Volume One Nursery Planning, Development, and Management (1995)

Volume Two Containers and Growing Media (1990)

Volume Three Atmospheric Environment (1992)

Volume Four Seedling Nutrition and Irrigation (1989)

Volume Five The Biological Component: Nursery Pests and Mycorrhizae (1990)

Volume Six Seedling Propagation (1999)

Volume Seven Seedling Processing, Storage, and Outplanting

Landis, T.D.; Tinus, R.W.; Barnett, J.P. 1998. The 

Container Tree Nursery Manual. Volume 6, Seedling 

propagation. Agric. Handbk. 674. Washington, DC: 

USDA Forest Service. 166 p.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its 

programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, religion, 

age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not 

all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require 

alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, 

audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA's TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice 

and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 

Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th Street and Independence Avenue, SW, 

Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call 202720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an 

equal opportunity provider and employer.

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iii

The Container Tree Nursery Manual

Volume Six Seedling 

Propagation

Chapter 1-Crop Planning

6.1.1 Introduction 3

6.1 .2 Seedling Growth and Development 8

6.1 .3 Constructing a Propagation Protocol 14

6.1.4 Summary 25

6.1.5 References 26

Chapter 2-Seed Propagation

6.2.1 Introduction 35

6.2.2 Obtaining High-Quality Seeds 41

6.2.3 Seed Testing 45

6.2.4 Seed Storage 55

6.2.5 Presowing Treatments To Overcome Seed

Dormancy 58

6.2.6 Presowing Treatments To Facilitate Seed

Handling 68

6.2.7 Seed Cleansing and Disinfection 69

6.2.8 Seed Sowing 72

6.2.9 Seed Coverings 81

6.2.10 Summary 83

6.2.11 Literature Cited 84

Chapter 3-Vegetative Propagation

6.3.1 Introduction 93

6.3.2 Stem Cuttings 99

6.3.3 Root Cuttings 110

6.3.4 Layering 111

6.3.5 Division 113

6.3.6 Grafting 114

6.3.7 Micropropagation 115

6.3.8 Summary 119

6.3.9 Literature Cited 120

Chapter 4-Seedling Development: The Establishment,

Rapid Growth, and Hardening Phases

6.4.1 Introduction 125

6.4.2 The Establishment Phase 127

6.4.3 The Rapid Growth phase 136

6.4.4 The Hardening Phase 145

6.4.5 Summary 160

6.4.6 Literature Cited 161

Index of Common and Scientific Names 164
Preface

Work on the first comprehensive technical manual on the 

production of container tree seedlings, "How To Grow Tree 

Seedlings in Containers in Greenhouses" by Richard W. Tinus and 

Stephen E. McDonald, was begun in June 1975 and was published 

by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service as a 

General Technical Report (GTR RM-60) in May 1979. This manual 

achieved worldwide acceptance as the primary reference on the 

culture of container tree seedlings. "How To Grow Tree 

Seedlings..." was originally intended as an interim publication and 

has been reprinted several times. However, it is currently out of 

print.

In 1982, planning began for writing a new container nursery 

manual based on "How To Grow Tree Seedlings in Containers in 

Greenhouses" but adding several new chapters. The writing team 

consisted of four authors: Thomas D. Landis, Richard W. Tinus, 

Stephen E. McDonald, and James P. Barnett, with the assistance 

of Rebecca G. Nisley as managing editor. Guest authors were 

invited to write specific chapters, and their contributions are 

acknowledged in the individual chapter title pages.

Realizing that container nursery management had changed 

considerably over the previous decade, the team surveyed 

container tree nursery practices in North America in 1984. To gain 

additional data for volume three on how nurseries regulated the 

nursery environment, nurseries were again surveyed in early 

1991. Information from these surveys helped to determine writing 

priorities and emphasis and has been used to complement the 

published literature.

The Container Tree Nursery Manual consists of seven volumes; 

they are being published in the order they are written, all under the 

same series number-USDA Agricultural Handbook 674. Each 

volume contains chapters on closely related subjects concerning the 

production of tree seedlings in containers. The volumes can be 

accumulated and used as a complete nursery manual or can be 

used separately by specialists needing information on a particular 

subject. Because several subjects must be discussed in more than 

one volume, there will be some redundancy in the manual. Such 

repetition is justified, however, because most readers will be using 

the manual as a technical reference and will not be reading the 

entire text.

iv

The Container Tree Nursery Manual has been functionally 

organized to follow the normal sequence of nursery development, 

seedling propagation, and outplanting. Volume one discusses the 

various steps that should be followed in developing a nursery 

facility. Volume two is concerned with the selection of types of 

containers and growing media. Volume three and volume four 

analyze the "limiting factors" that affect seedling growth, and 

discuss how they can be manipulated in container nurseries. 

Volume five analyzes the various biological organisms that can 

affect seedlings, either negatively as pests or positively as 

mycorrhizae. Volume six shows how to develop growing schedules 

and how seedlings are propagated through the three growth 

phases. Volume seven (still to be written) discusses how container 

seedlings are processed, stored, and handled both at the nursery 

and on the outplanting site.

The seven volumes are structured around an outline of numerical 

organizational headings that allow the reader to locate a specific 

subject quickly, without referring to an index. The general outline 

of volume and chapter titles is as follows:

Volume One--Nursery Planning, Development, and

Management

Chapter 1 Initial Planning and Feasibility Assessment

Chapter 2 Site Selection

Chapter 3 Nursery Design and Site Layout

Chapter 4 Environmental Control and Safety

Equipment

Chapter 5 Service Buildings and Equipment

Chapter 6 Nursery Management

Chapter 7 Troubleshooting Nursery Problems

Volume Two--Containers and Growing Media

Chapter 1 Containers: Types and Functions

Chapter 2 Growing Media

Volume Three--Atmospheric Environment

Chapter 1 Temperature

Chapter 2 Humidity

Chapter 3 Light

Chapter 4 Carbon Dioxide

Volume Four--Seedling Nutrition and Irrigation

Chapter 1 Mineral Nutrients and Fertilization

Chapter 2 Irrigation and Water Management
v

The Container Tree Nursery Manual was organized into separate 

volumes to allow for revisions and updating. The authors request 

that readers bring any errors in the text to their attention and also 

offer suggestions for improvement. Submit any suggestions to 

Thomas D. Landis, USDA Forest Service, State and Private 

Forestry, PO Box 3623, Portland, OR 97208, USA; send e-mail to:

» nurseries@aol.com «

Acknowledgments

Many people have been instrumental in the preparation of the 

manual. Technical review of such a large publication involves 

considerable work, and the authors thank the following nursery 

professionals for reviewing final drafts of the following chapters of 

this volume:

Chapter 1-Crop Planning

Eric Van Steenis, British Columbia Ministry of Forests,

Surrey, BC

Dave Wenny, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID

Kas Dumroese, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID

Joanne MacDonald, Canadian Forest Service,

Fredericton, NB

Chapter 2-Seed Propagation

Eric Van Steenis

Dave Wenny

Kas Dumroese

Chapter 3-Vegetative Propagation

Denise Tousignant, Quebec Ministry of Forests,

Sainte-Modeste, PQ

Mark McKean, Trinidad, CO

Chapter 4-Seedling Development: The Establishment,

Rapid Growth, and Hardening Phases

Dave Wenny

Kas Dumroese

Volume Five--The Biological Component: Nursery Pests and 

Mycorrhizae

Chapter 1 Disease and Pest Management

Chapter 2 Mycorrhizae

Volume Six--Seedling Propagation

Chapter 1 Crop Planning

Chapter 2 Seed Propagation

Chapter 3 Vegetative Propagation

Chapter 4 Seedling Development: The Establishment, 

Rapid Growth, and Hardening Phases

Volume Seven--Seedling Processing, Storage, and 

Outplanting

Chapter 1 Harvesting and Storage

Chapter 2 Handling and Transportation

Chapter 3 Outplanting

The manual is based on the best current knowledge of container 

tree nursery management and should be used as a general 

reference. Recommendations were made using the best information 

available at the time and are, therefore, subject to revision as more 

knowledge becomes available. Much of the information in this 

manual was developed for western and southern conifer seedlings 

in the United States. Although the authors attempted to include 

information for species from other geographical areas, because of 

the wide variation in individual species responses, container nursery 

managers will need to adapt these principles and procedures to 

their own nursery situation. There is no substitute for individual 

experience, and recommended cultural practices should be tested 

before being implemented on an operational scale.

Trade names are used throughout the manual, but only to 

provide examples, and no endorsement of specific products, or 

exclusion of equally suitable products, is implied. The mention 

of specific pesticides is intended only for general information 

and should not be construed as an endorsement. Because of 

frequent changes in pesticide registration and labeling, the 

reader should check with local authorities to make sure that an 

intended use is both safe and legal. Remember that pesticides 

can be harmful to humans, domestic animals, desirable plants, 

and fish or other wildlife if they are not handled or applied 

properly. Use all pesticides selectively and carefully, following 

the label directions. Follow recommended practices for the 

disposal of surplus pesticides and pesticide containers.