range of 

 

1

This broader meaning does not, however, mean or imply that anyone other than uniformed members of 

the US Air Force are members of the armed Services in other contexts. For example, in the context of 

punitive Air Force instructions or the law of armed conflict regulations, care must be taken to ensure that 

the rights and obligations imposed under those regulations are not uniformly applied to both Service 

members and civilians.

2 See AFDD 1, Air Force Basic Doctrine, Organization, and Command, for a discussion on the Air Force‘s 

roles, missions, and Service core functions.
2

 The Airman‘s perspective 

may be shared by members of 

the other Services and other 

nations who apply airpower. 

To differentiate US Air Force 

Airmen from these other likeminded individuals, the term 

Airman is reserved for US Air 

Force personnel while airman

is used as a general term for 

those from various Services 

and nations.

military operations as unique. Due to the 

distinctive nature of the capabilities brought to 

the fight, Airmen see their Service as unique.3

The study of airpower and the strengths 

of its capabilities lead to a particular expertise 

and a distinctive point of view that General 

Henry H. ―Hap‖ Arnold termed ―airmindedness.‖4 

The Airman‘s perspective is forged from 

horizonless operations from, in, and through the 

air, space, and cyberspace domains.5 Whereas 

land and maritime domains each comprise a 

portion of the earth‘s surface, air, space and 

cyberspace—the Air Force‘s operating 

domains—surround 100% of our world.

THE AIRMAN’S PERSPECTIVE

The US Air Force flies, fights, and wins in air, space, and cyberspace. The 

Air Force provides organized, trained, and equipped forces to support combatant 

commanders who are responsible for deterring attacks against the United States, its 

territories, possessions, and bases, and employing appropriate force should deterrence 

fail.6 Air, space, and cyberspace are flexible and dynamic domains that present 

opportunities and vulnerabilities. These vulnerabilities, when not mitigated, may be 

used by America‘s adversaries to their advantage. The Air Force is the premier 

American military force capable of overcoming those vulnerabilities in defense of the 

United States.

Airmen are essential to the successful execution of the Air Force‘s 

responsibilities in support of the combatant commanders, therefore they should 

understand and actively advocate the Airman‘s perspective on the use of airpower to 

achieve national objectives. Understanding the Airman‘s perspective gives Airmen a 

distinct advantage when performing the responsibilities of the Air Force. They approach 

mission accomplishment in a manner unique to those educated, trained, and 

experienced in bringing an airmindedness to all actions they perform. Airmen bring a 

perspective to performing the Air Force‘s mission that compounds their effectiveness in 

a manner best suited to support the Air Force, joint, and multinational fight. 

Airmen normally think of airpower and the application of force from a functional 

rather than geographical perspective. Airmen do not divide up the battlefield into 

 

3 Maj Gen Charles Dunlap, Jr., Understanding Airmen: A Primer for Soldiers, Military Review, 

September-October 2007, 126.

4 Gen Henry H. (―Hap‖) Arnold, Third Report of the Commanding General of the Army Air Forces to the 

Secretary of War, Baltimore, Md: Schneidereith, 12 November 1945, 70.

5 Air Force Manual 1-1 (1992), Essay U: Airmindedness: An Example.

6 Unified Command Plan, paragraph 10.a.
3

operating areas.7 Airmen typically approach battle in terms of creating effects to meet 

joint force commander objectives, rather than on the nature and location of specific 

targets.

8

 This approach normally leads to more inclusive and comprehensive 

perspectives that favor holistic solutions over tactical ones. 

When Air Force forces are employed in various operational environments, they 

offer basic characteristics that, when exploited, are fundamental to the successful 

conduct of war and peace. These characteristics, when molded into viable force 

capabilities and executed by knowledgeable Airmen, enhance the overall ability of the 

joint force to achieve success when called upon. Therefore, each Airman should

understand and be able to articulate the full potential and application of Air Force 

capabilities required to support the joint force and meet the nation‘s security 

requirements.

THE TOTAL FORCE

The total force consists of the people who make up the Air Force. It is defined as 

―the US Air Force organizations, units, and individuals that provide the capabilities to 

support the Department of Defense in implementing the national security strategy. Total 

force includes Regular Air Force, Air National Guard of the United States, Air Force 

Reserve military personnel, US Air Force military retired members, US Air Force civilian 

personnel (including foreign national direct and indirect-hire, as well as nonappropriated fund employees), contractor staff, and host-nation support personnel.‖

9

The regular Air Force is defined as the component of the Air Force that 

consists of persons whose continuous service on active duty in both peace and war is 

contemplated by law, and of retired members of the regular Air Force.10 The Air National 

Guard is an organized state militia and a reserve component of the Air Force. The Air 

National Guard of the United States is a federal organization that is also a reserve 

component of the US Air Force. Air National Guard Airmen serve in both organizations, 

and can move between them as duty requires.

11 The Air Force Reserve is a component

of the United States Air Force as prescribed by law.12 They are represented by a mix of 

Traditional Reservists, Individual Mobilization Augmentees, participating Individual 

Ready Reservists, Air Reserve Technicians, Title 32 Excepted Civil Service Technicians 

(Guard Technicians), and Active Guard/Reserve, both Drill Status Guardsmen and fulltime forces.

 

7 Col Dennis M. Drew, Joint Operations: The World Looks Different from 10,000 Feet, Airpower Journal, 

Fall 1988, http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj88/fal88/drew.html, accessed 6 Jan 09.

8 Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 1, Air Force Basic Doctrine, Organization, and Command; AFDD 

3-60, Targeting.

9 AFI 90-1001, Responsibilities for Total Force Integration, 29 May 07 (IC 1, 25 Apr 08).

10 Title 10, United States Code (U.S.C.) §8075.

11 10 U.S.C. §101(c)(4) and (5); Perpich v. Department of Defense, 496 U.S. 334, 110 S. Ct. 2418, 110 

L.Ed.2d 312 (1990).

12 10 U.S.C. §10101. In addition, non-participating and inactive members who are part of the Individual 

Ready Reserve, the Standby Reserve, and the Retired Reserve are subject to recall as authorized by 

law. See 10 U.S.C. §§ 10144, 10151, and 10154.
4

You were chosen to 

be an officer because you 

have the potential qualities of 

a leader, just as an athlete is 

―signed‖ by a big league 

team and the aviation cadet 

is selected for flying training 

because they have certain 

innate abilities.

—Air Force Manual (AFM) 

35-15, Air Force Leadership

(1948)

DAF civilians are members of the total force, but are not members of the above 

elements of the Air Force. Regular Air Force, Guard, Reserve, and DAF civilians fall 

under the use of the term Airman when force development issues are discussed or 

general inclusiveness by senior leaders is required for clarity in communication. 

Air Force contractors are also members of the total force, but their connection to 

the Service does not rise to the same level as that of regular Air Force, Guard, Reserve, 

or DAF civilians, who are required to swear an oath of allegiance. Contractors support 

the missions of Airmen. Managing contractors requires a different leadership approach 

because they are not part of the military chain of command. Contractor personnel 

should be managed through the terms and conditions set forth in their contract. They 

do not normally fall under Uniform Code of Military Justice authority. Therefore, it is 

imperative that Air Force leaders ensure a strong contractor management system is in 

place in both peacetime and during contingency operations.

Upon entering the Service, Air Force officers, enlisted members, and DAF

civilians take an oath,13 signifying their personal commitment to support and defend the 

Constitution of the United States and a commitment and willingness to serve their 

country for the duration of their Air Force careers. The oath is a solemn promise to do 

one's duty and meet one's responsibilities. The oath of office for officers and civilians 

and the oath of enlistment for enlisted personnel are in Appendix A.

Officers14 

A military officer has responsibilities as a 

warfighter, a servant of the Nation, a member of 

the profession of arms, and a leader of 

character. Frequently, these roles are carried 

out simultaneously. While officers often 

shoulder our Air Force‘s leadership 

responsibilities, that leadership role must be 

earned through demonstrated adherence to our 

core values and proven followership abilities. 

One must be a good follower in order to be a 

good leader. Preparation to fulfill the role of an 

Air Force officer is a continual developmental 

process. Air Force officers are raised with an 

Airman‘s perspective and grown in the culture 

of the Service. This perspective is developed 

through education in how the Air Force operates 

and honed through operational experience. 

Leadership opportunities grow throughout this developmental process as does an 

officer‘s ability to articulate the capabilities the Air Force brings to the joint fight. 

 

13 5 U.S.C. §3331, 10 U.S.C. §502.

14 For a thorough analysis of officership in the United States military, see The Armed Forces Officer, 

National Defense University Press, 2007.
5

The function of 

command requires continuous 

alertness and willingness to 

accept changed conditions. 

Our commanders must exert 

superior leadership; they are 

expected to know and 

influence their soldiers. Exert 

your leadership—see that your 

soldiers  ̳think straight.‘ You 

won‘t have all the answers, but 

you can at least tell your 

soldiers that.

—General H.H. “Hap” 

Arnold, from Army Air Force 

Letter 35-280, 

19 September 1945

Commanders depend upon NCOs to lead subordinates to accomplish the mission.

—Air Force Pamphlet (AFPAM) 36-2241 (1 Jul 09), para 10.1

Within the Air Force, only an officer can 

command Air Force forces.15 Command is 

defined as ―[t]he authority that a commander in 

the armed forces lawfully exercises over 

subordinates by virtue of rank or assignment. 

Command includes the authority and 

responsibility for effectively using available 

resources and for planning the employment of, 

organizing, directing, coordinating, and 

controlling military forces for the 

accomplishment of assigned missions. It also 

includes responsibility for health, welfare, 

morale, and discipline of assigned personnel.‖16

To command, an officer is educated in the 

Airman‘s perspective and trained in Air Force 

capabilities. This training and perspective, 

combined with years of experience, produce an 

individual able to accept the responsibility of 

sending Airmen into harm‘s way, the sole 

purview of a commander. 

Federal law states that commanders in the 

Air Force are required to be good examples of virtue, honor, patriotism, and 

subordination; to be vigilant in ―inspecting the conduct of all persons who are placed 

under their command;‖ to guard against ―dissolute and immoral practices‖ and correct 

those guilty of them; and to promote and safeguard the morale, well-being, and general 

welfare of the officers and enlisted personnel under their command.17 Such tasks are 

sufficiently daunting that it behooves a commander to take advantage of the expertise 

available to him or her in an organization, informally known as a command team. The 

command team can consist of formal and informal members critical to maintaining the 

good order and discipline of an Air Force unit. The members of the command team 

should possess the experience, functional prowess, and maturity required to make 

decisions of great impact to the organization, the individuals in the organization, and the 

Air Force. Operating together, a commander with his or her command team leads Air 

Force organizations in the execution of Air Force duties.

Enlisted Members 

 

15 The ultimate source for command authority is the U.S. Constitution, Article II, §2, making the President 

the Commander-in-Chief of the US military. For military discipline purposes, 10 U.S.C. §801 states, ―The 

term  ̳commanding officer‘ includes only commissioned officers.‖

16 Joint Publication (JP) 1-02

17 10 U.S.C. §8583.
6

Throughout my Air Force 

career, I‘ve seen how our 

Airmen demonstrate their 

commitment to serve—every 

day, around the world.

—Chief Master Sergeant of 

the Air Force James A. Roy, 

2009

If it is a military requirement, then the military will do it—if not, then you 

definitely want civilians doing it.

— Roger M. Blanchard, 

Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, Headquarters Air Force, 

1997-2007

The Air Force‘s enlisted members provide the Service with the highest degree of 

technical expertise within their respective functional areas. Inherent in the oath of 

enlistment (see Appendix A), enlisted members are bound to the ideal of followership.

Although not commissioned and thereby not 

entitled to be in command positions, enlisted 

members perform leadership roles across all 

Air Force organizational levels and are highly 

respected members of the Air Force leadership 

team. Education, training, and an Airman‘s 

perspective, combined with a wealth of 

technical expertise, sustain enlisted members 

in the leadership of other enlisted forces who 

support their unit, the unit‘s mission, and the Air 

Force at large.

18

The Air Force enlisted members are true to a professional calling that 

encompasses a high degree of specialized training, Service orientation, and a distinct 

subculture. Enlisted members demonstrate dedication to this calling through hard work, 

loyalty, and mission accomplishment regardless of hardship or adversity. Often referred 

to as the ―backbone‖ of the Air Force, enlisted members are grounded in the Air Force 

core values and are bound to the idea of followership. Enlisted members are also 

brought up with an Airman‘s perspective and receive professional military education and 

training tailored to appropriate levels of leadership and responsibility in accordance with 

AFI 36-2618, The Enlisted Force Structure; this document provides guidance and 

direction for all enlisted ranks. Enlisted members are Airmen first and specialists

second. Lastly, they carry a strong belief in setting aside their own wants and needs in 

seeking the greatest good for their subordinates, peers, and leaders in defense of the 

Constitution of the United States and the officers appointed over them. 

Civilians 

DAF civilians are indispensable to the management and operation of the Service. 

As civilians, they cannot exercise command authority over military members19 but do 

 

18 See AFPAM 36-2241, Chapter 10, for a discussion on leadership and followership for the enlisted force.

19 There are two exceptions to civilians being prohibited from commanding military forces: The President, 

as Commander-in-Chief under Article II, §2 of the US Constitution. In addition, 10 U.S.C. §113 and 50 

U.S.C. §401 place the military departments under the direction, authority, and control of the Secretary of 

Defense.
7

Former President George H. W. Bush proclaimed December 4, 1991 as ―Federal 

Civilian Employees Remembrance Day.‖ This recognition was bestowed upon 

Federal civilian employees because of the manner in which they responded to 

rescue and reconstruction missions with distinction and valor during the bombing 

of Pearl Harbor. Department of Defense civilian employees made vital 

contributions to the Allied war effort by performing critical administrative and 

technical duties in support of military operations.

—Information derived from Proclamation 6387;

Federal Civilian Employees Remembrance Day, 1991

perform in leadership roles throughout the Service and across all organizational levels. 

As of 2010, the US Air Force employs over 170,000 civilians in a full range of 

occupations. Civilians often provide stability and continuity as their duties and positions 

will frequently remain in an organization for long durations with the ability to support 

multiple commanders over years of service. They fill positions in staff and base 

sustainment operations that would otherwise be filled by military personnel. Their 

leadership skills are enhanced through an education and training regimen suited for 

their growth in the functional areas in which they provide expertise.20 Their 

experiences, often honed through many years in a given functional area, give them a 

level of knowledge developed to an extensive degree. As stated in the Oath of Office, 

civilians are to understand and value the essential role of followership in mission 

accomplishment.

DAF civilians respond to the needs of the Air Force across the range of military 

operations. As an example, the Civilian Expeditionary Workforce initiative is designed 

to enhance the number of civilians augmenting operational requirements in contingency 

operations. 

Followership

Followership is as vital to the Air Force as is the status of an individual as an 

Airman. It is implicit in the duties of all officers and DAF civilians, and explicit for the 

enlisted force. The oath of enlistment‘s language makes followership a necessity of 

service: ―...and that I will obey the orders of the President of the United States and the 

orders of the officers appointed over me according to regulations and the Uniform Code 

of Military Justice.‖21 All Airmen are followers as well as leaders. The followership 

qualities outlined below distinguish an effective from an ineffective follower:

22

 

20Air Force Policy Directive (AFPD) 36-26, Total Force Development, addresses how to create a total 

force, including DAF civilians, ―successfully prepared to accomplish the Air Force mission and to lead in a 

rapidly evolving global environment with a vast range of missions, balancing individual needs – personal 

and professional – to the greatest extent possible consistent with mission accomplishment.‖

21 10 U.S.C. §502.

22 Kelley, Robert E. ―In Praise of Followers.‖ In Military Leadership: In Pursuit of Excellence, 3rd Ed. 

Edited by Robert L. Taylor and William E. Rosenbach, Boulder: Westview Press, 1996, 136.
8

Core values make the military what it is; without 

them, we cannot succeed. They are the values that instill 

confidence, earn lasting respect and create willing 

followers. They are the values that anchor resolve in the 

most difficult situations. They are the values that 

buttress mental and physical courage when we enter 

combat. In essence, they are the three pillars of 

professionalism that provide the foundation for military 

leadership at every level.

—Dr. Sheila Widnall, SECAF, 1993-1997

 Self-management

 Commitment

 Competence

 Courage

Effective followers are ―...intent on high performance and recognize they share 

the responsibility for the quality of the relationship they have with their leaders...they 

know they cannot be fully effective unless they work in partnerships that require both a 

commitment to high performance and a commitment to develop effective relationships 

with partners (including their boss) whose collaboration is essential to success in their 

own work.‖23

Research reveals specific follower attributes that produce the most effective 

personnel. A follower should exhibit loyalty that incorporates a high organizational 

commitment, a loyalty to the senior person‘s vision and priorities, a willingness to 

disagree in an appropriate and polite manner, and an ability to align personal goals with 

organizational ones. A follower should function well in a change-oriented environment 

where the person can be an agent for change and be agile in moving between the roles 

of leader and follower. A follower should function well on teams, collaborating with 

others, sharing credit, and acting responsibly toward others. A follower should exercise 

independent critical thinking, be willing to express courageous dissent, take the initiative 

in tasks, and self-manage rather than wait for guidance. A follower should ensure the 

core value of integrity is paramount, being trustworthy and truthful, setting and 

maintaining the highest performance standards, and admitting to mistakes where 

appropriate.24

 

23 Potter, Earl H., William E. Rosenbach, Thane S. Pittman, ―Leading the New Professional.‖ In Taylor and 

Rosenbach, 148.

24 Latour, Lt Col Sharon, USAF, and Lt Col Vicki Rast, USAF, ―Dynamic Followership: The Prerequisite for 

Effective Leadership,‖ Air & Space Power Journal, Winter, 2004.
9

Core Values help those who join us to 

understand right from the outset what‘s expected 

of them. Equally important, they provide all of 

us, from [the rank of] Airman to four-star general, 

with a touchstone—a guide in our own 

conscience—to remind us of what we expect 

from ourselves. We have wonderful people in the 

Air Force. But we aren‘t perfect. Frequent 

reflection on the core values helps each of us 

refocus on the person we want to be and the 

example we want to set.

—General Michael E. Ryan, Chief of Staff, 

United States Air Force (CSAF), 1997-2001

Follower development is a leadership responsibility, and willingness to move out 

of one‘s comfort zone is fully expected of tomorrow‘s leader.25 As loyalty is an essential 

quality of followership, the return loyalty of the leader is a necessary leadership quality.

THE AIR FORCE CORE VALUES 

The core values are a statement of those institutional values and principles 

of conduct that provide the moral framework for military activities. The 

professional Air Force ethic consists of three fundamental and enduring values of 

integrity first, service before self, and excellence in all we do.

26 This ethic is the set 

of values that guides the way Airmen live and perform. Success hinges on the 

incorporation of these values into the character of every Airman. In today‘s timecompressed, dynamic, and dangerous operational environment, an Airman does not 

have the luxury of examining each issue at leisure. He or she must fully internalize 

these values in order to be better prepared in all situations—to maintain integrity, to 

serve others before self, to perform with excellence and to encourage others to do the 

same. The Air Force core values—integrity first, service before self, and excellence 

in all we do—are a commitment each Airman makes when joining the Air Force. These 

values provide a foundation for leadership, decision-making, and success, no matter the 

level of an Airman‘s assignment, the difficulty of the task at hand, or the dangers 

presented by the mission.

There are four reasons the Service recognizes the Air Force core values as 

fundamental to its people:27 

 

25 Ibid.

26 The Air Force core values were originally released in the 1997 Air Force Core Values Handbook (the 

―little blue book‖). Text follows the basic structure of this handbook.

27 Adapted from the Air Force Core Values Handbook (1997), Chapter II.
10

 The core values tell us the price of admission to the Air Force itself. All Air 

Force personnel must possess integrity first. At the same time, a person‘s ―self‖ must 

take a back seat to Air Force service: rules must be acknowledged and followed 

faithfully; other personnel must be respected as persons of fundamental worth; 

discipline and self-control must be demonstrated always; and there must be faith in 

the system. In other words, the price of admission to the Air Force demands that 

each of us places service before self. And it is imperative that we seek excellence in 

all we do—whether the form is product/service excellence, resources excellence, 

community excellence, or operations excellence.

 They point to what is universal and unchanging in the profession of arms. The 

values are road signs inviting us to consider key features of the requirements of 

professional service, but they cannot hope to point to or pick out everything. By 

examining integrity, service, and excellence, we also eventually discover the 

importance of duty, honor, country, dedication, fidelity, competence, and a host of 

other professional requirements and attributes.

 They help us get a fix on the ethical climate of an organization. Big ticket 

scandals grow out of a climate of ethical erosion. Because some believe our 

operating procedures or the requirements levied upon them from above are absurd, 

they tend to ―cut corners‖ or ―skate by.‖ As time goes by, these actions become 

easier and they become habitual until the person can no longer distinguish between 

the ―important‖ taskings or rules and the ―stupid‖ ones. Lying on official forms 

becomes second nature. Placing personal interests ahead of the mission becomes a 

natural response. And they develop a ―good enough for government work‖ mentality. 

In such a climate of corrosion the core values can bring a person back to recognition 

of what is important: integrity, service, and excellence.

 They serve as beacons vectoring us back to the path of professional conduct. 

Adherence to the core values ensures the Air Force will not degrade from a climate 

of ethical commitment into a climate of corrosion.

Integrity First

Integrity is the willingness to do what is right even when no one else is looking. It 

is the "moral compass"the inner voice, the voice of self-control, the basis for the trust 

imperative in today's Air Force.

Integrity is the single most important part of character. It makes Airmen who they 

are and what they stand for, and is as much a part of their professional reputation as 

their ability to fly or fix jets, operate a computer network, repair a runway, or defend an

airbase. Airmen must be professional, both in and out of uniform. Integrity is not a suit 

that can be taken off at night or on the weekend or worn only when it is important to look 

good. Instead, it is the time that we least expect to be tested when possessing integrity 

is critical. People are watching us, not to see us fail, but to see us live up to their 
11

Quotations from the Air Force Memorial in Washington, DC 

Integrity; a man‘s word is his bond.

—General Jimmy Doolittle, 

US Army Air Forces Leader of the WWII Tokyo Raid

Integrity is the fundamental premise of service in a free society. 

Without integrity, the moral pillars of our military strength—

public trust and self-respect—are lost.

—General Charles Gabriel, 11th CSAF 

We‘re entrusted with the security of our nation. The tools of our 

trade are lethal, and we engage in operations that involve risk to 

human life and untold national treasure. Because of what we 

do, our standards must be higher than those of society at large.

—General Ronald R. Fogleman, 15th CSAF

There will be demands upon your ability, upon your endurance, 

upon your disposition, upon your patience...just as fire tempers 

iron into fine steel so does adversity temper one‘s character into 

firmness, tolerance and determination.

—Senator Margaret Chase Smith, Lieutenant Colonel, 

US Air Force Reserve

expectations. Anything less risks putting the heritage and reputation of the Air Force in 

peril.

Integrity is the adherence to a strong moral code and consistency in one‘s 

actions and values. A person of integrity acts with conviction, demonstrating 

appropriate self-control without acting rashly. An Airman‘s word is binding, and honesty 

is the foundation of that trust. Airmen always behave in a manner that brings credit 

upon themselves, their unit, the Air Force, and the profession of arms. Airmen should 

be guided by a deeply held sense of honor, not one of personal comfort or uncontrolled 

selfish appetites. 

Airmen act with confidence, determination, and self-control in all they do to 

improve themselves and their contribution to the Air Force. They maintain proper 

professional relationships with subordinates, superiors, and peers as well as possess 

the moral courage to do what is right even if the personal cost is high. As professionals, 

Airmen refrain from openly displaying self-pity, discouragement, anger, frustration, or 

defeatism or displays that would bring discredit upon themselves or the Air Force. 

Airmen encourage the free flow of information within organizations and never shy from 
12

Quotations from the Air Force Memorial in

Washington, DC

I have been recognized as a hero for my ten minutes of 

action over Vietnam, but I am no more a hero than 

anyone else who has served this country.

—A1C John L. Levitow, lowest ranking Air Force

Medal of Honor Recipient

Service is a willingness to sacrifice...the setting aside of 

personal desires, comfort, and security when the safety of 

the country is at stake.

—General George S. Brown, 8th CSAF 

and 8th Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff

Service before self is that virtue within us all which 

elevates the human spirit, compels us to reach beyond 

our meager selves to attach our spirit to something bigger 

than we are.

—General John P. Jumper, 17th CSAF

criticism. They actively seek constructive feedback from superiors, peers, and 

subordinates and take responsibility for their own successes and failures. A person with 

integrity accepts the consequences of actions taken, never accepting or seeking undue 

credit for the accomplishments of others. Airmen also hold each other accountable for 

their actions and uniformly enforce standards. They ensure that all people are treated 

with equal respect. Finally, Airmen comprehend the awe-inspiring task of defending the 

Constitution of the United States, maintaining the highest traditions of honoring the Air 

Force‘s responsibilities to the nation, and understanding the sacrifices made by others 

who came before them.

Service Before Self

As an Air Force core value, service is not about the Air Force institution, it is 

about an enduring commitment and dedication of the individual Airman to the age-old 

military virtue of selfless dedication to duty at all times and in all circumstances. This 

includes putting one‘s life at risk if called to do so. It is a willingness to set aside one‘s 

needs and to make personal sacrifices. It is an understanding of the 24-hour-a-day 

commitment, accepting expeditionary deployments and assignments away from home 

and accomplishing the task at hand no matter the hardship. Service before self means 

taking the time and making the effort to properly plan and execute with precision 
13

regardless of the personal costs. Service before self is total commitment to the highest 

ideals of personal sacrifice in defense of the Constitution and the United States. 

Further, service before self does not mean service before family. Airmen have a 

duty to the Service and an equally strong duty to their families. The difference is that 

there are times when service to the nation requires subordinating the needs of the 

family. It is the responsibility of the Airman to prepare and provide for his or her family 

when deployed or when duty requires it. Airmen understand they have a duty to fulfill 

the unit‘s mission. This includes performing to the best of one‘s abilities the assigned 

responsibilities and tasks without worrying how a career will be affected. As 

professionals, they exercise good judgment while performing their duties and 

understand that rules exist for good reason. They also understand that service before 

self asks us to subordinate our personal interests, attitudes, and aspirations to the 

greater cause and the demands it places on us. It means that Airmen place the welfare 

of their peers and subordinates ahead of their own personal needs or comforts. 

This value also demands that each Airman keep ―faith‖ in the system. This does 

not mean that we may not question what we are doing or that we will blindly follow our 

leaders without a second thought. It means that we place our trust in the processes, 

procedures, and other Airmen to get the job done and in the right way. Airmen

understand that an organization can achieve excellence only when all members are 

encouraged to excel in a cooperative atmosphere free from fear, unlawful 

discrimination, sexual harassment, intimidation, hazing, or unfair treatment. In addition, 

Airmen understand they must be loyal to their leaders, fellow Airmen, and the Air Force 

institution they serve. This includes demonstrated allegiance to the Constitution and 

loyalty to the military chain of command and to the President and Secretary of Defense.

Excellence in All We Do

This core value demands that Airmen constantly strive to perform at their best. It 

is a commitment to high standards and an understanding that each Airman has been 

entrusted with our nation‘s security. Airmen understand that the Air Force mission is 

very complex and exists in a constantly changing world. They understand that all efforts 

in planning and executing airpower are designed to ensure the national security 

interests of the United States. Therefore, they must always strive to meet or exceed 

standards objectively based on mission needs and continuously search for new and 

innovative ways to successfully accomplish the mission. It is not only a professional 

obligation but a moral responsibility as well. 

On a personal level, Airmen seek out and complete developmental education; 

work to stay in their best physical, mental, and moral shape; and continue to enhance

their professional competencies. They are diligent to maintain their job skills, 

knowledge, and personal readiness at the highest possible levels. They understand 

that organizational excellence can only be achieved when its members work together to 

successfully reach a common goal in an atmosphere that preserves individual selfworth. No Airman wins the fight alone. Each organization should foster a culture that 

emphasizes a team mentality while maintaining high standards and accomplishing the 
14

Quotations from the Air Force Memorial in

Washington, DC

The future is always decided by those who put their 

imagination to work, who challenge the unknown, and who are 

not afraid to risk failure.

—General Bernard A. Shriever, The Father and 

Architect of Air Force Space and Ballistic Missile 

Programs

The power of excellence is overwhelming. It is always in 

demand and nobody cares about its color.

—General Daniel 'Chappie' James, First African-American 

United States Air Force Four-Star General

That commitment to excellence is more than desirable; in the 

profession of arms, it's essential. Lives depend on the fact that 

we maintain high standards.

—General Michael E. Ryan, 16th CSAF

Courage and innovation form our heritage and excellence is 

our standard. America's Airmen - Active, Guard, and Reserve -

serve as a force unmatched in our air and space.

—General T. Michael 'Buzz' Moseley, 18th CSAF

mission. As stewards of the nation‘s resources, Airmen should aggressively protect and 

manage both human and material assets. The most precious resource is people, and it 

is each Airman‘s responsibility to ensure that he or she is trained, fit, focused, and ready 

to accomplish the mission safely and effectively. 

The Air Force recognizes these core values as universal and unchanging in the 

profession of arms. They provide the standards with which to evaluate the ethical 

climate of all Air Force organizations. Finally, when needed in the cauldron of war, they 

are the beacons vectoring the individual along the path of professional conduct and the 

highest ideals of integrity, service, and excellence.
15

WARFIGHTING AND THE PROFESSION OF ARMS

The central focus of the profession of arms is warfighting. As Airmen, we are 

given a special responsibility to ensure the most effective Air Force the world has ever 

seen flies and fights the right way. Airmen have inherited an Air Force forged through the 

ingenuity, courage, and strength of Airmen who preceded them. An Airman should strive

to continue to provide the nation and the next generation of Airmen an equally dominant 

Air Force. Doing so requires Airmen to fully understand the profession of arms they have 

chosen, the commitment each Airman made by taking an oath, and the acceptance to 

abide by the Air Force core values. It is a mindset designed to build confidence and 

In exemplification of the Air Force Core Values, Senior Airman Jason Cunningham 

performed actions during Operation ENDURING FREEDOM that earned him the 

thanks of a grateful nation, but at the cost of his life:

CITATION TO ACCOMPANY THE AWARD OF THE AIR FORCE CROSS

(POSTHUMOUS) TO 

JASON D. CUNNINGHAM

The President of the United States of America, authorized by Title 10, Section 8742, 

U.S.C., awards the Air Force Cross to Senior Airman Jason D. Cunningham for 

extraordinary heroism in military operations against an opposing armed force while 

serving as a pararescueman near the village of Marzak in the Paktia Province of 

Afghanistan on 4 March 2002. On that proud day, Airman Cunningham was the 

primary Air Force Combat Search and Rescue medic assigned to a Quick Reaction 

Force tasked to recover two American servicemen evading capture in austere terrain 

occupied by massed Al Qaida and Taliban forces. Shortly before landing, his MH47E helicopter received accurate rocket-propelled grenade and small arms fire, 

severely disabling the aircraft and causing it to crash land. The assault force formed 

a hasty defense and immediately suffered three fatalities and five critical casualties. 

Despite effective enemy fire, and at great risk to his own life, Airman Cunningham 

remained in the burning fuselage of the aircraft in order to treat the wounded. As he 

moved his patients to a more secure location, mortar rounds began to impact within 

fifty feet of his position. Disregarding this extreme danger, he continued the 

movement and exposed himself to enemy fire on seven separate occasions. When 

the second casualty collection point was also compromised, in a display of 

uncommon valor and gallantry, Airman Cunningham braved an intense small arms 

and rocket-propelled grenade attack while repositioning the critically wounded to a 

third collection point. Even after he was mortally wounded and quickly deteriorating, 

he continued to direct patient movement and transferred care to another medic. In 

the end, his distinct efforts led to the successful delivery of ten gravely wounded 

Americans to life-saving medical treatment. Through his extraordinary heroism, 

superb airmanship, aggressiveness in the face of the enemy, and in the dedication of 

his service to his country, Senior Airman Cunningham reflected the highest credit 

upon himself and the United States Air Force.
16

Since the Nation's birth, it has been the 

constitutional duty of our military to ensure 

national survival, defend lives and property, 

and promote vital interests at home and 

abroad. The enduring responsibility of the 

United States Air Force is to provide strategic 

deterrence for the Nation and fly, fight and win 

as an integral part of the Joint Team. Together 

with our brothers and sisters in arms, we 

underwrite the national strategy of defending 

the Homeland and assuring allies, while 

dissuading, deterring and defeating enemies.

—General Norton A. Schwartz, CSAF, 

2008

commitment necessary to shape the professional in each of us, and how we work as a 

team to accomplish the mission. This mindset is shaped through the expeditionary nature 

of the Service, especially in support of combat, humanitarian response, and disaster relief 

operations and the lessons learned from those operations. The Airman‘s Creed is a 

condensation of this mindset.28 Fundamental to this mindset is the Code of Conduct for 

members of the Armed Forces of the United States, applicable to the nation‘s uniformed

Airmen as warfighters, fighting in the Service which guards our country and our way of 

life. It grounds every American warfighter with an established standard of conduct to 

support him or her at all times, especially those times of greatest stress and duress. The 

Code of Conduct is presented at Appendix B.

Airmen share a long history of service, honor, and sacrifice forged in times of 

peace and war. From the earliest days of airpower to the heights of space to the 

boundless realms of cyberspace, Airmen have built an extraordinary heritage that forms 

the foundation of the Service‘s perspective. Even though we are technology focused, 

we value quality over quantity. We embrace change and, through transformation and 

innovation, we ensure a viable Air Force for the future.

Even something as straightforward as the Air Force symbol has evolved over 

time from the days of General Hap Arnold to the symbol we have today. It represents a 

sweep through our history, from a rich heritage to the horizons of the future. Through 

 

28 For insight into the reasoning behind the Airman‘s Creed, see the CSAF Vector, Airman Warriors, April 

2007.
17

Heritage to Horizon: The Air Force Symbol

Today‘s symbol retains the core elements of our Air Corps 

heritage—the Hap Arnold wings and star with circle—yet modernizes it to 

reflect the Air Force of today and tomorrow. The symbol has two main 

parts: the upper half, the stylized wings represent the stripes of our 

strength—the enlisted men and women of our force. They are drawn with 

great angularity to emphasize our swiftness and power; the lower half has 

a sphere, a star, and three diamonds. The sphere within the star 

represents the globe. It reminds each of us of our obligation to secure our 

nation‘s freedom with global vigilance, global reach, and global power. 

The globe also reminds us of our challenge as an expeditionary force to 

respond rapidly to crises and to provide decisive airpower worldwide.

The area surrounding the sphere takes the shape 

of a star. The star has many meanings. Its five points 

represent the primary components of the Total Force 

and family—our regular, Guard, Reserve, civilians, and 

retirees. The star symbolizes space as the high ground 

of our nation‘s air and space force, and as a rallying 

symbol in all our wars, it represents the officer corps, 

which is central to our combat leadership. The star is 

framed with three diamonds that represent the Air Force 

core values. Combined, the Air Force symbol presents 

two powerful images—at once it is an eagle (the 

emblem of our nation) and a medal, representing valor 

in service to our nation.

the current Air Force symbol, Airmen continue to honor the heritage of our past and 

build the promise of a brighter future. 

Airmen, firmly grounded in the core values and ingrained with a focus on the 

profession of arms, react to the stresses of combat, the pressures of deployed 

operations, and the demands of daily activities at home station with valor, courage,

and sacrifice. While these characteristics are within each one of us, they usually come 

to the surface in times of great difficulty or unforeseen circumstances. Those times can 

happen in the workplace, on the way home from work, during a humanitarian operation, 

or on the battlefield. While many acts go unseen, other examples helped shape the 

finest traditions of the Air Force and its history. They are something not only to

recognize as part of our history, but also to showcase that all Airmen may be called 

upon to perform above and beyond in the profession of arms.
18

Quotations from the Air Force Memorial in 

Washington, DC

Saving the lives of your fellow Airmen is the 

most extraordinary kind of heroism that I know.

—General Curtis E. LeMay, 5th CSAF

When I think of the enlisted force, I see 

dedication, determination, loyalty and valor.

—Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force 

Paul W. Airey, First Chief Master Sergeant of 

the Air Force

As I prepare for this...mission, I am a bit 

homesick... Mother and Dad, you are very close 

to me, and I long so to talk to you. America has 

asked much of our generation, but I‘m glad to 

give her all I have because she has given me so 

much.

—Sergeant Arnold Rahe, US Army Air 

Forces, WWII, Killed in Action over France, 

from a letter to his parents

Valor 

Valor is the ability to face danger or hardship in a determined and resolute 

manner. It is commonly known as bravery, fearlessness, fortitude, gallantry, heart, 

nerve, and many other terms. Valor is the willingness to step outside of one‘s comfort 

zone to deal with an unexpected situation. Such situations can happen almost anywhere. 

Valor exists in places other than on the battlefield; an Airman can exhibit valor when 

presented with unusual circumstances in the daily routine of life. When acting with valor, 

one expresses heroic qualities.

Courage 

Courage is about the ability to face fear, danger, or adversity. Courage 

primarily comes in two forms—physical and moral. Physical courage encompasses the 

ability to overcome fears of bodily harm to get the job done or to risk oneself for another, 
19

Quotations from the Air Force Memorial in Washington, DC

Courage is rightly esteemed the first of human qualities...because it is the 

quality which guarantees all others.

 —Sir Winston Churchill, 

Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during WWII

Courage is doing what you are afraid to do...

 —Captain Edward V. “Eddie” Rickenbacker, 

Leading American Ace of WWI

It isn‘t just my brother‘s country, or my husband‘s country, it‘s my country as 

well. And so the war wasn‘t just their war, it was my war and I needed to serve 

in it.

— Major Beatrice Hood Stroup, Women’s Army Corps, WWII

Our nation is blessed by the courageous families who give us our courageous 

Airmen.

 —General David C. Jones, 9th CSAF and 

9th Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff

in battle or the course of everyday life. Moral courage is the ability to stand by the core 

values when confronted with difficult choices. These choices could arise from situations 

where unacceptable behavior (illegal drug use, sexual harassment, etc.) is condoned or 

ignored by certain members of an organization. They might also come from situations 

discovered by accident or because others are boasting of the behavior. Recognizing 

the behavior as inconsistent with Air Force standards should lead an Airman to inform 

superiors even when peer pressure exists or threats are made.

 
20

Quotations from the Air Force Memorial in Washington, DC

They know not the day or hour nor the manner of their passing when far from 

home they were called to join that great band of heroic airmen that went 

before.

—Inscription from the American Cemetery and Memorial, Cambridge, 

England

...am going on a raid this afternoon...there is a possibility I won‘t return...do 

not worry about me as everyone has to leave this earth one way or another, 

and this is the way I have selected. If after this terrible war is over, the world 

emerges a saner place...pogroms and persecutions halted, then, I‘m glad I 

gave my efforts with thousands of others for such a cause.

—Sergeant Carl Goldman, US Army Air Forces, WWII, B-17 Gunner, 

Killed in Action over Western Europe, from a letter to his parents

Tell them that we gave our todays for their tomorrows.

 —Inscription from the Allied Cemetery, North Assam, India

...Our military families serve right alongside those of us in uniform. A special 

thank you to all the spouses and children and moms and dads out there 

praying for your loved ones in harm‘s way – we add our prayers, too, for their 

safe return.

—General Richard B. Myers, 15th Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff

Finally, integrity breeds courage at the times and places when the behavior is 

most needed. More often than not, courage is shown in acts of bravery on the 

battlefield as Airmen step up to the challenges presented to them in a combat situation.

Sacrifice 

Sacrifice entails a willingness to give up one’s life, time, or comfort to meet 

the needs of others. Personal sacrifice can be seen on a number of levels. Most 

commonly, one thinks of the heroic actions of uniformed Airmen in combat with the 

enemy. However, day-to-day deployed garrison activities can also present

opportunities to put the needs of fellow Airmen before the wants of an individual 

dedicated to providing excellence to the warfighter. 
21

THE AIRMAN’S CREED 

I AM AN AMERICAN AIRMAN. 

I AM A WARRIOR. 

I HAVE ANSWERED MY NATION’S CALL. 

I AM AN AMERICAN AIRMAN. 

MY MISSION IS TO FLY, FIGHT, AND WIN. 

I AM FAITHFUL TO A PROUD HERITAGE, 

A TRADITION OF HONOR, 

AND A LEGACY OF VALOR. 

I AM AN AMERICAN AIRMAN, 

GUARDIAN OF FREEDOM AND JUSTICE, 

MY NATION’S SWORD AND SHIELD, 

ITS SENTRY AND AVENGER. 

I DEFEND MY COUNTRY WITH MY LIFE. 

I AM AN AMERICAN AIRMAN: 

WINGMAN, LEADER, WARRIOR. 

I WILL NEVER LEAVE AN AIRMAN BEHIND, 

I WILL NEVER FALTER, 

AND I WILL NOT FAIL. 

Training Iraqis for 

explosive 

ordnance disposal

Deploying to 

Southwest Asia

Tuskegee Airmen Doolittle Raiders

THE AIRMAN’S CREED

On 18 April 2007, General T. 

Michael Moseley, CSAF, introduced 

the Airman‘s Creed to the Air Force.29

At that time, the Air Force had been 

involved in continuous combat 

operations for over 16 years. During 

that period, Airmen became highly 

specialized and technically capable

across a broad spectrum of 

operations, which resulted in a drift 

toward an emphasis on technical 

proficiency and away from a 

warfighting orientation. As a result, 

General Moseley created the Airman‘s 

Creed in an effort to reinvigorate the 

warrior spirit and articulate the 

fundamental beliefs that capture the 

essence of the Airman warrior. The 

Airman‘s Creed is intended to remind 

all Airmen that they are not just a 

―conglomeration of diverse specialties, 

skill sets, or jobs,‖ but theirs is the 

profession of arms. It allows Airmen to 

think and act with one mind, and with a 

commitment to fundamental 

warfighting beliefs. Airmen are 

warriors, and are dedicated to flying, 

fighting, and winning. Following its 

release, it replaced all existing Air 

Force-related creeds.

 

29 ―Airman‘s Creed Exemplifies Warfighting Ethos,‖ http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123049390, 

accessed 10 Jun 09.
22

I‘m firmly convinced that leaders are not born; they‘re educated, 

trained, and made, as in every other profession. To ensure a strong, ready 

Air Force, we must always remain dedicated to this process.

—General Curtis E. LeMay, CSAF, 1961-1965

CHAPTER TWO

LEADING AIRMEN

Leadership is the art and science of motivating, influencing, and directing 

Airmen to understand and accomplish the Air Force mission in joint warfare.

30

 

This highlights two fundamental elements of leadership: (1) the mission, objective, or 

task to be accomplished, and (2) the Airmen who accomplish it. All facets of Air Force 

leadership should support these two fundamental elements. Effective leadership

transforms human potential into effective performance in the present and prepares 

capable leaders for the future. 

Any Airman can be a leader and can positively influence those around him or her 

to accomplish the mission. Leadership does not equal command, but all commanders 

should be leaders.31 The vast majority of Air Force leaders are not commanders. 

Individuals who have stepped forward to lead others in accomplishing the mission

simultaneously serve as both leaders and followers at every level of the Air Force, from 

young Airmen working in aircrew flight equipment, to captains at wing staffs, to civilian 

 

30 AFM 35-15, Air Force Leadership (1948): ―Leadership is the art of influencing people to progress with 

cooperation and enthusiasm toward the accomplishment of a mission.‖ AFP 35-49, Air Force Leadership

(1985): ―Leadership is the art of influencing and directing people to accomplish the mission.‖ The 

definition in the text is a distillation of these earlier efforts to define leadership for the Air Force.

31 This concept dates back to AFM 35-15 (1948): ―You can be a commander without being a leader, or 

you may be a fine leader without a command. But you must be a good leader to be an efficient 

commander‖ (AFM 35-15, page 4).
23

directors, to generals at the Pentagon. Leaders positively influence their entire 

organization, without necessarily being the commander. 

The Air Force expects its members to develop leadership skills. The nature and 

extent of that development depends on the member‘s status: officer, enlisted, or civilian. 

The Air Force expects an officer to move quickly through the levels of leadership, from 

tactical expertise into operational competence. Many will move into the level of 

strategic vision.32 Air Force enlisted members will operate chiefly at the level of tactical 

expertise, where their technical skills are combined with their direct influence on

subordinate members. DAF civilians can function at all levels of leadership, but, with 

the exception of the President of the United States and authorities granted to the 

Secretary of Defense,33 they can never command. The pinnacle of leadership is to 

command where the responsibility for making life and death decisions as well as taking 

organizational responsibility resides. Officers can rise to command Air Force forces or a 

joint force. 

Followers also have a critical role in displaying loyalty, as well as core values 

needed to accomplish the Air Force mission. A commander should be comfortable 

leaving his or her unit in the hands of the next in command, without feeling the need to 

routinely check in to ascertain the status of the unit. If the commander has done his or 

her job right in developing followers who can step in with competence and confidence, 

no fear for the health of the unit during absence should exist. 

The abilities of a leader can be improved through deliberate use of force 

development, built from education, training, and experience (see Chapter 3 for a full 

discussion of force development). All Airmen can achieve excellence by living the Air 

Force core values, developing institutional competencies, acquiring professional and 

technical competence, and then acting on such abilities to accomplish the unit‘s 

mission, while taking care of the unit‘s personnel. Core values permeate leadership at 

all levels, at all times. Leaders at the more junior levels demonstrate personal 

institutional competencies needed to create a cohesive unit fully supportive of its 

mission. Mid-level leaders use institutional competencies at the people/team level to 

advance the organization‘s responsibilities within the framework of the operational 

mission. The more senior the leader, the more crucial becomes his or her use of 

organizational competencies in effecting mission accomplishment. The ability to 

influence people, improve performance, and accomplish a mission—leadership 

actions—are part of all levels of leadership.

FOUNDATIONS OF AIR FORCE LEADERSHIP

From its inception in 1947,34 the Air Force has recognized its distinctiveness as a 

Service and the importance of leadership in the accomplishment of the mission. For a 

 

32 Levels of leadership are defined more thoroughly later in this chapter. 

33 The President‘s authority is derived from the United States Constitution, Article II, §2. The Secretary of 

Defense‘s authority is derived from 10 U.S.C. §113 and 50 U.S.C. §401.

34 The National Security Act of 1947 (as amended).
24

variety of reasons, the Air Force focus on the foundational leadership elements—people 

and mission—has evolved over time from an emphasis on one foundational element 

over the other, to today‘s more balanced approach. 

The first effort to codify leadership for US Air Force Airmen, rather than US Army 

Air Force Soldiers, was Air Force Manual (AFM) 35-15 (1948); its thrust was in 

emphasizing the psychological aspects of leadership, taking much of its tone from a 

1943 National Research Council study, Psychology for the Fighting Man.

35

 The 

emphasis was on the ―art‖ of leadership:

The very fact that leadership is an art should discourage your 

becoming a mechanical leader. Leadership does not provide formulas, 

rules, or methods which will fit every situation. Leadership is an intangible 

quality which cannot be seen, felt, or measured except through its results. 

Moreover, you cannot predict the results with mathematical accuracy. If 

you have skill as a leader, however, you can predict results within the 

limits of your objectives.36

The manual emphasized seven ―aspects‖ of leadership and discussion of them 

was interspersed throughout: Mission, Integrity of Character, Responsibility, Influencing 

Men, Knowing Men, Unity, and Morale.37 The current definition of leadership owes 

much to the emphasis on the mission and the people (Mission, Influencing Men, and 

Knowing Men), and the current Air Force core values are foreshadowed in the other 

aspects (Integrity of Character, Responsibility, Unity, Morale). It also listed six ―attributes 

of a leader:‖ Integrity of Character, Sense of Responsibility, Professional Ability, Energy, 

Emotional Stability, and Humaneness.38 The attributes individualized the seven 

aspects, by applying them to the officer as a leader. The current Air Force core values 

trace their origins directly to these attributes. 

Admittedly, the manual recognized the lessons incorporated were based on ―an 

organization similar to a World War II air force unit composed of civilians who had to be 

quickly trained as soldiers.‖39 It acknowledged that the future Airman will function in 

more intricate organizations with more complex duties, requiring the Airman to become 

a more ―complex being whose behavior can less and less be placed within any simple 

pattern.‖40 The entire publication focused solely on the Air Force officer. Its discussions 

revolved around both leadership and command for officers, with no direct information 

written to address the leadership concerns or challenges of the enlisted force or 

civilians.

 

35 AFM 35-15, Air Force Leadership (1948), p. 1.

36 Ibid.

37 Ibid., p. 3.

38 Ibid., pp. 48-53.

39 Ibid., p. 2. The term ―soldier‖ was still used to describe members of the Air Force at this time.

40 Ibid.
25

In 1955, the Air Force published AFM 50-21, Living for Leadership. It represented 

a dramatic change of focus from its 1948 predecessor, with chapter titles such as 

Patterns for Living, Convictions for Living, and Courageous Living. Heavily illustrated, it 

provided insight into the culture of the day as interpreted by the Air Force for its officers.

This manual was a product of its time, which emphasized Western faith and values to 

combat ―the faith of the Communist.‖ In the aggregate, the document is a time capsule 

of America, giving guidance for how to live, vice how to lead. 

In 1964, the Air Force returned to AFM 35-15 form and structure with the 

introduction of AFM 50-3, Air Force Leadership. The aspects of leadership and 

attributes of a leader are identical to the earlier edition but focus more on the mission 

and place a greater urgency in deterrence and readiness. The chapter on ―Mission‖ 

highlights this edition‘s emphasis, appropriate for its time. Then-Secretary of the Air 

Force (SECAF) Eugene M. Zuckert (1961-1965) was quoted to establish the 

overarching responsibility of the Air Force, hence the Airman‘s perspective at the time: 

Ours is the primary responsibility to prevent the domination of the 

aerospace by any power or combination of powers whose interests are 

inimical to freedom and national independence on Earth...Space is a 

medium of possible military action. As such, we must view the operating 

problems in space as an extension of those in the atmosphere. That is 

why we in the Air Force call it the aerospace.41

With the United States engaged in a struggle for nuclear dominance with the 

Soviet Union, the CSAF, General Curtis E. LeMay placed his emphasis on how Air 

Force officers should lead (the document continued to focus exclusively on officers): 

―We maintain our aerospace forces in readiness to respond to any kind of military 

challenge the Communists may make. We must be prepared to emerge victorious from 

a general war should it be forced upon us.‖42 Consistent with AFM 50-3‘s emphasis on 

the mission, LeMay went on to say, ―No matter how well you apply the art of leadership, 

no matter how strong the unit or high the morale of your men, if your leadership is not 

directed completely toward the execution of the mission, your leadership has failed.‖43

In 1985, the Air Force recognized the importance of balancing the people and the 

mission which led to the development of Air Force Pamphlet (AFP) 35-49, Air Force 

Leadership. This pamphlet simplified the Service‘s discussion on leadership, defining 

the term in succinct language: ―Leadership is the art of influencing and directing people 

to accomplish the mission.‖44 It also provided a new list of leadership traits for the Air 

Force, most derived at least tacitly from the leadership attributes from AFMs 35-15 and 

50-3: integrity, loyalty, commitment, energy, decisiveness, and selflessness. In 

addition, it provided leadership principles, similar to the earlier leadership aspects: 

know your job, know yourself, set the example, care for people, communicate, educate, 

 

41 AFM 50-3, Air Force Leadership (1964), p. 10.

42 Ibid.

43 Ibid., p. 11.

44 AFP 35-49, Air Force Leadership (1985), p. 1.
26

Figure 2.1. Evolution of Air Force Leadership Dimensions 

AFM 35-15, 

Air Force 

Leadership 

(1948)

Attributes:

Integrity of 

Character

Sense of 

Responsibility

Professional 

Ability

Energy

Emotional

Stability

Humaneness

AFM 50-3,

Air Force 

Leadership 

(1964)

Attributes:

Integrity of 

Character

Sense of 

Responsibility

Professional 

Ability

Energy

Emotional 

Stability

Humaneness

AFP 35-49,

Air Force 

Leadership 

(1985)

Traits:

Integrity

Loyalty 

Selflessness

Commitment

Energy

Decisiveness

AFDD 1-1, 

Leadership and 

Force Development 

(2004/2011)

Core Values:

Integrity

Service Before Self

Excellence in All We 

Do

equip, motivate, accept your responsibility, and develop teamwork.45 AFP 35-49 was ―a 

basic guide for the new and for the aspiring Air Force leader.‖46 Unique to this Air Force 

document on leadership was the removal of its explicit application to officers only. The 

document referred to all leaders, without regard to rank or command authority.

Finally, AFDD 1-1, Leadership and Force Development, the predecessor to this 

volume, was signed by General John P. Jumper, CSAF, in 2004. Aspects and 

attributes of leadership became core values, supported by enduring leadership 

competencies, which now have been updated into the Service‘s institutional 

competencies. This current version is based on that document‘s framework, expanded 

to meet the needs of today‘s Air Force. Figure 2.1 illustrates the evolution of leadership 

dimensions from attributes, to traits, to core values—Integrity, Service, Excellence—

which now provide the underpinning for leadership in today‘s Air Force. 

 

45 Ibid., pp. 2-5. 

46 Ibid., p. 1.
27

Figure 2.2. Relationship of Leadership Levels with Institutional Competencies

A smaller force structure combined with an accelerating 

pace of change requires some proactive thinking about 

leadership development.

—General Michael E. Ryan, CSAF, 1997-2001

LEVELS OF AIR FORCE LEADERSHIP 

The Air Force operates in a dynamic global context across multiple domains 

requiring leadership skills at a variety of levels. The Air Force characterizes these 

leadership levels as the tactical expertise, operational competence, and strategic vision 

levels.47 The leadership level at which an Airman operates determines the institutional 

competencies required to lead Airmen in mission accomplishment. As shown in Figure 

2.2, as Airmen progress from the tactical expertise to strategic vision leadership levels, 

emphasis on the use of institutional competencies shifts from personal to organizational, 

with a generally consistent focus on people/team competencies. 

 

47 Terms for the leadership levels were approved by General John P. Jumper, CSAF (2001-2005).
28

I think it‘s important that leadership opportunities be 

forced to as low a commissioned level as possible. That‘s a 

good time to start looking at a guy. For heaven‘s sake! What 

can you put in his ER besides the fact that the guy is a great 

stick, he does well on instruments, is a good gunner, and he 

talked to the Kiwanis club once a quarter downtown. What 

else can you put in there? How do you separate the wheat 

from the chaff? Get him in a leadership role! 

—General Hoyt S. Vandenberg

CSAF, 1948-1953

Tactical Expertise

Personal competencies are the primary focus at the tactical expertise level. 

Airmen are also gaining a general understanding of team leadership and an 

appreciation for organizational leadership. Airmen at this level master their core duty 

skills, develop experiences in applying those skills, and begin to acquire the knowledge 

and experience that will produce the qualities essential to effective leadership. Airmen 

at the tactical expertise level are the Air Force‘s technicians and specialists. They learn 

about themselves as leaders and how their leadership acumen can affect others 

through the use of ethical leadership. They are being assimilated into the Air Force 

culture and are adopting the core values of our Service. Airmen at this level are 

focused on honing followership abilities, motivating subordinates and influencing peers 

to accomplish the mission while developing a warrior ethos. They are learning about 

themselves and their impact on others in roles as both follower and leader in addition to 

developing their communication skills. 

Tactical expertise in the Air Force encompasses chiefly the unit and sub-unit 

levels where individuals perform specific tasks that, in the aggregate, contribute to the 

execution of operations at the operational level. Tactical expertise includes activities 

such as flying an aircraft, guarding a perimeter, loading a pallet, setting up a firewall for 

a base, identifying a potentially hostile radar return, treating a broken arm, and many 

other forms of activity, accomplished by both military and civilian personnel. 

 Training and education at the tactical level includes training in a primary skill

and initial education in leadership. New Airmen should be educated in the common 

Service culture and should understand the core values that bond Airmen together. In 

addition, they should receive an understanding of, and gain expertise in, their unique 

specialty. This may be accomplished by the following tactical education and training 

activities:

 Basic and primary developmental education and undergraduate academic degree 

programs
29

 Specialty training 

 Continuation training

The following examples illustrate use of the above activities: Junior enlisted 

Airmen will complete basic training for indoctrination into Air Force culture, attend the 

relevant technical schools to obtain the occupational skills needed for their duties, and 

then receive orientation into their new organization at the local First Term Airman 

Center. As they gain experience and advance within their units, they will attend Airman 

Leadership School to enhance their ability to function as leaders within their 

organizations. Similarly, recently commissioned officers will obtain indoctrination to the 

Air Force through their commissioning sources, then receive the appropriate technical 

training, followed by completion of the Air and Space Basic Course. After several years 

of practical experience in their initial assignments, they will receive further leadership 

education through Squadron Officer School. Air Force civilian members may similarly 

attend these or comparable civilian education courses. Throughout this time, Airmen 

gain experience in their specific duties through daily performance, making them more 

competent and qualified to accomplish their assigned missions. Throughout these 

education and training events, individuals are assessed to monitor their progress. 

Mentoring by those senior to these Airmen and civilians is vital to their progress in the 

Air Force.

Effective commanders and supervisors find the proper balance of training, 

education, and leadership opportunities to develop the tactical competence of their 

Airmen. They should work closely with educators and trainers and follow the guiding 

principles of the personal institutional competencies when developing their Airmen at

the tactical level. 

The leadership study, ―Security Police Defense of Tan Son Nhut and Bien Hoa 

Air Bases, January 1968,‖ in Appendix E is provided to present tactical expertise in a 

concrete and demonstrable setting. 

Operational Competence

The full-spectrum of institutional competencies is balanced across the 

operational competence leadership level. At this level, Airmen are able to understand 

the broader Air Force perspective and the integration of diverse people and their 

capabilities in the execution of operations. This level is where an Air Force member 

transitions from being a specialist to understanding Air Force operational capabilities. 

Based on a thorough understanding of themselves as leaders and followers and how 

they influence others, they apply an understanding of organizational and team 

dynamics. They continue to develop personal leadership skills, while developing their 

people/team competencies. The operational level includes continued broadening of 

experience.

Leading people through developing and inspiring others, taking care of people, 

and taking advantage of the diversity in the ranks of followers is vital to this level of 
30

(General Carl) Spaatz possessed a good 

measure of (a) necessary ingredient of a successful 

general—the ability to inspire trust in both superiors 

and subordinates. His chief lieutenant, Jimmy Doolittle, 

in an oral-history interview with Ronald R. Fogleman, 

then a major, stated, ―I idolize General Spaatz. He is 

perhaps the only man that I have ever been closely 

associated with whom I have never known to make a 

bad decision.‖ This praise, coming from a man of 

enormous physical and moral courage and high 

intellect, speaks for itself. 

—Dr. Richard Davis, published in 

Aerospace Power Journal, Winter 1997

General Carl Spaatz, 

First CSAF, 1947-1948

leadership.48 Also at this level, fostering collaborative relationships through building 

teams and coalitions, especially within a large organization, and negotiating with others, 

often external to the organization, becomes a necessary competence. Airmen 

operating at this level of leadership normally assume such responsibilities following 

intermediate developmental education. The focus of Air Force organization and 

employment is at the operational level. It is here where warfighting is executed and 

day-to-day command and control of Air Force operations are carried out. At this level, 

the tactical skills and expertise Airmen developed earlier are employed alongside new

leadership opportunities to affect an entire theater or joint operations area. By now the 

Airman has developed a family of skills at both the personal and people/team level, 

grounded in the Airman‘s perspective and guided by ingrained core values. 

Education and training at the operational level allow Airmen to integrate expertise to 

produce operational effects for Air Force missions. At this level, education assumes a 

larger role in an Airman‘s development. Intermediate developmental education is 

intended to enhance professional competence. Operational-level education focuses on 

furthering expertise across related specialties and increasing leadership responsibilities. 

Operational-level training continues to build tactical skills and develops professional 

competence. 

Operational education, training, and experience may consist of: 

 Intermediate developmental education.

 Joint professional military education.

 Professional continuing education programs.

 Advanced academic degree programs.

 Education with industry.

 

48 For additional information on diversity in the Air Force, see AFPD 36-70, Diversity.
31

During an operation, decisions have usually to 

be made at once; there may be no time to review the 

situation or even to think it through.... If the mind is to 

emerge unscathed from this relentless struggle with 

the unforeseen, two qualities are indispensable: First, 

an intellect that, even in the darkest hour, retains some 

glimmerings of the inner light [commander‘s vision] 

which leads to truth; and second, the courage to follow 

this faint light wherever it may lead.

—Karl von Clausewitz, On War

 Fellowships.

 Specialty schools/advanced training. 

 Experience through career broadening assignments within the Air Force.

 Training through assignments at the major command or combatant command level.

The following examples describe elements of operational competence: Majors 

will be expected to perform duties as flight commanders or operations officers to gain 

skills at a higher level in the squadron and complete intermediate developmental 

education or a selected graduate-level degree program to further their learning as

maturing professionals. Noncommissioned officers attend the Noncommissioned 

Officers Academy and relevant specialty schools, and pursue professional continuing 

education programs. Civilian personnel at this level fill positions with greater 

organizational and technical responsibilities. As with their military counterparts, they 

may be selected to attend an advanced academic degree program; Service schools, 

such as intermediate developmental education; or education with industry.

The leadership study, ―General Creech and the Transformation of Tactical Air 

Command,‖ in Appendix E is provided to present operational competence in a concrete 

and demonstrable setting. 

Strategic Vision

At this level, Airmen combine highly developed personal and people/team 

institutional competencies to apply broad organizational competencies. They develop a 

deep understanding of Air Force Service core functions and how Airmen achieve 

synergistic results and desired effects with their operational capabilities. They also 

understand how the Air Force operates within joint, multinational, and interagency 

relationships. At this level, an Airman‘s required competencies transition from the 

integration of people with missions to leading and directing exceptionally complex and 

multi-tiered organizations. 
32

Hindenburg looked back to 

Hannibal‘s Battle of Cannae, and made his 

disposition to fight the Russians at 

Tannenberg. Napoleon studied the 

campaigns of Alexander the Great and 

Genghis Khan, the Mongol. The navies draw 

their inspiration from the Battle at Actium in 

the time of the Romans, and the sea fight of 

Trafalgar. In the development of airpower, 

one has to look ahead and not backward, 

and figure out what is going to happen, not 

too much what has happened. That is why 

the older services have been psychologically 

unfit to develop this new arm to the fullest 

extent practicable with the methods and 

means at hand. 

—Brigadier General Billy Mitchell

At this level of leadership, an Airman employs military capabilities, applying the 

operational and strategic arts with a thorough understanding of capabilities of units, the 

Air Force at large, and joint and coalition forces. The Airman with strategic vision has 

an enterprise perspective, with a comprehension of the structure and relationships in 

the overall enterprise with which he or she is involved. This perspective requires an 

awareness of the processes of our government and of the global, regional, and cultural 

issues surrounding a given mission. Strategic thinking is imperative at this level, 

emphasizing the need for a broad vision and adaptability to circumstances for which 

earlier leadership challenges in his or her career have prepared the Airman. Managing 

organizations and resources become more significant to exercising leadership at this 

level.

The level of strategic vision includes challenges to gain breadth of experience 

and leadership perspective (e.g., educational opportunities; training focused on the 

institutional Air Force; joint, intergovernmental, business, and international views). 

Senior developmental education strengthens an Airman‘s grasp of the complexities 

required to operate at this level of leadership. Strategic vision focuses on the effects an 

Airman can have across a major command, a theater, the Air Force, or even other 

Services or the Department of Defense. A commander of Air Force forces dual-hatted 

as a joint force air component commander, the Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force, 

or a Senior Executive Service civilian responsible for Service personnel policies operate 

at this level. Senior leaders need strategic comprehension and competence, as well as 

broad perspectives and the ability to effectively lead in an expeditionary environment. At 

the strategic level of leadership, Airmen receive further opportunities to expand their 
33

The greatest lesson of this war has been the extent to which air, land, 

and sea operations can and must be coordinated by joint planning and unified 

command. 

—General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold

breadth of experience and have the greatest ability to impact and support the Air 

Force‘s role in military operations.49

Education, training, and experience at the strategic vision level help develop the 

skills to form accurate frames of reference, make sound decisions, uncover underlying 

connections to deal with more challenging issues, and engage in creative, innovative 

thinking that recognizes new solutions and new options. At this level, education 

assumes a predominant role in an Airman‘s development. Education emphasizes 

understanding of broad concepts and offers insights into complex issues not commonly 

available in operational environments. It focuses on the institutional Air Force and joint, 

interagency, business, and international views. Exercises and wargames provide 

opportunities to validate training and education. Development at the strategic level is 

commonly presented through:

 Senior developmental education.

 Operational assignments.

 Exercises and wargames.

 Self-development.

 Mentoring.

 

49 Policy guidance on force development through the leadership levels can be found in AFI 36-2640, 

Executing Total Force Development, and AFI 36-2618, The Enlisted Force Structure.
34

Good leaders are people who have a passion to 

succeed.... To become successful leaders, we must 

first learn that no matter how good the technology or 

how shiny the equipment, people-to-people relations 

get things done in our organizations. People are the 

assets that determine our success or failure. If you 

are to be a good leader, you have to cultivate your 

skills in the arena of personal relations.

—General Ronald R. Fogleman, 

CSAF, 1994-1997

At the strategic vision level, assignment to senior command (for officers) or staff 

(for all Airmen) duties in both Service and joint or coalition organizations round out the 

skills of the Airman through experiential growth. Senior developmental education 

programs, such as Air War College or the Senior Noncommissioned Officer Academy, 

improve breadth of professional development. 

The leadership study, ―Strategic Noncommissioned Officer Leadership and 

Establishing a Strategic Vision for the Enlisted Force,‖ in Appendix E is provided to 

present strategic vision in a concrete and demonstrable setting. 

LEADERSHIP COMPONENTS 

In the Air Force, leadership is comprised of two main components: institutional 

competencies and leadership actions. These are intrinsic to all Airmen, building on the 

foundation laid by the core values. Leaders apply these components at all three 

leadership levels: tactical expertise, operational competence, and strategic vision. 

Institutional Competencies

The nature and scope of leadership challenges, as well as the methods by which 

leadership is exercised, differ based on the level of leadership and responsibility. 

Leadership at the tactical level is predominantly direct and face-to-face, first exercised 

at the junior officer and noncommissioned officer levels. As leaders ascend the 

organizational ladder to the operational level, leadership tasks become more complex 

and sophisticated, accomplished most regularly at the field grade officer and senior 

noncommissioned officer levels. Strategic leaders have responsibility for large 

organizations or systems, and deal with issues requiring more interorganizational 

cooperation and longer timelines. Senior officers, routinely at the general officer rank, 

the most senior enlisted personnel, and civilians in the Senior Executive Service

perform most often at this level. 

As leaders move through successively higher echelons in the Air Force, they 

need a wider portfolio of competencies, those typically gained at previous levels of 
35

You don't lead by hitting people over the head—that's 

assault, not leadership.

—President Dwight David Eisenhower

leadership. As military and civilian leaders progress within the Air Force, they serve in 

more complex and interdependent organizations, have increased personal responsibility 

and authority, and require significantly different competencies than their subordinates. 

As leaders advance into the most complex and highest levels of the Air Force or 

become involved in the strategic arena, the ability to conceptualize and integrate 

becomes increasingly important. Leaders at this level focus on establishing the 

fundamental conditions for operations to deter wars, fight wars, or conduct operations 

other than war. They also create organizational structures needed to deal with future 

requirements. 

The personal competencies are among the first taught to new Airmen; for 

example, they are key elements of officer and enlisted accession training. While 

personnel at all levels of leadership use these competencies to varying degrees, 

company grade officers and junior to mid-ranking enlisted members most extensively 

use them. Curricula for the Noncommissioned Officer Academy and Squadron Officer 

College emphasize the importance of personal competencies. The people/team 

competencies are emphasized more for field grade officers and senior 

noncommissioned officers. Intermediate developmental education, such as Air 

Command and Staff College or the Senior Noncommissioned Officer Academy, places 

great stock in the education of these competencies. Senior developmental education, 

such as Air War College and the Chief Master Sergeant Leadership Course, is the 

provenance of organizational competencies. 

Leadership Actions 

Air Force leaders act in a decisive manner to influence their subordinates 

through techniques that include communication, motivation, and setting of standards. 

The result is a unit able to effectively perform a mission. Air Force leaders also 

improve their unit‘s abilities through development via education, training, and 

experience. The result is an enhanced ability to accomplish the unit‘s assigned 

missions. Leaders influence and improve their units in order to accomplish their military 

mission.

 Influence. Leaders motivate and inspire people by creating a vision of a desirable 

end-state and keeping them moving in the right direction to achieve that vision. To 

do this, leaders tailor their behavior toward their fellow Airmen‘s need for motivation, 

achievement, sense of belonging, recognition, self-esteem, and control over their 

lives.
36

 Improve. Leaders foster growth by insisting that their people focus attention on the 

aspects of a situation, mission, or project they control. Challenge should be an 

integral part of every job; for people to learn and excel, they must be motivated. 

Leaders should provide challenging and enlightening experiences. It is important to 

identify and analyze success to make the underlying causes and behaviors 

permanent and pervasive, not temporary and specific. Leaders encourage the 

learning process by formally recognizing individual and unit success, no matter how 

large or small. Leaders create more leaders.

 Accomplish. Air Force leaders influence people, improve their abilities, and direct 

their activities to accomplish their military mission. Leaders ensure the effects that 

successfully achieve desired objectives.
37

Force Development will enable us to focus on each 

individual by emphasizing our common Airman culture.... 

Every aspect of Force Development has one common goal: 

To continue developing professional Airmen who 

instinctively leverage their respective strengths together. 

We intend to develop leaders who motivate teams, mentor 

subordinates, and train successors.

—General John P. Jumper, CSAF, 2001-2005

CHAPTER THREE 

FORCE DEVELOPMENT 

People are the Air Force‘s most critical asset. Airmen turn competencies into 

required capabilities. For this reason, the art of employing Airmen with the requisite 

education, training, and experience is fundamental to the effectiveness of the Service, 

affecting current operations and future capabilities. Force development is a 

deliberate process of preparing Airmen through the continuum of learning (CoL) 

with the required competencies to meet the challenges of the 21st Century. The 

CoL is a career-long process of individual development where challenging experiences 

are combined with education and training through a common taxonomy to produce 

Airmen who possess the tactical expertise, operational competence, and strategic vision 

to lead and execute the full spectrum of Air Force missions.50 The CoL is implemented 

through institutional competencies, as delineated in the institutional competency (IC) list 

(see Appendix C). Institutional competencies are measurable clusters of skills, 

knowledge, and abilities required of all Airmen and are needed to operate successfully 

in a constantly changing environment. They are presented in this document as the 

underpinning concepts for force development. Occupational competencies support the 

overarching institutional competencies and are associated with a particular function or 

career field; they are found in supporting directives for those functions and career fields. 

Common guiding principles for education, training, and experience provide a basis for 

the development of Airmen into leaders and show how institutional competencies are 

used in the Air Force.

FORCE DEVELOPMENT CONSTRUCT

The Air Force has been successful in producing leaders. However, the evolution 

of technology and the dynamic global security environment demand a leadership 

 

50 Definition established in this document, based on policies and research in AFPD 36-26, Total Force Development; 

AFI 36-2640, Executing Total Force Development; AFI 36-2618, The Enlisted Force Structure; and AF/A1D 

Strategic Plan Implementation: Goal 3, Force Development Synchronization Initiative, 18 December 2006. 
38

Figure 3.1. Force Development Construct in Application

Realized in

Supported by

Institutionalized in

Guided by

USAF Requirements

USAF Doctrine

Resources

Execution

Force Development

e.g., Provide forces for civil support for hurricane 

relief efforts

e.g., AFDD 3-27, Homeland Operations

e.g., Ensure Security Forces are 

educated, trained, and experienced in 

standing rules for the use of force and 

Posse Comitatus

e.g., Commanders provide 

proper training and experiences 

to meet assigned responsibilities

e.g., Security Forces 

trained, experienced, and 

prepared to deploy to the 

affected location for civil 

support

development approach that keeps pace. The Air Force requires a direct, deliberate 

development philosophy that prepares Airmen to meet warfighter requirements. The 

force development construct of the Air Force provides such direction.

Force development is a function of both individual and Air Force institutional 

responsibility. All Airmen have a responsibility to take advantage of and enhance their 

education and training, while the institution is responsible for providing the opportunity 

for each Airman to do so. Force development provides a leadership focus at all levels 

of an Airman‘s career through a repetitive process of development involving education, 

training, and experience, seasoned with ongoing mentoring by more experienced 

Airmen. 

Success of Air Force operations depends on the effective integration of human 

capabilities with the tools, tactics, techniques, and procedures that combine to produce 

the full spectrum of airpower. The first steps in integrating people into Air Force 

operations are defining the required capabilities, then organizing the competencies and 

skill sets required to produce those capabilities.

The goal of force development is to link the Airman‘s perspective with defined 

competencies and processes to prepare Airmen to successfully lead and act in the 

midst of rapidly evolving requirements, while attempting to meet both their personal and 

professional expectations.
39

The need for Airmen who possess the right occupational skills and institutional 

competencies forms the core requirement of force development and is the basis for all 

force development efforts. The construct, as depicted in Figure 3.1, starts with 

understanding mission requirements and translating them into capabilities. These 

requirements derive ultimately from the National Security and National Military 

Strategies. Doctrine identifies the best practices of the Air Force that it brings to all 

operations, within which force development is used to create leaders and commanders. 

Doctrine guides the presentation and employment of Air Force capabilities. The result 

of the process is execution of the mission by the Airman, prepared to perform as 

required.

THE CONTINUUM OF LEARNING

The deliberate process of combining education, training, and experience to 

produce the right expertise and competence to meet the Air Force‘s operational needs 

is the key element of developing an Airman. The CoL focuses on developing Airmen

who thoroughly understand the mission, the organization, and Air Force doctrine. 

These complementary aspects of force development are essential in tailoring the right 

development to the right person at the right time. This is an ongoing process, 

continuously being examined for new needs. 

Education, training, and experience are the components of the CoL. Education 

and training represent a large investment of resources and are the primary tools in 

developing Airmen. They apply to the development of Airmen at all leadership levels. 

Education, training, and experience are distinct but related force development activities. 

Education provides critical thinking skills, encouraging exploration into unknown 

areas and creative problem solving. Its greatest benefit comes in unknown situations or 

new challenges; education prepares the individual for unpredictable scenarios. 

Conversely, training is focused on a structured skill set, and the results of training 

performance should be consistent. Thus, training provides the individual with skill 

expertise. Education and training together provide the tools for developing Airmen. For 

a further discussion on the differences between education and training, see Appendix D. 

Experience, the continuously growing part of any Airman‘s career, is where the 

synthesis of education and training occurs. 

The Air Force believes in learning along the entire timeline or continuum of an 

Airman‘s service, beginning with the learning obtained from accession sources, and 

continuing throughout a career. Over the course of service in the Air Force, each 

Airman will have the opportunity to be a leader. Through the CoL, the Air Force 

Bottom Line: 

Force Development leverages education, training, and experience to produce 

adaptable, creative, knowledgeable Airmen.
40

Use of a common competency language promotes a common understanding 

of the key elements of each job and the capabilities resident in the workforce, which 

enables identification of critical gaps and potential solutions within the force.

— Lt Gen Richard Y. Newton III

 DCS, Manpower & Personnel, 2009

exposes Airmen to a broad-based education, training, and experience framework that 

equips them with the competencies to serve as leaders as they progress in rank and 

responsibility.

INSTITUTIONAL COMPETENCIES

Core values are the ultimate starting point for service. Airmen subsequently 

require a means to build their capabilities that will support the needs of the Air Force. 

These means are known as competencies. To develop the capabilities of Airmen, the 

Air Force uses a systematic competency-based approach to develop a force capable of 

providing decisive effects, integrate the total force, and increase the agility of the 

Service.

Competencies are attributes an individual possesses to successfully and 

consistently perform a given task, under specified conditions, or meeting a defined 

standard of performance. This enables Airmen to perform their jobs and contribute to 

the overall success of the Air Force. Competencies influence human performance and 

have a subsequent impact on mission and organizational success.

Institutional competencies prepare Airmen to operate successfully across the 

widest array of Air Force tasks and requirements. These competencies provide a 

common language and a set of priorities for consistency across the Air Force. The Air 

Force‘s institutional competencies are key to ensuring the ability of Airmen to operate 

successfully in a constantly changing operational environment. They are broadly 

applicable and span all occupations, functions, and organizational levels. These 

competencies place the institutional responsibilities into a context of how the individual 

should be developed and form the framework for force development in the Air Force. 

The institutional competency list consists of 8 competencies and 24 sub-competencies. 

They are grouped into three categories: personal, people/team, and organizational. 

Personal competencies are those competencies needed in face-to-face and 

interpersonal relationships that directly influence human behavior and values. They are 

essential for individual contribution, for building cohesive units, and for empowering 

immediate subordinates.

People/Team competencies involve more interpersonal and team relationships. 

They represent competencies that, when combined with the personal competencies, are 

essential as Airmen‘s responsibilities are increased.
41

Organizational competencies represent those applicable at all levels of the Air 

Force but are most in demand at the strategic level. Effective organizational 

competency skills include technical competence on force structure and integration; on 

unified, joint, multinational, and interagency operations; on resource allocation; and on 

management of complex systems. In addition, they apply to conceptual competence in 

creating policy, vision, and interpersonal skills emphasizing consensus building and 

influencing peers and other policy makers, both internal and external to the 

organization.

For a full listing and explanation of each institutional competency and 

subcompetency, see Appendix C, Institutional Competency List.

Institutional Competency Proficiency Levels

Institutional competencies are learned and refined through education, training, 

and experience. By continuously developing institutional competencies as people 

assume greater responsibility in the organization, the Air Force is able to execute and 

sustain the full spectrum of airpower. 

 Although all Airmen execute institutional competencies, there is variation in terms of 

proficiency levels across ranks, positions, and grades. Airmen are educated in these 

competencies over the course of their careers.

 An Airman‘s understanding of the subcompetencies varies based on where the 

Airman is in his or her career. Each subcompetency contains five levels of proficiency, 

defined below:

 Basic – Airmen are focused on learning and developing a foundation skill set. They 

face similar challenges, have limited responsibilities, and are given narrowly focused 

tasks.

 Intermediate – Airmen continue to learn and develop professional skills, understand 

how to leverage other professionals and knowledge sources, and begin to apply 

knowledge of the assigned objectives to their work.

 Proficient – Airmen leverage knowledge of issues and objectives to design and 

develop solutions. They understand how actions taken in one area of competence 

impact other related areas, and establish and manage the scope and quality of those 

areas of an assignment for which they are responsible. They may manage complex 

organizations.

 Skilled – Airmen leverage knowledge of strategies and issues to develop, present, 

and implement solutions. They consult with other subject matter experts and have a 

deep understanding how actions taken in one area of competence impact other 

related areas within proposed solutions. They contribute to the development of new 

levels of capabilities by articulating the added value of proposed solutions to 

leadership and staff and are considered subject matter experts within their 
42

Figure 3.2. Sample of Descriptive Behavior Proficiency Levels

Basic Intermediate Proficient Skilled Advanced

Identifies the 

factors influencing 

defense, 

domestic, and 

foreign policy; 

seeks to 

understand 

cultural and 

language 

norms/customs.

Recognizes 

differences in 

culture, globally 

and regionally, 

and recognizes 

the broad impact 

of global culture 

on defense, 

domestic, and 

foreign policy.

Predicts how 

factors such as 

history, politics, 

availability of 

resources 

(financial, 

informational, 

technological, 

material, energy, 

warfare, and 

human) and 

economic 

environment of 

cultures that are 

relevant to one‘s 

mission, the 

USAF, and US 

government policy 

could impact 

mission success. 

Develops linguistic 

skills while 

absorbing cultural 

commonalities. 

Applies knowledge 

and skills when 

meeting cultural 

challenges; 

maintains focus on 

success and on 

effectively handling 

cross-cultural 

challenges.

Integrates 

information from 

multiple sources 

to develop a wellformed yet flexible 

view of 

international 

issues that can be 

used as a basis 

for decisionmaking and 

relationship 

building.

Evaluates and 

synthesizes multicultural 

understanding, 

global economic, 

political and social 

awareness to 

identify 

opportunities and 

threats when 

formulating 

strategy and 

evaluating impact 

of mission 

implementation.

Subcompetency: Global, Regional, and Cultural Awareness

organizational area. In addition, they may manage large, complex multi-tiered 

organizations.

 Advanced – Airmen impact the organization and the Air Force by leveraging their 

knowledge and expertise across the theater to identify and address the critical 

success factors for complex areas. They apply knowledge of the strategic alignment 

of solutions with Air Force mission objectives and serve as recognized subject 

matter experts inside and outside their own organizations and represent the Air 

Force to external organizations. In addition, they may manage large, complex multitiered organizations. 

Each subcompetency has descriptive behaviors that dictate the performance 

action that must be exhibited for its five proficiency levels. Due to education, training, 

and experience, as Airmen progress through their careers, their understanding of the 

subcompetency grows and their behaviors shift from ―Basic‖ toward ―Advanced.‖51 

Figure 3.2 provides an example of the descriptive behaviors in the proficiency levels for 

the subcompetency of Global, Regional, and Cultural Awareness.

 

51 For a complete list of descriptive behaviors at the different proficiency levels, see AFI 36-2641, Force 

Development Execution.
43

Institutional Competency Assessment Strategy

Measurement of education, training, and experience is a critical part of the force

development process. Therefore, competency assessment should lead to more 

effective management of performance, which encompasses the force development 

process.

 The competency assessment initiative should provide feedback on how well the 

Institutional Competency Developmental Programs‘ (military education and training 

schools/institutions) curricula and course content are aligned with the institutional 

competencies and how well the programs are helping students to perform the 

prescribed enterprise competencies. Some of the benefits of assessing the institutional 

competencies are:

 Ensuring institutional competencies are delivered as designed by the descriptive 

behaviors at the appropriate proficiency levels.

 Identifying gaps that could exist in the execution of the institutional competencies 

allowing opportunity for improvement.

 Improving outcome results of the institutional competency process.

Institutional competencies are used to develop and assess Airmen for the needs of 

the Air Force. They assist in communicating desired behaviors at the appropriate 

performance level, control costs, and increase productivity. Assessing the institutional 

competencies is a critical component of the force development construct employed by 

the Air Force. 

COMMON GUIDING PRINCIPLES

Certain common principles guide education, training, and experience for force 

development at the tactical, operational, and strategic levels: 

 Build skill set expertise. Design education and training programs with the 

experience and current skill levels of the participants in mind. Tactical-level

education and training should take into account the relative inexperience and 

developing knowledge level of young Airmen. Programs for junior Airmen, both 

officer and enlisted, should focus on individual tasks that gradually increase in 

complexity and realism. Operational-level programs should leverage the skills 

already developed to broaden the Airmen‘s perspectives and capabilities, and offer 

them formal and informal leadership opportunities to enhance their growth. Strategic

education and training should shift away from functional expertise and look more at 

leadership and assessment skills, joint and coalition integration, and policy 

formulation. Every training program should have established performance or 

competency requirements to measure success in building the required skill sets. It 
44

...The Air Force officer of today and tomorrow 

requires...scholarship. He requires breadth of 

learning and outlook which was rarely required in 

earlier days.... We need men who can cope with 

the challenge of new political situations as well 

as new enemy weapons—who can keep their 

forces flexible as well as reliable....

—President John F. Kennedy

President Kennedy with 

Generals Curtis LeMay 

and Thomas Power

is necessary to maintain a balance between academic concepts, operational reality, 

and lessons of the past.

 Prepare for change. Skills development should keep pace with changing 

operational environments and resulting changing requirements. Educators should 

survey training methods outside of organizational bounds (other Services, 

government, and industry) to stay abreast of new training and education insights and 

best practices and adapt these methods to the programs for training and educating 

the force. They should review current doctrine to provide their lessons with the 

currency that the most recently identified best practices can provide. They should 

ensure educational programs are relevant using operational feedback mechanisms 

such as lessons learned, hot-wash sessions, after-action reports, intelligence 

summaries, and similar current operations tools. 

 Create depth of expertise. Competence and credibility require depth of experience 

that provides a foundation for effective leadership. Depth is not gained overnight, 

but is honed over time. Programs designed to develop leaders should provide the 

fundamentals that are reinforced by on-the-job training and expeditionary field 

experience. Challenging duty opportunities normally prove more effective in 

developing depth of expertise. Tactical-level education and training should 

concentrate on building depth of knowledge and experience in the primary skill and 

skill-related areas, including an understanding of Air Force culture and values. 

Operational-level education and training should build on early skills and deepen an 

Airman‘s understanding of the complete Air Force employment capability and its 

interface with joint and coalition partners. At the strategic level, education and 

training polish the leadership of all Airmen and command skills of officers, deepening 

their joint and coalition warfare and policy-making skills.

 Train to mission demands. Training that meets mission needs leverages both 

training resources and duty experience to maximum effect. Skill expertise should 

prepare individuals for all tasks they are expected to perform to meet mission 
45

By embracing the 

training of future generations 

as a key principle of leadership, 

we ensure our successors are 

trained by professionals who 

pass on their knowledge and 

experience.

—General John P. Jumper, 

CSAF, 2001-2005

demands, and these needs may change rapidly with policy or international events. 

Mission needs may require functional specialists to train in other areas, including 

augmenting other Services. Educators and trainers should study the current and 

perceived future requirements of the operational and warfighting community and 

craft programs to meet those requirements. 

 Train like we fight. Success hinges on practicing the profession of arms in the 

same manner it will be executed on the battlefield or during a contingency. Doctrine

gives trainers a clear starting point for creating programs that reflect the realities of 

today‘s operating environment. Training programs should be aligned with expected 

outcomes and provide realistic experience to greatly improve skill competency. 

Stress, unpredictability, fatigue, night operations, adverse weather, simulated 

equipment breakdowns, and chemical and biological contamination are examples of 

the challenges our Airmen will face in the field and should be trained to overcome. If 

training or exercises do not reflect the stress and challenges of actual conditions, 

then our Airmen will not be prepared when called upon to execute their mission.

 Make training and education available. In today‘s high-tempo world, the 

opportunities to train or receive education have become more challenging. 

Education and training should be responsive to this shift. Commanders and 

supervisors should ensure they provide their people the training or education they 

need to meet mission requirements and for their own advancement. Educators and 

trainers should continue to expand the opportunities for training through online or 

other reachback capabilities. Education and training programs may become shorter 

or more flexible and adaptive to ensure coverage of the material in an expeditionary

environment. Education and training may be more challenging to get while deployed, 

but should not be neglected for that reason. 

 Validate education and training through 

wargames and exercises. Simulation 

through exercises and wargames can be very 

effective in terms of time, cost, and 

experience gained toward preparing Airmen

for their wartime and contingency roles. 

Exercises and wargames are effective 

methods of building individual experience 

under controlled conditions. In addition to 

providing instruction, these also aid in 

evaluating performance and the effectiveness 

of other training and education programs. 

Exercises contribute to training objectives, 

while wargaming is typically more appropriate 

for education in which critical thinking 

objectives are important. Exercises are also 

important tools in developing individual skill 

sets along with organizational capabilities. 

For example, the ULCHI FREEDOM 
46

GUARDIAN exercise provides an opportunity for commanders and staffs to focus on 

operational and strategic issues associated with general military operations on the 

Korean peninsula. Wargames offer additional tools for developing and evaluating 

competencies of individuals and organizations. 

While education and training are the foundations for an Airman‘s development, 

experience is gained when Airmen apply what they have learned to the Air Force‘s 

missions and tasks. The Air Force lessons learned process provides a ready tool for 

Airmen to obtain insights into the experiences of others, avoiding the difficulty of having 

to relearn pre-existing elements of knowledge hard-won by others.52 

 

52 Air Force lessons learned are available on the Air Force‘s joint lessons learned information system 

website: https://www.jllis.mil/USAF/
47

If we should have to fight, we should be 

prepared to do so from the neck up instead of 

from the neck down.

—General James H. Doolittle

General Doolittle leading 

the 18 April 1942 raid on 

Tokyo.

CONCLUSION

Leadership is fundamental to the US Air Force. Creating future Air Force 

leaders is the responsibility of the current leaders, and force development is their tool to 

do so. By using the organized approach of developing leaders from the tactical 

expertise level, through operational competence, leading to the most senior strategic

vision levels in the Air Force, the Service will ensure its continued preeminent position in 

the world. The Airman‘s perspective and core values provide the foundation for

developing and nurturing the Airmen of today and tomorrow. Through the force 

development framework, the Air Force will educate, train, and provide the experiences 

necessary to grow our future Airmen and develop the leadership attributes required to 

meet the challenges of a constantly changing and extremely complex international 

security environment. Leaders are inextricably linked to mission effectiveness; 

developing Airmen with a deliberate process enables the Air Force to produce the 

requisite leaders. Leadership and force development will continue to provide the 

Air Force with its most valuable asset: its motivated and superbly qualified 

Airmen. 

AT THE VERY HEART OF WARFARE LIES DOCTRINE.....
48

REFERENCES

Air Force Doctrine Documents

All Air Force personnel should be familiar with the full breadth of Air Force 

operations. As a beginning, they should read the entire series of the capstone and 

keystone operational doctrine documents. All AFDDs are available on the LeMay 

Center for Doctrine Development and Education‘s website: 

https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/au/lemay/main.asp, the Air Force electronic publications 

page: https://www.e-publishing.af.mil, 

or the LeMay Center for Doctrine‘s Community of Practice website: 

https://afkm.wpafb.af.mil/community/views/home.aspx?Filter=OO-OP-AF-44. 

The Community of Practice website also contains numerous additional 

suggested readings on leadership.

Chief of Staff of the Air Force Reading List

The Chief of Staff of the Air Force Reading List is available for review at: 

http://www.af.mil/library/csafreading/index.asp
49

APPENDIX A

THE OATHS OF OFFICE AND ENLISTMENT

Why we administer an oath of office or enlistment:

 Legal Requirements. Federal law (5 U.S.C. §3331 for the oath of office used for 

officers and civilians; 10 U.S.C. §502 for the oath of enlistment) requires persons 

enlisting in the Armed Forces, or persons elected or appointed to a position of honor 

I (FULL NAME),

HAVING BEEN APPOINTED A (Grade 

in which appointed) IN THE UNITED 

STATES AIR FORCE,

DO SOLEMNLY SWEAR (OR 

AFFIRM)

THAT I WILL SUPPORT AND 

DEFEND THE CONSTITUTION OF 

THE UNITED STATES AGAINST ALL 

ENEMIES FOREIGN AND 

DOMESTIC,

THAT I WILL BEAR TRUE FAITH AND 

ALLEGIANCE TO THE SAME,

THAT I TAKE THIS OBLIGATION 

FREELY WITHOUT ANY MENTAL 

RESERVATION OR PURPOSE OF 

EVASION

AND THAT I WILL WELL AND 

FAITHFULLY DISCHARGE THE 

DUTIES OF THE OFFICE UPON 

WHICH I AM ABOUT TO ENTER,

SO HELP ME GOD.

I (FULL NAME),

(NOTE: Text at left is for 

commissioned officers only)

DO SOLEMNLY SWEAR (OR 

AFFIRM)

THAT I WILL SUPPORT AND 

DEFEND THE CONSTITUTION OF 

THE UNITED STATES AGAINST ALL 

ENEMIES FOREIGN AND 

DOMESTIC,

THAT I WILL BEAR TRUE FAITH AND 

ALLEGIANCE TO THE SAME,

AND THAT I WILL OBEY THE 

ORDERS OF THE PRESIDENT OF 

THE UNITED STATES AND THE 

ORDERS OF THE OFFICERS 

APPOINTED OVER ME ACCORDING 

TO REGULATIONS AND THE 

UNIFORM CODE OF MILITARY 

JUSTICE,

SO HELP ME GOD.

Oath of Office Oath of Enlistment
50

or profit in the government of the United States, to subscribe to an oath before 

beginning in the position. Any individual enlisting in, or elected or appointed to an 

office of honor or profit in the civil service or uniformed Services, takes the 

appropriate oath, as shown above. 

 Ethical Purpose. By executing the oath of office/enlistment when they accept the 

commission or appointment, Airmen make a promise—an ethical agreement or bond 

of a person‘s word.

It is with these oaths that Airmen first commit to the basic core values, placing 

service to the Constitution before self. It is where we place integrity on the line by giving 

our word as our bond. It is where we swear (or affirm) to ―well and faithfully‖ discharge 

our duties, or obey orders to do so, thus committing ourselves to excellence. The oaths 

are distinct in that the allegiance established is to the ideals of the Constitution, not to 

any individual or organization. This source for the oaths gives them their greatest 

strength. 
51

APPENDIX B

CODE OF CONDUCT FOR MEMBERS OF THE ARMED FORCES OF 

THE UNITED STATES

Executive Order 10631--Code of Conduct for members of the Armed Forces of the 

United States53

Source: The provisions of Executive Order 10631 of Aug. 17, 1955, appear at 20 FR 

6057, 3 CFR, 1954-1958 Comp., p. 266, unless otherwise noted.

By virtue of the authority vested in me as President of the United States, and as 

Commander in Chief of the armed forces of the United States, I hereby prescribe the 

Code of Conduct for Members of the Armed Forces of the United States which is 

attached to this order and hereby made a part thereof.

All members of the Armed Forces of the United States are expected to measure up to 

the standards embodied in this Code of Conduct while in combat or in captivity. To 

ensure achievement of these standards, members of the armed forces liable to capture 

shall be provided with specific training and instruction designed to better equip them to 

counter and withstand all enemy efforts against them, and shall be fully instructed as to 

the behavior and obligations expected of them during combat or captivity.

[Second paragraph amended by EO 12633 of Mar. 28, 1988, 53 FR 10355, 3 CFR, 

1988 Comp., p. 561]

The Secretary of Defense (and the Secretary of Transportation with respect to the 

Coast Guard except when it is serving as part of the Navy54) shall take such action as is 

deemed necessary to implement this order and to disseminate and make the said Code 

known to all members of the armed forces of the United States.

[Third paragraph amended by EO 11382 of Nov. 28, 1967, 32 FR 16247, 3 CFR, 1966-

1970 Comp., p. 691]

Code of Conduct for Members of the United States Armed Forces

I

I am an American, fighting in the forces which guard my country and our way of life. I 

am prepared to give my life in their defense.

 

53 As published in the Federal Register: http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executiveorder/10631.html, accessed 10 March 2009.

54 Since the promulgation of this executive order, the Coast Guard has been transferred to the 

Department of Homeland Security.
52

[Article I amended by EO 12633 of Mar. 28, 1988, 53 FR 10355, 3 CFR, 1988 Comp., p. 

561]

II

I will never surrender of my own free will. If in command, I will never surrender the 

members of my command while they still have the means to resist.

[Article II amended by EO 12633 of Mar. 28, 1988, 53 FR 10355, 3 CFR, 1988 Comp., 

p. 561]

III

If I am captured I will continue to resist by all means available. I will make every effort to 

escape and aid others to escape. I will accept neither parole nor special favors from the 

enemy.

IV

If I become a prisoner of war, I will keep faith with my fellow prisoners. I will give no 

information or take part in any action which might be harmful to my comrades. If I am 

senior, I will take command. If not, I will obey the lawful orders of those appointed over 

me and will back them up in every way.

V

When questioned, should I become a prisoner of war, I am required to give name, rank, 

service number and date of birth. I will evade answering further questions to the utmost 

of my ability. I will make no oral or written statements disloyal to my country and its 

allies or harmful to their cause.

[Article V amended by EO 12017 of Nov. 3, 1977, 42 FR 57941, 3 CFR, 1977 Comp., p. 

152]

VI

I will never forget that I am an American, fighting for freedom, responsible for my 

actions, and dedicated to the principles which made my country free. I will trust in my 

God and in the United States of America.

[Article VI amended by EO 12633 of Mar. 28, 1988, 53 FR 10355, 3 CFR, 1988 Comp., 

p. 561]
53

APPENDIX C

INSTITUTIONAL COMPETENCY LIST

Category Competency Subcompetency

Personal Embodies Airman 

Culture

- Ethical Leadership 

- Followership

- Warrior Ethos

- Develops Self

Communicating - Speaking and Writing

- Active Listening

People/Team Leading People

- Develops and Inspires Others

- Takes Care of People

- Diversity

Fostering Collaborative 

Relationships

- Builds Teams and Coalitions

- Negotiating

Organizational Employing Military 

Capabilities

- Operational and Strategic Art

- Unit, Air Force, Joint, and Coalition 

Capabilities

- Non-adversarial Crisis Response

Enterprise Perspective

- Enterprise Structure and 

Relationships

- Government Organization and 

Processes

- Global, Regional, and Cultural 

Awareness

- Strategic Communication

Managing 

Organizations and 

Resources

- Resource Stewardship

- Change Management

- Continuous Improvement

Strategic Thinking

- Vision

- Decision-making

- Adaptability

PERSONAL COMPETENCIES 

Personal competencies are those institutional competencies leaders need in 

face-to-face and interpersonal relationships that directly influence human behavior and 

values. These are foundational institutional competencies learned at the tactical level 

that will continue to play a critical role as leaders move to the operational competence 
54

and strategic vision levels. Personal competencies are essential for individual 

contribution, for building cohesive units and for empowering immediate subordinates. 

Each competency below is followed by the relevant subcompetencies that define it.

Embodies Airman Culture

 Ethical Leadership

  Promotes Air Force core values (integrity first, service before self, 

excellence in all we do) through goals, actions, and referent behaviors.

  Develops trust and commitment through words and actions.

  Accountable for areas of responsibility, operations of unit, and personal 

actions.

  Maintains checks and balances on self and others.

 Followership

  Comprehends and values the essential role of followership in mission 

accomplishment.

  Seeks command, guidance, and/or leadership while providing unbiased 

advice.

  Aligns priorities and actions toward chain of command guidance for 

mission accomplishment.

  Exercises flexibility and adapts quickly to alternating role as 

leader/follower: follower first, leader at times.

 Warrior Ethos

  Exhibits a hardiness of spirit despite physical and mental hardships—moral 

and physical courage.

  Continuously hones their skills to support the employment of military 

capabilities.

  Displays military/executive bearing, self-discipline, and self control.

 Develops Self

  Assesses self to identify strengths and developmental needs. 

  Seeks and incorporates feedback on own performance; aware of personal 

impact on others.
55

  Continually increases breadth and depth of knowledge and skills; develops 

life-long learning habits.

Communicating

 Speaking and Writing

  Articulates ideas and intent in a clear, concise, and convincing manner 

through both verbal and written communication.

  Adjusts communication approach to unique operational environment and 

audience needs.

  Effectively creates communication bridges among units, organizations and 

institutions.

 Active Listening

  Fosters the free flow of ideas in an atmosphere of open exchange.

  Actively attempts to understand others' points of view and clarifies 

information as needed.

  Solicits feedback to ensure that others understand messages as they were 

intended.

PEOPLE/TEAM COMPETENCIES

This group of competencies involves more interpersonal and team relationships. 

They represent competencies that, when combined with the personal competencies, are 

essential as leaders move on to lead larger groups or organizations. People/team 

leadership competencies are usually exercised more indirectly than personal leadership 

competencies. Leaders use these competencies to set the organizational climate. Each 

competency below is followed by the relevant subcompetencies that define it.

Leading People 

 Develops and Inspires Others

  Helps and motivates others to improve their skills and enhance their 

performance through feedback, coaching, mentoring, and delegating.

  Empowers others and guides them in the direction of their goals and 

mission accomplishment.

  Inspires others to transcend their own self-interests and embrace personal 

sacrifice and risk for the good of the organization and mission.
56

 Takes Care of People

  People first—attends to the physical, mental, ethical, and spiritual wellbeing of fellow Airmen and their families.

  Creates an environment where Airmen take care of Airmen 24/7, 365 days 

a year, including leaders, peers, and subordinates; integrates wellness into 

mission accomplishment.

  Establishes work-life balance through time management and setting clear 

expectations and priorities.

 Diversity

  Leverages differences in individual characteristics, experiences, and 

abilities. 

  Leverages diversity for mission accomplishment and fosters an inclusive

environment. 

  Shows respect for others regardless of the situation; treats people in an 

equitable manner.

Fostering Collaborative Relationships

 Builds Teams and Coalitions

  Builds effective teams for goal and mission accomplishment and improves 

team performance.

  Contributes to group identity while fostering cohesiveness, confidence, and 

cooperation.

  Sees and attends to the interests, goals, and values of other individuals 

and institutions.

  Develops networks and alliances that span organizational, Service, 

department, agency, and national boundaries.

 Negotiating

  Understands the underlying principles and concepts applied before, during,

and after a negotiation.

  Attains desired mission outcomes while maintaining positive, long-term 

relationships with key individuals and groups.

  Uses appropriate interpersonal styles and methods to reduce tension or 

conflict between two or more people, anticipates and addresses conflict 
57

constructively, and anticipates and prevents counter-productive 

confrontations.

  Persuades and influences others; builds consensus; gains cooperation; 

effectively collaborates.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMPETENCIES

 These competencies represent those applicable at all levels of the Air Force but 

are most in demand at the strategic level. Strategic leaders apply organizational 

competencies to establish structure and articulate strategic vision. Effective 

organizational competency skills include technical competence on force structure and 

integration; on unified, joint, multinational, and interagency operations; on resource 

allocation; and on management of complex systems. In addition, they apply to 

conceptual competence in creating policy and vision and interpersonal skills 

emphasizing consensus building and influencing peers and other policy makers, both 

internal and external to the organization. This level is the nexus of warfighting 

leadership skills for the Air Force. It is achieved through having learned the lessons 

from the other types of institutional competencies (i.e., personal and people/team). Each 

competency below is followed by the relevant subcompetencies that define it.

Employing Military Capabilities

 Operational and Strategic Art 

  Understands and applies operational and strategic art in conventional and 

irregular warfare, peacekeeping, and homeland operations.

  Demonstrates expertise in integrating and leveraging doctrine, concepts, 

and capabilities within an effects-based approach to operations.

  Uses innovation and technology in the employment of lethal and nonlethal

force.

 Unit, Air Force, Joint, and Coalition Capabilities

  Considers and applies capabilities of the Air Force across air, space, and 

cyberspace.

  Understands how Air Force capabilities relate and complement other 

Service capabilities.

  Understands interdependencies and interoperability across Services, 

agencies, departments, and coalition partners.

 Non-adversarial Crisis Response
58

  Recognizes the national security implications of peacekeeping operations, 

humanitarian relief operations, and support to civil authorities, both foreign 

and domestic.

  Understands the need for engagement before and after warfighting or crisis

response, the need for integrated involvement with interagency and 

multinational partners, and the need for multipurpose capabilities that can be 

applied across the range of military operations.

Enterprise Perspective

 Enterprise Structure and Relationships

  Understands the organizational structure and relationships between the Air 

Force, the Department of Defense (DOD), the joint staff, the combatant 

commands, the defense agencies, and other elements of the defense 

structure.

  Understands how one‘s function or unit fits into its parent organizations.

  Understands how one‘s parent organization relates to its external 

environment—supporting and supported organizations, the public, Congress, 

etc.

 Government Organization and Processes

  Understands essential operating features and functions of the Air Force, 

DOD, the national security structure, other related executive branch functions, 

and Congress, to include leadership and organization; roles of members, 

committees, and staffs; authorization, appropriation, and budget processes; 

acquisition policy and procedures; and interdependencies and relationships.

 Global, Regional, and Cultural Awareness

  Conscious of regional and other factors influencing defense, domestic, and 

foreign policy.

  Seeks to understand foreign cultural, religious, political, organizational, and 

societal norms and customs.

  Develops linguistic skills.

 Strategic Communication

  Informs and appropriately influences key audiences by synchronizing and 

integrating communication efforts to deliver truthful, timely, accurate, and 

credible information, analysis, and opinion.
59

  Formulates the institutional message, telling the Air Force story.

Managing Organizations and Resources

 Resource Stewardship

  Identifies, acquires, administers, and conserves financial, informational, 

technological, material, warfare, and human resources needed to accomplish 

the mission.

  Implements ―best practice‖ management techniques throughout the 

organization.

 Change Management

  Embraces, supports, and leads change.

  Understands the change management process, critical success factors, 

and common problems and costs.

  Perceives opportunities and risks before or as they emerge.

 Continuous Improvement

  Originates action to improve existing conditions and processes, using

appropriate methods to identify opportunities, implement solutions, and 

measure impact.

  Supports ongoing commitment to improve processes, products, services,

and people.

  Anticipates and meets the needs of both internal and external 

stakeholders.

Strategic Thinking

 Vision

  Takes a long-term view and builds a shared vision that clearly defines and 

expresses a future state.

  Provides innovative and creative insights and solutions for guiding and 

directing organizations to meet institutional needs.

  Formulates effective plans and strategies for consistently achieving goals 

and maximizing mission accomplishment.

  Anticipates potential threats, barriers, and opportunities; encourages risktaking.
60

 Decision-making

  Identifies, evaluates, and assimilates data and information from multiple 

streams and differentiates information according to its utility; uses information 

to influence actions and decisions.

  Uses analytic methods in solving problems and developing alternatives.

  Makes sound, well-informed, and timely decisions despite conditions of 

ambiguity, risk, and uncertainty.

  Analyzes situations critically to anticipate second and third order effects of 

proposed policies or actions. 

  Establishes metrics to evaluate results and adapts and implements 

feedback.

 Adaptability

  Maintains effectiveness when experiencing major changes in work tasks or 

environment.

  Adjusts to change within new work structures, processes, requirements,

and cultures.

  Responds quickly and proactively to ambiguous and emerging conditions, 

opportunities, and risks.

As leaders move through successively higher echelons in the Air Force, they need a 

wider portfolio of competencies that are typically gained at previous levels of leadership. 

As military and civilian leaders progress within the Air Force, they serve in more 

complex and interdependent organizations, have increased personal responsibility and 

authority, and have significantly different institutional competencies than their 

subordinates. 
61

Developing people to lead the world‘s 

best air, space, and cyberspace force takes 

the personal commitment of all Airmen—a 

commitment to focus on developing ourselves 

and encouraging our fellow Airmen—to learn 

as much as possible about the complexities of 

our profession of arms. I am committed to 

supporting you as you take on these new 

challenges.

—Michael W. Wynne, SECAF, 2006

APPENDIX D

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Education and training facilitate the transition from one level of experience 

to the next and are critical to creating productive experiences in an Airman’s 

development. Force development seeks to provide experiences that deliberately 

develop tactical expertise, operational competence, and strategic vision. Airmen who

are prepared for the experiences to come are not only better able to perform their 

assigned duties, but also gain more from each experience. Skills training and 

developmental education are foundational to preparing the Airman for developmental 

experiences, and it is critical to employ the proper approach. Although interdependent, 

education and training are fundamentally distinct in application. Education prepares 

individuals for dynamic environments, while training is essential in developing skill sets. 

Education and training are complementary and will commonly overlap; however, 

recognition of the distinction between them is essential to the approach taken. Training 

approaches applied to educational situations will be less effective, as will educational 

approaches applied to situations in which training is more appropriate. The following 

items distinguish education from training in several critical areas:

 Training is appropriate when standardized outcomes are required. Training is 

focused on building specific skill sets to produce reliable, consistent results. 

Although skill application involves judgment, it is the purpose of training to teach 

skills that are associated with desired outcomes. (When repairing jet engines, for 

example, it is desirable to have the engine meet standardized performance 

measures upon completion of the repair tasks—proper training ensures a 

standardized, predictable outcome.) Standardization in training and evaluation helps 

commanders to ensure outcomes are predictable. Tasks (the tangible questions to 

be dealt with), conditions (the operating environment where the function is to be 

performed), and standards (the minimum of acceptable proficiency) are vital to the 

training process.
62

 Education is appropriate when adaptive outcomes are desired. Education is 

focused on developing critical thought that enables creative solutions. Although 

creative thought may involve skill application, it is the purpose of critical thought to 

form successful solutions to new problems. (An engineer, for example, is able to 

design a new jet engine that exceeds all known performance measures through 

application of creative design concepts and unusual materials applications.)

 Training is task dependent. Training is generally focused on a specific skill. 

Although specialties may be quite complex, each is composed of elements having 

distinct tasks that when correctly performed lead to successful, predictable 

outcomes. (When operating a radar system, for example, power-up is distinct from 

data recall operations and each task is required, but each task is distinct in the steps 

taken—proper training ensures the proper steps are followed in the proper sequence 

to successfully operate the system.)

 Education is process dependent. Education is generally focused on combining 

familiar and unfamiliar information to produce a suggested course of action. The 

intellectual demands of consolidating past experiences and ideas with new 

experiences and unfamiliar information to produce new ideas depend on the process 

of critical thought. (Radar data, for example, only becomes useful when analyzed 

and screened to produce relevant information—the intellect required to make sense 

of multiple items forms the process of critical thought.)

 Training is technically specific, focusing on specific situations and the tools of that 

specialty. Training is intended to develop skill sets that are generally associated 

with specific duty requirements. While some skill sets are generally universal (such 

as computer skills), specialty training is specific to a particular skill set. Skill sets are 

generally associated with specific duty requirements and the tools of that specialty. 

Training is focused on specific situations and the tools of that specialty. (A tanker 

boom operator, for example, would not be prepared to take on the duty requirements 

of a pararescue Airman or vice versa—each has received training that is specific to 

the technical tools of his or her duties.) 

 Education is not dependent on a specific situation. Because education seeks to 

develop critical thinking skills, it attempts to prepare individuals for new experiences 

and new challenges. While education can readily prepare individuals for known 

situations, the fundamental aim is to develop individual talents to create successful 

outcomes in unfamiliar situations. (For example, a weatherman, using a 

comprehensive understanding of atmospherics, is able to predict weather patterns 

across regions around the globe.)
63

 Training requires restrictive application. Because training is generally focused on a 

specific skill set, the skills learned are usually limited to the specialty related to that 

skill set. Training aims to instill certain specific skills that when applied in a 

systematic and predictable way produce predictable outcomes. Training is, 

therefore, generally restricted in application to the known circumstances related to 

the skill set. (A jet engine mechanic, for example, would not be well equipped to 

repair a piece of complex communications equipment any more than an electronics 

technician could be expected to repair a jet engine.) 

 Education requires transformative application. Knowledge and skills, such as 

critical thinking, that are cultivated during education are of great benefit in unfamiliar 

circumstances. Education provides the individual with logic skills that encourage 

creative thought and allows individuals to create new solutions to unfamiliar 

problems. In application, education is most beneficial when transitioning from the 

known to the unknown. (An engineering team, for example, confronted with the task 

of repairing an unfamiliar foreign communications network devises a successful 

solution using equipment that is both familiar and foreign.) 

 Training is most effective within defined parameters. Training develops skill sets 

and the talent to successfully cope with deviations from normal, within the bounds of 

the specialty. Training is skill specific and variations from those normally expected 

circumstances are also limited to that skill set. (An aircraft hydraulics specialist, for 

example, is trained to deal with hydraulic systems and expected problems, but would 

likely not be as successful in coping with an unfamiliar hydraulic system that 

experiences an unfamiliar failure.) 

 Education is most effective outside defined parameters. The essential strength of 

education is to prepare individuals to create successful outcomes in unfamiliar 

situations. The value of education is most apparent when the individual is 

confronted with creating solutions beyond the set of parameters in which they may 

normally operate. (A hydraulic specialist, for example, relying on an understanding 

of hydraulic principles and system functions is able to create a solution to an 

unfamiliar failure.)

 Training is most effective in stable, expected environments. Training generally 

serves to impart skills necessary for success in known situations and circumstances. 

Circumstances that are known as normal operating environments and situations that 

can be anticipated may be considered as occurring within an expected environment. 

Training provides the skills necessary for success in stable environments. 

(Emergency drills and realistic exercises, for example, help develop skills to cope 

with anticipated scenarios under stress or in critical situations.) 
64

 Education is most effective within unexpected environments. In unexpected or 

unanticipated situations there are no procedures or checklists to provide guidance. 

Skill sets generally become less applicable in scenarios that have not been seen or 

practiced. Education provides the tools necessary to cope with new challenges. It is 

in rapidly changing environments that produce unexpected problems that education 

can provide the mental talents to succeed. (A fire fighter, for example, when being 

confronted with unmanageable flames, understands the mechanics of fires to 

successfully egress the situation.) 

 Training value diminishes with uncertainty. The further the situation progresses 

from the talents of the individual, the less effective the individual becomes in 

implementing a successful solution. Because training is focused on a specialized 

skill set, those circumstances that fall outside of the skill set produce a greater 

amount of uncertainty. Thus the value of skill set training is reduced in the face of 

uncertainty. 

 Education value increases with uncertainty. Education provides the tools for 

innovation and creative thought. In circumstances of new challenges and unfamiliar 

situations, education can allow individuals to create solutions to reduce uncertainty 

and implement successful solutions. (Combat presents leaders with many 

opportunities to experience unfamiliar situations, but relying on historical precedents, 

lessons learned in wargames and exercises, and past personal experience, leaders 

can develop successful strategies and tactics to prevail.) 

 Training is not inherent in education. Learning can take place in individuals having 

few specialized skills. Even in unstructured environments, learning can proceed 

successfully. Education involves the process of learning new concepts and/or 

developing logic talents to create new thought. There are many examples of 

successful artists creating great works without a formal training in the medium. It is 

creative talent that is among the most beneficial results of education.

 Education is inherent in training. Basic talents are critical to learning. Individuals, 

for example, should be able to read proficiently to access training materials. 

Individuals must also have a good grasp of vocabulary to understand training terms 

and concepts. Subjects such as reading, vocabulary, mathematics, and similar 

topics are the product of education. Training cannot take place without first having 

individuals who meet the qualifications to receive training. Training that exceeds the 

qualifications required of the participants is less effective.

 Training shows immediate benefits. Learned skills can be demonstrated almost 

immediately. It is often part of the training process that individuals demonstrate the 
65

skills acquired. Repetition of skills serves to reinforce those skills and provides a 

measure of training success. (A 'three-level' technician can be placed in positions of 

responsibility and produce successful outcomes as a result of training.) Training 

usually produces immediate effects by imparting new skills or developing existing 

skills. 

 Education provides long-term benefits. Skills in critical thinking are usually not 

demonstrated until encountering unfamiliar circumstances. Logic skills are also 

developed over time through formal education and experience, thus are constantly 

evolving and maturing. Consequently, the benefits of education are closely linked to 

experience and tend to grow over time. Because logic skills are not as demonstrable 

as technical skills, these talents are usually not as apparent in the short term.
66

APPENDIX E

LEADERSHIP STUDIES

The leadership studies are intended as examples of leadership and force 

development and are organized around the construct of tactical expertise, operational 

competence, and strategic vision. 

LEADERSHIP STUDY FOR TACTICAL EXPERTISE:

SECURITY POLICE DEFENSE OF TAN SON NHUT AND BIEN HOA AIR BASES, 

JANUARY 1968

ATTACK ORDER

From: The Presidium of the National Liberation Front Central Committee

To: 

- Cadres and Soldiers of the People‘s Liberation Armed Forces

- Compatriots

After successive victories in recent months, the situation in-country as well as in the world 

becomes very favorable for the liberation of our Country and People. The American aggressors 

are being defeated and the Puppet Government is being on the way to disintegration. Our 

Revolutionary Forces are grown up and become stronger than ever. The North (VN), a large 

rear of the South (VN), is more and more strong and is striking the American invaders with 

dead-blows.

Friendly Nations on [sic] over the world (including progressive American people) unanimously 

and positively support us.

The presidium orders all Liberation Armed Forces, Political Struggle Force, members of all 

Liberation Associations and other Patriotic Forces and the whole Nation to unanimously stand 

up in order to:

- Destroy the enemy vital force as much as possible, defeat US and Allied troops, and 

liquidate Puppet government troops.

- Break down all Puppet Government Administrative organizations and severely punish 

Vietnamese traitors and tyrants.

- Establish Revolutionary Administration and make every effort to defend it, decidedly 

punish and break up all enemy counterattack forces under any circumstances.

- Carry out policies in the essential line of action promulgated by the Front.

Compatriots, Cadres, and Soldiers 

Move forward bravely

We will certainly win.

 30 January 1968

Presidium of the SVN National Liberation Front Central Committee
67

The Tet offensive of January, 1968, began with limited to no intelligence 

available to the forces defending the installations in South Vietnam near major cities. 

Outside Saigon, the 377th Security Police Squadron (377 SPS) on Tan Son Nhut Air

Base and the 3rd Security Police Squadron (3 SPS) at Bien Hoa Air Base were in 

normal alert condition until 1732 on 30 January 1968, when orders came down from the 

commander, 7th Air Force, putting Air Force units into ―Alert Condition Red,‖ a posture 

providing the commander with the option for using all security police and augmentees to 

provide the maximum security possible over a short period of time. According to the 

377 SPS combat operations after action report, ―[t]he intelligence situation for the days 

immediately preceeding [sic] the attack remained relatively unchanged from the 

normal.‖ 

The descriptions below of the actions at each base vary in their styles; for Tan 

Son Nhut, the information is derived from the unit after-action report, demonstrating the 

dynamism of the action that called for leadership at the tactical level by numerous 

members of the Security Police squadron. For Bien Hoa, the focus is on the 

recollections of one member of the Security Police squadron, emphasizing the human 

impact leadership can have on an individual.

Tan Son Nhut Air Base

On Tan Son Nhut, only the 377 SPS and the supporting Army Task Force (TF) 

35 were placed into Alert Condition Red, with the rest of the base in Condition Yellow. 

When Alert Condition Red was implemented, three platoons of US Army personnel (TF 

35) were alerted and placed on five-minute standby status as augmentation reserve 

forces for the 377 SPS, under the operational control of the commander, 377 SPS. 

At 0300 on 31 January 1968, the joint defense operations center (JDOC) 

received notification that the US Embassy in Saigon and the Saigon radio station were 

under attack. At 0320, the guard in Tower 16 at the east-southeast corner of the base 

reported observing small arms fire from off base directed at the petroleum/oil/lubrication 

(POL) site on the installation. Security Police were dispatched and members of the 

quick reaction force (QRF) and TF 35 responded to predesignated rendezvous points. 

Reports of small arms, grenade, and mortar fire began to increase dramatically from 

various points around the base. 

At 0340, the Security Police at the 051 bunker on the west side of the base 

reported being hit by mortar or rocket fire and the rounds were landing on base. At 

0344, they reported the west perimeter fence was breached near the 051 gate. The 

051 bunker was manned by five personnel: Sergeants Louis Fischer, William Cyr, 

Charles Hebron, Roger Mills, and Alonzo Coggins. Sergeant Fischer, in charge of the 

personnel at the bunker, directed its defense until enemy fire killed him, along with 

Sergeants Cyr, Hebron, and Mills. Sergeant Coggins survived, but was severely 

wounded. The assault on the west side of the base, centered around the 051 bunker, 

was the main thrust of the attack on Tan Son Nhut. 
68

051 Bunker, Tan Son Nhut Air Base, January 1968

At 0529, enemy troops were sighted by Tower 1 Security Police near the 

Alpha/Echo sector line, to the northeast of the 051 bunker. Security Police deployed to 

a main line of resistance (MLR) from east to west to act as a blocking force, as the 

enemy had penetrated approximately 600 meters into the base in an area 

approximately 300 meters wide. Intense defensive resistance by the Security Police, 

along with TF 35 personnel and forces of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN). 

stopped the attack, and by 0603, some enemy forces were observed withdrawing 

through a break in the perimeter fence south of the 051 gate.

At 0630, The US Army‘s C Troop, 3rd Squadron, 4th Cavalry, from Cu Chi 

arrived in the area after fighting its way down the highway to the base. This 

counterattack by friendly forces outside the base allowed the defenders on Tan Son 

Nhut to mount their own counterattack, which began at 0635. 

Small arms fire continued around the perimeter of the base until 0730, with posts 

in the north, east, and south sectors reporting small arms and automatic weapons fire. 

At 0725, the defensive lines on base received heavy concentrations of fire to cover an 

attempted enemy assault on the friendly counterattack line. This enemy fire was used 

chiefly to cover the withdrawal of their wounded and the part of the main force still inside 

the perimeter. Fighting continued around the base for several more hours. Several 

attempts to recapture the 051 gate during this time were unsuccessful, but at 1210, 377 

SPS personnel assaulted again and neutralized the enemy fire from there, recapturing 

the bunker. This was the last area of the base held by the enemy. At 1217, the base 

perimeter was resecured. Hostile fire continued from off base for several hours 

afterwards.
69

Bunker Hill 10, Bien Hoa Air Base, January 1968

Bien Hoa Air Base

Simultaneous with the attack on Tan Son Nhut, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong 

forces totaling four battalions hit Bien Hoa Air Base, northeast of Saigon. At the time, it 

was the busiest air base in the world, with 150 aircraft assigned and numerous transient 

aircraft flowing through. When the attack occurred, the key thrust of the enemy assault 

centered on the east side of the base around a heavy bunker built originally by the 

French, named Bunker Hill 10 by the 3 SPS. The following transcription of an interview 

with Senior Master Sergeant (SMSgt) (Retired) William ―Pete‖ Piazza provides a clear 

view of the intensity of the fighting at the time. For his actions at Bunker Hill 10, 

Sergeant Piazza was awarded the Silver Star. During the battle, as a staff sergeant, he 

was in charge of an ammunition resupply team, and had been dispatched to Bunker Hill 

10 to resupply the squadron operations officer, Captain Reginald Maisey, at the bunker 

where he and 30 other personnel were engaged in a firefight.

―We brought slap flares to Captain Maisey. He had already gone through 

two boxes of them; if you‘ve ever seen elephant grass, you can hardly see 

anything in it. At 0330, the first RPG [rocket-propelled grenade] round hit. We 

were all behind the bunker at the time. There was a QRT [quick reaction team], a 

SAT [security alert team], even the fire department was there. 

―The first RPG round hit. The M-60 gun was sitting on top of the bunker. 

When it got hit the M-60 fell over the edge; it was just sitting on the sandbags. We 

all turned around and looked at each other, and somebody said,  ̳Look!‘ and 
70

pointed up. If you‘ve ever seen the movie Superman, all we saw was a B-40 

round coming right over the top of the bunker into the elephant grass [with sparks 

flying out looking like a cape]. It never went off; it was a dud. Everybody just 

looked at each other, then somebody said,  ̳Hit the dirt,‘ then a  ̳Boom!‘ 

―The next round hit the bunker and that‘s when the fire department personnel 

decided to get the hell out of there. Captain Maisey had the 145th Aviation 

Battalion coordinator that was supposed to be in CSC (central security control) if 

we needed him because we didn‘t have communication radios with them. We‘d 

call CSC who in turn would call 145th aviation headquarters and then the choppers 

would go. Well, the coordinator was out at Bunker Hill 10 with us, so we had no 

way of talking with the Army. He was sitting behind the bunker with an M-16 with 

the XM-148 grenade launcher (which evolved into the M-203 rifle with grenade 

launcher), sitting there not knowing what to do with it; he‘s a pilot, not a rifleman. I 

gave him my CAR-15 [rifle] and I took the XM-148 with the M-16 attached, and 

took the rounds he had. 

―I could see Charlie because I was on the right-hand side of the bunker. I 

could see the firing coming at us. There were two posts out in front of that, both 

were Quan Canh [Vietnamese Air Force security police] posts.... That was our first 

information that Charlie was coming because the guys that got out alive ran down 

to Bunker Hill 10 in their underwear screaming,  ̳VC, VC, VC!‘ 

―We got into a situation like, when you‘re sitting in a theater watching a 

western, one guy comes out and fires from behind a building, the other guy waits 

till the round hits, then comes out and shoots, then ducks back behind the building. 

Charlie fired 13 RPGs at us, and I fired 9 or 10 rounds. My last round hit  ̳em, 

because there was a big explosion, and all I saw were three bodies and a big 

flash. I must have hit whatever ammunition they had with  ̳em. It was a lucky shot. 

―Before they blew, they fired a shot that hit here [pointing to a photo of the 

bunker, low firing point slit]; I figured that was the one that killed Captain Maisey. 

He was inside, talking on the radio, and the 13th round, because I got  ̳em on the 

next round, burrowed through the bunker and caught him square in the back. 

Unfortunately, there wasn‘t enough light inside; we knew somebody had been hit 

and killed, but didn‘t know who. 

―When the 145th Aviation Battalion started firing with miniguns from gunships 

and such, I decided to get the hell out of Dodge and went inside the bunker. I 

tripped over the person. We picked him up and carried him outside, but we still did 

not know it was Captain Maisey at the time. Matter of fact, we didn‘t know it was 

him until the sun came up. [For his efforts defending Bien Hoa Air Base from the 

North Vietnamese attack during Tet on 30-31 January 1968, Captain Maisey was 

awarded the Air Force Cross posthumously.]
71

―I was about 24-25 years old, not the youngest guy, not the oldest guy out 

there. One of the things that really kept everybody together was this lieutenant 

colonel here (gesturing to Lt Col Kent Miller, 3 SPS commander, seated next to 

him) got on the radio and he started talking to us like he was right with us, and he 

started telling us,  ̳Understand, calm down, calm down; you know what you gotta 

do; tell me what‘s going on,‘ in a calm voice. It really calmed everybody down. 

One of the guys told me a couple of hours later when the colonel came in and told 

 ̳em  ̳you guys do what you gotta do, I‘ll be on the radio and be the communicator 

to make sure everybody knows what‘s going on. You take care of the basics and 

let me do this;‘ he took over the radio and he just started talking to us. I say the 

old man calmed us down, and he did. That really was a plus factor. A lot of 

officers you hear about,  ̳I‘m going to lead you in the charge,‘ well, he led us in a 

way that a lot of people would not think of, and today I know several officers that 

follow in this gentleman‘s footsteps, in that they don‘t try to get out in front like 

Custer and yell charge. Take your time, move along cautiously, you know what‘s 

going on, what you‘ve got to do, so do your job.‖ 

Leadership in the Security Police during Tet, 31 January 196855

These very abbreviated descriptions of operations during the battles for Tan Son 

Nhut and Bien Hoa are necessary for full comprehension of what occurred, but are only 

part of what is needed to understand why the US forces were victorious. The 

leadership, specifically the tactical leadership by the officers, noncommissioned officers, 

and Airmen of the 377 and 3 SPS, proved to be the key to their success. Leaders at all 

levels overcame inhibiting factors to accomplish their mission. 

A common theme among veterans of this set of actions was the frustration with 

the lack of training and equipment to accomplish the duties they were tasked to perform. 

There was a continuing challenge for the unit leadership to obtain the requisite 

equipment they believed was necessary to perform their tasks. At Tan Son Nhut, the 

Airmen on the MLR had chronic shortness of ammunition: ―We had a severe problem 

with ammo resupply,‖ stated one member who felt the lack of ammunition on his post. 

At Bien Hoa, the resupply system established by the commander, Lt Col Kent Miller, 

and executed at the NCO level, was robust, but the equipment limitations hampered its 

effectiveness even so: ―During the battle, some of the troops still ran out of ammunition 

because of a lack of magazines. The rounds were handed out, and they had to fill their 

magazines. You got bandoliers and had to strip them into the magazines yourself.‖

As is common with many organizations, one of the most vexing problems dealt 

with by the unit leadership was insufficient and ineffective communication. At Tan Son 

Nhut, ―There were big gaps in communications...the Army ran JDOC...the tower called 

in forces [observed at the base perimeter], that was relayed to CSC, then to JDOC, and 

 

55 Quotations throughout are from first-person interviews with veterans of the battles at Tan Son Nhut and 

Bien Hoa. They volunteered their memories over the course of five days during a reunion of the Vietnam 

Security Police Association (http://www.vspa.com/), October, 2006. The author is indebted to them for 

their forthrightness and openness in discussing leadership as they observed it at that time and place.
72

we got the word it was friendly forces...Those  ̳friendly forces‘ were actually NVA [North 

Vietnamese Army] battalions.‖ For one Airman posted in an internal patrol on the base, 

information that an attack had commenced came abruptly: ―The only thing that alerted 

me to the attack was the helicopter gunships going over my head, shooting those 

miniguns, and the casings were hitting my helmet.‖ At Bien Hoa, the squadron 

commander, having been in the position for 11 1⁄2 months before the battle, continued to 

be rankled by the lack of accurate and actionable intelligence coming from 

organizations tasked to provide that information. In describing the value of intelligence 

from 7th Air Force and Military Assistance Command-Vietnam (MACV), it was 

―nonexistent; nonreliable [sic] anyway.‖ 

In contrast, all members interviewed expressed praise for the leadership within 

their units, reserving the highest accolades for the officers and noncommissioned 

officers who demonstrated competence during the battle: ―We were not trained 

properly, we did not have the right equipment, intelligence was horrible, but we had 

some wonderful officers and NCOs who kept it together.‖ ―The NCO leadership really 

kept you alive. You weren‘t prepared for what happened, you were in shock. The NCOs 

led us through that.‖ 

―Some people didn‘t get recognized for leadership until something happens and 

their leadership comes out...It‘s not always recognized.‖ In positions of command and 

control, both officers and NCOs presented the strongest front of guidance and direction 

for the forces in contact with the enemy. At Tan Son Nhut, the NCOIC in CSC, 

Technical Sergeant (TSgt) James Bloom, provided a voice of calm and efficiency readily 

recognized by the forces on the line: ―If it were not for him...he was the key...he knew 

what he was doing.‖ On one occasion, he forcibly removed an officer from CSC who 

was impeding his efforts to obtain accurate information from the field. The 377 SPS 

operations officer, Major Carl Bender, was not known for his approachability on a daily 

basis, ―Nobody liked him because he had no personality,‖ but during the attack, he 

proved to be a rock of competence to the troops: ―He was the most incredible 

officer....‖ He was severely wounded during the battle, driving himself to the aid station, 

stopping his jeep by running it into a pole, then directing the personnel how to put him 

into a stretcher. 

At Bien Hoa, the 3 SPS personnel reserved their highest praise for Lt Col Kent 

Miller, the squadron commander. His leadership during the battle was seen as steady, 

calming, and, appropriately, commanding. By his own admission, he actually made only 

―about six orders during the whole battle.‖ He stated one of his biggest contributions 

was to decide on the call signs ―Big Ears 1 and 2‖ for listening posts. In reality, his 

leadership was felt long before 0320, 31 Jan 68, as expressed by Sergeant Piazza: 

―The thing that set apart the officers we had, from the colonel to Captain Maisey, the 

operations officer, [and the other officers in the squadron], was that, in their hearts and 

minds, if you‘re going to do something for the troops you have to train them.‖ 

Lt Col Miller initiated a training program for his forces, known as Eagle Flight, in 

an effort to provide his personnel combat training. This effort was a conscious decision 
73

to improve the survivability of Security Police even though it had to circumvent the 

directive that Security Police were restricted to actions inside the base perimeter, with 

the Army maintaining the responsibility to secure the perimeter outside the wire. He 

obtained training from the 173rd Airborne Brigade, US Army, who were located in a base 

camp to the east of Bien Hoa. His all-volunteer force received intensive air assault 

training, culminating in their establishing a circular defense at a landing zone several 

kilometers from the base, then patrolling back to the base. While in violation of 7th Air 

Force and MACV directives, it gave the forces training and experience that proved 

invaluable during Tet.

Equipment needed to perform their duties was often in short supply or 

nonexistent. NCOs exercised their initiative to support their forces by working trades for 

weaponry they otherwise could not obtain. The Security Police supply NCOIC at Tan 

Son Nhut procured quad-.50 caliber machine guns, considerably more firepower than 

was available with the standard issue M-60 machine guns, by working with contacts in 

nearby Army units. These weapons proved highly effective in blunting assaults during 

Tet. 

Perhaps the most cogent statement made regarding the effectiveness of the 

tactical leadership among the Security Police during Tet was made by Franklin Ybarbo, 

an Airman during the battle at Tan Son Nhut, who said, ―Regardless of how much 

equipment or training we had, it was enough. The battle was fought and won with 

nothing but small arms. The American initiative and ingenuity was enough to defeat the 

enemy.‖ The military during Vietnam was overwhelmingly a conscript force, unlike 

today‘s all-volunteer force, but the leadership exhibited during Tet by the Security Police 

assigned to Tan Son Nhut and Bien Hoa is the kind today‘s forces would recognize 

immediately as being effective; doing the right thing for personnel so they can do the 

mission they have been assigned. The North Vietnamese Army forces attacking the air 

bases were carrying their dress uniforms in their packs and had been issued new AK-47 

assault rifles, with the intent that the bases would be rapidly captured and they could 

march in a victory parade on the flightlines. The courage and leadership at all levels of 

the men of the 377 and 3 SPS ensured this never happened. The estimate of NVA 

killed at Tan Son Nhut alone was placed at over 900, as opposed to 4 Security 

Policemen and 19 US Army soldiers killed. Tet was an overwhelming loss to the North 

Vietnamese, thanks in good measure to the men of the Security Police.
74

LEADERSHIP STUDY FOR OPERATIONAL COMPETENCE:

GENERAL CREECH AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF TACTICAL AIR COMMAND

(TAC) 

General Wilbur L. ―Bill‖ Creech was the commander of TAC from 1978 to 1984. 

Recognizing the multiple demands associated with surviving and performing effectively 

in the low-altitude arena, General Creech sought an appropriate blend of technology 

and tactics that might help pilots return to higher altitudes where they could escape the 

dangers of the low-altitude regime and improve their chances of successful target 

attack. During earlier Red Flags, all starting scenarios each day presumed that it was 

the first minute of the first hour of a war against undegraded Warsaw Pact air defenses. 

No kill removal was provided to account for surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) destroyed in 

previous missions, and low-level penetration to target was invariably the standard 

practice, on the premise that radar-guided SAMs could not be negated from higher 
75

altitudes. Not only did the resulting simulated loss rate to enemy antiaircraft artillery 

(AAA) and short-range infrared SAMs soar to a point where many pilots concluded that 

they could not survive in actual combat, the actual aircraft accident rate rose 

dramatically as a consequence of the unforgiving nature of the training environment. 

During the first two years of Red Flag, more than 30 heavily task-saturated aircrews lost 

their lives as a result of either having flown into the ground inadvertently while 

maneuvering to avoid getting locked up by a simulated threat radar or having collided in 

midair during a maneuvering engagement with the aggressors.

This sobering situation starkly underscored what General Creech came to call 

―go-low disease,‖ motivated by his concern that the emphasis on low-altitude ingress 

was not only causing a needlessly high accident rate in peacetime training, but also was 

jeopardizing aircrew survivability and future flexibility in actual combat while, at the 

same time, constraining TAC‘s appreciation of the equipment needed to perform the 

ground-attack mission more effectively. In response, General Creech insisted on new 

tactics aimed at making defense rollback the first order of business. The emphasis 

instead swung to developing equipment and tactics that would enable the opening of a 

medium-altitude window because the most lethal Soviet SAMs could not be successfully 

underflown within the heart of their engagement envelopes. Aircrew proficiency at lowlevel operations was maintained as a fallback measure. The new focus concentrated 

on sanitizing the air defense environment by taking out or neutralizing enemy SAMs as 

a first priority, so that attacking aircraft could operate more safely as soon as possible at 

higher altitudes beyond the lethal reach of AAA. 

At the same time, General Creech eliminated the initial ―core squadron‖ mission 

planning practice and instead put TAC‘s air division commanders in charge of scenarios 

on a rotating basis. There emerged a heightened emphasis on acquiring the needed 

equipment that would render medium altitude tactics both possible in principle and also 

effective. In addition, new capabilities and tactics for operating at night were pushed 

hard and ultimately validated at Red Flag. Thanks to that, the character of Red Flag 

shifted notably toward something more closely approximating realistic large-force 

employment against an enemy whose defenses would eventually be degraded in actual 

combat. The result was more real-world training realism, as opposed to the false 

realism of an impenetrable enemy defense, which was finally understood in hindsight to 

have produced more negative than positive training.

Getting Serious About Electronic Warfare 

Closely connected to this stress on greater realism and greater emphasis on 

enemy air defense suppression was a mounting concern over the need to introduce the 

complexities of electronic combat into peacetime tactical training, especially those 

connected with coping effectively in a heavy communications jamming environment. 

Both during his previous assignment as the commander of the USAF‘s Electronic 

Systems Division and later as TAC commander, General Creech figured prominently in 

this effort to integrate a serious program of offensive and defensive electronic combat 

into the Air Force‘s training repertoire. In 1981, he initiated Green Flag, a Red Flag-like 
76

exercise conducted biennially at Nellis with special emphasis on electronic warfare and 

SAM suppression. 

During the first Green Flag, General Creech directed that communications 

jamming be turned on at the outset and left on throughout the operation just as the 

Soviets would do in actual combat. As a result, 72 percent of the training sorties flown 

were ineffective. That ended once and for all the assumption that one could overcome 

enemy jamming efforts merely by manually changing radio frequencies. 

TAC Turnaround

Along with the major advances in aircrew training and proficiency outlined above, 

a largely unsung but nonetheless groundbreaking parallel improvement also took place 

in the organizational efficiency of TAC during the late 1970s and early 1980s under 

General Creech‘s command. Earlier in the 1970s, upward of half of TAC‘s $25 billion 

inventory of aircraft were not mission-ready at any given time, and as many as 200 of its 

3,800 aircraft were classified as ―hangar queens‖—grounded for three weeks or more 

due to a lack of maintenance or needed parts. Moreover, pilots who required a 

minimum of 20 hours of flying time a month to remain operationally ready were getting 

only half that amount in most cases. 

TAC suffered high maintenance inefficiencies and an unacceptably high accident 

rate that was partly caused by them. Air Force leadership accommodated this financial 

crunch by raiding its operations and maintenance accounts. All of this was heavily 

driven by the top-down management style that had come to afflict the entire US defense 

establishment as a result of Defense Secretary Robert McNamara‘s dogma of 

centralization from the business world which, by the end of the Vietnam war, had 

pervaded almost all walks of American military life.

Among the many pernicious results of this affliction was a mounting lapse in 

integrity at the operational level, in which small lies about unit performance became 

ever larger sins of self-deception which ultimately undermined both mission readiness 

and safety. Driven by a perceived need to worship statistics for their own sake rather 

than the underlying facts they were supposed to represent and by a bureaucracy which 

insisted on hearing the ―right‖ answers irrespective of reality, USAF aircrews would 

falsify their mission reports to show that they had performed events such as inflight 

refuelings and weapons deliveries which they had in fact not conducted. Thanks to the 

same felt compulsion, unit supervisors would record takeoffs which had been delayed 

by maintenance as ―on time‖ and assign aircraft to the flight schedule which had not 

been properly released by maintenance control. In sum, bureaucratic gridlock and an 

overlay of regulations and statistical imperatives, aggravated by diminished funds, had 

come to stifle morale and to discourage initiative and innovation at the command‘s 

grass-roots level. 

With the strong backing of Air Force Chief of Staff General David Jones, General 

Creech quickly sized up the situation and proceeded to invert the traditional top-down 

centralization of TAC by imposing a strict bottom-up approach to the organization and 

management of his command, in the process forcing authority and responsibility down 
77

to its very lowest reaches. At the same time, he introduced a radically new and different 

tone by replacing the former pattern of leadership intimidation and bluster with what he 

called ―reasoned command.‖ The new watchword became management through 

motivation rather than regulation, on the premise that professionals will willingly assume 

greater responsibility when they are treated with dignity and given a sense of personal 

ownership of their contribution to the larger whole.

General Creech‘s leadership philosophy was based on a recognition that loyalty 

was a two-way street and on the premise that if a commander always looked up to 

those at the front, he would never talk down to them. It was profoundly intolerant of 

centrocratic practices and recognized that an organization can only be as successful as 

those at the bottom are willing to make it. Toward that end, General Creech

emphasized focusing more on the product than on the process. He sought to minimize 

excess regulation, which he believed merely depressed the spirit and stifled motivation. 

He also sought to replace inhibitions on communication with full openness, and he 

shifted his headquarters function from restricting to facilitating. Above all, he constantly 

stressed that there were no poor units, only poor leaders.

General Creech insisted that a mistake was not a crime and a crime was not a 

mistake, and he incessantly played up the importance of honoring the difference 

between the two in meting out discipline for mishaps and lesser oversights. His abiding 

goal was to infuse the system with trust and respect so that coherence and control 

might be maintained through incentive rather than through top-down authoritarianism. 

He sought to instill throughout the ranks an appreciation of the crucial difference 

between quality control and quality creation and to focus predominantly on the latter, 

which demanded both different language and a different mindset. To achieve it, he 

strove to inhibit excess micromanagement of inputs from above. He also spotlighted 

pride, a quality that needed creating and sustaining by empowering those at the working 

level to show initiative, while providing for responsibility and accountability at every 

level.

As General Creech later explained it, ―the villain wasn‘t any particular person, but 

the whole system.‖ By systematically pushing decisions down to the level of those 

front-line supervisors who actually carried them out, the risk of poor decisions was 

sharply reduced. General Creech personally played a lead role in selecting, mentoring, 

and grooming those at the working level who showed the greatest promise for future 

leadership, motivated by his credo that the cardinal imperative of a leader is to produce 

more leaders. His four simple ―pass/fail‖ standards of conduct expected of all 

subordinate TAC leaders entailed a staunch refusal to countenance any manifestations 

of lying, displays of temper, abuse of position, or lapses in integrity.

The payoff of this turnaround in the TAC culture soon became widely apparent. 

Time came to be used more efficiently, quality in all domains of command activity went 

up, and excellence became a TAC-wide fixation. Units became competitive in all major 

areas of endeavor, particularly in maintenance delivery and flight operations. Unit

commanders were encouraged to fly more often and to lead from the front. All of this 
78

generated measurable improvements in all major categories of performance with no 

more aircraft, personnel, or money than TAC had when General Creech first assumed 

command. He narrowed the gap in trust between TAC‘s leaders and led, installed a 

system based on mutual respect and mutual support, and instilled a quality mindset at 

every level, basing the product (TAC‘s organizational efficiency and mission readiness) 

on persuasion rather than ex cathedra orders. The ensuing effect of reducing the 

number of TAC‘s aircraft that were down for maintenance at any given moment by 

three-fourths yielded an inventory availability and increase in combat capability from 

existing assets that would have cost more than $12 billion had they been purchased 

anew.

These reforms eventually permeated all elements of TAC down to the lowest 

front-line operators, in the process fundamentally changing their former roles, 

relationships, and responsibilities by enhancing the creativity and commitment of those 

who ultimately determined the command‘s success. The impact of the reforms on 

TAC‘s morale quotient was palpable. TAC‘s first-term reenlistment rate increased by 

136 percent, a resounding vote of approval for the new, decentralized, and team-based 

approach to management. Other early returns included a substantial increase in 

available flying hours for aircrews, better quality of aircraft maintenance, and a sharp 

increase in TAC‘s overall mission readiness rates. 

Impact of “Robusting”

In a significant departure from previous resource management practice which he 

called unit ―robusting,‖ General Creech dramatically increased the combat capability of 

TAC‘s wings simply by applying a new organizing principle. Instead of sharing 

shortages across all three squadrons in a given wing, as had been the previous 

practice, General Creech took the existing assets of a wing (both assigned aircrews and 

aircraft) and built up two of the three squadrons to full strength rather than spreading the 

pain equally among all three. 

The corrective measures instituted by General Creech in 1978, with full Air Staff 

support, established explicit criteria for ―robust‖ units, namely, those that were manned 

and equipped at a level that made them ready to meet their wartime tasking. The 

advantages of this new approach included greater honesty in unit status reporting by 

highlighting rather than hiding shortages and by sharing a wing‘s strengths rather than 

its weaknesses. Robusting made TAC‘s wings better organized for prompt deployment 

to meet wartime obligations by preventing the suboptimization of key assets and by 

putting pressure where it belonged, namely, on resource suppliers so that unit tasking 

would be more in line with actually available resources.

In all, these reforms lent a sharper focus to authority and accountability and got 

unit-level peer pressure working in positive rather than negative directions. They also 

drove authority, accountability, and a sense of ownership to the lowest possible levels 

throughout TAC, giving everyone in the system both pride of involvement and a 

personal stake in the product. In short order, TAC went from a vertically- to a 

horizontally-organized command. Each squadron became responsible for its own 24 
79

Every Airman is important to the mission, whatever that mission is. There is 

no one AFSC or person that is more important than another.

—Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force James A. Roy, 

March 2010

assigned aircraft, with all disciplines working together in small teams within the 

squadron to get the job done. Along the way, paperwork was reduced by 65 percent, 

and the average time required to deliver a needed part was lowered from three and a 

half hours to eight minutes. The net result was a genuine personalizing of a onceimpersonal system, as well as a doubling of the number of peacetime training sorties 

flown during a given training period with no increase in operating cost. 

In an enduring legacy of the TAC turnaround, this transformation in management 

style and organizational efficiency instituted during General Creech‘s tenure later swept 

the rest of the Air Force. The team-based, decentralized approach to management 

flowed from the premise that desired accomplishments are achieved by individuals and 

small collectives working as teams. 

LEADERSHIP STUDY FOR STRATEGIC VISION:

SENIOR NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER LEADERSHIP AND ESTABLISHING A 

STRATEGIC VISION FOR THE ENLISTED FORCE56

The Air Force enlisted corps comprises over 80% of uniformed Airmen (Active 

duty, Air National Guard, and Air Force Reserve). Within the enlisted force structure, Air 

Force senior noncommissioned officers (SNCOs) lead an enlisted corps that is 

professional, technically competent, and highly motivated. The primary role of the Air 

Force SNCO is to ensure mission accomplishment by providing highly effective 

leadership. SNCOs are also responsible for evaluating, developing, and executing the 

Service‘s institutional competencies through the NCO corps at all levels of leadership. 

A critical function of the SNCO is to develop an enlisted force with the required skills 

and abilities to meet today‘s peacetime, conflict, and contingency requirements. They 

emphasize developing leaders with tactical expertise early in their careers, and with 

operational competence and strategic vision when they reach the SNCO ranks and 

responsibilities. 

Strategic Vision Level

The strategic vision level of the enlisted corps involves senior enlisted leaders 

(SELs) who have responsibilities for large organizations, and who deal with issues 

requiring inter-organizational cooperation and extended timelines. Although this 

 

56 Information is a consolidation of interviews conducted in May-June 2010 by Mr David Scott Johnson, Air Force 

Research Institute, with 15 Chief Master Sergeants (CMSgts), including the Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force

(CMSAF). Each CMSgt was either a Combatant Command, Major Command, numbered Air Force or wing-level 

Command Chief Master Sergeant or enlisted career field managers at the Air Staff.
80

When explaining to partner nations building an NCO Corps, telling a senior 

officer their Sergeants Major or Chief doesn't want to be them and is an honest 

broker on issues, they tend to see the light.

—Chief Master Sergeant Chris Muncy

Air National Guard Command Chief Master Sergeant, March 2010

strategic level of leadership normally applies to Chief Master Sergeants (CMSgts), it can 

sometimes include Senior Master Sergeants in higher headquarters positions 

(Department of Defense, combatant commands, HAF, MAJCOM, direct reporting units, 

field operating agencies, and select agencies and headquarters).

From the SNCO perspective, strategic vision centers on the development of 

enlisted Airmen. Taking an enterprise and holistic approach, it sets the deliberate 

development path for the enlisted force. The SNCO translates this effort into an 

effective enlisted force development plan by shaping, and navigating in, the 

environment. It is a broad and encompassing concept that is forward looking and 

focused on the sustainment, re-evaluation, and development of required competencies 

necessary to achieve the desired effects in support of the joint force commander. 

Therefore, the strategic vision as espoused by SELs should outline the expectations for 

all enlisted Airmen, providing them with a logical, consistent, forward-looking 

perspective that supports the development of the future SELs in the Air Force. 

Today‘s and tomorrow‘s enlisted Airmen are truly ―Strategic Airmen.‖ Our enlisted 

corps is consistently required to operate outside of the traditional construct of the Air 

Force in concert with or in support of sister Service, allied, coalition, federal, state, and 

non-governmental operations. This ability to excel and contribute to our national 

objectives is achieved by determining the required enlisted force structure necessary to 

be successfully prepared for future challenges and demands. Once the required force 

is determined, the SNCO sets the direction, steps, and timeline to reach that end-state. 

Senior NCOs are leaders.

The Senior Enlisted Leader

The senior enlisted leader understands what it means to be an Airman from a 

doctrinal, whole of government, and joint perspective. SELs work closely with senior 

officers, consistently taking an enterprise-wide whole of government approach, which 

The strategic vision sets the path for everything that we do. It is farreaching...10-15 years from now. It sets our path; it helps us define what those 

objectives are, and how we‘re going to get there.

—Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force James A. Roy, 

March 2010
81

My top leadership priority is to create a leadership-centered culture that 

contributes to a foundation of trust and mutual respect, which drives greater 

mission success.

—Chief Master Sergeant Thomas S. Narofsky,

US Strategic Command Command Chief Master Sergeant 

September 2008

embraces all levels, and understand commander‘s intent, their unit‘s mission, vision, 

and goals. Not only must SELs understand senior officers‘ intentions, they must also be 

able to clearly interpret and articulate that commander‘s intent to the lowest enlisted 

levels. They accomplish this by understanding and articulating the linkages that each 

enlisted member, regardless of rank, has to the overall success of the unit‘s mission. 

The SEL understands and appreciates the future requirements of the enlisted 

Airmen in the joint, coalition, and interagency environments. In doing so, the SEL is able 

to complement their senior officer‘s leadership as they pursue their strategic vision. One 

of the primary responsibilities of the SEL is to champion the continued professional 

development of the enlisted corps and take up the mantle of leadership to set future 

enlisted leaders up for success. SELs are the key stakeholder in maintaining the 

traditions of the enlisted corps, ensuring these traditions are carried on by future 

generations of NCOs and SELs.

SELs are strategic advisors and provide the enlisted perspective into the overall 

strategic vision. They are an integral part of the overall strategic-level decision making 

process, and are expected to serve as an ―honest broker‖ to the senior leader as well as 

champion and protect the strategic vision. 

The Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force, Command Chief Master Sergeants, 

Career Field Managers, and other strategic Chief Master Sergeants

The Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force, Command Chief Master Sergeants, 

and enlisted career field managers have diverse backgrounds with experience at the 

squadron, wing, headquarters, joint, and combatant command levels. Having an 

enterprise-wide perspective, they are politically savvy and have developed relationships 

with the other Service senior enlisted leaders. These SELs also follow a deliberate 

developmental path, building on people/team and organizational competencies, which

leads to the creation of effective institutional leadership competencies. Overall, the 

Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force will have a balanced and diverse career built on 

a foundation of deliberate tactical, operational, and strategic leadership education and 

training, varying assignments at all levels within the Air Force, and joint experience.
82

The Air Force needs a long-term, focused organizational strategy of 

investing in our Airmen by leveraging our skills, talents, and experiences to 

transform our Airman into future strategic enlisted leaders.

—Chief Master Sergeant Thomas S. Narofsky,

US Strategic Command Command Chief Master Sergeant 

September 2008

Enlisted Development

The enlisted role is not centered around the individual, it is about service; service 

to the Nation, the Air Force, and to the unit. As a result, the Air force takes a deliberate 

approach to enlisted force development, which includes career progression with

increased levels of supervisory, leadership, and managerial responsibilities. The 

foundation of the enlisted force development is the institutional competencies that

provide the common force developmental language and represent the leadership, 

management, and warrior ethos qualities required of all Airmen. 

Professional military education (PME) plays a key role in the overall development 

of enlisted Airmen. PME is part of the enlisted continuum of education, which begins 

when they enter the Air Force and continues throughout their careers. Although the Air 

Force provides a wide range of educational schools, courses, programs and 

opportunities, each enlisted member also has a personal responsibility for his or her

own professional and personal development. Because education is essential for the 

development of enlisted Airmen, they are not only expected but highly encouraged to 

actively pursue educational and experiential opportunities throughout their careers. 

Airmen should also be educated in their roles associated with the Air Force‘s 

interagency partners. Off-duty education provides development by enhancing one‘s 

intellectual capability, capacity, and critical thinking skills. Moreover, diverse personal 

and professional developmental paths provide our Airmen opportunities to undertake

varying degrees of challenges and build problem solving skills derived from new 

knowledge and experiences.

Support of Enduring Deployments and Contingency Operations

Support of enduring deployments and contingency operations creates a better, 

more culturally aware enlisted corps. Due to the wide range of mission sets and support 

Enduring deployments and continued support of contingency operations 

have resulted in the most combat-hardened force that we have ever had in the Air 

Force.

—Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force James A. Roy, 

March 2010
83

Having a Joint perspective is extremely important. Today, we don‘t do 

anything by ourselves. We do it as a joint/coalition team. We gain our strength 

through diversity.

—Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force James A. Roy, 

March 2010

requirements, such as joint expeditionary tasking and coalition support assignments, 

our combat hardened enlisted corps often performs duties outside of its specificallytrained specialty. The result is a more well-rounded and experienced enlisted member 

with joint, coalition, and whole-of-government perspectives. As a result, the enlisted 

corps is capable of taking on new roles and missions in support of the ever-changing 

global environment. In the past, enlisted Airmen were only assigned duties within their 

specialty fields. It was uncommon to find enlisted members working outside of their 

specific specialty code. Today, the Air Force enlisted member can be found across the 

battlespace supporting the joint force commander in many different ways. The 

professional enlisted corps has transitioned from an attitude of ―it‘s not my job,‖ when 

asked to perform non-specialty code tasks to ―what can I do to help make the mission a 

success,‖ regardless of what Service or nation they are supporting. 

Enlisted Joint Perspectives

Today‘s Airmen, across the entire Air Force, develop a joint perspective early in 

their careers. For some career fields that have similar technical foundations, such as 

medical and explosive ordnance disposal, initial training is conducted in a joint 

environment. This joint perspective provides an understanding of other Service cultures, 

competencies, and terminologies, while preserving the Air Force culture. The enlisted 

force should understand the core competencies that Soldiers, Sailors, and Marines are 

educated and trained in and employ. This provides them a much greater understanding 

of their responsibilities to execute operations with a strategic vision, but also understand 

how their Air Force competencies merge with our sister Services. Understanding of 

culture, responsibilities and shared competencies builds early interoperability that is 

necessary for immediate success in the joint/deployed environment.

Airmen should also be educated in their roles associated with the Air Force‘s

interagency partners. Enlisted Airmen work daily to support U.S. Northern Command as 

they defend the homeland. Through the National Incident Management System (NIMS) 

military members are always subordinate to an interagency or local responder. They 

don't take over; they enhance capabilities to save lives, property and secure the 

homeland. 

All Airmen should have a thorough understanding of the contributions of all joint 

and total force Services. In-depth perspectives and the ability to think multidimensionally are becoming increasingly important as the global nature of Air Force 

operations demand that Airmen continue to deploy jointly. 
84

Future Role of the Enlisted Airman

Throughout the history of the Air Force, enlisted Airmen have often performed 

the same functions as officers. For example, during the early days of the Air Force, the 

first pilots and instructor pilots were enlisted. Since then, certain officer-only career 

fields have successfully transitioned to the enlisted force. An example of this is in space

and cyberspace operations, where a growing number of enlisted Airmen are becoming 

key to those operations. Undoubtedly, the future will see even more traditional officeronly duties being introduced to the enlisted corps. These emerging career fields will be 

manned by highly skilled, trained, computer/technology savvy, and adaptable enlisted 

Airmen. 

As the Air Force continues to reexamine technical skill set requirements in the 

application of airpower across the full spectrum of operations, especially with emerging 

technologies, enlisted Airmen will have greater opportunities to expand their specialty 

areas as critical team members. This will allow officers to better function in leadership 

positions that develop and lead strategic vision while the enlisted Airmen carry out those 

visions.
85

GLOSSARY

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AAA antiaircraft artillery

AFDD Air Force doctrine document

AFI Air Force instruction

AFM Air Force manual

AFPAM Air Force pamphlet

AFPD Air Force policy directive

AFSC Air Force specialty code

ARVN Army of the Republic of Vietnam

CMSAF Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force

CoL continuum of learning

CSAF Chief of Staff, United States Air Force

CSC central security control

DAF Department of the Air Force

DOD Department of Defense

HAF Headquarters, Air Force

IC institutional competency

JDOC joint defense operations center

MACV Military Assistance Command-Vietnam

MAJCOM major command 

MLR main line of resistance

NCO noncommissioned officer

NIMS National Incident Management System

NVA North Vietnamese Army

PME professional military education

POL petroleum, oil, lubricants

QRF quick reaction force

QRT quick reaction team

RPG rocket-propelled grenade

SAM surface-to-air missile

SAT security alert team

SECAF Secretary of the Air Force
86

SEL senior enlisted leaders

SNCO senior noncommissioned officer

SPS security police squadron

TAC Tactical Air Command

TF task force

U.S.C. United States Code

VC Viet Cong

Definitions

continuum of learning. A career-long process of individual development where 

challenging experiences are combined with education and training through a common 

taxonomy to produce Airmen who possess the tactical expertise, operational 

competence, and strategic vision to lead and execute the full spectrum of Air Force 

missions. (AFDD 1-1)

core values. A statement of those institutional values and principles of conduct that 

provide the moral framework within which military activities take place. The professional 

Air Force ethic consists of three fundamental and enduring values of integrity, service 

before self, and excellence in all we do. (AFDD 1-1)

doctrine. Fundamental principles by which the military forces or elements thereof 

guide their actions in support of national objectives. It is authoritative but requires 

judgment in application. (JP 1–02)

force development. A deliberate process of preparing Airmen through the continuum 

of learning with the required competencies to meet the challenges of current and future 

operating environments. (AFDD 1-1) 

institutional competencies. A measurable cluster of skills, knowledge, and abilities 

required of all Airmen and needed to operate successfully in a constantly changing 

environment. (AFDD 1-1)

leadership. The art and science of motivating, influencing, and directing Airmen to 

understand and accomplish the Air Force mission. (AFDD 1-1)