TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR

IONIZING RADIATION

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

September 1999
IONIZING RADIATION ii

DISCLAIMER

The use of company or product name(s) is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by the

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
IONIZING RADIATION iii

UPDATE STATEMENT

A Toxicological Profile for Ionizing Radiation, Draft for Public Comment, was released in February

1998. This edition supersedes any previously released draft or final profile. 

Toxicological profiles are revised and republished as necessary, but no less than once every three years. 

For information regarding the update status of previously released profiles, contact ATSDR at:

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

Division of Toxicology/Toxicology Information Branch

1600 Clifton Road NE, E-29

Atlanta, Georgia 30333
.


IONIZING RADIATION vii

QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS

Toxicological Profiles are a unique compilation of toxicological information on a given hazardous

substance. Each profile reflects a comprehensive and extensive evaluation, summary, and interpretation of

available toxicologic and epidemiologic information on a substance. Health care providers treating

patients potentially exposed to hazardous substances will find the following information helpful for fast

answers to often-asked questions.

Primary Chapters/Sections of Interest

Chapter 1: Public Health Statement: The Public Health Statement can be a useful tool for

educating patients about possible exposure to a hazardous substance. It explains a substance’s

relevant toxicologic properties in a nontechnical, question-and-answer format, and it includes a

review of the general health effects observed following exposure.

Chapter 3: Summary of Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation: Specific health effects of ionizing

radiation are reported by route of exposure, by type of health effect (death, systemic,

immunologic, reproductive), and by length of exposure (acute, intermediate, and chronic). In

addition, both human and animal studies are reported in this section. 

NOTE: Not all health effects reported in this section are necessarily observed in

the clinical setting. Please refer to the Public Health Statement to identify

general health effects observed following exposure.

Pediatrics: Three new sections have been added to this Toxicological Profile to address child health

issues:

Section 1.6 How Can Ionizing Radiation Affect Children?

Section 1.7 How Can Families Reduce the Risk of Exposure to Ionizing

Radiation?

Section 3.2.2 Children’s Susceptibility

Other Sections of Interest:

Section 3.2.1.4 Teratogenic/Embryotoxic Effects

Section 3.2.3 Carcinogenic Effects from Ionizing Radiation Exposure

ATSDR Information Center

Phone: 1-888-42-ATSDR

 or 404-639-6357 Fax: 404-639-6359

E-mail: atsdric@cdc.gov Internet: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov

The following additional material can be ordered through the ATSDR Information Center:

Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Taking an Exposure History—The importance of taking an

exposure history and how to conduct one are described, and an example of a thorough exposure

history is provided. Other case studies of interest include Reproductive and Developmental

Hazards; Skin Lesions and Environmental Exposures; Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Pesticide

Toxicity; and numerous chemical-specific case studies.
IONIZING RADIATION viii

Managing Hazardous Materials Incidents is a three-volume set of recommendations for on-scene

(prehospital) and hospital medical management of patients exposed during a hazardous materials incident. 

Volumes I and II are planning guides to assist first responders and hospital emergency department

personnel in planning for incidents that involve hazardous materials. Volume III—Medical Management

Guidelines for Acute Chemical Exposures—is a guide for health care professionals treating patients

exposed to hazardous materials.

Fact Sheets (ToxFAQs) provide answers to frequently asked questions about toxic substances.

Other Agencies and Organizations

The National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH) focuses on preventing or controlling disease,

injury, and disability related to the interactions between people and their environment outside the

workplace. Contact: NCEH, Mailstop F-29, 4770 Buford Highway, NE, Atlanta, GA 30341-

3724 • Phone: 770-488-7000 • FAX: 770-488-7015.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducts research on occupational

diseases and injuries, responds to requests for assistance by investigating problems of health and

safety in the workplace, recommends standards to the Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA) and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), and trains

professionals in occupational safety and health. Contact: NIOSH, 200 Independence Avenue,

SW, Washington, DC 20201 • Phone: 800-356-4674 or NIOSH Technical Information Branch,

Robert A. Taft Laboratory, Mailstop C-19, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45226-1998

• Phone: 800-35-NIOSH.

 The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) is the principal federal agency for

biomedical research on the effects of chemical, physical, and biologic environmental agents on

human health and well-being. Contact: NIEHS, PO Box 12233, 104 T.W. Alexander Drive,

Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 • Phone: 919-541-3212.

Referrals

The Association of Occupational and Environmental Clinics (AOEC) has developed a network of clinics

in the United States to provide expertise in occupational and environmental issues. Contact:

AOEC, 1010 Vermont Avenue, NW, #513, Washington, DC 20005 • Phone: 202-347-4976 •

FAX: 202-347-4950 • e-mail: aoec@dgs.dgsys.com • AOEC Clinic Director:

http://occ-env-med.mc.duke.edu/oem/aoec.htm

The American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (ACOEM) is an association of

physicians and other health care providers specializing in the field of occupational and

environmental medicine. Contact: ACOEM, 55 West Seegers Road, Arlington Heights, IL

60005 • Phone: 847-228-6850 • FAX: 847-228-1856.
IONIZING RADIATION ix

CONTRIBUTORS

CHEMICAL MANAGER(S)/AUTHORS(S):

Sam Keith, M.S., CHP

ATSDR, Division of Toxicology, Atlanta, GA

H. Edward Murray, Ph.D.

ATSDR, Division of Toxicology, Atlanta, GA

Wayne Spoo, DVM, DABT

Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC

THE PROFILE HAS UNDERGONE THE FOLLOWING ATSDR INTERNAL REVIEWS:

1. Health Effects Review. The Health Effects Review Committee examines the health effects

chapter of each profile for consistency and accuracy in interpreting health effects and classifying

end points.

2. Minimal Risk Level Review. The Minimal Risk Level Workgroup considers issues relevant to

substance-specific minimal risk levels (MRLs), reviews the health effects database of each

profile, and makes recommendations for derivation of MRLs.
.
IONIZING RADIATION xi

PEER REVIEW

A peer review panel was assembled for ionizing radiation. The panel consisted of the following

members: 

1. Herman Cember, Ph.D., CHP, Consultant, Lafayette, IN;

2. Richard Toohey, Ph.D., CHP, Consultant, Oak Ridge, TN;

3. Kenneth Mossman, Ph.D., Professor, Scottsdale, AZ;

4. John Poston, Ph.D., Professor, College Station, TX; and

5. Darrell Fisher, Ph.D., Senior Scientist, Richland, WA.

These experts collectively have knowledge of ionizing radiation's physical and chemical properties,

toxicokinetics, key health end points, mechanisms of action, human and animal exposure, and

quantification of risk to humans. All reviewers were selected in conformity with the conditions for peer

review specified in Section 104(i)(13) of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,

and Liability Act, as amended.

Scientists from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) have reviewed the peer

reviewers' comments and determined which comments will be included in the profile. A listing of the

peer reviewers' comments not incorporated in the profile, with a brief explanation of the rationale for their

exclusion, exists as part of the administrative record for this compound. A list of databases reviewed and

a list of unpublished documents cited are also included in the administrative record.

The citation of the peer review panel should not be understood to imply its approval of the profile's final

content. The responsibility for the content of this profile lies with the ATSDR.
.
IONIZING RADIATION xiii

CONTENTS

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS ................................. vii

CONTRIBUTORS .................................................................. . ix

PEER REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 WHAT IS IONIZING RADIATION? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 HOW DOES RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL ENTER AND SPREAD THROUGH THE

ENVIRONMENT? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO IONIZING RADIATION? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.4 HOW CAN IONIZING RADIATION ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.5 HOW CAN IONIZING RADIATION AFFECT MY HEALTH? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.6 HOW CAN IONIZING RADIATION AFFECT CHILDREN? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO IONIZING 

RADIATION? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN EXPOSED 

TO IONIZING RADIATION? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO

PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2 HISTORY, BACKGROUND INFORMATION, AND SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF

IONIZING RADIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.2.1 Historical Perspective on Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.2.2 Basic Information on Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.2.3 Principles of Radioactive Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.2.4 Interaction of Radiation with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.2.5 Characteristics of Emitted Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.2.5.1 Alpha Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.2.5.2 Beta Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2.2.5.3 Gamma Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.2.6 Estimation of Energy Deposition in Human Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF IONIZING RADIATION DOSIMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.3.1 Dose Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.3.2 Dosimetry Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.3.3 Terms Used in Radiation Safety Practice and Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.4 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.4.1 Radiation Effects at the Cellular Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
IONIZING RADIATION xiv

2.4.2 Radiation Effects at the Organ Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

2.4.3 Acute and Delayed Somatic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

2.4.3.1 Acute Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

2.4.3.2 Delayed Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

2.4.4 Genetic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.4.5 Teratogenic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.4.6 Internal Exposure to Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

2.4.6.1 Inhalation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

2.4.6.2 Ingestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

2.4.6.3 Dermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

2.4.7 External Exposure to Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

2.5 MEASURING INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SOURCES OF IONIZING RADIATION . . 63

2.5.1 Internal Radiation Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

2.5.2 External Radiation Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

2.5.3 Field Radiation and Contamination Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

2.5.3.1 Field Measurements of Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

2.5.3.2 Laboratory Analysis of Environmental Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

2.6 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

2.7 OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

3.2 HEALTH EFFECTS FROM EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

3.2.1 Acute (Immediate and Non-Carcinogenic) Effects from Ionizing Radiation

Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3.2.1.1 Gastrointestinal Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

3.2.1.2 Hematological and Lymphoreticular Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

3.2.1.3 Reproductive Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

3.2.1.4 Teratogenic/Embryotoxic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

3.2.1.5 Central Nervous System (CNS) Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

3.2.1.6 Respiratory and Cardiovascular Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

3.2.1.7 Ocular Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

3.2.1.8 Dermal Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

3.2.1.9 Genotoxic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

3.2.2 Children’s Susceptibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

3.2.3 Carcinogenic Effects from Ionizing Radiation Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

3.2.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

3.2.3.2 Nuclear Detonations of 1945 in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan . . . . . . 165

3.2.3.3 Human Exposures to 226Ra and 228Ra: The Radium Dial Painters . . . . . . 170

3.2.3.4 Human Exposures to 224Ra via Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

3.2.3.5 Other Human Cancer Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

3.2.3.6 Laboratory Animal Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

3.3 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA NEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

3.4 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
IONIZING RADIATION xv

4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

4.1 PALOMARES, SPAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

4.2 GOIANIA, BRAZIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

4.3 THULE, GREENLAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

4.4 ROCKY FLATS, COLORADO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

4.5 THREE MILE ISLAND, PENNSYLVANIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

4.6 CHERNOBYL, UKRAINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

4.7 KYSHTYM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

4.8 WINDSCALE, U.K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

4.9 TOMSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

4.10 LOST INDUSTRIAL OR MEDICAL SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

4.11 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA NEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

4.12 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

4.13 OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

 5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

5.2 EVIDENCE OF THE EFFECTS ON DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

5.3 INTERACTIONS OF IONIZING RADIATION WITH DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

5.4 EFFECTS ON OTHER CELLULAR MACROMOLECULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

5.5 MECHANISMS OF CARCINOGENESIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

5.6 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA NEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

5.7 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

6.1 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

6.2 COSMIC RADIATION EXPOSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

6.3 TERRESTRIAL RADIATION EXPOSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

6.3.1 Coal Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

6.3.2 Crude Oil and Natural Gas Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

6.3.3 Phosphate Rock Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

6.3.4 Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

6.3.5 Hot Springs and Caves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

6.4 NATURAL INTERNAL EXPOSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

6.4.1 Inhalation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

6.4.2 Ingestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

6.4.3 Dermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

6.5 X RAY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE EXPOSURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

6.6 EXPOSURE FROM CONSUMER PRODUCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

6.7 EXPOSURE FROM OTHER SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

6.7.1 Exposure from the Nuclear Fuel Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

6.7.2 Japanese Atomic Bomb Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

6.7.3 Exposure from Nuclear Weapons Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

6.7.3.1 Atmospheric Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

6.7.3.2 Underground Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

6.7.4 Occupational Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

6.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

6.9 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7. REGULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
IONIZING RADIATION xvi

8. LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE TO RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE

MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

9. GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

10. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

APPENDICES

A. ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

B. USER'S GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1

C. ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1

D. INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1
IONIZING RADIATION xvii

LIST OF FIGURES

1-1 Sources of Radiation Exposure to the Average U.S. Citizen .............................. 9

1-2 Detailed Breakdown of Radiation Exposures .......................................... 9

1-3 EPA Map of Indoor Radon Levels in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2-1 Transformation of 100 μCi of 32P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2-2 Whole Body Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

2-3 Low Energy Germanium (LEGe) Based Lung Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

2-4 Components of a Scintillation Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

2-5 Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC) System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

2-6 Geiger-Mueller Counter with an Energy-compensated Gamma Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

2-7 Geiger-Mueller Counter with a Beta/Gamma Pancake-type Detection Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

2-8 Large Area Alpha Radiation Detector with Digital-Analog Survey Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

2-9 Floor Monitor System with Multidetector Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

2-10 In-Situ Gamma Ray Spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4-1 Schematic of Three Mile Island Unit 2 Nuclear Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

4-2 Aerial View of the Damaged Chernobyl Reactor Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

4-3 Hot Spots of Radioactivity in the Regions Surrounding the Chernobyl Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

4-4 A View of the Sarcophagus Covering the Chernobyl Reactor Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

6-1 Radiation Exposure to the Average U.S. Citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

6-2 Schematic of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

6-3 Replicas of the “Little Boy” and “Fat Man” Bombs Dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . . . . 259
.
IONIZING RADIATION xix

LIST OF TABLES

1-1 Approximate Doses of Ionizing Radiation to Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2-1 Characteristics of Nuclear Radiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2-2 Effective Half-Lives of Selected Radionuclides in Major Adult Body Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2-3 Tissue Weighting Factors Used by the USNRC and ICRP to Calculate Effective Dose . . . . . . . . 48

2-4 Quality Factors Used in USNRC Radiation Safety Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2-5 Common and SI Units for Radiation Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2-6 Relative Radiosensitivity of Mammalian Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2-7 Common Analytical Methods for Measuring Radioactive Material Inside and Radiation 

Outside the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

2-8 Some Internet Sites Related to Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3-1 ATSDR Priority Listing of Radionuclides Present at Department of Energy NPL Sites . . . . . . . . 82

3-2 Summary of Some Studies of Humans Exposed to Radiation and Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

3-3 Summary of the Dose Response Effects of Ionizing Radiation in Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

3-4 Genotoxicity of Ionizing Radiation In Vivo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

3-5 Genotoxicity of Ionizing Radiation In Vitro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

3-6 Estimated Genetic Effects of 1 Rem (0.01 Sv) of Radiation per Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

3-7 Estimated Lower 95% Confidence Limits of Doubling Dose (in rem) from Chronic Radiation

Exposure for Malformations, Stillbirths, Neonatal Deaths, and All Untoward Pregnancy

Outcomes (Based on the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Atomic Bombing Data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

3-8 Summary of Risks of Developing Cancer After Exposure to Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

3-9 Summary of Radiation Dose Response for Cancer Mortality by Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

3-10 Distribution of Osteosarcomas in a Population of Female Dial Painters Exposed 

to 226Ra and 228Ra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

3-11 Distribution of Head Carcinomas in a Population of Female Dial Painters Exposed to 226Ra . . . 173

3-12 Alpha Doses from Injected 224Ra (in rad) by Age Group, Number, and Percentage of 

Subpopulation Developing Osteosarcoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

3-13 Age Distribution, Alpha Dose (in rad), and % Incidence of Osteosarcomas Induced 
IONIZING RADIATION xx

by 224Ra Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

4-1 Internet Sites Pertaining to Population Exposures to Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

5-1 Relative Sensitivities of Major Organs and Tissues to the Effects of Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . 216

5-2 Some Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Molecules in Animal Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

5-3 Some Models That Describe the Induction of Cancer in Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

6-1 Common Terms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

6-2 Scientific Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

6-3 Radioactive Properties of 222Radon and its Daughter Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

6-4 Some Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

7-1 Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

7-2 Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to 226Ra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

7-3 Regulations and Guidelines Applicable to Strontium Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

7-4 FDA Derived Intervention Levels (Bq/kg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

8-1 Levels of Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material—Inhalation . . . . . . . . . . 297

8-2 Levels of Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material—Oral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

8-3 Levels of Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material—Dermal . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

8-4 Levels of Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material—External . . . . . . . . . . . 317
IONIZING RADIATION 1

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

This public health statement tells you about ionizing radiation and the effects of exposure. It

does not tell you about non-ionizing radiation, such as microwaves, ultrasound, or ultraviolet

radiation.

Exposure to ionizing radiation can come from many sources. You can learn when and where

you may be exposed to sources of ionizing radiation in Section 1.3 of this chapter. One source

of exposure is from hazardous waste sites that contain radioactive waste. The Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) identifies the most serious hazardous waste sites in the nation. These

sites make up the National Priorities List (NPL) and are the sites targeted for federal cleanup. 

However, it’s unknown how many of the 1,467 current or former NPL sites have been evaluated

for the presence of ionizing radiation sources. As more sites are evaluated, the sites with

ionizing radiation may increase. This information is important because exposure to ionizing

radiation may harm you and because these sites may be sources of exposure.

When a substance is released from a large area, such as an industrial plant, or from a container,

such as a drum or bottle, it enters the environment. This release does not always lead to

exposure. Even in the event that you are exposed, it does not necessarily mean you will be

harmed or suffer long-term health effects from exposure to ionizing radiation.

If you are exposed to ionizing radiation, many factors determine whether you’ll be harmed. 

These factors include the dose (how much), the duration (how long), and the type of radiation.

You must also consider the chemicals you’re exposed to and your age, sex, diet, family traits,

lifestyle, and state of health.

1.1 WHAT IS IONIZING RADIATION?

To explain what ionizing radiation is, we will start with a discussion of atoms, how they come to

be radioactive, and how they give off ionizing radiation. Then, we will explain where radiation

comes from. Finally, we will describe the more important types of radiation to which you may
IONIZING RADIATION 2

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

be exposed. Of the different types and sources of ionizing radiation, this profile will discuss the

three main types: alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. 

The Atom. Before defining ionizing radiation, it is useful to first describe an atom. Atoms are

the basic building blocks of all elements. We have models of an atom that are supported by

measurements. An atom consists of one nucleus, made of protons and neutrons, and many

smaller particles called electrons. The electrons normally circle the nucleus much like the

planets or comets circle the sun. The number of protons in the atom’s nucleus determines which

element it is. For example, an atom with one proton is hydrogen and an atom with 27 protons is

cobalt. Each proton has a positive charge, and positive charges try to push away from one

another. The neutrons neutralize this action and act as a kind of glue that holds the protons

together in the nucleus. The number of protons in an atom of a particular element is always the

same, but the number of neutrons may vary. Neutrons add to the weight of the atom, so an atom

of cobalt that has 27 protons and 32 neutrons is called cobalt-59 because 27 plus 32 equals 59. If

one more neutron were added to this atom, it would be called cobalt-60. Cobalt-59 and cobalt60 are isotopes of cobalt. Isotopes are forms of the same element, but differ in the number of

neutrons within the nucleus. Since cobalt-60 is radioactive, it is called a radionuclide. All

isotopes of an element, even those that are radioactive, react chemically in the same way. Atoms

tend to combine with other atoms to form molecules (for example, hydrogen and oxygen

combine to form water). Radioactive atoms that become part of a molecule do not affect the way

the molecule behaves in chemical reactions or inside your body.

What Ionizing Radiation Is. Ionizing radiation is energy that is carried by several types of

particles and rays given off by radioactive material, x ray machines, and fuel elements in nuclear

reactors. Ionizing radiation includes alpha particles, beta particles, x rays, and gamma rays. 

Alpha and beta particles are essentially small fast moving pieces of atoms. X rays and gamma

rays are types of electromagnetic radiation. These radiation particles and rays carry enough

energy that they can knock out electrons from molecules, such as water, protein, and DNA, with

which they interact. This process is called ionization, which is why it is named “ionizing
IONIZING RADIATION 3

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

radiation.” We cannot sense ionizing radiation, so we must use special instruments to learn

whether we are being exposed to it and to measure the level of radiation exposure. The other

types of electromagnetic radiation include radiowaves microwaves, ultrasound, infrared

radiation, visible light, and ultraviolet light. These types of radiation do not carry enough energy

to cause ionization and are called non-ionizing radiation. This profile will only discuss ionizing

radiation.

What Ionizing Radiation Is Not. Ionizing radiation is not a substance like salt, air, water, or a

hazardous chemical that we can eat, breathe, or drink or that can soak through our skin. 

However, many substances can become contaminated with radioactive material, and people can

be exposed to ionizing radiation from these radioactive contaminants.

How Does an Atom Become Radioactive? An atom is either stable (not radioactive) or

unstable (radioactive). The ratio of neutrons to protons within the nucleus determines whether

an atom is stable. If there are too many or too few neutrons, the nucleus is unstable, and the

atom is said to be radioactive. There are several ways an atom can become radioactive. An

atom can be naturally radioactive, it can be made radioactive by natural processes in the

environment, or it can be made radioactive by humans. Naturally occurring radioactive

materials such as potassium-40 and uranium-238 have existed since the earth was formed. Other

naturally occurring radioactive materials such as carbon-14 and hydrogen-3 (tritium) are formed

when radiation from the sun and stars bombards the earth’s atmosphere. The elements heavier

than lead are naturally radioactive because they were originally formed with too many neutrons. 

Human industry creates radioactive materials by one of two different processes. In the first

process, a uranium or a plutonium atom captures a neutron and splits (undergoes nuclear fission)

into two radioactive fission fragments plus two or three neutrons. In a nuclear reactor, one of

these “fission neutrons” is captured by another uranium atom, and the fission process is repeated. 

In the second process, stable atoms are bombarded either by neutrons or by protons that are

given a lot of energy in a machine called an accelerator. The stable atoms capture these

bombarding particles and become radioactive. For example, stable cobalt-59, found in the steel
IONIZING RADIATION 4

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

surrounding a nuclear reactor, is hit by neutrons coming from the reactor and can become

radioactive cobalt-60. Any material that contains radioactive atoms is radioactive material.

How Does a Radioactive Atom Give off Ionizing Radiation? Because a radioactive atom is

unstable, at some time in the future, it will transform into another element by changing the

number of protons in the nucleus. This happens because one of several reactions takes place in

the nucleus to stabilize the neutron-proton ratio. If the atom contains too many neutrons, a

neutron changes into a proton and throws out a negative “beta” (pronounced bay’ tah) particle. 

If the atom contains too many protons, normally a proton changes into a neutron and throws out

a positive “beta” particle. Some atoms that are more massive than lead, such as radium,

transform by emitting an “alpha” (pronounced al’-fah) particle. Any excess energy that is left

can be released as “gamma” rays, which are the same as x rays. Other reactions are also

possible, but the final result is to make a radioactive atom into a stable atom of a different

element. For example, each atom of cobalt-60 is radioactive because it has too many neutrons. 

At some time in the future, one of its neutrons will change into a proton. As it changes, the atom

gives off its radiation, which is a negative beta particle and two gamma rays. Because the atom

now has 28 protons instead of 27, it has changed from cobalt into nickel. In this way, unstable

atoms of radioactive cobalt-60 give off radiation as they transform into stable atoms of nickel-60.

How Long Can Radioactive Material Give Off Ionizing Radiation? Theoretically, it gives

off ionizing radiation forever. Practically, however, after 10 half-lives, less than 0.1% of the

original radioactivity will be left and the radioactive material will give off infinitesimally small

amounts of ionizing radiation. The half-life is the time it takes one-half of the radioactive atoms

to transform into another element, which may or may not also be radioactive. After one half-life,

1⁄2 of the radioactive atoms remain; after two half-lives, half of a half or 1/4 remain, then 1/8,

1/16, 1/32, 1/64, etc. The half-life can be as short as a fraction of a second or as long as many

billions of years. Each type of radioactive atom, or radionuclide, has its own unique half-life. 

For example, technetium-99m and iodine-131, which are used in nuclear medicine, have 6-hour 
IONIZING RADIATION 5

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

and 8-day half-lives, respectively. The naturally occurring radionuclide, uranium-235, which is

used in nuclear reactors, has a half-life of 700 million years. Naturally occurring potassium-40,

which is present in the body, has a half-life of 13 billion years and undergoes about 266,000

radioactive transformations per minute in the body. Thus, technetium-99m will remain

radioactive for 60 hours, and iodine-131 will remain radioactive for 3 months. On the other

hand, long-lived naturally occurring uranium and potassium will remain, practically speaking,

radioactive forever.

What Are the Three Types of Radiation? The three main types of ionizing radiation are

called alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. These are named for letters of the Greek alphabet, and

they are often symbolized using the Greek letters α (alpha), β (beta), and γ (gamma).

Alpha Radiation (or Alpha Particles). This type of radiation can be called either alpha radiation

or alpha particles. Alpha radiation is a particle, consisting of two protons and two neutrons, that

travels very fast and thus has a good deal of kinetic energy or energy of motion. The two

protons and neutrons make an alpha particle identical to a helium atom, but without the

electrons. Although it is much too small to be seen with the best microscope, it is large

compared to a beta particle. The protons give it a large positive charge that pulls hard at the

electrons of other atoms it passes near. When the alpha particle passes near an atom, it excites

its electrons and can pull an electron from the atom, which is the process of ionization. Each

time the alpha particle pulls an electron off from an atom in its path, the process of ionization

occurs. With each ionization, the alpha particle loses some energy and slows down. It will

finally take two electrons from other atoms at the end of its path and become a complete helium

atom. This helium has no effect on the body. Because of their large mass and large charge,

alpha particles ionize tissue very strongly. If the alpha particle is from radioactive material that

is outside the body, it will lose all its energy before getting through the outer (dead) layer of your

skin. This means that you can only be exposed to alpha radiation if you take radioactive material

that produces alpha radiation into your body (for example, if you breathe it in or swallow it in

food or drink). Once inside the body, this radioactive material can be mixed in the contents of
IONIZING RADIATION 6

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

the stomach and intestines, then absorbed into the blood, incorporated into a molecule, and

finally deposited into living tissue such as the bone matrix. The alpha particles from this

radioactive material can cause damage to this tissue.

Beta Radiation (or Beta Particles). This type of radiation can be called either beta radiation or

beta particles. Beta particles are high-energy electrons that some radioactive materials emit

when they transform. Beta particles are made in one of two ways, depending on the radioactive

material that produces them. As a result, they will have either a positive charge or a negative

charge. Most beta particles are negatively charged. They are much lighter and much more

penetrating than alpha particles. Their penetrating power depends on their energy. Some, such

as those from tritium, have very little energy, and can’t pass through the outer layer of dead skin. 

Most have enough energy to pass through the dead outer layer of a person’s skin and irradiate

the live tissue underneath. You can also be exposed to beta radiation from within if the betaemitting radionuclide is taken into the body. A beta particle loses its energy by exciting and

ionizing atoms along its path. When all of its kinetic energy is spent, a negative beta particle

(negatron) becomes an ordinary electron and has no more effect on the body. A positive beta

particle (positron) collides with a nearby negative electron, and this electron-positron pair turns

into a pair of gamma rays called annihilation radiation, which can interact with other molecules

in the body.

Gamma Radiation (or Gamma Rays). This type of radiation can be called either gamma

radiation or gamma rays. Unlike alpha and beta radiation, gamma radiation is not a particle, but

is a ray. It is a type of light you cannot see, much like radio waves, infrared light, ultraviolet

light, and x rays. When a radioactive atom transforms by giving off an alpha or a beta particle, it

may also give off one or more gamma rays to release any excess energy. Gamma rays are

bundles of energy that have no charge or mass. This allows them to travel very long distances

through air, body tissue, and other materials. They travel so much farther than either alpha or

beta radiation that the source of the gamma rays doesn’t have to be inside the body or near the

skin. The gamma ray source can be relatively far away, like the radioactive materials in nearby
IONIZING RADIATION 7

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

construction materials, soil, and asphalt. A gamma ray may pass through the body without

hitting anything, or it may hit an atom and give that atom all or part of its energy. This normally

knocks an electron out of the atom (and ionizes the atom). This electron then uses the energy it

received from the gamma ray to ionize other atoms by knocking electrons out of them as well. 

Since a gamma ray is pure energy, once it loses all its energy it no longer exists.

More information about alpha, beta, and gamma radiation can be found in Chapter 2 of this

profile.

1.2 HOW DOES RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL ENTER AND SPREAD THROUGH THE

ENVIRONMENT?

Radioactive material can be released to the air as particles or gases as a result of natural forces

and from human industrial, medical, and scientific activities. Everyone, with no exception, is

exposed to ionizing radiation that comes from natural sources, such as cosmic radiation from

space and terrestrial radiation from radioactive materials in the ground. Ionizing radiation can

also come from industrially produced radioactive materials (such as iridium-192); nuclear

medicine (such as thyroid cancer treatment with iodine-131 and thyroid scans using iodine-125,

or bone scans using technetium-99m); biological and medical research using carbon-14, tritium,

and phosphorus-32; the nuclear fuel cycle (producing fission products such as cesium-137 and

activation products such as cobalt-60); and production and testing of nuclear weapons. 

Radioactive material released into the air is carried by the wind and is spread by mixing with air. 

It is diluted in the atmosphere and can remain there for a long time. When the wind blows across

land contaminated with radioactive materials, radioactive particles can be stirred up and

returned to the atmosphere. Radioactive material on the ground can be incorporated into plants

and animals, which may later be eaten by people. 
IONIZING RADIATION 8

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

Water can contain man-made and naturally occurring radioactive materials that it dissolves from

the soil it passes over or through. Rain and snow also wash man-made and naturally occurring

radioactive material out of the air. Radioactive material may be added to water through planned

or accidental releases of liquid radioactive material from sources such as hospitals, research

universities, manufacturing plants, or nuclear facilities. Radioactive material can also reach

surface waters when airborne radioactive materials settle to the earth or are brought down by rain

or snow, and when soil containing radioactive material is washed away into a river or lake. The

movement of liquid radioactive material is limited by the size of the bodies of water into which

the radioactive materials have drained. Like silt, some radioactive material may settle along the

banks or in the bottoms of ponds and rivers. In public health and ecological contexts, it is

sometimes important to distinguish between dissolved radioactivity and radioactivity bound to

suspended or settled solid particles. Radioactive material may also concentrate in aquatic

animals and plants. Eventually, radioactive material in liquid runoff that goes into rivers and

streams may reach the oceans (there are approximately one million radioactive transformations

per minute of the naturally occurring radioactive potassium in one cubic meter of ocean water). 

Radioactive material moves very slowly in soil compared to its speed of movement in air and

water. Radioactive material will often stick to the surface of the soil. The organic material in

soils can bind radioactive material, which slows its movement through the environment. If crops

are watered with water containing radioactive material, the radioactive material may be taken up 

through the roots of the plant or may contaminate the outside of the plant. The plants may then

be eaten by both animals and people. Radioactive materials that occur naturally in the soil

(uranium, radium, thorium, potassium, tritium, and others) are also taken up by plants, and

become available for intake by animals and people. 

More information about what happens to radioactive material when it enters the environment can

be found in Chapters 5 and 6 of this profile.
IONIZING RADIATION 9

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT



 







 

 



 

 



























Consumer 

Products

Nuclear 3%

Power, 

Fallout, etc.

1%

Medical

15%

Natural 

Background

81%

Figure 1-1. Sources of Radiation Exposure to the Average U.S. Citizen

(adapted from NCRP 1987a)

































































 

























































Radon

54%

Natural 

Internal

11%

Cosmic

8%

Terrestrial

8%

Other

1%

X Rays

11%

Consumer 

Products 3%

Nuclear 

Medicine 4%

Figure 1-2. Detailed Breakdown of Radiation Exposures

(adapted from NCRP 1987a)

1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO IONIZING RADIATION?

The earth is continually irradiated with

low levels of ionizing radiation, so all

animals, plants, and other living

creatures are exposed to small amounts

of ionizing radiation from several

sources every day. Figure 1-1 shows

that most of your radiation dose comes

naturally from the environment. Smaller

portions come from medicine, consumer

products and other sources.

Figure 1-2 is another breakdown of the

sources of radiation dose to the average

American. The natural background

levels (81%) shown in Figure 1-1

include the radon, terrestrial, cosmic,

and natural internal sources shown in

Figure 1-2. Most of your daily

radiation dose is from radon (55%),

which is found in all air. Higher levels

are normally found indoors (especially

in the basement). Figure 1-3 shows

that indoor levels of radon vary depending on where you live. Higher levels can be found in

underground areas, such as mines. You are always exposed to radiation from cosmic sources

(mostly from outer space, some from the sun, 8%), terrestrial sources (rocks and soil, 8%), and

natural internal sources (radioactive material normally inside your body, 10%). You may also be

exposed to radiation from x ray exams (11%), nuclear medicine exams such as thyroid scans (4%),

and consumer products including TV and smoke detectors (3%), as well as other sources. 

IONIZING RADIATION 11

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

Less than 1% of the total ionizing radiation dose to people living in the United States comes from

their jobs, nuclear fallout, the nuclear fuel cycle, or other exposures. However, people in some types

of jobs may have higher doses (pilots and flight attendants, astronauts, industrial and nuclear power

plant workers, x ray personnel, medical personnel, etc.). Some groups of people have been exposed

to higher-than-normal levels of ionizing radiation from weapons testing, and some individuals from

accidents at nuclear facilities or in industry. Some of these exposures are discussed in Chapter 3 of

this profile. 

Not everyone will be exposed to every source or the same percentage of radiation shown in

Figure 1-2. Since the percentages shown in Figure 1-2 are averages, half of the population will

receive greater doses and half will receive smaller doses from the several sources shown in the

figure. For example, if you are not regularly x rayed, you may receive less total radiation dose than

what is shown. However, if you live in a town or city at a high altitude, you may receive a greater

radiation dose from outer space cosmic rays than someone who lives in a town or city near the ocean

at sea-level. Table 1-1 shows you that where you live and what you do determines how much

ionizing radiation you will receive.

“Dose” is a broad term that is often used to mean either absorbed dose, or dose equivalent,

depending on the context. The absorbed dose is measured in both a traditional unit called a rad

and an International System (S.I.) unit called a gray (Gy). Both grays and rads are physical units

(1 Gy = 100 rad) that measure the concentration of absorbed energy. The absorbed dose is the

amount of energy absorbed per kilogram of absorber. Physical doses from different radiations

are not biologically equivalent. For this reason, a unit called the dose equivalent, which

considers Both the physical dose and the radiation type, is used in radiation safety dosimetry. 

The unit of dose equivalent is called the rem in traditional units and the sievert (Sv) in S.I. units

(1 rem = 0.01 Sv). For beta and gamma radiation, 1 rad = 1 rem (1 gray = 1 sievert). For alpha

radiation, however, 1 rad = 20 rem (1 gray = 20 sievert). Small radiation doses can be expressed

using small dose units such as the millirem (mrem) and the millisievert (mSv), where 1 mrem =

0.001 rem and 1 mSv = 0.001 Sv.

The average annual dose to a person in the United States is about 360 mrem (3.6 mSv). An

individual’s exact dose depends on several factors, such as the natural background where the
IONIZING RADIATION 12

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

person lives, and the person’s medical history and occupational experience with sources of

radiation.

More information about exposure to ionizing radiation can be found in Chapters 2 and 6 of this

profile.

Table 1-1. Approximate Doses of Ionizing Radiation to Individuals

Activity

Approximate doses of

radiation received Comments

Average American exposure to ionizing radiationa

Total yearly dose 360 mrem/yr (3.6 mSv/yr)

 From natural sources 300 mrem/yr (3.0 mSv/yr)

 From man-made sources 60 mrem/yr (0.6 mSv/yr)

 From nuclear power Less than 1 mrem/yr 

(<0.01 mSv/yr)

Approximate doses of ionizing radiation (cosmic + terrestrial) for different locations

Kerala, India, resident 1300 mrem/yr (13 mSv/yr) Concentrated radioactive material in

the soil

Colorado state resident 179 mrem/yr (1.79 mSv/yr) High altitude above sea level

Boston, Massachusetts, resident 100 mrem/yr (1 mSv/yr)

Louisiana state resident 92 mrem/yr (0.92 mSv/yr) Low altitude above sea level

Approximate doses of ionizing radiation above background radiation and some activitiesb

Anyone near a patient released after a

nuclear medicine test. 

Less than 500 mrem/patient

(5 mSv/patient) 

Guidance for medical facilities. 

Quantity depends on the quantity of

radioactive material.

A person who works inside a nuclear

power plant

< 300 mrem/yr (<3 mSv/yr)

A person who gets a full set of dental

x rays

40 mrem (0.4 mSv)

A flight attendant flying from New York

to Los Angeles

5 mrem/flight

 (0.05 mSv/flight)

Watching a color TV set 2–3 mrem/yr 

(0.02–0.03 mSv/yr)

A person who lives directly outside of

a nuclear power plant

1 mrem/yr (0.01 mSv/yr)

A person who lives in a multi-storied

apartment building

~1 mrem/yr for each 

5 stories above the 

ground floor

(<0.01 mSv/yr)

Difference between Los Angeles and

Denver = 87 mrem/5000 feet = 

2 mrem/100 feet = 1 mrem/5 stories

A person who watches a truck carrying

nuclear waste pass by

Less than 0.1 mrem/truck

(0.001 mSv)

a

Taken from NCRP 1976a

b

Taken from NCRP 1987b, 1987e, 1989a, 1989c

mrem = millirem for each occasion; mrem/yr = millirem per year
IONIZING RADIATION 13

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

1.4 HOW CAN IONIZING RADIATION ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY?

Ionizing radiation exposure can occur from a radiation source outside of the body. Exposure can

also occur as a result of taking radioactive material into your body. The answer to the question

of how you can be exposed to ionizing radiation can be broken into two parts. The first

paragraph below describes ionizing radiation that comes from a source outside your body and

some distance away (external radiation). The second paragraph describes ionizing radiation that

comes from a source inside your body (internal radiation).

External radiation comes from natural and man-made sources of ionizing radiation that are

outside your body. Part of the natural radiation is cosmic radiation from space. The rest is given

off by radioactive materials in the soil and building materials that are around you. As a result of

human activities, higher levels of natural radioactive material are left in products or on the land. 

Examples of such activities are manufacturing fertilizer, burning coal in power plants, and

mining and purifying uranium. Ionizing radiation from human activities adds to your external

radiation exposure. Some of this radiation is given off by x ray machines, televisions,

radioactive sources used in industry, and patients who have had recent nuclear medicine tests

and therapy. The rest is given off by man-made radioactive materials in consumer products,

industrial equipment, atom bomb fallout, and to a smaller extent by hospital waste and nuclear

reactors. Gamma rays are the main type of ionizing radiation that are of concern when you are

exposed to external sources of ionizing radiation. Gamma rays (like x rays) are special bundles

of light energy that you cannot see, feel, or smell. Gamma rays from natural and man-made

sources pass through your body just like x rays do, at the speed of light. Gamma rays may pass

directly through your body without hitting anything. When one gamma ray hits a cell, it leaves a

small bit of energy behind that can cause damage. Other types of ionizing radiation, like alpha

and beta particles, hit your body but normally do not have enough energy to get inside to harm

you. Your external radiation dose depends on the amount of energy that ionizing radiation gives

to your body as it passes through. Exposure to external radiation does not make you radioactive.

The average yearly dose from external radiation in the United States is about 100 mrem per

person (1 mSv/person).

Internal radiation is ionizing radiation that natural and man-made radioactive materials give off

while they are inside your body. You take radioactive materials into your body every day since
IONIZING RADIATION 14

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

they are in the air you breathe, the food you eat, and the water you drink. Examples of natural

radioactive materials that enter, reside in, and leave your body every day include potassium-40,

carbon-14, radium, and radon. Man-made radioactive materials also get into your body from the

decreasing amounts of fallout from past nuclear weapons testing. Sometimes, natural conditions

or industrial activities concentrate radioactive materials. If you are exposed to these, you will

take in more radioactive material. Low amounts of material that act as sources of ionizing

radiation may also be put into your body for medical purposes to test for or treat some types of

disease, such as cancer. Scientists and clinicians have made sure that the benefits of exposing

you to ionizing radiation far outweigh any bad health effects you may get from the ionizing

radiation by itself. (Medical tests use small amounts of radiation or radioactive material, but

some radiotherapy uses large doses that are beneficial to the patient.) Hospitals, coal-fired

electricity generating plants, and nuclear reactors release radioactive materials in ways that keep

your dose low. Radioactive materials build up in your body if you take them in faster than they

leave in urine and feces and by radioactive transformation. If the internally deposited

radioisotope is short lived and decays before the body eliminates it, then, of course, it will

disappear faster from the body than by biological elimination alone. Thus, retention or

elimination of internally deposited radioisotopes is measured by the effective half-life, which

considers the combined effect of biological elimination and radioactive decay. 

Internally deposited radioisotopes may emit gamma rays, beta particles, or alpha particles,

depending on the isotope. Many gamma rays escape your body without hitting anything. When

a gamma ray does hit a cell, it transfers energy to the cell. When all their energy is transferred,

they vanish. Alpha and beta particles travel short distances, giving energy to cells they hit. 

They lose energy and quickly come to a stop. Their energy is totally absorbed inside your body. 

When alpha particles come to a stop, they become helium that you breathe out later. When beta

particles come to a stop, they become electrons and attach to atoms near them. Your internal

dose is a measure of the energy deposited by all the ionizing radiation that is produced inside

your body. The average yearly dose in the United States from internal radiation is about 260

mrem per person (2.6 mSv/person).

More information about how ionizing radiation enters and leaves your body can be found in

Chapters 2, 3 and 5 of this profile.
IONIZING RADIATION 15

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

1.5 HOW CAN IONIZING RADIATION AFFECT MY HEALTH?

How radiation affects your health depends on the size of the radiation dose. Scientists have been

studying the effects of ionizing radiation in humans and laboratory animals for many years. 

Studies so far have not shown that the low dose of ionizing radiation we are exposed to every

day causes us any harm. We do know that exposure to massive amounts of ionizing radiation

can cause great harm, so it is wise to not be exposed to any more ionizing radiation than

necessary.

Overexposure to high amounts of ionizing radiation can lead to effects like skin burns, hair loss,

birth defects, cancer, mental retardation (a complex central nervous system functional abnormality), and death. The dose determines whether an effect will be seen and its severity. For some

effects such as skin burns, hair loss, sterility, nausea, and cataracts, there is a certain minimum

dose (the threshold dose) that must be exceeded to cause the effect. Increasing the size of the

dose after the threshold is exceeded makes the effect more severe. Psychological stress has been

documented in large populations exposed to small doses of radiation (Three Mile Island and

Chernobyl). Neurological injury (CNS syndrome) resulting in compromised mental function has

also been documented in individuals exposed to several thousand rads of ionizing radiation.

Ionizing radiation is called a carcinogen because it may also increase your chance of getting

cancer. Increasing the size of the dose increases your chance of getting cancer. Scientists base

radiation safety standards on the assumption that any radiation dose, no matter how small, carries

with it a corresponding probability of causing a cancer. This is called a “zero threshold” dose

response relationship. Cancers that are actually caused by radiation are completely

indistinguishable from those from other causes, so we can never be certain whether any

individual cancer was not caused by radiation. To determine how likely it is that a certain dose

of radiation will cause cancer, scientists measure the radiation dose to a group of exposed

people, like the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. Then they compare the frequency of cancers

(the observation period for cancer extends over decades) in this exposed group with a similar

group of people who were not exposed. They also look at factors like age, sex, and time since

the exposure ended. Finally, they calculate risk factors for various cancer types. Using these

factors, it is possible to estimate the chance of getting cancer from a dose of radiation. Even

though they assume a zero threshold, researchers have not actually seen an increase in cancer
IONIZING RADIATION 16

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

frequency for people in the exposed Japanese group who had a radiation dose below 20 rad (0.2

Gy). No increase in any type of leukemia has been found in people whose radiation dose was

below 10–40 rad (0.1–0.4 Gy). 

The effects of internally deposited radioactive material are similar to those of external radiation. 

The effects depend on the size of the dose and factors like your sex and age when you were

exposed. The radiation absorbed dose, in turn, depends on the radioactive material, the amount

of activity, the type and energy of the radiation, the effective half-life of the radioactive material,

its chemical form, how it was taken into your body, and how quickly it leaves your body. 

Many people are exposed to radiation and radioactive materials used in medical testing and

therapy. Radiation treatments for medical reasons carry the same risk as radiation from other

sources. As with any medical treatment, the potential health benefits should be balanced against

the potential harmful health effects. 

One way to better understand the effects of radiation is to study its effects on test animals. 

Without laboratory animals, scientists would lose a basic method to get information needed to

make informed decisions to protect public health. Scientists have the responsibility to treat

research animals with care and compassion. Laws today protect the welfare of research animals,

and scientists must comply with strict animal care guidelines.

More information about the biological effects of ionizing radiation can be found in Chapters 2, 3,

and 5 of the profile.

1.6 HOW CAN IONIZING RADIATION AFFECT CHILDREN?

This section discusses potential health effects from exposures during the period from conception

to maturity at 18 years of age in humans. Potential effects on children resulting from exposures

of the parents are also considered.

Like adults, children are exposed to small background amounts of ionizing radiation that comes

from the soil around where they live, in the food and water that they eat and drink, in the air that 
IONIZING RADIATION 17

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

they breathe, and from sources that reach earth from space. How much background radiation

you receive depends on where you live. Some places naturally have more than others. There are

no reports that say exposure to background levels of ionizing radiation causes health effects in

children or adults.

If a pregnant woman is exposed to high levels of ionizing radiation, it is possible that her child

may be born with some brain abnormalities. There is an 8-week period during early pregnancy

when an unborn child is especially sensitive to the effects of higher than normal levels of

ionizing radiation. As the levels of ionizing radiation increase, so does the chance of brain

abnormalities. These abnormalities may eventually result in small head size, decreased

intelligence as measured by Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests, and other defects. These effects are

not reversible.

A child will be exposed to small amounts of radiation from the environment all during prenatal

development and throughout its life. There are no reports that say children suffer health effects

from normal amounts of background radiation. If children are exposed to higher than

background levels of ionizing radiation, they are likely to have the same possible health effects

as adults exposed to similar levels.

1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO IONIZING

RADIATION?

If your doctor finds that you have been exposed to significant amounts of ionizing radiation, ask

whether your children might also be exposed. Your doctor might need to ask your state health

department to investigate.

The best way to reduce your risk of exposure to higher than background amounts of radiation is

to not let yourself be exposed at all. However, this is not always possible or sensible. A common

way to be exposed to ionizing radiation is by receiving an x ray, but a few x rays every year will

not hurt you. When you or your children receive an x ray, be sure to correctly wear any

protective garments that are provided. The technician will make sure that only the area that

needs to be x rayed will be exposed to the x ray beam.
IONIZING RADIATION 18

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

It may be necessary to inject you with a chemical that has some amount of radioactive material

in it to help a doctor diagnose or treat a disease. Many studies have shown that these drugs, used

correctly, will not harm you. Be sure to follow the doctor’s directions after you have been

treated with these drugs.

Many places make or use various types of radioactive material or ionizing radiation for medical

or research purposes. If you visit one of these facilities, be sure to follow all of the

recommended safety precautions. Do not go into unauthorized areas. You may be asked to wear

a special device on your shirt that records the amount of ionizing radiation you are exposed to

while in the facility. This is a safety precaution. Do not put it in your pocket or let someone else

wear it.

1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN

EXPOSED TO IONIZING RADIATION?

There are no easy or accurate medical tests to determine whether you have been exposed to low

doses of ionizing radiation, but tests are available for determining whether you have been

exposed to radioactive material. 

Tests for Recent Exposure to Ionizing Radiation. A great degree of overexposure is

necessary to cause the clinical signs or symptoms of radiation exposure. In the absence of

clinical signs or symptoms there are two kinds of tests scientists use to see if you have been

overexposed to ionizing radiation; they look for changes in blood cell counts and changes in

your chromosomes. If you are exposed to no more than 10 rad (0.1 Gy) of ionizing radiation,

there are no detectable changes in blood cell counts. The most sensitive measure of radiation

exposure involves a study of your chromosomes. This is a special test for doses that are too low

to produce clinically observable signs or symptoms; this test may be useful for doses greater

than about 3 times the maximum annual permissible dose for radiation workers. Changes in the

white blood cell count may be seen in people whose doses exceeded about 5 times the

occupational maximum permissible annual dose. Radiation doses at or above these levels can be

reliably estimated using these two special tests. 
IONIZING RADIATION 19

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

Tests for Radioactive Material Inside Your Body. Scientists can also examine your blood,

feces, saliva, urine, and even your entire body to see if measurable amounts of radioactive

material are being excreted from your body. Different tests are used for different types of

radioactive material. Several types of instruments are available to look for each type of

radiation. These instruments are not available at your doctor’s office. They are normally large,

heavy, and available only in laboratories. Equipment usually consists of a “detector,” electrical

cables, and a “processor.” The detector contains material sensitive to one or more types of

radiation, so the detector is chosen based on the type of radiation to be measured. Alpha, beta,

and gamma radiation have different energies that depend upon the radioactive isotope from

which they come. By determining the type and energy of the radiation, scientists can tell which

radioisotope is on your skin or inside your body.

More information about the detection of ionizing radiation and biomarkers for ionizing radiation

exposure can be found in Chapter 2 of this profile.

1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO

PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?

Recommendations and regulations are periodically updated as more information becomes

available. For the most current information, check with the federal or state agency or

organization that provides it. 

The current federal and state regulations limit radiation workers' doses to 0.05 Sv/year

(5 rem/year). The limit for the unborn child of a female radiation worker is 0.005 Sv (0.5 rem)

per 9-month gestation period. For the general public, the limit is 0.001 Sv/year (0.1 rem/year),

with provisions for a limit of 0.005 Sv/year (0.5 rem/year) under special circumstances. The

public dose limit is set at least 10 times lower than the occupational limit to give the public an

extra margin of safety. A factor of 10 is also used for public protection in other industries. 

We have seen health effects from very high doses of ionizing radiation, but not at normal

everyday levels. To be cautious, scientists and regulating agencies assume that there could be

some harmful effects at any dose, no matter how small. Because ionizing radiation has the 
IONIZING RADIATION 20

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

potential to cause harmful health effects in overexposed people, regulations and guidelines have

been established for ionizing radiation by state, national, and international agencies. The basic

philosophy of radiation safety is to allow only a reasonable risk of harm using the concept of “as

low as reasonably achievable” (ALARA). More specific information about the regulations in the

United States and in your state can be found in Chapter 7 of this profile. Some regulations and

recommendations for ionizing radiation include the following:

Radiation protection standards for radiation workers and members of the public are

recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and the

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). These standards are not

regulations, but they provide the scientific basis for the making of regulations by federal

agencies. The ICRP and NCRP are authoritative bodies that analyze current scientific and

epidemiological data and make recommendations to government and non-government

organizations that set standards. ICRP and NCRP do not issue standards themselves.

Federal agencies, such as the EPA, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), and the

Department of Energy (DOE), as well as individual states are responsible for making federal and

state regulations about exposure to ionizing radiation. The NRC regulates nuclear power plant

operations and regulates the use of radioactive material in research and medical applications. 

The DOE has issued employee dose limits for its facilities. 

The EPA is responsible for federal radiation protection guidance for environmental radiation

standards and regulations to implement specific statutory requirements, such as the Safe

Drinking Water Act and the Clean Air Act. Natural background radiation, of course, cannot be

regulated but EPA recommends that the concentration of indoor radon not exceed 4 picocuries

per liter (4 pCi/L) of air. EPA's National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants

(NESHAPs) contain regulations that limit the dose from radionuclides released to the air to 0.1

mSv/year (10 mrem/year). The EPA sets limits on the maximum acceptable concentration of

radionuclides in public drinking water supplies. Based on the Safe Drinking Water Act, the EPA

has issued drinking water standards for radionuclides, which include dose limits of

0.04 mSv/year (4 mrem/year) for man-made sources of beta and gamma emitters. EPA also sets

limits on several alpha emitters in drinking water, such as radium and radon.
IONIZING RADIATION 21

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

The NRC regulations apply to all types of ionizing radiation that are emitted from special

nuclear material (such as nuclear reactor fuel) and from by-product material (materials made

radioactive in the use of special nuclear material), and from source material (material from which

nuclear fuel is made). The NRC sets limits on the total dose of ionizing radiation above

background from these sources. It also sets limits for the amounts and concentrations of

radioactive material that will give these doses if taken into the body. These are called Annual

Limits on Intake (ALI) and derived air concentrations (DAC). 

The NRC has also issued a standard for cleaning up sites contaminated with radioactive

materials. It requires that the radiation dose to the public from these sites will not be more than

0.25 mSv per year (25 mrem per year).

Radiation doses from procedures used by licensed physicians in diagnosis and treatment of

disease is not limited by regulations. However, physicians and medical technicians must be

specially trained and licensed to use radiation-producing machines and licensed to use

radioisotopes for these purposes. They are required to limit exposures to the members of the

public who are inside their facilities to 100 mrem per year, which is the same level as required

by the NRC. Also, patients with radioactive materials inside their bodies from the treatment are

kept until it is likely that they will not expose anyone around them to more than 0.5 mSv (500

mrem) from that radioactive material.

States also regulate radioactive materials and other sources of radiation that are not regulated by

the NRC. These include sources of natural radioactivity, such as radium, and

radiation-producing machines, such as x ray machines and radioactive material produced by

particle accelerators. 

1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?

If you have any more questions or concerns, please contact your community or state health or

environmental quality department or

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

Division of Toxicology

1600 Clifton Road NE, Mailstop E-29

Atlanta, GA 30333
IONIZING RADIATION 22

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

* Information line and technical assistance

Phone: 1-888-42-ATSDR (1-888-422-8737)

Fax: (404) 639-6315 or 6324

ATSDR can also tell you the location of occupational and environmental health clinics. These

clinics specialize in recognizing, evaluating, and treating illnesses resulting from exposure to

hazardous substances.

* To order toxicological profiles, contact

National Technical Information Service

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, VA 22161

Phone: (800) 553-6847 or (703) 605-6000
IONIZING RADIATION 23

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an overview of the principles of ionizing radiation before a discussion of the health

effects in Chapter 3.

The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide public health officials, toxicologists, and other

interested individuals and groups with an overall perspective of the health physics and toxicology of

ionizing radiation. It contains descriptions and evaluations of radiological and toxicological studies and

epidemiologic investigations and provides conclusions, where possible, on the relevance of health

physics, toxicity, and toxicokinetic data to public health. A glossary and list of acronyms, abbreviations,

and symbols can be found at the end of this profile, along with an index. This profile focuses on “ionizing

radiation” (alpha, beta, gamma, x ray) as opposed to “non-ionizing” radiation (radio waves, microwaves,

radar, ultrasound, visible light, ultraviolet light), so the term “radiation” without further qualification refers

only to ionizing radiation. 

“Radioactive material” is defined as any material containing radioactive atoms that emit radiation as they

transform into other radioactive or stable atoms. The frequently used terms “radiation,” and “ionizing

radiation” are defined in this toxicological profile as a specific form of radiation that possesses sufficient

energy to remove electrons from the atoms in the tissues that they penetrate (Borek 1993). This process is

called ionization and is the reason for the name “ionizing radiation.” When this energy is received in

appropriate quantities and over a sufficient period time, it can result in tissue damage. The clinical

manifestations of radiation can be negligible (no effect), acute (occurring within several hours after very

large doses), or delayed or latent (occurring several years after the exposure), depending on the dose and

the rate at which it was received and the type of damage produced.

All organisms (i.e., bacteria, plants, or animals, including humans) are exposed each day to some amount

of radiation. In the United States, as shown in Figure 1-2, 81% of the dose received from radiation comes

from natural sources: 55% from radon; 8% from cosmic radiation; 8% from rocks and soil; and 10% from

internal exposures to radiation from the radioactive materials in food and water consumed in the daily

diet, such as potassium-40 (40K) (NCRP 1987). The remaining 19% of the daily dose may originate from

man-made sources; it is composed of medical x ray exposure (11%), nuclear medicinal exposure (4%),

consumer products (3%), and other sources (<1%). This last category includes occupational sources,

nuclear fallout, the nuclear fuel cycle radioactive waste, hospital radioactive waste, radioactively

contaminated sites, and other miscellaneous sources. 
IONIZING RADIATION 24

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Radiation dose is expressed in units of rad and millirad (mrad) (1 rad = 1,000 mrad), or grays (1 Gy =

100 rad) and milligrays (mGy). For administrative, regulatory, and radiation safety purposes, a unit

called the rem or the sievert (Sv) (1 rem = 0.01 Sv) is used. For beta and gamma radiation, 1 rad = 1 rem,

while for alpha radiation, 1 rad = 20 rem. For the population of the United States, the average annual

total effective dose equivalent (natural and anthropogenic), is approximately 360 millirem (mrem)

(3.6 mSv) per year (BEIR V 1990).

A survey of the open literature found comprehensive information and many discussions of the biological

and toxicological effects of radiation. Much of the information on these effects was obtained from

laboratory animal studies and human epidemiological studies (see Chapters 3, 4, and 5). The human data

are mostly from studies of World War II atomic bomb survivors, medical patients exposed to radiation

and radioactive material, uranium miners and millers, and radium dial painters. A great deal is currently

known about the biological, toxicological and toxicokinetic aspects of radionuclides, as well as the

general mechanisms of action of radiation. Although much remains to be learned about the specific

mechanisms by which radiation exerts its effects, how these effects can be minimized in living tissues,

and what the effects of very low doses of radiation over long periods of time will be (see Chapter 3), we

know enough to safely use radioactive materials and radiation in commerce, industry, science, and

medicine. For the purposes of this toxicologic profile, discussions on the effects of radiation will be

limited to alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) radiation, since these three types of radiation are the most

likely to be encountered at Department of Energy (DOE) National Priorities List (NPL) hazardous waste

sites (see Chapter 3, Table 3-1). This profile provides an in-depth discussion of radiation biology and

radiation toxicology. Chapters 3 and 5 provide a comprehensive overview of a representative crosssection of the available literature that pertains to the effects of radiation, both in humans and laboratory

animals. Data on specific radionuclides were used to demonstrate how toxicological effects can occur,

but these effects can also be caused by other radionuclides that emit the same or other types of radiation

(see Chapters 3 and 5). Several excellent texts and review documents are currently available in the open

literature that provide important background material used in developing other sections of this profile

(BEIR IV 1988; BEIR V 1990; Cember 1996; Faw and Shultis 1993; Harley 1991; Roesch 1987;

UNSCEAR 1993).

This toxicological profile contains tables that summarize the effects of radiation for both humans and

laboratory animals (see Observed Health Effects from Radiation and Radioactive Material tables in

Chapter 8). In radiation biology, the term "dose" has a very specific meaning. The term "dose" used in

these tables refers to the amount of radiation energy absorbed per unit mass by the organ, tissue, or cell;

dose is typically expressed either in grays (Gy) or in rad (1 Gy = 100 rad). For example, estimation of the

dose to lung tissue or specific cells in the lung from a given exposure to plutonium-239 (239Pu) is
IONIZING RADIATION 25

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

accomplished by modeling the sequence of events involved in the inhalation, deposition, clearance, and

transformation of 239Pu within the lung. While based on the current understanding of lung morphometry

and experimental data for other radionuclide toxicokinetics, different models make different assumptions

about these processes, thereby resulting in different estimates of dose and risk coefficient. The units of

measure in the studies that describe the health effects of radiation vary from one report to another. Some

studies reported the amount of radioactive material introduced into the body (curies [Ci] or becquerels

[Bq] where 1 Ci = 37 billion Bq) when describing the biological effects related to radiation, while other

authors reported units of absorbed dose (rad, Gy) or dose equivalent (rem, Sv). Although the units did

differ among the many reports, attempts were made to standardize the reporting of doses in units of rad in

order to minimize confusion and provide a basis by which dose responses could be determined and

evaluated.

An understanding of the basic concepts in radiation physics, chemistry, and biology is important to the

evaluation and interpretation of radiation-induced adverse health effects and to the derivation of radiation

safety principles. This chapter presents a brief overview of radiation physics, chemistry, and biology and

is based to a large extent on the reviews of Eichholz (1982), Hendee (1973), Early et al. (1979), Faw and

Shultis (1993), Harley (1991) and Roesch (1987).

2.2 HISTORY, BACKGROUND INFORMATION, AND SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF

IONIZING RADIATION

2.2.1 Historical Perspective on Ionizing Radiation

Ionizing radiation has been present since the earth was created. Before the 1890s, there were only natural

sources of radiation such as radiation from cosmic sources, and radioactive material inside the body and

in rocks, soil, and air. Much of the radiation exposure was in the form of low-level cosmic and terrestrial

radiation. Since radiation cannot be observed using any of the five senses, humans were not aware of its

existence. 

About 1,800,000 years ago, the only known natural "nuclear reactor" operated for about 100,000 years in

the uranium-rich soil around what is now Oklo, Gabon. The first known use of uranium occurred in

79 AD, when Roman artisans were producing yellow-colored glass in a mosaic mural near Naples; this

activity produced low levels of radiation. The first reports of adverse health effects that were probably

related to radiation from inhaled radon gas and its radioactive progeny occurred around 1400 AD, when a 
IONIZING RADIATION 26

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

mysterious malady resulted in the deaths of miners at an early age in the mountains around Schneeberg

and Joachimsthal in the Sudetenland (The Czech Republic). This mysterious disease was known as

"mountain sickness” and is now believed to have been lung cancer. When mountain sickness was first

described, radon was not known and was not linked to the disease until the 1920s, when radon gas was

identified as a cause of lung cancer.

It was not until the discovery of mystery rays or “x rays” in 1895 that people began to be aware of the

almost magical presence of these invisible “rays” that could allow us to see inside the body. In the

summer of 1894, Wilhelm Roentgen began experiments with cathode ray tubes; on November 8, 1895, he

observed that a few crystals of barium platinocyanide, which were lying on a table, produced a

fluorescent glow. He subsequently discovered that some unknown component (“X”) from the cathode ray

tube could also penetrate solid substances, and that “x rays” had the same effect on a photographic plate

as visible light. What followed was the first "Roentgen exposures," or “Roentgenograms,” which were

photographs that were able to show the shapes of metal objects locked in a wooden case and the bones

inside his wife’s hand. A month after his discovery, Roentgen sent a manuscript about his extraordinary

findings to the Physical-Medical Association in Wuerzburg, titled Concerning a New Kind of Ray:

Preliminary Report. Other periodicals such as Nature and Science published the report in the following

year, and Roentgen received wide acclaim for his discovery, both in the scientific and lay communities, in

the years to come. Others quickly found practical applications for x rays (also called “Roentgen rays”). 

In 1896, the first diagnostic x ray in the United States was performed by E. Frost. Within the next 2

years, the first x ray picture of a fetus in utero was taken; this was followed by the first use of an x ray in

dentistry. Adverse health effects due to exposure to x rays were soon reported. These included a report

by Thomas Edison asserting that eye injuries can be produced by exposure to x rays, and a report by

Daniel identifying alopecia and erythema (skin reddening) 3 weeks after he radiographed the head of

Edison’s assistant, Mr. Dudley.

Roentgen’s discovery of x rays was followed by Henri Becquerel’s discovery of radioactivity in

November 1896. Becquerel found that photographic plates that were lying near pitchblende (a uranium

ore) were exposed despite being sealed in light-tight envelopes. The exposure, he found, was due to

radiations emitted from the pitchblende. Subsequent studies showed that there were three uniquely

different radiations, which he called alpha, beta, and gamma. Later, it was shown that Roentgen’s x rays

and Becquerel’s gamma rays were the same kind of radiation.
IONIZING RADIATION 27

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

After these discoveries, scientific interest in the properties of radiation increased dramatically. 

Radioactive thorium (Th) was discovered by Schmidt in 1898. A few months later, Marie and Pierre

Curie isolated polonium (Po) from pitchblende, a variety of the mineral uraninite (largely UO2), that

occurs as a constituent of quartz veins and is a source of radium (Ra) and uranium (U). The Curies later

isolated radioactive 226Ra from pitchblende and explained the natural transformation of an unstable atom

of a higher atomic number to one of a lower atomic number, referred to as transformation or “decay.” 

The Curies ultimately coined the word “radioactivity.” In the years to come, other notable scientists

contributed to this new area of science: Villard discovered gamma rays; Rutherford discovered

radioactive gas emanating from thorium and coined the term “half-life” and used alpha particles to

develop a new theoretical model of the atom (Friedlander et al. 1964); Planck created quantum theory;

Einstein discovered mass-energy relationship and photoelectric effect; and Hess reported the existence of

“cosmic rays” (ionizing radiation) at high altitudes.

In 1904 Ernest Rutherford said, “If it were ever possible to control at will the rate of disintegration of

radio-elements, an enormous amount of radiation could be obtained from a small amount of matter.” This

statement expressed the obvious implications for the use of radionuclides (in particular uranium and

plutonium) in generating large amounts of electric energy in nuclear reactors and in the production of

nuclear weapons approximately 40 years later. The use of the “atomic bomb” (this term is somewhat of a

misnomer since it is the nucleus from which this energy derives) would make an important contribution to

ending the second World War. Much scientific research was required to move from theory to application. 

“The Manhattan Project” was the code name for the project responsible for taking many of the theoretical

ideas on atomic energy proposed since Roentgen’s discovery and applying them in a real-world

application that would result in the creation of the first atomic weapon.

The Manhattan Project was named for the Manhattan Engineering District of the U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers, because much of the early theoretical research on the potential of nuclear energy was done at

Columbia University and because the Manhattan District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was

located near Columbia University in New York City. Initiated by President Roosevelt on the

recommendation of several physicists who had fled Europe, the program was slowly organized after

nuclear fission was discovered by German scientists in 1938. Many U.S. scientists began to express the

fear that the Germans, under their dictator Adolf Hitler, would attempt to build a fission bomb which

would pose a serious threat to the world. It was subsequently decided that the United States must be the 
IONIZING RADIATION 28

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

first country to harness this new technology in order to maintain the future balance of world power. In

1942, General Leslie Groves was chosen to lead the Manhattan Project. He immediately purchased a site

at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and constructed the facilities to extract and purify the 235U isotope fuel needed

to power the weapon. He also secured a 550-square mile site in Eastern Washington State, later called the

“Hanford Works,” for the highly secret reactor production and chemical refinement of plutonium metal. 

The first plutonium in gram quantities was produced in early 1945 by the Hanford “B” reactor, which has

been designated a National Historic Site. Groves appointed theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer as

director of a weapons laboratory built on an isolated piece of land at Los Alamos, New Mexico. In 1945,

235U of adequate purity was shipped to Los Alamos and was used in the testing in the first of two

prototype weapons. In the first prototype, one subcritical piece of uranium was fired at another

subcritical piece down a gun barrel; the combined pieces formed a supercritical, explosive mass. The

second prototype was constructed using plutonium. In the plutonium prototype, the plutonium was

surrounded with explosives to compress it into a superdense, supercritical mass far faster than could be

done in a gun barrel. The result was tested (Pu weapon only) at Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16,

1945, and was the first detonation of an atomic-type weapon. Two more atomic weapons were

subsequently manufactured in the United States and detonated over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, in

August 1945. The use of these devices, the most destructive weapons at the time, quickly brought the war

in the Pacific to an end, thus saving Allied and Japanese soldiers who would have been lost in a ground

invasion of the Japanese mainland using only the conventional weapons of the time.

The two bombs detonated over Japan in the final days of World War II were made from two different

types of explosive material. The Hiroshima bomb was made from the highly enriched 235U, extracted

from ore containing the much more abundant isotope 238U. This bomb, which was released over Japan's

seventh largest city on 6 August 1945, contained approximately 60 kg of highly enriched uranium; its

detonation destroyed 90% of the city. The explosive charge for the bomb detonated over Nagasaki 3 days

later was provided by about 8 kg of 239Pu, which caused a similar amount of destruction.

Both atomic devices were detonated in the air over the cities. The devastating effects of the bombs

depended essentially upon the blast, shock, and heat released at the moment of the explosion, causing

immediate fires and destructive blast pressures. Since the bombs were detonated about 600 meters above

the ground, only a relatively small proportion of the radioactive fission products was deposited on the

ground near the “ground zero” point below the site of detonation. Some deposition occurred in areas near 
IONIZING RADIATION 29

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

each city due to local rainfall soon after the explosions, specifically at positions a few kilometers to the

east of Nagasaki and in areas to the west and northwest of Hiroshima. Generally, the majority of the

fission products were carried into the upper atmosphere by the heat generated by the explosion. When the

fallout returned to earth, it contributed to global human radiation exposure.

In Hiroshima, with a resident civilian population of about 250,000 people, an estimated 45,000 died on

the first day after the bombing and an additional 19,000 died during the subsequent 4 months. In

Nagasaki, with a resident population of about 174,000, an estimated 22,000 died on the first day and an

additional 17,000 deaths were reported within the next 4 months. Actual totals may be higher due to

unrecorded deaths of military personnel and foreign workers. Teratogenic effects on fetuses were severe

among those heavily exposed, resulting in many birth deformities and stillbirths over the next 9 months. 

No genetic damage has been detected in the survivors' children and grandchildren, despite careful and

continuing investigation by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF), which is a joint

Japanese-U.S. foundation. Since then, some of the surviving adults developed leukemias and other

cancers (see Chapter 3). The major source of radiation dose to the population in both cities was from the

penetrating gamma radiations. The study of the Japanese survivors has proven to be an important

historical confluence for major health effects studies at low doses. Prior to World War II, radiation

mutagenesis, teratogenesis, and carcinogenesis studies developed along separate lines. The study of the

atomic bomb survivor populations allowed these separate lines of research to converge with studies in a

single population.

The atomic bombs used in Japan in 1945 and the bombs tested during the following 7 years used 235U or

239Pu. The explosive power of the Hiroshima bomb was about 15 kilotons (equivalent to 15,000 tons of

trinitrotoluene [TNT]) and that of the Nagasaki bomb was approximately 25 kilotons. For comparison,

the total TNT equivalent explosive power of all atmospheric weapon tests made by the end of 1951 was

approximately 600 kilotons.

After 1951, the atomic bombs being tested included hydrogen bombs, which became more sophisticated

and had explosive effects about a thousand times greater than those of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki type

bombs; by the end of 1962, the total of all atmospheric tests had risen from the 1951 value of 0.6 million

tons of TNT equivalent, to about 500 million tons of TNT equivalent. This vast increase in scale was due

to the testing of the “thermonuclear” weapons or (hydrogen bombs or “H-bombs”), which depended not

on the fission of a critical mass of fissile material alone, but on a two- or three-stage process initiated by a 
IONIZING RADIATION 30

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

fission reaction. Briefly, the hydrogen bomb uses the same process that the sun uses to release its

tremendous amounts of energy. In the hydrogen bomb, the nuclei of two light atoms (usually hydrogen)

are fused together to form a heavier atom, helium. A fission reaction, in which a heavier atom is split into

lighter ones, generates the energy to trigger the fusion reaction. The United States exploded its first

hydrogen bomb in November 1952 at Eniwetok Atoll in the South Pacific. Atomic weapons development

by the United States and other nations continues in the 1990s.

The development of the “atomic bombs” has frequently received more attention than the peaceful use of

atomic energy and radiation. Peaceful uses of radiation have also been developed quite successfully. An

important application has been in the generation of safe, controlled and long-term power sources for the

civilian population. On December 20, 1951, the first usable electricity produced from nuclear energy was

manufactured at the National Reactor Testing Station, now called the Idaho National Engineering and

Environmental Laboratory (INEEL), in Idaho Falls, Idaho. The electricity produced lit four light bulbs

across a room of the Experimental Breeder Reactor I (EBR-I). In 1953, these scientists demonstrated that

a reactor could create more fuel than it used, "breeding" fuel from 238U as it created electricity with 235U. 

EBR-I operated as a research reactor until 1963, at which time EBR-II became active; EBR-II is now a

historical monument. In July 1955, Arco, Idaho, became the first U.S. town to be powered by nuclear

energy, supplied by power from the Borax-III reactor, an early prototype of a boiling water-type nuclear

reactor. The Sodium Reactor Experiment in Santa Susanna, California, generated the first power from a

civilian nuclear reactor on July 12, 1957, using sodium instead of water as the primary coolant. The first

large-scale nuclear power plant in the world began operating in Shippingport, Pennsylvania, in December

1957. Today, nearly 25% of the electricity generated in the United States (75% in Maine and Illinois and

50% in South Carolina) comes from nuclear power. Other countries generate much larger proportions of

their electricity with nuclear energy. In oil-poor countries, such as France, 80% of the electricity is

generated with nuclear energy and in Japan nuclear energy accounts for 30% of the electricity generated. 

Other countries using nuclear power include Canada (17%), Germany (29%), Sweden (47%), and the

former Soviet Union (42%) (USNRC 1997b). Although nuclear reactors continue to be used as a source

of power for many states and countries, public concerns about nuclear reactor safety have intensified due

to well-publicized accidents (see Chapters 4 and 6). However, only two of these accidents involved

nuclear power reactors: Three Mile Island and Chernobyl. At Three Mile Island, although the reactor

melted down, no one was overexposed or injured, and there was no significant contamination outside the 
IONIZING RADIATION 31

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

containment and auxiliary buildings. At Chernobyl, the reactor melted down, causing serious public

health consequences which could have been prevented if the reactor design had included a containment

building.

Medical uses of machine-produced radiation and radionuclides emitting radiation have also been

developed that play a significant role in medical diagnosis and treatment. Controlled amounts of

radiation in the form of x rays have been used for a century, and beta particles have used more recently,

as an aid in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases in humans and animals. Today, much is known about

the health effects of high doses of x rays, as well as other radiation; however, this has not always been the

case. In 1947, doctors in Israel and many other countries treated ringworm of the scalp with up to 400 rad

(4 Gy) of x rays to cause the hair to fall out (alopecia); it was later found that this treatment regimen led

to a greater than expected incidence of thyroid tumors and brain cancers. Radium-224 (224Ra) was used in

the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis in Germany in the 1940s; these treatments later were associated

with an increased incidence of bone cancers. In addition to x rays, radionuclides such as iodine-131 (131I)

and metastable technetium 99 (99mTc) are being used to successfully diagnose and/or treat a wide range of

diseases. Laboratory research has benefitted from the use of radionuclides, typically in the form of

radiolabeled tracers that enabled us to learn the details of the biochemistry of health and disease, and to

develop new diagnostic techniques and new (non-radioactive) drugs for treatment of disease. Carbon 11

is a short half-life (20 minutes) radionuclide produced in cyclotrons in conjunction with several medical

facilities and used in positron emission tomography (PET) studies that enable physicians to see inside the

body and precisely locate sites of medical concern. 

2.2.2 Basic Information on Ionizing Radiation

Ionizing radiation is any of several types of particles and rays given off by radioactive material, nuclear

reactions, and radiation producing machines. Those that are primarily addressed in this profile because

of their relevance to public health are alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays, which are also

called alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. The term “ionizing” refers to the ions or charged atoms and

molecules that radiation produces along its path by knocking electrons from atomic orbits. The term

“radiation” refers to the way these particles and rays move away or radiate from their sites of production

at speeds ranging from a few tenths of the speed of light to the speed of light. Our senses cannot detect

radiation since it is odorless, tasteless, and invisible, and cannot be heard or felt. All life on earth is 
IONIZING RADIATION 32

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

exposed to low levels of ionizing radiation from terrestrial and cosmic sources every day. This profile will

not address non-radiation, such as radiowaves, microwaves, infrared light, visible light, ultrasound, and

ultraviolet light.

To explain exactly what radiation is, we begin at the atomic level with atoms, how they come to be

radioactive, and how they give off radiation. The materials we call elements are composed of atoms,

which in turn are made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Protons (positively charged particles) and

neutrons (neutral particles with no charge) reside in and primarily comprise the nucleus of any atom,

while electrons exist in a “cloud” of orbits around the nucleus. Nuclide is a general term referring to any

atom. All atoms of an element have the same number of protons (the number of protons = the atomic

number) but may have different numbers of neutrons (this is reflected in the atomic mass or atomic

weight of the element). Atoms with the same atomic number but different atomic masses are referred to

as isotopes of an element. An isotope is a specific nuclide that is characterized by the composition of its

nucleus (by the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus). 

Radioactivity is the characteristic of any atom that is unstable due to the binding of the protons and

neutrons within its nucleus. If the number of neutrons is too small or too large for the number of protons,

the nucleus is unstable and the atom is said to be radioactive. Radioisotope refers to any radioactive

isotopes of an element, and radionuclide is a generic term applying to any radioactive species of any

element. Every radioactive nucleus will eventually change its neutron/proton ratio by one of four basic

methods and simultaneously emit radiation to obtain a more stable energy configuration. These methods

can involve the ejection of an alpha particle (a 2-proton 2-neutron packet) directly from the nucleus, the

conversion within the nucleus of a neutron to a proton or a proton to a neutron with the emission of a beta

particle and gamma rays, or the splitting or spontaneous fission of the nucleus. Each radionuclide has a

unique configuration, so the radiation types, energies, and intensities are unique to it, and these are keys

to its identification. The unstable radionuclide is transformed during this process into a new nuclide,

which is typically stable. Radionuclides that are still radioactive after one transformation, continue

through a series of one or more further transformations until a stable atom is formed. This series of

transformations, called a “decay” chain, is typical of the very heavy natural elements like uranium and

thorium. The first radionuclide in the chain is called the parent radionuclide, and the subsequent products

of the transformation are called progeny, daughters, or transformation products. To summarize, radioactive decay results in a stable nuclide or a less unstable nuclide than the parent. 
IONIZING RADIATION 33

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Naturally-occurring radionuclides can be classified as either primordial (present from ancient times) or

cosmogenic (produced by cosmic rays). Primordial radionuclides include 40K, 238U, 235U, and 232Th, which

have existed since the earth was formed, and the series of radionuclides which each of the last three

isotopes transform through before becoming stable isotopes of lead. 40K and about half of the decay chain

radionuclides emit beta and gamma radiation while 238U, 235U, 232Th and the other half of their decay chain

isotopes emit alpha particles. Cosmogenic radionuclides (3

H, 7Be,14C, etc.) are those which are constantly

being formed in the atmosphere as cosmic rays and particles from space interact with and transform

atmospheric gases. All of these transform by emitting beta and gamma radiation. 

Natural background radiation is the combined radiation field produced by the primordial and cosmogenic

radioactive materials that are around us plus cosmic radiation from space. Everyone is exposed to this

background radiation throughout their lives, at levels that depend on the ambient concentration of those

radioactive materials and the altitude at which we live. This background radiation is the major source of

radiation exposure to humans and arises from several sources. Natural background dose rates are

frequently used as a standard of comparison for doses from various man-made sources of radiation. Manmade radiation is that which is produced by machines, such as x ray machines, and from the decay of

radioactive materials that we make. Man-made radioactive materials are those associated with nuclear

reactor operation (fission products of uranium and plutonium, and neutron activated by-product material)

and high-energy physics equipment (cyclotrons and particle accelerators that bombard targets with

charged particles). A number of short-lived radionuclides are produced and used daily in the medical

field to diagnose and treat illness. Currently-available equipment and methods can be used to produce

radionuclides of any known element, and to even create new elements as scientists attempt to understand

the atom more completely. Both naturally occurring and anthropogenic radionuclides have numerous

applications in diagnostic and therapeutic medicine, industrial products, consumer products, and in

scientific and industrial research. Trace amounts of some specific radionuclides remain in the

environment, or have been redistributed in the environment, as a result of these applications and also from

the production, testing, and use of nuclear weapons.
IONIZING RADIATION 34

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.2.3 Principles of Radioactive Transformation

The stability of an atom is the result of the balance of the forces among the components of the nucleus. 

High-energy physicists exploring the nucleus have developed the field of quantum mechanics and

semiempirical equations to express the binding energies or stability of nucleons in the nucleus. One

general finding of those studies is that a nucleus with too many or too few neutrons for a given number of

protons is unstable (radioactive) and will eventually undergo transformation to achieve a more stable

energy state. Most radioactive atoms can achieve stability in one transformation, but most with atomic

masses greater than lead require several successive transformations and are said to be in a decay chain. 

Any radionuclide can be uniquely characterized by its rate of transformation and the types, energies, and

intensities of its radiations. Table 2-1 summarizes the basic characteristics of the more common types of

radiation.

Table 2-1. Characteristics of Nuclear Radiations

Typical

energy range

Path length

Radiation Rest massa Charge Air Solid Comments

Alpha (α) 4.0026 amu +2 4–10 MeV 3–10 cm 25–80 μm An electron-stripped

He nucleus

Negatron (β–

) 5.48x10-4 amu;

0.51 MeV

–1 0–4 MeV 0–15 m 0–1 cm Identical to electron

Positron (β+

) 5.48x10-4 amu;

0.51 MeV

+1 0-4 MeV 0–15 m 0–1 cm Identical to electron

except for sign of

charge

Neutron 1.0086 amu;

939.55 MeV

0 0–15 MeV b 0–100 cm Free half-life: 

10.4 min

x ray (e.m. photon) – 0 5 keV–100 keV b b Photon from transition

of an electron

between atomic orbits

Gamma (p)(e.m. photon) – 0 10 keV–3 MeV b b Photon from nuclear

transformation

a

The rest mass (in amu) has an energy equivalent in MeV that is obtained using the equation E=mc2, where 1 amu = 9 32 MeV. b

Path lengths are not applicable to x- and gamma rays since their intensities decrease exponentially

amu = atomic mass unit; e.m. = electromagnetic; keV = KiloElectron Volts; MeV = MegaElectron Volts
IONIZING RADIATION 35

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

The mode of transformation refers to the way the parent radionuclide undergoes its transformation. The

modes that are most significant to public health are alpha and beta decay with the subsequent emission of

gamma radiation, although others, such as electron capture and spontaneous fission, also occur in certain

radionuclides. Alpha decay occurs among those radionuclides, such as the uranium isotopes, with

sufficient excess nuclear energy to eject part of their mass, which is always a packet containing two

protons and two neutrons, called an alpha particle. One of two types of beta decay occurs among the

other radionuclides, and the type (negatron or positron) depends on the availability of neutrons to stabilize

the nucleus. For neutron-rich nuclei, like those formed in nuclear reactors, a neutron converts to a proton

and a negatively charged beta particle called a negatron, or simply a beta particle. For neutron-poor

radionuclides, such as those produced using particle accelerators, a proton converts to a neutron and the

nucleus emits a positively-charged beta particle called a positron. The two types of beta decay are often

referred to generically as beta decay. One reason is that both positrons and negatrons are the same

particle, an electron, but with different charges. Another mode of transformation for a neutron-poor

nucleus is electron capture, in which the nucleus captures an orbital electron and uses it to convert a

proton into a neutron. A transformation that is available to only a few radionuclides, such as 238U, is

spontaneous fission in which the nucleus splits into two fragments of unequal mass releasing a few

neutrons and a large amount of energy. Spontaneous fission neutrons can be used to induce the chain

reactions in nuclear reactors. Some radionuclides, such as 238U, follow multiple modes with specific

frequencies. The various decay modes often leave the nucleus with a small amount of excess energy that

is released as a gamma ray. When alpha, beta, or gamma radiation interact with atoms along their paths,

the electrons they knock from interior orbitals produce vacancies which the atom corrects by cascading

electrons down from higher energy orbitals to fill the inner ones. In doing so, each electron drops to a

lower energy state and the atom emits the energy difference in the form of a photon, called an x ray. X

and gamma rays are different in their origin (electron shells or nucleus) but are indistinguishable in their

characteristics. Both are massless bundles of electromagnetic energy with sufficient energy to ionize

matter. During these transformations, the atom changes from one element into another, modifying the

structure of the electron orbitals, and in some cases emitting x rays with energies characteristic of the new

element. Characteristic x rays are useful in determining a material’s elemental makeup. 

The type of radiation may be categorized as charged particle (alpha, negatron, positron), uncharged

particle (neutron), or electromagnetic radiation (gamma and x ray). The type of radiation can also be

characterized as directly ionizing (alpha, negatron, positron, or proton) or indirectly ionizing (neutron, 
IONIZING RADIATION 36

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Figure 2-1. Transformation of 100 μCi of 32P

gamma, or x ray). X- and gamma rays are categorized as indirectly ionizing radiation because they have

no charge and it is the electrons that they liberate from atoms that produce most of the ionization.

Except for delayed neutrons emitted during the nuclear fission process, no radionuclides emit neutrons. 

For example, californium-252 (252Cf), which undergoes spontaneous nuclear fission as well as alpha

transformation, emits neutrons during the fission process. When neutrons are needed for neutron

activation analysis or for radiography, they can be produced by a nuclear reactor, a sealed 252Cf source, or

a neutron generator (an alpha emitter surrounded by an appropriate target element). An example of such a

neutron source is a mixture of a finely powdered alpha emitter, such as 210Po and beryllium (Be). The

alpha particle bombards the 9

Be isotope to produce 12C and a neutron. 

Each radionuclide has a characteristic rate of decay called the half-life, which is the time it takes for 50%

of its atoms to decay. Each radionuclide transforms at a constant rate, which is independent of the

temperature, pressure, or chemical form in which it exists. A high rate of transformation leads to a short

half-life, while a long half-life means a slow rate of transformation. During one half-life, 50% of the

radioactive atoms transform; during the next half-life, 50% of the remaining radionuclide transforms, and

so on. For example, 32P has a half-life of about 14 days. If one starts with 100 μCi of 32P on day 1, on

day 14 there will be exactly one-half, or 50 μCi of 32P remaining. After another 14 days pass, exactly 25

μCi of 32P will remain, and so on. This decrease in radioactivity is illustrated in Figure 2-1.
IONIZING RADIATION 37

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Half lives of the various radionuclides range from fractions of a second to billions of years. The amount

of radioactive material is expressed in terms of activity, which is defined as the number of disintegrations

(or transformations) in the radioactive material during 1 second or 1 minute. The traditional unit for

measurement of activity is the curie (Ci). The curie was originally defined as the activity of 1 gram of

226Ra, which is about 3.69x1010 transformations or disintegrations per second (dps). Now it is defined as

that quantity of radioactive material in which an average of 3.7x1010 atoms transform in 1 second. In the

International System (SI), the unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq). One Bq is defined as the amount of

radioactive material in which an average of 1 atom disintegrates in 1 second.

The activity of a radionuclide at time t may be calculated by the equation:

A = Aoe-0.693t/T(phys)

where A is the activity in appropriate units, such as Ci, Bq, or dps; Ao is the activity at time zero; t is the

time that has elapsed; and Tphys is the physical radioactive half-life of the radionuclide. Tphys and t must be

in the same time units.

2.2.4 Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Radiation will interact with matter: it will lose kinetic energy to any solid, liquid, or gas through which it

passes; this occurs by several mechanisms and at different rates. The partial or complete transfer of

energy to a medium by either electromagnetic (gamma) or particulate (alpha or beta) radiation may be

sufficient to excite electrons or to “knock out” electrons from the absorber atoms or molecules. For those

electrons that are knocked out of the atom, the process is called ionization and is the source of the name

“ionizing radiation.” Compared to other types of radiation that may be absorbed (e.g., ultraviolet

radiation), ionizing radiation deposits a relatively large amount of energy into a small volume of matter,

possibly resulting in harmful biological effects. 

Radiation may interact with a biological medium to cause damage either directly or indirectly. A direct

effect occurs when an ionizing event disrupts a critical molecule (such as an enzyme, DNA, or RNA) by

knocking out an intramolecular bonding electron. Indirect effects occur when ionized or disrupted

molecules, mainly water (since the body is about 80% water), recombine to form chemically toxic

compounds, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (Casarett and Doull 1996). Indirect effects also involve 
IONIZING RADIATION 38

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

free radicals. Indirect effects occur when these radiolysis products diffuse and damage a nearby

biological molecule along their path. Further discussion of the direct and indirect effects of radiation is

presented in Chapter 5.

Each type of radiation is also classified as to its directness (directly or indirectly ionizing) and its ionizing

density (linear energy transfer). Radiations that produce significant ionization themselves (alpha, beta)

are called directly ionizing radiation, while those that produce minimal primary ionization (gamma, x ray,

neutron) are called indirectly ionizing radiation. The amount of energy that the radiation transfers per

unit of path length is called its linear energy transfer (LET) and is measured in units of MeV/μm. This

feature reflects a radiation’s ability to produce biological damage. Radiation is classified as either high

linear energy transfer (high LET) or low linear energy transfer (low LET), based on the amount of energy

it transfers per unit path length it travels. Alpha radiation is high LET; beta and gamma radiation are low

LET. Alpha particles are classified as high LET radiation because their large +2 charge and relatively

large mass (about 7,200 times that of an electron) cause them to move relatively slowly and interact

strongly with any material they pass through, producing dense ionization along its path. Beta particles,

which are energetic electrons, are classified as low LET radiation. Even though they interact with matter

in a manner similar to alpha particles, their smaller +1 or -1 charge and smaller mass result in a greater

distance between ionizing collisions and, thus, a lower rate of energy transfer. Gamma rays are indirectly

ionizing radiation. Depending on its energy and the atomic number of the absorbing material, a gamma

ray photon interacts with an absorber atom by one of three primary mechanisms (photoelectric

interaction, Compton scattering, and pair production), which results in the production of highly energetic

electrons, which dissipate their energy by interacting with other atoms in their path in exactly the same

manner as beta particles (which are electrons) and excite and ionize these atoms. Since the ionizations

resulting from gamma radiation are due to electrons, gamma radiation is a low LET radiation. 

Both high and low LET interactions can cause significant damage to the DNA and can result in a wide

array of biological effects. Radiation can also react with molecules other than DNA (lipids, proteins,

water, etc.) to produce free radicals, which can then go on to adversely react with the DNA molecule. 

Regardless of the method of energy transfer, DNA is the primary molecule of concern for effects from

low level radiation because DNA damage from radiation and from other sources is cumulative and can

(but does not always) result in carcinogenesis or other adverse cellular events months or years after

exposure. 
IONIZING RADIATION 39

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.2.5 Characteristics of Emitted Radiation

2.2.5.1 Alpha Radiation 

Alpha radiation has little penetrating power compared with other types of radiation. The alpha particle is

hazardous only if there is internal exposure (i.e., from a radionuclide that has been ingested, inhaled, or

otherwise absorbed internally) (see Table 2-2). 

An alpha particle is composed of two protons and two neutrons, and thus is a helium nucleus. When a

parent radionuclide emits an alpha particle, its atomic mass number (number of protons plus neutrons)

decreases by four and its atomic number (number of protons) decreases by two, resulting in the formation

of a different element. In nature, alpha particles come from the radioactive transformation of heavy

elements (e.g., uranium, radium, thorium, and radon) where long transformation chains produce several

successive alpha and beta particles until the resulting nuclide has a stable configuration. A specific alpha

emitting radionuclide emits monoenergetic alpha particles of discrete energies and relative intensities,

making it possible to identify each alpha emitting radionuclide by its alpha energy spectrum. 

The alpha particle’s electrical charge of +2 and mass number of 4, both of which are larger than most

other types of radiation, cause it to interact strongly with matter. This relatively slow-moving, highly

charged, high LET particle spends a relatively long time in the vicinity of each atom it passes; this

enables it to pull electrons easily off those atoms. With a mass about 7,200 times that of each electron,

each interaction has only a small effect on its velocity, but the strong interaction with each atom it

encounters causes it to lose energy very quickly. As a result of these characteristics, the alpha particle has

less penetrating power than other types of radiation. Typically, an alpha particle cannot penetrate an

ordinary sheet of paper. Its range in air (the distance the charged particle travels from the point of origin

to its resting point) is approximately 3–10 cm; in biological tissue, the range decreases dramatically to

25–80 μm (see Table 2-1). Thus, alpha particles deposit all of their energy in a small volume. Once its

energy is expended, the alpha particle will combine with two electrons to become a helium atom, which

does not chemically react with biological material.
IONIZING RADIATION 40

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 2-2. Effective Half-Lives of Selected Radionuclides in Major Adult Body Organs

Half-life

Radionuclide Critical organ Physical Biological Effective

Tritium (3

H) a Whole body 12.3 yr 12 d 12d

Iodine-131 (131I) Thyroid 8 d 138 d 7.6 d

Strontium-90 (90Sr) Bone 28 yr 50 yr 18 yr

Plutonium-239 (239Pu) Bone 24,400 yr 200 yr 198 yr

Lung 24,400 yr 500 yr 500

Cobalt-60 (60Co) Whole body 5.3 yr 9.5 d 9.5 d

Iron-55 (55Fe) Spleen 2.7 yr 600 d 388 d

Iron-59 (59Fe) Spleen 45.l d 600 d 41.9 d

Manganese-54 (54Mn) Liver 303 d 25 d 23 d

Cesium-137 (137Cs) Whole body 30 yr 70 d 70 d

a Mixed in body water as tritiated water

d = days; yr = years

2.2.5.2 Beta Radiation 

A beta particle is a high-velocity electron ejected from a transforming nucleus. This occurs when a

nuclide has a nucleus that is very unstable because it has too many or too few neutrons to stabilize the

number of protons. The particle may be either a negatively charged electron, called a negatron (β-

), or a

positively charged electron, called a positron (β+

). 

Beta minus or negatron (β-

) transformation is a process by which a radionuclide with too many neutrons

achieves stability. It does not stabilize by emitting an extra neutron; instead, a neutron changes into a

proton and the nucleus emits a negatron (β-

) and an antineutrino (see glossary). This nuclear transformation results in the formation of a different element with one more proton, one fewer neutron, and the

same mass number as the original nucleus. The energy spectrum of a beta particle ranges from zero to a

specific maximum, which is a characteristic of that particular radionuclide, with the mean energy of the

beta spectrum being about one-third of the maximum. Overexposure to negatron-emitting radionuclides

outside the body can cause more injury to the skin and superficial body tissues than alpha particles or

gamma radiation. They are even more harmful as an internal radiation hazard when excessive amounts

are taken into the body. 

Beta positive (β+

), or positron, transformation occurs when there are not enough neutrons (or too many

protons) in the nucleus. In this case, a proton changes into a neutron and the nucleus emits a positron (β+

) 
IONIZING RADIATION 41

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

and a neutrino (see glossary). This nuclear transformation results in the formation of a different element

with one more neutron, one less proton, and the same atomic mass number as the original nucleus. The

positron is a very reactive species; when sufficiently slowed through successive ionizing collisions, it will

combine with an electron. At this point, the electron-positron pair is annihilated (their combined mass is

converted into energy in the form of two gamma ray photons of 0.51 MeV each). The gamma radiation

resulting from the annihilation (see glossary) of the positron makes all positron-emitting isotopes more of

an external radiation hazard than pure negatron (β-

) emitters of equal energy. The neutrino in β+

transformation and the antineutrino in β- transformation are not known to produce any biological damage.

2.2.5.3 Gamma Radiation 

Gamma radiation is the main source of external radiation hazard because it is highly penetrating.

Radioactive transformation by alpha or beta emission often leaves the nucleus in an excited energy state

with some residual energy. The nucleus cannot remain in this elevated energy state indefinitely, and will

eventually release this energy and achieve ground state, or the lowest possible stable energy level. The

energy is released in the form of gamma radiation (high-energy photons) and is equal to the change in the

energy state of the nucleus. Gamma rays are low LET because the average distance between ionizations

is large and they liberate energetic electrons when absorbed in matter. The liberated electrons are also

low LET.

Gamma radiation and x rays are types of electromagnetic radiations that behave identically but differ in

their origin; gamma emissions originate in the nucleus while x rays originate in the orbital electron

structure, or from the slowing down or stopping of highly energetic beta particles or electrons. The x rays

that originate in the orbital structure are called characteristic x rays, and are useful in chemical analysis

while those due to stopping high speed electrons are called bremsstrahlung.

2.2.6 Estimation of Energy Deposition in Human Tissues

Humans can be exposed externally from radiation sources outside the body, or internally from radioactive

material deposited inside the body. Internally deposited radioactive material is more hazardous than

external (superficial or skin) deposition. Internal exposures occur when radionuclides that have entered

the body through the inhalation, ingestion, or dermal pathways undergo radioactive transformation 
IONIZING RADIATION 42

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

resulting in the deposition of energy to internal cells and organs. This radioactive material may be

eliminated quickly (hours to days) or may result in a long-term retention pattern of the radionuclide

(weeks to years). 

When radioactive material is inside a living organism, either naturally or as the result of an accidental

intake, the radioactive material is eliminated by both radioactive transformation and biological removal. 

A rate constant called the biological half-time (Tbiol) is the time required for the sum of all of the available

biological processes to eliminate one-half of the retained radioactivity. This time is the same for both

stable and radioactive isotopes of any given element since they behave identically in the body. The time

required for a radioactive element to be halved as a result of the combined action of radioactive

transformation and biological elimination is the effective half-time (Teff), and is described in the equation:

Teff = (Tbiol x Tphys)/(Tbiol + Tphys).

This basic equation is typically more complicated in reality because the biological half-time can differ

from one organ to another within the body. In addition, radioactive material distributes throughout the

body and its radiations may penetrate to and expose tissues other than those in which it was deposited. 

Current internal dosimetry methods account for these multiple clearance rates and the distribution of

radioactive material in the body. (See Table 2-2 for representative effective half-times of some

radionuclides.)

External exposures occur when the body is irradiated directly from sources located outside the body, such

as radiation from radionuclides on ground surfaces, dissolved in water, or dispersed in the air. In general,

external exposures are from gamma-emitting radionuclides, from which the radiation readily penetrates

the skin and internal organs. Beta and alpha radiation from external sources are far less penetrating and

deposit their energy primarily on the skin's outer layer. High levels of beta contamination of the skin may

lead to skin burns. However, while the skin dose from beta radiation may be very high, the beta

contribution to the total body dose from external radiation, compared to that contributed by gamma rays,

may be small.

Characterizing the radiation dose to persons or laboratory animals from external radiation is relatively

simple, but determining the dose from internal radiation is a complex issue. However, through the use of

physiologically-based mathematical models, the dose from internal exposure can be estimated with a

sufficient degree of accuracy to establish reliable radiation safety standards. 
IONIZING RADIATION 43

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.3 FUNDAMENTALS OF IONIZING RADIATION DOSIMETRY

2.3.1 Dose Units

In radiation biology, the term “dose” refers to the amount of energy that radiation deposits in an organ or

tissue as it passes through rather than to the energy of that radiation or the quantity of radioactive material

that is present. 

Absorbed dose is the energy absorbed per unit mass of the absorber. The traditional unit of absorbed dose

is the rad, with 1 rad = 100 ergs of energy deposited in 1 gram = 0.01 joule of energy/kg in any irradiated

medium. The SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy), which is equivalent to 100 rad or 1 J/kg. 

External radiation dose is obtained by multiplying the radiation dose rate (measured using instruments) by

the exposure time. Internal radiation dose at different sites within the body can be obtained from a

knowledge of the quantity of radioactive material present; the uptake fraction and the distribution and

retention kinetics of the chemical species involved; the type, energy, and intensity of its radiations; and

the energy transfer parameters for those radiations to the tissues involved; and the radioactive half-life. 

An exposure is classified as "acute" or "chronic" depending on how long an individual or organ was

exposed to the radiation. For internally deposited radionuclides, it is the effective half-life (which

accounts for clearance by radioactive decay and chemical elimination) which determines whether the

radiation dose is of acute, intermediate, or chronic duration. For an acute-duration intake of a radioactive

material, a very short effective half-life results in an acute-duration radiation dose, but a very long

effective half-life results in an intermediate- or chronic-duration radiation dose.

The roentgen (R) is the unit of x ray or gamma radiation exposure related to the intensity of an x ray or

gamma radiation field, and is measured by the amount of ionization caused in air by x ray or gamma

radiation. One roentgen produces 2.58x10-4 coulomb per kg of air. In the case of gamma radiation, over

the commonly encountered range of photon energy, the energy deposition in tissue for an exposure of 1 R

is 0.0096 J/kg of tissue (0.96 rad) which for most purposes is about equal to 1 rad. Thus, although the

roentgen is a unit of x ray exposure (not dose), it continues to be used for radiation safety measurements 

because an exposure of 1 R leads to a dose of approximately 1 rad. An exposure of 1 R is considered a

dose equivalent of 1 rem (0.01 sievert). The dose equivalent units, the rem and the sievert, are discussed 
IONIZING RADIATION 44

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

below in Section 2.3.3. Health physics survey meters that are used to measure external x ray or gamma

radiation are usually calibrated in units or subunits of R (roentgens) per hour.

External doses are measured directly with radiation dosimeters or calculated from hand-held survey meter

readings as the product of the exposure time and the dose rate in rad/unit time. Internal doses, however,

are not measured directly; they are calculated with data obtained from measurements of radiation

emissions from the body or from the radioactivity in excreta samples in counts/unit time. The radioactive

material(s) are identified and their radiation characteristics are used to calculate the activity inside the

body in curies or becquerels. Physiologically based biokinetic models are then used to calculate the dose

from the radioactive materials take into the body. For radiation safety purposes and for regulatory

requirements, the dose is multiplied by the quality factor Q rem/rad, for that specific radiation to convert

rad to rem. Special units are used to describe the concentration and exposure to radon and its progeny.

Certain types of radiation with short-lived progeny are measured in units called working levels (WL). 

The potential inhalation hazard from atmospheric radioisotopes 222Rn and 220Rn (thoron) is due to their

short-lived progeny. The concentration of these short-lived progeny (218Po through 214 Po from 222Rn and

216Po through 212Po from 220Rn) is measured by the working level (WL). One WL is defined as any

combination of short-lived radon daughters per L of air that will result in the emission of l.3x105

 MeV of

alpha energy. An activity concentration of 100 picocuries (pCi) of 222Rn per L of air, in equilibrium with

its daughters, corresponds to 1 WL. The WL unit for thoron (220Rn) daughters at 50% equilibrium is 14.8

pCi/L. Thoron daughters in radioactive equilibrium with thoron at a concentration of 7.43 pCi/L

represents 1 WL. The total radiation dose to radon progeny is commonly expressed in working level

months (WLM) units. One WLM corresponds to exposure to a concentration of 1 WL for the reference

period of 170 working hours per month, or to a concentration of 0.5 WL for 340 hours, etc.

2.3.2 Dosimetry Models

Physiologically based biokinetic dosimetry models are used to estimate the dose from radioactive material

taken into the body. The models for internal dosimetry consider the quantity of radionuclides entering the

body, the factors affecting their movement or transport through the body, the distribution and retention of

radionuclides in the body, and the energy deposited in organs and tissues from the radiation that is

emitted during spontaneous transformation processes. The dose pattern for radioactive materials in the 
IONIZING RADIATION 45

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

body may be strongly influenced by the route of entry of the material. The most frequent exposure routes

for industrial workers have been inhalation of radioactive particles with pulmonary deposition and

puncture wounds with subcutaneous deposition. 

Ingestion. Ingestion of radioactive materials is most likely to occur from contaminated food and

water, or by eventually swallowing inhaled compounds initially deposited in the lung but transported to

the throat by the mucociliary clearance pathway. Ingestion of an excessive amount of radioactive

material may result in toxic effects as a result of either absorption of the radionuclide from the intestine,

irradiation of the gastrointestinal tract during passage through the tract, or a combination of both. The

fraction of radioactive material absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract is variable, depending on the

specific element, its chemical and physical form, the diet, and the individual’s own metabolic and

physiological factors. The absorption of some elements is influenced by age, usually with higher

absorption rates in very young animals. These factors are quantitatively considered in the model that

describes the gastrointestinal tract in terms of four compartments—stomach, small intestine, upper large

intestine, and lower large intestine—and a fifth compartment that includes all the body fluids (NCRP

1988).

Inhalation. The inhalation route is a major route of exposure for radioactive materials. The deposition

site of particles within the lung is largely dependent upon the size of the particles being inhaled. After the

particle is deposited, the retention will depend upon the physical and chemical properties of the dust, the

physiological status of the lung, and the site of deposition. There are at least three distinct mechanisms

that operate simultaneously to remove or clear radioactive material from the lung. Ciliary clearance acts

only in the upper respiratory tract (i.e., trachea and the major and minor conducting airways of the lung). 

Cilia, short hairlike filaments growing out of the lining cells of the upper respiratory tract, are covered by

the layer of mucous in the upper respiratory tract. The cilia move in a synchronized beating motion that

pushes the mucous blanket, on which the large sized inhaled particles are deposited, upwards into the

throat. There the particles can be coughed up or swallowed. The second and third mechanisms,

phagocytosis and systemic absorption following dissolution of a particle, act mainly in the deep

respiratory tract. Phagocytosis is the engulfing of foreign bodies by alveolar macrophages and their

subsequent removal either up the ciliary "escalator" or by entrance into the lymphatic system. These

factors are considered by the biokinetic model of the respiratory tract. This model includes four major

compartments— extra-thoracic region (nasal airways and throat), tracheo-bronchial region (windpipe and

bronchi), pulmonary region (alveolar area from which oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse into and out of
IONIZING RADIATION 46

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

the blood), and pulmonary lymph node region. Dosimetric lung models are reviewed by NCRP (1994),

James (1987, 1994) and James and Roy (1987).

Internal emitters. When a radionuclide is ingested or inhaled, it becomes an internal emitter. The

absorbed dose from an internally deposited radionuclide is determined by the concentration of absorbed

energy in the tissue. Thus, the dose to an organ or tissue depends on its mass, the quantity of radioactive

material introduced into the organ, the length of time that the radioactivity remains in the organ

(represented by the effective half-life), and the energy and type of radiation. Since alpha and beta

particles travel only short distances, all alpha particle energy and all or most beta particle energy is

absorbed in the tissue that contains the radioactive material. Many common radionuclides also emit

gamma rays that are so penetrating that a significant number escape from that tissue and interact with

remote portions of the body, or pass out of the body entirely without interacting. For this reason, the

gamma radiation dose to an organ considers both the dose from radioactive material in that organ plus the

exposure from the gamma emitter deposited in other organs in the body. For a radionuclide distributed

uniformly throughout an infinitely large medium, the concentration of absorbed energy must be equal to

the concentration of energy emitted by the isotope. An infinitely large medium may be approximated by

a tissue mass whose dimensions exceed the range of the particulate radiation. All of the alpha radiation

(due to its very short traveling distance in biological tissue) and most of the beta radiation will be

absorbed in the organ (or tissue of reference).

2.3.3 Terms Used in Radiation Safety Practice and Regulation

The terms defined below are also included in the glossary in Chapter 9.

Absorbed dose. The energy imparted by radiation per unit mass of irradiated material is called the

absorbed dose. The units of absorbed dose are the rad, in traditional units, and the gray (Gy), in SI units. 

(See “Units of radiation dose” for more information on absorbed dose).

ALARA. This acronym for “As Low As is Reasonably Achievable” refers to the practice of making

every effort to keep exposure to radiation as far below the dose limit as possible while still achieving the

purpose for which the radiation is intended to be used. It takes into account the state of technology, the

economics of improvements in relation to state of technology, the economics of improvements in relation 
IONIZING RADIATION 47

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

to benefits to the public health and safety, and other societal and socioeconomic considerations. In

addition, ALARA is applied to the utilization of nuclear energy and licensed materials in the public interest.

ALI. This acronym for “Annual Limit on Intake” is the derived limit for the amount of radioactive

material taken into the body of an adult worker by inhalation or ingestion in a year. For a given

radionuclide, ALI is defined as the smaller of the intakes that would result in a committed effective dose

equivalent of 5 rem (0.05 Sv) or a committed dose equivalent of 50 rem (0.5 Sv) to any individual organ

or tissue. Committed dose equivalent is the total dose equivalent that radioactive material internalized in

a particular year will deliver to the body in that and all subsequent years out to 50 years after the intake. 

For radionuclides with effective half-lives of a month or less, essentially all the radiation dose will be

delivered in the same year as the radioactive material intake, and the committed dose equivalent equals

the dose equivalent received that year. However, radionuclides with longer half-lives remain in and

expose the body for more than 1 year, and the committed dose equivalent accounts for this by summing

the estimated dose equivalents produced by the radioactive material during the current year and every

year out to 50 years.

Dose equivalent (H). The dose equivalent is used in radiation safety dosimetry to account for

differences in biological effectiveness among the various radiations. The same energy imparted

(absorbed dose) may result in different levels of biological effects for α, β, and γ rays. To account for the

differences in biological effectiveness, a normalizing factor is used. The normalizing factor (Q) is used as

a multiplier of the radiation absorbed dose (D) to give the dose equivalent. The dose equivalent,

symbolized by H, is expressed in units of rem in the traditional system of units and in sievert (Sv) units in

the SI (international) measuring system (100 rem = 1 sievert). This relationship is expressed as

H = D×Q

Effective dose equivalent (HE). The effective dose equivalent is used for radiation safety purposes

and for regulatory purposes to account for the relative susceptibility of the various organs and tissues to

radiation-induced non-deterministic or stochastic effects (principally cancer) in cases of non-uniform

irradiation. The basis for the effective dose equivalent concept is that the probability of a nondeterministic effect from non-uniform irradiation should be equal to that due to uniform whole body

irradiation. The effective dose equivalent is found by multiplying the dose equivalent (HT) to each

irradiated tissue or organ by a tissue weighting factor, WT, and then summing these products for all the

irradiated tissues, as shown in the equation

HE = G(WT×HT)
IONIZING RADIATION 48

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

WT represents the fraction of the probability of a non-deterministic effect resulting from irradiation of that

tissue to the total probability of a non-deterministic effect when the whole body is uniformly irradiated. 

The values for WT used by the USNRC and ICRP are listed below in Table 2-3.

For occupational exposure, the USNRC specifies an upper limit of 5 rem (0.05 Sv) in 1 year for the

effective dose equivalent. The regulations also specify an upper annual limit of 50 rem (0.5 Sv) for all

organs and tissues except the lens of the eye, for which an annual maximum of 15 rem (0.15 Sv) is

prescribed.

Table 2-3. Tissue Weighting Factors Used by the USNRC and ICRP to Calculate 

Effective Dose

Tissue USNRC Weighting factor

for Effective Dose Equivalent

(ICRP 1977; USNRC 1997a)

ICRP Weighting factor

for Effective Dose

(ICRP 1991)

Whole body 1.00 a –

Gonads 0.25 0.20

Breast 0.15 0.05

Red bone marrow 0.12 0.12

Lung 0.12 0.12

Thyroid 0.03 0.05

Bone surface 0.03 0.01

Colon – 0.12

Stomach – 0.12

Bladder – 0.05

Liver – 0.05

Esophagus – 0.05

Skin – 0.01

Remainder 0.30 b 0.05

a

The whole body weighting factor was introduced by the USNRC and is not addressed by either the ICRP or the

NCRP.

b

0.30 results from 0.06 being assigned to each of the five remaining organs (excluding the skin and lens of the eye)

that receive the highest doses.

External dose. Radiation dose from a radiation source originating from outside of the body.

Health physics. Health physics is the science concerned with recognition, evaluation, and control of

health hazards from ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Health physics covers environmental,

occupational, and medical areas, and includes radiobiology and the study of mechanisms of health effects. 
IONIZING RADIATION 49

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

The scientific and engineering aspects of health physics deal with the measurement of radiation and

radioactivity, the establishment of dose-response relationships for radiation exposure, movement of

radioactivity through the body and the environment, the design of radiologically safe processes and

equipment, and the maintenance of a radiologically safe environment. The health physicist is the

professional who deals with radiation safety.

Internal dose. Radiation dose from radioactive material inside the body.

Quality factor (Q). For health physics purposes, a normalizing factor, called the quality factor (Q), is

applied to the radiation absorbed dose to account for the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of the

different radiations. The numerical values for the quality factors are determined by a committee of

experts, and are based on a conservative upper limit of the RBE for the biological effect believed to be of

the greatest interest to humans. Values for Q that are used in the USNRC safety standards in the Code of

Federal Regulations (CFR) 10, Part 20, are listed below in Table 2-4.

Table 2-4. Quality Factors Used in USNRC Radiation Safety Regulations

Type of radiation Quality factor (Q)

Alpha particles, multiple charged particles, fission fragments, and heavy charged

particles

20

x rays, gamma rays, electrons, negatrons, or positrons 1

Thermal neutrons 2

Fast neutrons, neutrons of unknown energy, or high-energy protons 10

 Source: USNRC 1997a 

Relative biological effectiveness (RBE). The toxicity of a given absorbed radiation dose depends

on the LET of the radiation: the higher the LET, the more toxic is the radiation and the smaller is the dose

needed to produce a specific biological end point. To account for this LET effect, radiobiologists use the

term relative biological effectiveness (RBE). The RBE for any radiation is typically defined as the ratio

of the dose from 200 keV x rays required for a given biological effect to the dose that would produce the

same effect with that radiation. RBEs can also be defined for specific scenarios that compare the effects

of different radiation types or energies on producing the same end point. The term RBE is restricted in

application to radiobiology. 
IONIZING RADIATION 50

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Units of radioactive material. The following two units of radioactivity are commonly used when

describing the quantity of radioactivity:

Becquerel (Bq). The SI unit of measure for radioactive material; one becquerel equals that

quantity of radioactive material in which one atom disintegrates in one second.

Curie (Ci). The conventional unit used to measure the quantity of radioactive material. The curie

is equal to that quantity of radioactive material in which 37 billion atoms transform per second. 

This is approximately the activity of 1 g of radium. 

Units of radiation dose. The International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements

(ICRU 1980), International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP 1984), and National Council

on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP 1985) now recommend that the traditional units: rad,

roentgen, curie, and rem be replaced by the SI units: gray (Gy), coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), becquerel

(Bq), and sievert (Sv), respectively. However, the regulations used in the United States are written with

the traditional units or with both traditional and SI units. The following four dosimetric units are

commonly used:

Gray (Gy). The SI unit of absorbed dose. One gray = 1 J/kg = 100 rad.

Rad. The unit of absorbed dose. One rad = 100 erg/g = 0.01 Gy.

Sievert (Sv). The SI unit of dose equivalent, equal to absorbed dose in gray multiplied by the

quality factor. One Sv = 100 rem.

Rem. The conventional unit of dose equivalent. One rem = 0.01 Sv.

The relationship between the traditional units and the international system of units (SI) for radiological

quantities is shown in Table 2-5.
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2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 2-5. Common and SI Units for Radiation Quantities

Quantity Traditional units SI units Relationship

Activity (A) curie (Ci) becquerel (Bq) 1 Ci = 3.7x1010 Bq

1 Bq = 1 dps, 1 S-1

Absorbed dose (D) rad gray (Gy) 1 rad = 0.01 Gy

1 Gy = 1 Jkg-1

Dose equivalent (H) rem sievert (Sv) 1 rem = 0.01 Sv

1 Sv = 1 Jkg-1

dps = transformations per second; Jkg-1 = Joules per kilogram; S-1 = per second

Source: Shleien 1992

Weighting factor (WT). This factor is used for radiation safety purposes to account for the different

sensitivities of the various organs and tissues to the induction of non-deterministic radiation effects.

Other terms used in discussions of radiation protection and regulation include: bioassay, collective dose,

embryo/fetus, eye dose equivalent, public dose, shallow dose equivalent, total effective dose equivalent,

whole body, and working level. These terms and their definitions may be found in Chapter 9.

2.4 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

Radiation interactions within the body produce microscopic subcellular-level effects that may result in

cellular responses and, in the aggregate, may ultimately produce macroscopically observable effects on

specific organs or tissues, such as the skin, eye lenses, and thyroid. 

Irradiation of biological tissue sets into motion a series of intracellular biochemical events that start with

ionization of a molecule, and which may ultimately lead to cellular injury. Injury to a large number of

cells may, in turn, lead to further injury to the organ and to the organism. Many factors may modify the

response of a living organism to a given dose of radiation. Factors related to the dose include the dose

rate, the energy and type of radiation, and the temporal pattern of the exposure. Biological factors include

species, age, sex, the portion of the body tissues exposed, and repair mechanisms. A generally applicable

rule of thumb is the Law of Bergonie3 and Tribondeau, based on their research in 1906, which states that

cells are sensitive to radiation damage if they have a high mitotic rate, a long mitotic cycle, and are not

specialized (undifferentiated) (Casarett and Alison 1968). In addition, the concurrent exposure to 
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2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

radiation and other substances may result in antagonistic, additive, or synergistic effects, such as the

synergism between ionizing and ultraviolet radiation to produce skin cancer.

The DNA is considered to be the primary target molecule for radiation toxicity. Molecular damage,

which includes damage to the DNA, can occur in one of two ways from an exposure to radiation. First,

radiation can interact directly with the DNA, resulting in single or double-strand DNA breaks or

unbonding base pairs. Second, radiations can interact directly with other surrounding molecules within or

outside of the cell, such as water, to produce free radicals and active oxygen species. These reactive

molecules, in turn, interact with the DNA and/or other molecules within the cell (cell membranes,

mitochondria, lipids, proteins, etc.) to produce a wide range of damage at the cellular and tissue levels of

the organism. High LET radiation is an efficient producer of free radicals and H2O2, both of which can

act directly on macromolecules. About 66% of the damage from low LET radiation and about 50% of the

damage from high LET radiation comes from aqueous radiolytic products.

Regardless of how the DNA is damaged, the mammalian body has remarkable abilities to repair its

damaged DNA. Mammalian DNA repair schemes, classified as either direct or indirect repair

mechanisms, include many mechanisms such as nucleotide excision (via endonuclease), base excision

(via DNA glycosylase), and mismatch repair. The success or failures of these inherent DNA repair

systems depend on many factors, such as the dose and dose rate of radiation received and the tissue that

received the radiation. Depending on the dose and the tissue exposed, inherent DNA repair mechanisms

may be highly successful, resulting in total repair of the DNA. These mechanisms may fail completely if

the repair mechanism is overwhelmed with very high doses of radiation, or may fail to repair all of the

DNA damage caused by lower doses of radiation. This failure can result in necrosis due to cell death,

apoptosis (programmed cell death), altered cell function, or the development of neoplastic cells several

years after the damage occurred. DNA repair systems may be able to adequately repair the radiation

damage to the DNA itself, but may do nothing to protect the irradiated cell from damage to other cellular

structures (membranes, mitochondria, etc.) by the radiation (Zajtchuk 1989). Other repair mechanisms

must be employed to protect the cell against these injuries.

Several protective strategies are used to minimize the damage from free radicals and reactive oxygen

species that occur in cells exposed to high acute doses of radiation. Some of these methods include

hypoxia (protective at high dose; can be observed for cell killing at doses >1 Gy), which decreases the 
IONIZING RADIATION 53

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

amount of oxygen available to form such reactive species; hypothermia; the use of free radical scavenging

agents (aminothiols, vitamins A, E, and C); and eicosanoids. These methods have been used in special

cases, such as in radiation therapy of tumors, to protect the surrounding healthy tissue. Genetic methods

(repair by hydrogen transfer, regeneration) are also being investigated (Zajtchuk 1989).

The study of the mechanisms by which radiation exerts its toxicological effects is an important and

constantly evolving field of toxicology. More information on the mechanisms of action of radiation can

be found in Chapter 5 of this toxicological profile. Several excellent reviews of the biological effects of

radiation have been published, and the reader is referred to these for a more in-depth discussion (BEIR V

1990; ICRP 1984; Kondo 1993; Rubin and Casarett 1968). A general overview of the health effects of

alpha, beta, and gamma types of radiation in some types of biological tissue is presented below; more indepth information on the health effects of radiation is presented in Chapters 3 and 5 of this toxicological

profile (UNSCEAR 1993).

2.4.1 Radiation Effects at the Cellular Level

According to Mettler and Moseley (1985), at acute doses up to 10 rad (0.1 Gy), single-strand breaks in

DNA may be produced. These single-strand breaks may be repaired rapidly. With doses in the range of

50 to 500 rad (0.5–5 Gy), irreparable double-strand DNA breaks are likely, resulting in cellular

reproductive death after one or more divisions of the irradiated cell. At large doses of radiation, usually

greater than 500 rad (5 Gy), direct cell death before division (interphase death) may occur from the direct

interaction of free radicals with essential cellular macromolecules. Morphological changes at the cellular

level, the severity of which is dose-dependent, may also be observed at this dose level. Specific clinical

symptoms and other health effects associated with different doses of radiation are discussed in Chapter 3

of this profile.

The sensitivity of various cell types within an organism may vary widely, depending on specific cell and

tissue characteristics. According to the Law of Bergonie and Tribondeau, the sensitivity of cell lines is

directly proportional to their mitotic rate and inversely proportional to the degree of differentiation

(Mettler and Moseley 1985; Rubin and Casarett 1968). This means that cells that undergo frequent

mitosis under normal physiologic circumstances or are not well-differentiated in histologic cell-type

characteristics will tend to be more susceptible to the effects of radiation than those cells in which the

converse is true. Rubin and Casarett (1968) devised a classification system that categorized cells 
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2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

according to type, function, and mitotic activity. The five categories range from the most sensitive type,

"vegetative intermitotic cells," found in the stem cells of the bone marrow and the gastrointestinal tract, to

the least sensitive cell type, "fixed postmitotic cells," found in striated muscles or long-lived neural

tissues. This classification system is shown in Table 2-6.

Cellular changes in susceptible cell types may result in cell death; extensive cell death may produce

irreversible damage to an organ or tissue, or may result in the death of the individual. If the cells recover,

altered metabolism and function may be the ultimate sequelae, and the damage imposed may be repaired

to a normal state, produce some characteristic manifestation of clinical symptoms, or result in apoptosis

(programmed cell death). If the cells are adequately repaired and relatively normal function is restored,

the more subtle DNA alterations may also be expressed at a later time as mutations and/or tumors. More

information on the genetic effects of radiation is presented in Chapter 5 of this profile.

Table 2-6. Relative Radiosensitivity of Mammalian Cells

Class Category Characteristics Cell types

I Vegetative intermitotic cells Rapidly dividing, short-lived; daughter

cells will either differentiate or form

more cells like the parent cell

Hemocytoblast, lymphoblast,

erythroblast, myelobalst,

primitive intestinal crypt cell, type

A spermatogonia, primitive

oogonia, lymphocytes

II Differentiated intermitotic

cells

Somewhat less radiosensitive than

Class I cells; rapid proliferation rates,

but daughter cells become more

radioresistant than the parent cell

Type B spermatogonia, oogonia,

cells of the intermediate stages

of erythropoiesis and

myelopoiesis

III Multipotential connective

tissue cells

Cells divide regularly in response to

injury and irritation

Endothelium, fibroblast,

mesenchymal cells.

IV Reverting postmitotic cells Normally do not undergo cell division Epithelial cells of salivary glands,

liver, kidney, pancreas, lung;

parenchymal cells of sweat

glands and endocrine glands. 

Interstitial cells of testis and

ovary

V Fixed postmitotic cells Cells that will not divide; highly

radioresistant

Mature nerve cells, muscle cells,

sperm, erythrocytes.

Source: Sanders and Kathren 1983
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2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.4.2 Radiation Effects at the Organ Level

In most organs and tissues, the injury and the underlying mechanism for that injury are complex and

involve a combination of events. The extent and severity of this tissue injury depend on the dose and the

radiosensitivity of the various cell types in that organ system. Rubin and Casarett (1968) describe and

schematically display the events following radiation in several organ system types. These include: a rapid

renewal system, such as the gastrointestinal mucous; a slow renewal system, such as the pulmonary

epithelium; and a nonrenewable system, such as neural or muscle tissue. In the rapid renewal system,

organ injury results from the direct destruction of highly radiosensitive cells, such as the stem cells in the

bone marrow. Injury may also result from constriction of the microcirculation and from edema and

inflammation of the basement membrane, which is called the histohematic barrier (HHB); the injury may

progress to fibrosis. In slow renewal and nonrenewable systems, the radiation may have little effect on

the parenchymal cells, but ultimate parenchymal atrophy and death over several months may result from

HHB fibrosis and occlusion of the microcirculation.

2.4.3 Acute and Delayed Somatic Effects

2.4.3.1 Acute Effects

The result of acute overexposure to radiation is commonly referred to as Acute Radiation Syndrome

(ARS). This effect is seen only after whole-body exposures to relatively high doses (>100 rad, >1.0 Gy)

such as might occur in a serious nuclear accident, close to a nuclear weapon detonation, or after a period

of exposure to the high radiation field of irradiator sources, such as occurred to Chernobyl on-site

responders and individuals in Goiania, Brazil (see Chapter 4). The four stages of ARS are prodrome (or

initial), latent stage, manifest illness stage, and recovery or death. The probability of the prodromal phase

is characterized by nausea, vomiting, malaise and fatigue, increased temperature, and blood changes. The

latent stage is similar to an incubation period. Subjective symptoms may subside, but changes may be

taking place within the blood-forming organs and elsewhere that will subsequently give rise to the next

stage. The manifest illness stage gives rise to signs and symptoms specifically associated with the

radiation injury: hair loss, fever, infection, hemorrhage, severe diarrhea, prostration, disorientation, and

cardiovascular collapse. Convulsions are possible at extremely high doses. The severity and time of

onset of the signs and symptoms depend upon the radiation dose received (see Chapter 3), with the time

of onset decreasing with increasing dose. 
IONIZING RADIATION 56

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.4.3.2 Delayed Effects

The level of exposure to radiation and radioactive materials that may be encountered in the environment, 

even large exposures spread over a long enough period of time, is expected to be too low to result in the

acute effects described above. Occupational and medical radiation may produce long-term effects that

manifest themselves years after the original exposure and may be due to a single elevated exposure or a

continuous low-level exposure.

Exposure to radiation has resulted in a number of adverse health effects. The rapidly dividing cells in the

developing fetus put it at a higher risk of the adverse biological effects of radiation than a post-partum

child, who in turn is more radiosensitive than an adult. External alpha (because it is non-penetrating) and

beta radiation are of little concern due to the protection afforded by the mother’s body tissues and the

placental sac; however, gamma radiation can provide a more uniform exposure to the fetus. Analysis of

the human data from the children exposed in utero by the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki suggests

that the cells of the developing central nervous system are the cells most sensitive to the effects of

radiation in the developing human fetus. The major clinical effect on these susceptible cells is impaired

intelligence and mental retardation that is observed during childhood development, mainly for those

fetuses exposed to doses of radiation during weeks 8–15 after conception. A “no observable effect”

threshold exists for doses in the range of 20–40 rad (0.2–0.4 Gy); at a dose of 100 rad (1 Gy), the

frequency of observed mental retardation was 43% (BEIR V 1990). 

The lens of the eye is also susceptible to the effects of radiation. Sufficient exposure of the lens to

radiation results in cataract formation, ranging from mild visual impairment to blindness. The lens fibers

are normally transparent and function in focusing light entering from the pupil onto the retina; however,

after exposure to large doses of radiation, these cells fail to divide to produce lens fibers of the

appropriate length or transparency. This results in increased opacity of the crystalline lens of the eye

(cataracts). Cataracts have been induced by as little as 200 rad (2 Gy) of acute gamma or x ray exposure

of the eye (Adams and Wilson 1993), but 500 rad (5 Gy) is required when fractionated over 5 weeks. 

Chronic occupational exposures to 70–100 rad (0.7–1.0 Gy) of gamma and x ray radiation have not

caused cataracts, and the higher doses at which they have been observed require the dose to be delivered

at a threshold dose rate of greater than 15 rad/yr (0.15 Gy/yr) (UNSCEAR 1993; NRC 1990). Data from

victims exposed to large doses of radiation after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki give a cataract

threshold of 60–150 rad (0.6–1.5 Gy); however, typical human exposure over a long period of time is

thought to have a threshold greater than 800 rad (8 Gy) (BEIR V 1990). This is an established example of

a radiation effects threshold that does not follow the standard linear, no-threshold theory that is applied 
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2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

only to non-deterministic effects (cancer). This observation may mean that the effect on the lenses is

actually below an effects threshold, or it could mean that the latency period for developing the effect is

longer than the current human life span.

Sufficient evidence exists from high dose studies of both human populations and laboratory animals to

establish that radiation can be carcinogenic and that the incidence of cancer increases with the dose of

radiation. Human data are extensive and include epidemiological studies of atomic bomb survivors, many

types of radiation-treated patients, underground miners, and radium dial painters. Reports on the

survivors of the atomic bomb explosions at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan (with whole-body external

radiation doses up to 200 rad [2 Gy]), indicate that cancer mortality has increased in that exposed

population compared to control (non-exposed) individuals (BEIR V 1990; Kato and Schull 1982; NCRP

1990b,1993; NRC 1990; UNSCEAR 1993). The use of x rays (at doses of approximately 100 rad [1 Gy])

in the medical treatment for ankylosing spondylitis and other non-cancerous conditions, and for

diagnostic purposes has resulted in excess cancers in the irradiated organs (BEIR 1980, 1990; UNSCEAR

1977, 1988). Leukemia has been observed in children exposed in utero to doses of 0.2 to 20 rad

(0.02–0.2 Gy) (BEIR 1980, 1990; UNSCEAR 1977, 1988). The medical use of Thorotrast (colloidal

thorium dioxide) resulted in increases in the incidence of cancers of the liver, bone, and lung (ATSDR

1990b; BEIR 1980, 1990). Occupational exposure to radiation provides further evidence of the ability of

radiation to cause cancer. Numerous studies of underground miners exposed to radon and radon

daughters (which are α emitters), in combination with silica dust, diesel fumes, and other potential

toxicants in uranium and other hard rock mines, have demonstrated increases in lung cancer in exposed

workers, especially smokers (Harley 1990b, 1996c). Workers who ingested 226Ra while painting watch

dials had an increased incidence of osteogenic sarcoma (ATSDR 1990d). Animal studies indicate that,

depending on the radiation dose and the exposure schedule, radiation can induce cancer in nearly any

tissue or organ in the body. However, radiation has not been shown to cause cancer of the prostate,

uterus, testis, and mesentery in humans (Sanders and Kathren 1983). Radiation-induced cancers in

humans are found to occur in the hemopoietic system, lung, thyroid, hepatic, bone, skin, and many other

tissues.

The effects of sex, age, smoking, and other susceptibility factors have also been reviewed (BEIR V 1990). 

Generally, cancer rates after exposure to radiation are age-dependent and increase with age. The effect of

smoking on lung cancer incidences in those individuals who also have prolonged exposure to inhaled

alpha emitters indicates a multiplicative risk (or near multiplicative risk); however, this may not be the

case for acute exposures to x rays or gamma rays. In contrast, the data on lung cancer and smoking in the

Japanese atomic bomb survivors indicate an additive risk (no interaction between radiation and smoking). 
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2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

It is not presently clear how a person’s sex influences cancer rates. Males appear to be more susceptible

to lung and non-sex-specific cancers than are females; however, this may be related to the male’s

increased exposure to carcinogens and promoting agents in occupational situations, as well as a number of

lifestyle factors, and not necessarily due to increased radiation dose.

Laboratory animal data show that high doses of radiation are carcinogenic and mutagenic, and can result

in cell lethality. These effects are not seen at low doses. This raises a question about the relationship

between high and low doses. There is uncertainty regarding the shape of the dose response curve with

regard to extrapolating from high-dose effects to effects of low doses or doses received over protracted

periods of time, where no effects have been seen. If the dose-response relationship is assumed to be

linear all the way down to zero dose, then a proportional decrease in the incidence of the effect being

measured (cancer, reciprocal chromosome translocations, locus mutations, life-span shortening, etc.) 

would be expected as the dose or dose rate of radiation decreases. However, in laboratory studies with

high doses, a dose rate effect was found. That is, an acute-duration exposure delivered over several days

required a higher dose to produce a given effect than if delivered within hours. To account for this, a

compensation factor or Dose Rate Effectiveness Factor (DREF) can be incorporated into the dose

response models to extrapolate cancer risk from high to low doses or low dose rates. For low LET

radiation, DREF factors from 2 to 10 have been suggested, with a DREF of 2.5 for human leukemia. 

Assumptions about DREF are largely based on laboratory animal data. A comprehensive discussion of

radiation-induced cancer is found in BEIR IV (1988), BEIR V (1990), and UNSCEAR (1988) and in

Chapters 3 and 5 of this toxicological profile.

Lifetime radioactive material feeding studies using Beagle dogs indicate that radiation effects may be

viewed from a perspective of life-span shortening which is linear with dose rate rather than with dose. 

Time-to-death plots as a function of dose rate show three separate sections, representing mortality from

acute radiation syndrome, cancer, and old age, each with separate linear slopes that intersect at points of

equal competing causes of death. At extreme dose rates, death is caused exclusively by acute radiation

syndrome, with time-to-death increasing with a steep linear slope as the dose rate decreases. At a low

enough dose rate, cancer replaces ARS as the primary cause of death, and the time to death curve assumes

a shallower slope. At a low enough dose rate, cancer deaths are replaced by the limit of the normal life

span (Raabi 1993, 1996).
IONIZING RADIATION 59

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.4.4 Genetic Effects

All genes have a natural and spontaneous mutation rate, but radiation can induce additional genetic

damage, such as gene mutations and a variety of chromosomal aberrations, by causing changes in the

structure, number, or genetic content of chromosomes in the cell nucleus. Radiation increases the

mutation rate. No new types of mutations are known to be produced by radiation. The evidence for the

mutagenicity of radiation is derived from studies in laboratory animals, primarily mice (BEIR 1980, 1988,

1990; UNSCEAR 1982, 1986, 1988, 1993). Evidence for genetic effects in humans is derived from tissue

cultures of human lymphocytes from persons exposed to ingested or inhaled radionuclides (ATSDR

1990d, 1990e). Evidence for mutagenesis in human germ cells (cells of the ovaries or testis) is not

conclusive (BEIR 1980, 1988, 1990; UNSCEAR 1977, 1986, 1988,1993). Chromosome aberrations

following radiation exposure have been demonstrated in humans and in experimental animals (BEIR

1980, 1988, 1990; UNSCEAR 1982, 1986, 1988,1993). This finding is not thought to be in conflict with

results of animal studies that indicate induction of mutations by radiation; instead, the finding may result

from the difficulty of demonstrating a slight increase of effects of this type in a human population

(UNSCEAR 1993). However, no genetic effects have been observed in any human population exposed to

any radiation at any dose level. An important source of data on genetic effects in humans are Japanese

survivors of the atomic bombs and their offspring. More information on the genetic effects of radiation

can be found in Chapters 3 and 5 of this toxicological profile. 

2.4.5 Teratogenic Effects

There is sufficient evidence from x ray and gamma ray studies to suggest that some forms of radiation

produce teratogenic effects in animals. Rapidly multiplying cells tend to be more sensitive to the adverse

effects of radiation than slowly multiplying cells. Leukemia and other childhood cancers are the principle

effects of in utero exposure at low doses (<100 rad [<1 Gy]). It appears that the developing fetus is more

sensitive to radiation than the mother and is most sensitive to radiation-induced damage during the early

stages of organ development (first trimester) due to the rapid cellular proliferations occurring at that time. 

The type of malformation depends on the stage of development and the cells that are undergoing the most

rapid differentiation at the time. Studies of mental retardation, intelligence reduction, microcephaly, and

growth retardation in children exposed in utero to high doses of radiation from the atomic bombs at

Hiroshima and Nagasaki provide evidence that radiation can produce teratogenic effects in human fetuses

if delivered in large enough doses during weeks 8 through 25 after conception (Otake and Schull 1984;

Zajtchuk 1989). The damage to the child was found to be related to the dose that the fetus received in

utero. In addition, numerous studies have been conducted on the carcinogenicity of in utero irradiation, 
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2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

and some appear to indicate that in utero exposure may produce a larger cancer risk per unit dose than

postnatal irradiation (NCRP 1995). Chapters 3 and 8 contain more information on the teratogenic effects

of radiation.

2.4.6 Internal Exposure to Ionizing Radiation

For the purposes of this profile, internal exposure is defined as the energy deposited in the body by the

transformation of radioactive material that is inside the body. The pathways by which radioactive

materials enter the body include inhalation, ingestion, dermal absorption, and injection. The material’s

solubility and chemical nature, and not its radioactive properties, determine the degree to which the

material will stay in one place or redistribute throughout the body. Thus, the internal radiation dose is

determined from the types and energies of emitted radiation, the rates of radioactive transformation and

biological elimination, and the distribution of the material throughout the body. The dose to one part of

the body is the sum of the doses to that part from radiation emitted from all other organs and tissues that

contain the radionuclide.

2.4.6.1 Inhalation

Inhalation is an important route by which internal exposure to radionuclides can occur. Many of the

inhalation studies discussed in Chapter 3 are further indexed by no-observed-adverse-effect level

(NOAEL) and lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) in Chapter 8 of this toxicological profile. 

The total absorbed radiation dose to a specific site, such as the lungs and any surrounding structures, is

dependent on the physicochemical characteristics of the radioactive element, the molecule in which it is

present, or the particle to which the radioactive element is bound or incorporated when deposited in the

respiratory tract. In many of the studies reported in Chapters 3 and 8 of this profile, laboratory animals

were exposed to a radionuclide that was bound to a particle of some type. The radionuclide “piggybacking” on that particle was inhaled, the initial lung burden was determined, and the health effects on the

animal observed over a period of days or over its lifespan. Particle kinetics are a major determinant in the

size of the total absorbed radiation dose that lung tissue and other tissues and organs receive from inhaled

radioactive material. Several excellent reviews are available that discuss the deposition and clearance of

inhaled particles in humans and in laboratory animals (Gore and Patrick 1978; Lippmann and Esch 1988;

Lippman and Schlesinger 1984; Schlesinger 1989; Snipes 1989; Stahlhofen et al. 1980, 1981). A brief

review is presented below. Internal radionuclide exposures may occur from direct medical administration

for diagnosis or treatment of disease, or from passive inhalation of radionuclides that are present in

normal breathing air.
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2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Particle deposition and clearance mechanisms in the respiratory tract are complex. The patterns of

deposition and clearance differ among animal species, but some generalities have been reported (Snipes

1989). As a rule of thumb, the larger the particle inhaled, the more likely that particle will be deposited in

the upper airways (nasal tract and upper conducting airways); the smaller the particle, the more likely that

alveolar and deep penetration of the particle into the lung will occur, regardless of the particle's solubility. 

Particles that are soluble in the lung fluid milieu generally have shorter residence times or biological halflives than those that are insoluble in lung fluid. These concepts are important when considering inhaled

radioactive particles. For example, particles that are 3 μm in diameter and that are also insoluble (such as

fused aluminosilicate particles [FAP]) containing a radionuclide such as 144Ce are likely to be largely

deposited deep in the lung (bronchioles and alveoli). Retention of particles deep within the lung may be

due to a number of factors, including the lack of cilia and less mucous in the smaller airways than in

larger airways (trachea and bronchi) (Snipes et al. 1996). These insoluble particles are also likely to be

cleared slowly from the respiratory tract over a period of several months or years, thereby subjecting the

tissues around that particle to long-term exposure to radiation. On the other hand, particles that are very

large (10–12 μm and above) may not reach the deep lung and will either lodge in the nasal cavity or be

cleared by mucociliary clearance from the conducting airways, resulting in a low radiation dose to the

respiratory tract (but may increase the dose to the gastrointestinal tract or nasal passages). Soluble

particles will dissolve, releasing the material into the surrounding tissue, where it will behave toxicokinetically like its nonradioactive counterpart. Leaching of radionuclides from insoluble particles has

also been reported to occur. 

Factors that influence particle clearance include: (1) particle characteristics, such as geometric size,

shape, density, hygroscopicity, and electrical charge; (2) respiratory tract characteristics, such as the

individual airway caliber, branching patterns of the conducting (tracheobronchial) airway tree, and the

path length to the terminal airways, all of which contribute further to the disposition of particles in the

respiratory tract; (3) mode of breathing (oral, nasal, oronasal), respiratory rate, tidal volume, interlobular

distribution of ventilated air, length of respiratory pauses, etc; and (4) other factors (lung disease, age of

the animal, irritant exposure, etc.) which also play significant roles in how long a particle remains lodged

in the respiratory tract. Several natural body mechanisms function to clear the respiratory tract of these

foreign bodies. Such mechanisms include sneezing, coughing, mucociliary transport, dissolution (for

highly as well as slightly soluble particles), and removal by macrophages; these decrease the particle

residence time in the respiratory tract, thereby decreasing the total radiation dose to the tissues

(Schlesinger 1989). Deposition and clearance mechanisms are important factors influencing radiation

dose from a radionuclide to lung tissue and in relating that dose to a corresponding health-related effect. 
IONIZING RADIATION 62

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.4.6.2 Ingestion

Oral exposure to radionuclides may occur with the ingestion of contaminated food or water. There is

little literature available that describes the toxicity of ingested radioactivity in humans. The main source

of information on oral toxicity of a radionuclide is the experience of the radium dial painters who "tipped"

their paint brushes with their lips and/or tongues, subsequently ingesting radioactive radium. The radium

in the paint contained both the long-lived 226Ra and the shorter-lived 228Ra isotopes. Some of these

exposed individuals later developed bone sarcomas and head carcinomas that appeared from 5 to 50 years

after their first exposure to these isotopes (Mays 1988; Spiess and Mays 1970). On the other hand,

millions of people have been given individual administrations of 200–500 MBq (5–14 mCi) of

radioiodine orally to aid in the diagnosis of thyroid disorders, with no apparent harmful effects. Although

a number of radionuclides are in widespread use, the use of 131I to treat thyroid conditions predominates

worldwide, and radiopharmaceuticals administered by various routes currently produce an estimated

population dose of 930,000 man-rem/yr (9,300 man-Sv/yr) (UNSCEAR 1993). 

For most radionuclides present at chemical waste sites containing low-levels of radioactive isotopes, oral

exposure is not a major route of exposure; however, the oral exposure route cannot be disregarded

because of the potential for groundwater contamination, consumption of animals that have ingested

radioactive compounds in their diet, and uptake by plants following erosion of ground cover from a

contaminated site.

2.4.6.3 Dermal

Dermal exposure to radionuclides is a minor route of exposure at low-level radioactive waste sites. 

Swimming or bathing in water containing soluble radioactive compounds in the water itself or waterinsoluble radioactive compounds in sediment or sludge are potential sources of dermal exposure in highly

contaminated areas. Contact with tritiated water is another situation in which skin absorption of a

radionuclide can be significant. Depending on the specific physical properties of the radionuclide that

may reside on the skin, the percutaneous absorption of radionuclides from particles is usually negligible

(especially if the skin is thoroughly washed immediately following exposure), with long-term biological

effects being demonstrated locally at the level of the dermis (and its vasculature) and epidermis; however,

these effects depend greatly on the size of the dose and length of exposure. More soluble forms of the

radionuclides may result in a small percentage of the nuclide being absorbed if it was not removed from

the skin's surface. This absorption may, in turn, affect tissues other than the skin. 
IONIZING RADIATION 63

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.4.7 External Exposure to Ionizing Radiation

External radiation is also a major source of exposure to radiation. External radiation is defined here as

radiation exposure from a radioactive source that is outside of the body. Common natural sources are

terrestrial radiation (originating from the soil, water, building materials, and air) and cosmic radiation

from outer space. Common sources of man-made external radiation include medical and dental x rays,

consumer products, licensed radioactive sources, and being near someone undergoing a medical

radionuclide treatment. Technologically enhanced sources consist of concentration of naturally

radioactive elements, such as uranium mine and mill tailings or the uranium-containing slag from

phosphate rock processing.

In situations involving external exposure to radiation, radionuclides that are gamma emitters are of

greatest importance. Alpha particles travel only a few inches in the air and are not capable of penetrating

a piece of paper or the stratum corneum (the dead outer layer of the skin); beta particles are less energetic

and have only limited penetrating ability. In contrast, gamma radiation is highly penetrating, and thus

more capable of irradiating the whole body from distant sources.

2.5 MEASURING INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SOURCES OF IONIZING RADIATION

The radiation from some internally deposited radionuclides cannot be measured directly. The

radioactivity of such radionuclides within the body is determined by bioassay methods, and the data

obtained are applied to physiologically-based biokinetic models to calculate the dose. 

Dose rates for external radiation can be directly measured with appropriate instruments; the total dose is

determined by multiplying the dose rate by the exposure time. Total dose from external sources can be

easily measured. This is usually done with a personal monitoring device, such as an electronic dosimeter,

a pocket dosimeter and film badge, or a thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD). Table 2-7 lists some of the

methods and instruments used by the health physicist to determine a person’s radiation dose. The MultiAgency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual (MARSSIM) manual provides information on

how various types of field and laboratory equipment are used to measure radiation dose rates and

quantities of radioactive material (MARSSIM 1997).
IONIZING RADIATION 64

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.5.1 Internal Radiation Measurements

The amounts of radioactive material in the body are measured by in vivo or in vitro methods or a

combination of in vivo and in vitro techniques. These types of measurements, called bioassays, are used

to determine the type, quantity, location, and retention of radionuclides in the body. In vivo techniques

measure the quantities of internally deposited radionuclides directly, while in vitro analyses are performed

on the materials excreted or removed from the body. A synopsis of the analytical methods used to

measure the quantity of radioactivity both inside and outside of the body is presented in Table 2-7.

Table 2-7. Common Analytical Methods for Measuring Radioactive Material Inside 

and Radiation Outside the Body

Sample matrix Preparation method Device used Reference

Whole body, portion of

body, or organ (x or γ

radiation)

Position individual in front of

detector with area of interest

shielded from extraneous radiation

Multichannel analyzer with

NaI detector for up to a few

γ-emitters, a germanium

detector for any number of

γ-emitters, or a planar

germanium detector for

α-emitters that also emit

x rays.

NCRP 1978

Urine, blood or feces Put any solids into solution; do

chemical separation if multiple

radioactive elements are present;

deposit thin layer on a planchet or

mix with liquid scintillation cocktail.

Liquid scintillation for α- or

β-emitters; alpha

spectroscopy for α-emitters;

GM counter for high-energy

β- or γ-emitters;

multichannel analyzer for

γ-emitters.

Jia et al.

1994

Personal monitoring:

external radiation dose (βand γ-radiation)

Heat dosimeter to produce

thermoluminescence

TLD Lynch et al.

1994

Develop film

None

Film badge

Electronic dosimeter

Shapiro

1990c

Contamination monitoring:

surfaces, skin, clothing,

shoes (β- and γ-radiation)

None GM counter NCRP 1978

Contamination monitoring:

surfaces, skin, clothing

(α-radiation)

None Proportional counter NCRP 1978

α = alpha; β = beta; γ = gamma; GM = Geiger-Mueller; TLD = thermoluminescent dosimeters
IONIZING RADIATION 65

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Figure 2-2. Whole Body Counter. The linear geometry NaI based WBC

pictured here is designed to maximize sensitivity and accuracy for internally

deposited fission/activation products such as isotopes of Cs and Co.

(Photograph courtesy of Canberra Nuclear/Packard BioScience Co.)

One in vivo or direct method of measuring

radionuclides in the body is performed with

a radiation detection system and its

associated electronics, called a whole-body

counter (see Figure 2-2). Equipment for

whole-body counting varies from facility to

facility and is selected based on the needs

of each facility. Equipment changes also

continue as the state of the art advances.

Commonly, the subject is seated in front of

a single large detector; however, the subject

can remain standing during the count, as

shown in Figure 2-2. This system measures

the emission of gamma rays or x rays from

internally deposited radionuclides. The use

of whole-body counters is limited to

assessment of radionuclides that emit x ray

or gamma radiation as these counters are

insensitive to the alpha and beta particles

emitted from radionuclides. Whole-body

counting systems can vary from single,

unshielded detectors that can be used in the

field to shielded multi-detector scanning

systems (NCRP 1987). 

The complexity of whole-body counting systems depends on their intended uses and the radionuclides to be

measured, as well as the accuracy and precision required of the measurement. Multiple, fixed position

detectors may also be used for simultaneously assessing multiple areas of the body (e.g., lung and thyroid

detectors). The detector is placed a short distance from the body, such as over the chest when a lung count

is desired. Examples of types of detectors used include solid, inorganic scintillators (e.g., sodium iodide), and

semiconductors (e.g., germanium detectors). 
IONIZING RADIATION 66

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Figure 2-3. Low Energy Germanium (LEGe) Based Lung Counter. This

instrument is designed to maximize sensitivity for internally deposited U, Pu and

Am isotopes. Germanium is used to provide the system with the ability to

resolve the differences between photons which are close in energy to each

other. (Photograph courtesy of Canberra Nuclear/Packard BioScience Co.)

Examples of radionuclides that may be

readily identified and quantified using

whole-body counting techniques are

134Cs, 137Cs, 58Co, 60Co, 131I, 99mTc, and

133Xe. If a particular portion of the

body requires monitoring after

exposure to alpha particle emitters that

also emit x rays or gamma rays, such as

uranium, plutonium, and americium, a

low-energy germanium lung counter

can be used to maximize detection

sensitivity for x rays or gamma rays

that are emitted from such internally

deposited radionuclides (see Figure 2-

3). Typical count time for the

instrument shown in Figure 2-3 is

15–30 minutes. Another detector

variation consists of moving one or several detectors along the length of the subject, or moving the subject

in relation to a fixed detector, and determining radioactivity in the body as a function of the position of the

detector (NCRP 1987). Photons from the radionuclides in the body enter the detector and interact with the

detection medium. In the case of a sodium iodide detector, this interaction produces flashes of light

(scintillations). The intensity of each scintillation is proportional to the interaction energy of the photon

producing it. Photomultiplier tubes convert the light energy to an electrical pulse with an output voltage

proportional to the intensity of the scintillation. The output pulses are then amplified and sorted by energy

level. If a germanium semiconductor detector is used, the photon interaction directly produces an electrical

impulse whose magnitude is proportional to the photon’s energy. With either detector, qualitative and

quantitative analyses of the energy profiles are then performed to identify the radionuclides present and their

activities.

In vivo counting systems are calibrated using tissue-equivalent phantoms. These phantoms have shapes

similar to the human torso and are made of polystyrene or other tissue equivalent material. Standard

radioactive sources of known activities are inserted into the phantom at locations or geometries

approximating internal depositions of particular radionuclides in the human body. Relationships are thus

determined between the radiations detected and the known activity in the phantom (DOE 1988; HPS

1996).

The Health Physics Society developed the American National Standard on Performance Criteria for

Radiobioassay (HPS 1996) to establish performance criteria for accuracy, bias, and precision for
IONIZING RADIATION 67

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

bioassays. The sensitivity of a whole-body counting system is specified by the acceptable Minimum

Detectable Amount (MDA) which is the smallest activity or mass of an analyte in a sample or the body

that will be detected, given assigned type I and type II error limits. The criterion imposed on a

participating laboratory is the Minimum Testing Level (MTL) or the amount of radioactive material that

the service laboratory should be able to measure. When the analysis facility can measure an acceptable

MTL with acceptable bias and precision, the performance requirements of the ANSI standard are

considered to have been met. Some examples of MTLs are 9 kBq (0.24 μCi) of 239Pu or 3 kBq (81 nCi)

of 60Co in the lung by direct test methods, or 0.01 Bq (0.27 pCi) of 239Pu or 2 Bq (54 pCi) of 60Co per liter

of biological material by indirect methods (HPS 1996).

For radionuclides that transform by alpha or beta particle emission and do not emit readily measurable

gamma rays, in vitro or indirect analyses can be performed. In vitro analyses may also be performed in

support of an in vivo monitoring program, or in cases where the size of an operation does not justify the

cost of a whole-body counting facility. These analyses usually involve measurement of radionuclides in

urine, but other body materials such as feces, blood, or tissue samples may also be measured. Urine

sample analysis is a rapid way to determining whether an intake of radioactive material has occurred. 

Urine samples are easily obtained and easy to analyze; however, fecal, blood or tissue samples are

difficult to obtain, and thus these analyses are not routinely performed. 3

H, 14C, various isotopes of

uranium and plutonium, and many other β- or α-emitting radionuclides are often assessed by in vitro

techniques.

Gamma ray measurements of excreta may not require chemical processing and separation prior to counting

due to the penetrating characteristic of gamma radiation. For alpha and beta radiation measurements, the

energy spectra of the various radionuclides overlap. In such cases, chemical separation of samples prior to

quantification of the radioactivity may be required. If only the total activity, not the identity of the

radionuclide, is needed, gross alpha and gross beta quantification can be performed with minimal sample

preparation. There are no standard chemical separation or preparation procedures for in vitro analysis that

are recommended by any recognized authority; however, many acceptable procedures are available and in

use at a large variety of laboratories and facilities, and DOE and EPA laboratories have some standard

procedures that they routinely follow. Regardless of the procedures used by each laboratory, the methods

should be capable of meeting the acceptable MTLs identified by HPS (1996).

Detectors commonly used to quantify alpha, beta, and gamma radiation in in vitro samples include

scintillation (Figures 2-4) and liquid scintillation detectors (Figure 2-5), Geiger-Mueller (GM) detectors, gasfilled proportional counters, and semiconductor detectors. In scintillation counters, photons from the
IONIZING RADIATION 68

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Figure 2-4. Components of a Scintillation Detector (adapted from

http://tweedledee.wonderland.caltech.edu/derose/labs/exp12.html)

Figure 2-5. Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC) System. Shows system (left) and closeup view of

sample vials to be loaded (right). (from Canberra/Packard Bioscience Co.)

radionuclides exit the sample (i.e., urine, feces, tissue) and interact with the scintillator (e.g., zinc sulfide for

α-emitters, toluene for α- and β-emitters; NaI crystals for γ-emitters) to produce flashes of light

(scintillations). Photomultiplier tubes convert the light energy into an electrical pulse with an output voltage

proportional to the energy of the radiation interaction. The output pulses are then amplified and sorted by

energy level. Gamma rays interact, producing a broad energy spectrum from Compton interactions

superimposed by peaks from photoelectric events. The peak centroids and areas are used to identify the

isot opes

and their

acti vities.

 

 

Liquid scintillation counters (Figure 2-5) are used to isotopically identify and measure the activity of alpha

or beta radionuclides in a range of sample matrices. This method is useful in avoiding some of the difficulties

that arise when

analyzing alpha

or low-energy

beta emitters,

such as 3

H and

14C, where selfabsorption

within the

sample matrix

can be

significant.

The sample is

dissolved directly into a liquid scintillator and placed inside a light-tight system. The radiation from the

sample activates the scintillator, causing flashes of light (scintillations) whose intensities are proportional to
IONIZING RADIATION 69

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

the radiation energy. These scintillations are measured by an integral photomultiplier tube. The counting

efficiency of current generation photomultiplier tubes is about 90%. Most liquid scintillation fluids

(cocktails) are organic-based solvents, such as toluene. The signal from the dissolved sample is reduced or

quenched through partial absorption of the light by the dissolved sample, so an optical comparison of pure

and sample laden scintillation cocktail is made to correct for this phenomenon (Knoll 1989).

GM counting systems consist of a gas-filled detector tube, associated electronics, and counting circuit and

display. The tube end can have a thin covering (window) that allows low-energy beta particles to enter the tube.

When an incident particle from a radionuclide enters the tube window and interacts with at least one gas

molecule, it initiates a series of ionizations that result in generation of a voltage pulse of about 1 volt. These

radiation-induced electrical pulses trigger a circuit which counts the pulses. The GM counter is not capable of

discriminating among various types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma); the instrument simply records the number

of pulses. However, the use of different window thicknesses allows the user to discriminate among the different

radiations. An aluminum window 0.1 mm thick will stop all beta particles emitted from 14C; to measure alpha

particles, an aluminum window thickness of less than 0.02 mm is required. Gamma radiation does not require

a special window because gamma rays will penetrate the tube from all directions (Shapiro 1990).

Gas-filled proportional counters are used to measure alpha and beta particles; they are particularly well-suited

for low-level alpha measurements due to their large counting areas and low background. Like the GM

counters, the voltage pulse output signal produced in proportional counters is a result of an electrical charge

resulting from the ionization of the gas by the incident particle. Electrons released by the ionization are

drawn toward the positively charged central wire. As they travel toward the wire, the electrons collide with

other gas molecules, producing more ionizations and an amplification effect. At certain counter operating

voltages, the amplified charge produced is proportional to the energy absorbed in the detector and facilitates

energy discrimination techniques. Alpha particles, due to their larger size, large charge, and lower speed,

interact with more gas molecules over a given path-length than beta particles. Thus, the alpha-to-beta particle

pulse height ratio is substantial (Shapiro 1990). Proportional detectors use this difference to distinguish

between alpha and beta particles, based on pulse-height discrimination. 

Semiconductor detectors are characterized by their use of crystalline silicon or germanium as the ionization

medium. A sensitive volume is produced in the crystal by electrochemical means. The interaction of

radiation with the crystalline lattice within the sensitive volume generates electrons by ionization, and the

collection of these electrons leads to an electrical output pulse whose size is proportional to the energy of the

radiation. A semiconductor detector requires only about one-tenth as much energy to produce an ionization

as other types of detectors. This leads to a great increase in the detector’s resolving power (i.e., in the ability
IONIZING RADIATION 70

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

of the detector to separate pulses from particles whose energy differences are very small). For this reason,

semiconductor detectors find their main use in nuclear spectroscopy, where they can simultaneously separate,

accurately identify, and quantify various radionuclides. Several types of semiconductor systems are available,

including in-situ spectrometers and both portable and stationary systems equipped with multichannel

analyzers (Cember 1996; Shapiro 1990).

2.5.2 External Radiation Measurements

People who could be occupationally exposed to radiation are routinely monitored for external radiation dose

by several different devices called dosimeters. The most commonly used personal monitoring dosimeters are

thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) and nuclear emulsion monitors (film dosimeters), which can be used to

measure exposure to β, x ray, and γ radiation doses. The TLDs and the film dosimeters are integrating devices

that measure the total dose over the period that the TLD or film badge is used or worn.

The most widely used thermoluminescent material for measuring beta and gamma radiation is a lithium

fluoride crystal. The energy absorbed from the radiation raises the electrons in the lattice structure of the

crystal to a higher energy level, where a portion are trapped by added impurities. The electrons remain in

these excited states until the TLD is heated to temperature high enough to return the material to its normal

energy level (Lynch et al. 1994). Light is emitted which can be measured; the amount of light is proportional

to the radiation dose to which the TLD was exposed. Automated systems called TLD readers for measuring

the light output from the heated TLDs are commercially available. TLDs are normally worn from 1 day to

1 quarter before results are processed; TLDs posted around occupied areas to assess doses to unmonitored

individuals are normally posted for 1 month to 1 year; the TLD can be used again (Shapiro 1990).

When individuals are exposed to mixed radiation fields (e.g., mixtures of beta/gamma radiation), measurements for each radiation type must be performed. Either film badges or TLDs can be made to distinguish

among various radiations, and are commonly used to monitor personal exposures to β, x, and γ radiation, but

not α radiation. Due to the limited range of beta particles in tissue, the exposure of concern is primarily to

the skin, although beta particles whose energy exceeds 0.8 MeV can penetrate to the lens of the eye.

Penetrating x ray and gamma radiation can expose the whole body, including the lens of the eye. These types

of radiation are assessed simultaneously using multiple TLDs individually covered with absorbers of various

materials, or a strip of film with sections covered with absorbers that separate the radiations according to their

penetrability. The skin dose, called the shallow dose equivalent (SDE), is measured with the dosimeter

behind a very thin absorber that is 7 mg/cm2

 thick and represents the dead skin layer above live tissue. The

dose to the lens of the eye, called the eye dose equivalent (EDE), is measured behind 300 mg/cm2

 of material
IONIZING RADIATION 71

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

equal to the thickness of the cornea plus liquid that covers the lens. The whole-body dose, called the deep

dose equivalent (DDE), is measured behind an absorber whose thickness of 1,000 mg/cm2

 which is equal to

about 1 cm of tissue or the depth inside the body where the dose from high energy gamma rays tends to be

the highest. For example, most TLDs and film badges have a small beta window shielded only by a thin sheet

of mylar, and a gamma ray detection area consisting of one or more sections shielded with thin sheets of

plastic, metal (like copper, aluminum, steel, tin, or lead), or combinations of these. The radiation exposure

of the film is determined by the degree of darkening of the photographic film. A densitometer is used to read

the film darkening, which is proportional to the absorbed dose in the tissue (Shapiro 1990).

In addition to wearing TLDs and film badges, many radiation workers also carry self-reading pocket dosimeters to provide the wearer an indication of the radiation dose received during the day. Because the pocket

dosimeters may be read by the individual locally, it gives the worker the necessary information to prevent

an overexposure and the worker can leave an area before a particular radiation dose is exceeded. The

dosimeters are usually worn beside the primary dosimeter and typically measure x ray or γ radiation. They

respond to betas but are not meant to measure betas. By lining the interior of the chamber with boron, the

devices may also be made to monitor thermal neutron exposure. In this instrument, a quartz fiber is

electrostatically displaced by charging the dosimeter to a potential of about 200 volts. As with other dosimeters, ionizations caused by radiation discharge the dosimeter which returns the fiber to its usual position

as it loses its charge. The relative position of the fiber is calibrated to an exposure scale, usually in the range

of 0 to 200 mR. The position of the fiber against the scale may be viewed through the end of the instrument.

There are two type of pocket dosimeters. The second type, called a condenser-type dosimeter, is an indirect

reading dosimeter. An additional device, referred to as a charger-reader, is needed to charge and read the

dosimeter. The dosimeter is basically a capacitor with an exterior wall made of an electrically conducting

plastic or metal and an interior central wire which is insulated from the outer wall. Using the charter-reader,

a positive charge is placed on the central wire. When exposed to x or gamma radiation, the ionizations

discharge the unit. The amount of charge remaining in the dosimeter at any point is inversely proportional

to the ionization produced in the cavity. The degree of discharge, and therefore the exposure, is measured

by attaching the dosimeter to the charger-reader. Pocket dosimeters gradually discharge over time due to

cosmic radiation and charge leakage across the insulating material. Because of the natural discharging and

the potential for malfunction due to dropping the device, they are typically worn in duplicate with a film

badge or TLD and are read and recharged daily (Cember 1996)
2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

IONIZING RADIATION 72

Figure 2-6. Geiger-Mueller Counter with an Energycompensated Gamma Probe. (Photo courtesy of Ludlum

Measurements, Inc.)

Figure 2-7. Geiger-Mueller Counter with a Beta/gamma Pancaketype Detection Probe. (Photo courtesy of Ludlum Measurements,

Inc.)

Electronic dosimeters are now widely used. These

dosimeters feature solid-state detectors and a

microprocessor to monitor x and gamma ray dose,

dose rate, and dose history. Also, these small,

programmable, lightweight dosimeters feature

audible and vibrating alarms and visible digital

readouts that keep the wearer informed of their

radiation dose status at all times. Units with

telemetric capabilities can be monitored at stations

outside the work area where the dosimetry of a

number of individuals can be simultaneously viewed and assessed to facilitate a higher degree of radiological

control, such as for activities involving high intensity radiation sources. These dosimeter can be retained

indefinitely by the individual and the person’s dose history can be accumulated remotely, stored digitally in

database fashion, and used to produce computer generated dosimetry reports on demand. 

2.5.3 Field Radiation and Contamination Surveys

Environmental radiation arises from four basic

sources: (1) natural radioactivity from uranium,

thorium, and other primordial radionuclides; (2)

cosmic rays and radionuclides produced by cosmicray interactions in the atmosphere; (3) contaminants

from nuclear-weapons fallout; and (4) effluent from

nuclear and medical facilities (NCRP 1985). Two

methods are routinely used for measuring

environmental radiation: (1) field surveys using

portable survey instruments, and (2) analysis of

samples procured in the field that are returned to the laboratory for quantification.

2.5.3.1 Field Measurements of Ionizing Radiation

External radioactivity and radiation measurements can be made with portable, hand-held survey instruments.

The primary purpose of some types of survey instruments is to measure the radiation levels to which people
2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

IONIZING RADIATION 73

Figure 2-9. Floor Monitor System with Multidetector Array. (Photo courtesy of Ludlum

Measurements, Inc.)

Figure 2-8. Large Area Alpha Radiation Detector with Digital/Analog

 Survey Meter (photo courtesy of Ludlum Measurements, Inc.)

are exposed, while others detect any

contamination that may be present on

an individual's skin, clothing, shoes or

in the environment. 

Various types of radiation detectors

(e.g., Geiger-Mueller or scintillation)

are coupled with a count rate meter

designed to detect alpha, beta, and

gamma radiation. The count rate meter

has a scale with a needle indicator or

digital display that provides an immediate readout of levels of radiation or contamination that may be present

in units of milliroentgens per hour (mR/hr) (1 mR . 1 mrem = 0.01 mSv) or counts per minute (cpm). Two

frequently used GM survey meters are the energy compensated GM detector (Figure 2-6) and the GM thin

window "pancake" type detector (Figure 2-7). The energy compensated type of GM detector surrounds the

detector chamber with a material of density and thickness that somewhat normalizes the dose response over

a range of energies, which sacrifices some sensitivity for accuracy. The pancake detector typically has a very

thin window and a relatively large detection area. The typical survey meter for identifying alpha contamination

uses a zinc sulfide scintillator material that can reliably detect 200–500 dpm per 100 cm2 (DOE 1988).

Disintegrations per minute per 100 cm2 of contaminated area is the criterion that has been chosen by regulatory

agencies for control purposes. The alpha reading may be inaccurately low if the surface is irregular, porous,

or damp since these conditions can attenuate the alpha particles.

Recent developments in large area gas and gas-flow proportional

counter technology, which have enabled these detectors to achieve

higher sensitivities than alpha scintillator detectors, have made

them acceptable for use in decommissioning operations. Figure 2-

8 is an example of a current generation large area detector with

digital survey meter. Figure 2-9 is a floor monitor system with

multi-detector array that covers a wide path. The detector is

slowly moved over a building or roadway surface to locate

radioactive contamination and then held in place to quantify the

level. Floor monitors with drive, data recording, and positioning

systems are used to develop digitized reports and plots of alpha

and beta contamination levels; these units can quantify

contamination levels while continuously moving.
IONIZING RADIATION 74

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Figure 2-10. In-Situ Gamma Ray Spectrometer

(adapted from http://www.em.doe.gov/rainplum/fig16.html)

Field surveys can be either qualitative (to provide a go/no-go indication for excess radiation levels) or

quantitative (to provide a numerical value for the level and possible identification of the radionuclides

present). Most field surveys involve the use of calibrated, portable, hand-held survey meters equipped with

count-rate meters or digital displays that provide an immediate reading of the radiation field strength or the

surface contamination level.

The radiation detector used in a survey must be appropriate to the type of radiation being measured. Typical

alpha radiation detectors use the alpha scintillator material ZnS, as well as gas-flow surface contamination

monitors. Typical beta radiation detectors are pancake type GM detectors and gas-flow surface contamination

monitors. Gamma radiation detectors include a wide range of equipment types, including the GM and sodium

iodide scintillation counters. Counter-type survey instruments are highly sensitive and are used mainly to

search for and detect radiation. Ion chambers are used for measuring the radiation dose rate, with pressurized

ion chambers being used for very low radiation levels.

Specialty instruments are available for more detailed field work, but their use generally requires special skills

and training. The in-situ germanium spectrometer is a multichannel analyzer with a germanium detector that

can identify a range of γ-emitting isotopes and quantify their concentration in surface soil. The Laser

Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma mass spectrometer (LA-ICP-MS) can measure 0.3 pCi/g of 238U in soil.

The Long Range Alpha Detector (LRAD) can measure alpha soil contamination down to 10 pCi/g. The Field

Instrument for Detection of Low Energy Radiation (FIDLER) is used to measure plutonium and americium

surface contamination. The field

x ray fluorescence spectrometer

can measure the relative

concentration of metal atoms in

soil or water down to the parts per

million (ppm) range.

Field survey instruments provide

timely information on the

presence and levels of radiation

fields or radioactive materials. 
IONIZING RADIATION 75

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

Measurements of radiation fields or loose radioactive material can be made in the field with portable

instrumentation (Figure 2-10). Similar surveys can also be performed on people when contamination is

suspected since both environmental surveys and personnel surveys use many of the same types of portable

instrumentation. 

Semi-permanent instruments or instruments placed in the field for extended periods of time are sometimes

used to measure ambient environmental radiation levels or to detect changes in ambient environmental

radiation levels (for example, around nuclear facilities). Pressurized ionization chambers (PICs) are used as

a standard for measuring gamma radiation levels. Readings are recorded on a real-time strip chart recorder

or on a magnetic card, and can be arranged to transmit these data to a central site for computer processing.

Several types of portable survey instruments using ionization chamber detectors are also available. Ionization

chamber detectors can only be used for ambient environmental radiation monitoring, if the detection

sensitivity is several μrad/hour (Kathren 1984). Ion chamber survey meters typically exhibit long response

times, particularly at low radiation levels, requiring up to several minutes to record a detectable measurement

above background levels at low radiation levels. 

GM counters and both plastic and NaI scintillators have also been used for field measurements of ambient

radiation. These instruments have detection capability down to several μrad/hour (nGy/hr). They are

rugged and have a shorter time constant than a pressurized ion chamber (PIC), making them more suitable

than PICs when numerous environmental measurements are to be made. Counter-type survey meters,

such as GM and scintillation counters, are very energy dependent when used to measure dose. They can

be used to reliably measure dose or dose rate only for radiation whose energy is the same as the energy of

the calibration source. Energy flattening filters are sometimes used in GM survey meters to compensate

for the energy dependence (Kathren 1984; NCRP 1976, 1985). The energy response problem can largely

be overcome by taking paired PIC and GM or NaI readings at several points to develop factors for

converting GM or NaI readings to true exposure levels in mR/hr (EPA 1994).

Scintillation detectors and semiconductor detectors, when used in conjunction with a multichannel

analyzer and computing capabilities, make it possible to determine whether the radiation fields originate

from terrestrial radiation, cosmic radiation, or anthropogenic radiation, or from a combination of these

sources. These instruments are useful for environmental monitoring around reactor sites and sites

undergoing remediation for unrestricted use by the public.
IONIZING RADIATION 76

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

The very short range of the alpha particle makes it necessary for the distance between the α-emitting

source and the alpha detector to be very small. It also requires that the detector window be very thin to

enable passage of the alpha particle into the detector. A scintillation detector that is frequently used is

silver-activated ZnS. The ZnS scintillation detector is relatively insensitive to beta or gamma radiation

and exhibits a low background count, thus permitting measurement of alphas in the presence of high beta

or gamma radiation fields. Gas-filled proportional counters are particularly well-suited for low-level

alpha measurements due to their large counting areas and low background. Proportional detectors can

distinguish between alpha and beta particles based on differences in the size of the output voltage pulses

from alphas and betas (NCRP 1978; Shapiro 1990).

Awareness of the need for detection of plutonium in the environment has increased due to several

accidents that have occurred in the past (see Section 3.5). Plutonium transforms by α emission with a

small percentage of accompanying x rays with energies in the region of 17 keV from the excited 237Np

daughter. Due to the difficulties associated with measurement of alpha particles, an instrument called a

FIDLER (Field Instrument for Detection of Low Energy Radiation) was developed. This instrument

measures the 17 keV photons associated with the transformation of 239Pu using a 5-inch diameter crystal

of NaI, 1/16th of an inch thick. FIDLER measurements are also made of the 60 keV photons from

americium-241 (241Am), which is often associated with plutonium as an impurity (Kathren 1984).

Large-scale environmental monitoring for contamination is sometimes carried out on roads and railroad

tracks using scintillation detectors mounted on vehicles. The detectors are shielded on the sides and tops

and are suspended above the ground surface. In addition, aerial surveys for radioactivity are useful for

mineral exploration, special studies of uranium fields, nuclear facilities monitoring, fallout measurements,

etc. The detector of choice for most of these measurements is the scintillator, usually a large single

crystal (Kathren 1984) or multiple smaller detectors with summed responses. The correlation of airborne

measurements with ground-level data indicates agreement to within about ± 20% in a strip of land

400 meters wide under the flight lines (NCRP 1976).

In addition to the use of survey instruments, environmental radiation is also measured with passive integrating detectors such as film badges or TLDs. TLDs are superior to film badges in energy dependence,

angular dependence of radiation incident upon the dosimeter, permissible time in the field, resistance to

environmental conditions, and lower limit of detection (10 mrad for film compared with 1 mrad for TLD) 
IONIZING RADIATION 77

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

(Kathren 1984; NCRP 1976). Several different thermoluminescent phosphors are available for

environmental measurements, including LiF, CaF2, CaSO4 (Kathren 1984; NCRP 1976) and Al2O3. In

the field, TLDs do not require a great deal of protection; however, some phosphors may exhibit

sensitivity to light and humidity. Consequently, it is useful to package the TLD in some sort of light and

water-tight material. 

A good source of information on the performance of field radiation surveys, the collection and processing

of samples and the applicability, operation, specificity, sensitivity, cost, and cost of operation of field and

laboratory equipment is the Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual (MARSSIM)

prepared by EPA, NRC, DOD, and DOE as a consensus guide for conducting the final status survey in

releasing a radiation site for unrestricted public use (MARSSIM 1997).

2.5.3.2 Laboratory Analysis of Environmental Samples

There are standardized analytical methods for the quantification of radioactive material in air, water,

sediment, food, vegetation, and other biota (DOE 1997a); however, current philosophy supports

performance-based rather than prescriptive methods. In many cases, particularly in occupational settings,

the radionuclide(s) are known so the analysis can be confined to that particular radionuclide(s). If the

radioactivity in a sample is from an unknown radionuclide(s), the sample should be examined for α and

β/γ-emitting nuclides. Environmental samples usually involve measurement of low levels of specific

radionuclides in the presence of naturally occurring radionuclides. Consequently, the analyzing analytical

instrumentation is sensitive and the effect of natural background radiation levels on the detectors should

be minimized. Background reductions are usually achieved mechanically by the use of shields around the

detectors and electronically by pulse size discrimination (NCRP 1978).

Preparation of various environmental media for analysis of radioactive content may require concentrating

the radioactive material from a large sample into a small volume to increase the sensitivity of the analysis

or to reduce the sample to a form more suitable for counting. For example, solvent extraction may be

used for samples with high salt content whereas ion exchange chromatography may be used for samples

with low salt content. However, some standardized methods for environmental sample preparation have

been developed in laboratories for analysis of radionuclides in various matrices (EPA 1984) and in

drinking water (EPA 1980). Chemical separation techniques and nuclear instrumentation for assessment 
IONIZING RADIATION 78

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

of several radionuclides in various matrices can be found in the ATSDR profiles for plutonium, radium,

and uranium (ATSDR 1990c, 1990d, 1999b).

There are several methods in use for quantification of alpha particles. If the identity of the α-emitting

radionuclide is not needed or is already known, alpha activity of samples can be quantified by gross or

"total" alpha counting (NCRP 1985). However, the short range of alpha particles in liquid and solid

samples usually requires physical and/or chemical separation of the radionuclide from the matrix as

described by EPA procedures (EPA 1980, 1984). Since the energies of the radiations from radionuclides

are specific for those radionuclides, alpha spectroscopy, using a high-resolution silicon diode surface

barrier detector with a resoulution of 10–20 keV, is used when it is necessary to determine both the

identity and the quantity of the α-emitting radionuclide(s) in a sample (Knoll 1989; NCRP 1985);

procedures manuals of the DOE’s Environmental Measurements Laboratory and the Los Alamos National

Laboratory contain example procedures for such analyses (DOE 1997a).

For environmental samples containing radionuclides that emit gamma rays, scintillation detectors (sodium

iodide) and semiconductor detectors (germanium) are commonly used. These detectors, along with the

appropriate electronics, computers and software, can be used to simultaneously identify and quantify a

number of γ-emitting radionuclides (Kathren 1984; Knoll 1989; NCRP 1985). Germaniuim detectors

have superior resolution and are more suitable if more than a few radionuclides are present in the sample.

A number of radionuclides, including 3

H, 14C, 32P, 35S, 45Ca, 89Sr, 90Sr, and 90Y, emit only beta radiation

(NCRP 1985). Liquid scintillation counting systems are widely used for the assay of low levels of

β-emitting radionuclides and can be used to quantify all of the radionuclides listed above. GM detectors

are also used for quantification of beta particles; however, GM detectors are not used to quantify 3

H 

because of its very low beta energy. Another instrument used for assessment of beta particles in

environmental samples is the gas-flow proportional counter. Gas-flow proportional counters can readily

quantify the β-emitting radionuclides identified above, as well as 3

H and 14C, either when the detector

window is very thin (in the case of 14C) or when the detector is windowless (in the case of 3

H). In

general, liquid scintillation, gas-flow proportional and GM counters provide data on total beta activity,

although some liquid scintillation counters have some ability to resolve energy spectra. Also, solid

organic scintillators, which are usually made from plastic or crystals of anthracene and trans-stilbene, may

be used to quantify and identify beta particles (Knoll 1989). 
IONIZING RADIATION 79

2. PRINCIPLES OF IONIZING RADIATION

2.6 CONCLUSIONS

The study of the effects of radiation is a highly specialized area of toxicology that requires knowledge

and understanding of radiation physics and radioactivity, radiation dose, and biology. Radiation interacts

in unique ways with matter to yield carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects after acute and chronic

exposures. 

Low levels of radiation have always been present in the environment. Only in the past 100 years have

humans discovered its ubiquitous presence. During the 20th century, scientists and governments have

developed uses for radionuclides both for peaceful purposes, such as medical diagnosis and treatment and

electrical power generation, and for military purposes, such as weapons technology. Much research has

been performed to define the different types of radiation, to explain how radiation interacts with matter,

and to determine how to measure both the radioactivity and the radiation dose from a given exposure. 

This and other information has been used to correlate absorbed dose (from short-term high doses to longterm low doses) with toxicological diseases ranging from almost immediate death after an initial exposure

to the induction of carcinogenesis years after a non-lethal exposure. This chapter summarized some of

the information about radiation and methods for measuring radiation and radiation exposure. The

remainder of this toxicological profile discusses in more depth the biological and toxicological effects and

mechanisms of action of radiation (Chapters 3 and 5), sources of population exposure (Chapter 6), and

regulatory situation specific to ionizing radiation (Chapter 7). Observed Health Effects from Radiation

and Radioactive Material tables for ionizing radiation are presented in Chapter 8.

2.7 OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The Internet sites listed in Table 2-8 provide information on the general principles and health effects of

the different forms and doses of radiation. Information obtained from internet sources should not be

considered to have been peer reviewed unless separately authenticated.
Table 2-8. Some Internet Sites Related to Ionizing Radiation

HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) address Web page contents

http://www.uic.com.au/ral.htm A beginner’s reference for radiation.

http://www.dne.bnl.gov/CoN/index.html Radionuclide information on half-life, transformation

energies, etc.

http://www.nih.gov/health/chip/od/radiation Summary information on radiation and its health effects 

http://www.umich.edu/~radinfo/introduction Introduction to radiation; professional, research and

educational resources 

http://radefx.bcm.tmc.edu/ Baylor College of Medicine Radiation Effects Homepage.

Health effects documents, downloadable software,

Chernobyl information, links to other radiation-related sites. 

http://www.em.doe.gov/cgi-bin/tc/tindex.html DOE Environmental Management. Public information

access and links to DOE research laboratories

http://www.rerf.or.jp/ Radiation Effects Research Foundation. Human health

impact of the atomic bomb release on Hiroshima and

Nagasaki, Japan.

http://www.ohre.doe.gov/ DOE “cold war” radiation research using human subjects.

http://www.hps.org Health Physics Society. Involved in the development,

dissemination, and application of radiation protection.

Concerned with understanding, evaluating, and controlling

the risks from radiation exposure relative to the benefits

derived. 

http://www.epa.gov/narel/index.html

http://www.epa.gov/narel/erd-online.html

Reports nationwide radionuclide concentrations in air,

drinking water, surface water, precipitation, and milk.

http://www.aapm.org American Association of Physicists in Medicine. 

Concerned with the safe use of radiation and radioactive

materials in medicine.

http://law.house.gov/4.htm U.S. House of Representatives internet law library of the

Code of Federal Regulations. Provides CFR text.

http://www.nrc.gov/ USNRC. Nuclear waste, nuclear reactors in operation,

and rule-making procedures.
IONIZING RADIATION 81

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Ionizing radiation is a form of radiation with sufficient energy to remove electrons from their atomic or

molecular orbital shells in the tissues they penetrate (Borek 1993). These ionizations, received in

sufficient quantities over a period of time, can result in tissue damage and disruption of cellular function

at the molecular level. Of particular interest is their effect on deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA). 

A special issue to consider when examining the health effects caused by ionizing radiation is the concept

of dose and dose rate. The dose delivered to tissue from ionizing radiation can either be acute (the energy

from the radiation is absorbed over a few hours or days) or chronic (the energy is absorbed over a longer

period of months, years, or over a lifetime). The dose becomes particularly important when the individual

is exposed is to radioactive materials inside the body. In distinguishing between acute and chronic

exposure, both the intake rate and the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the radionuclide

kinetics must be considered. For radioactive materials with effective half-lives longer than a day, even if

the intake is brief (minutes to a few days), the energy is deposited in tissue where it remains over a period

longer than a few days, so that the exposure to the surrounding tissue is of a chronic duration. Depending

on the size of the dose and the dose rate, the effects of ionizing radiation can either be acute (occurring

within several hours to several months after exposure) or delayed (occurring several years after the

exposure).

The principles of dose are important to the interpretation of Tables 8-1 through 8-4, found in Chapter 8

(“Levels of Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material”) in this profile. For example,

Table 8-1 lists the observed health effects from radiation and radioactive material using inhalation as the

route of exposure. Entry 109 shows a study in which Beagle dogs were exposed for 2 to 22 minutes to

90SrCl2. Although these animals received the total amount of radionuclide within 2 to 22 minutes (an

acute duration of exposure), the radionuclide was absorbed and redistributed to other tissues (in this case,

bone), where it remained for a protracted period of time (chronic exposure). Delayed effects of

osteosarcoma and other tumors were found in almost half of these animals (Gillett et al. 1987b). Without

a clear understanding of both the dose and the toxicokinetics of the radionuclide, one might conclude

from this table that a 2- to 22-minute dose of radiation from 90SrCl2 will cause bone cancer in dogs. The

more appropriate conclusion to draw from this study is that after a 2- to 22-minute intake, 90SrCl2
IONIZING RADIATION 82

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

appeared to have redistributed from the lungs to the bones and, given its long physical half-time (t1/2) of

28.6 years, would have irradiated the surrounding tissues for a lengthy period of time to produce a

cancerous end point.

Sources of ionizing radiation can be found at many waste sites in the United States and other countries. 

Exposure to these sources may have potential adverse health effects, depending on the isotope, the

absorbed dose, and the dose rate. The predominant radionuclides found currently or in the past at

Department of Energy (DOE) National Priorities List (NPL) waste sites are listed in Table 3-1.

Table 3-1. ATSDR Priority Listing of Radionuclides Present at Department of Energy 

NPL Sites

Ranking # Isotope Primary emission Physical half-life Target tissue(s) for soluble forms

1 Thorium-232 α 1.4 x 1010 years

2 Uranium-235 α 7.04 x 108

 years Renal (proximal tubules)a

3 Radium-228 β 5.76 years Skeleton

4 Uranium-238 α 4.46 x 109

 years Renal (proximal tubules)

5 Radium-226 α 1600 years Skeleton

6 Cobalt-60 β, γ 5.271 years Whole body

7 Krypton-85 β 10.72 years

8 Americium-241 α 432.2 years Lung

9 Uranium-234 α 2.45 x 105

 years Renal (proximal tubules)

10 Potassium-40 β 1.26 x 109

 years Skeleton

11 Europium-152 β 13.5 years

12 Neptunium-237 α 2.14 x 106

 years

13 Cesium-137 β,γ 30 years Whole body

14 Protactinium-231 α 3.25 x 104

 years

15 Strontium-90 β 28.6 years Skeleton

16 Krypton-88 β 2.84 hours

17 Thallium-208 β 3.053 minutes

18 Thorium-228 α 1.913 years

19 Protactinium-234 β 6.69 hours

20 Argon-41 β 1.82 hours

21 Plutonium-239 α 24,131 years Bone surface 

22 Krypton-87 β/γ 76.3 minutes Whole body

23 Thorium-230 α 77,000 years Bone surface

24 Uranium-236 α 2.3415 x 107

 years Bone surface

25 Plutonium-238 α 87.75 years Bone surface

a

Renal toxicity is more likely due its heavy metal properties rather than its radioactive properties. 

Source: Lide 1996; Schleien 1992
IONIZING RADIATION 83

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

The scientific literature is filled with in-depth discussions and reviews on the effects of ionizing radiation

in humans and animals, and it would be difficult, if not impractical, to summarize all of the known

information about the effects of each radionuclide in every animal. Although the database of biological,

radiological, toxicological, and toxicokinetic information is substantial and much is known, much remains

to be learned about the specific mechanisms by which ionizing radiation produces its effects, how these

effects can be minimized in living tissues, and what the long-term effects of very low doses of ionizing

radiation are over the normal human lifespan. In this profile, some of the information about the effects of

ionizing radiation has been obtained from human epidemiological and medical studies, but a sizable

portion has come from studies conducted in laboratory animals and then extrapolated to humans. In

addition to data from epidemiological studies, there is a substantial human database derived from

therapeutic applications of radiation. Because of this large database of information, and in an effort to

provide a useable overview of the health effects caused by exposure to radionuclides, this toxicological

profile will summarize the adverse effects of ionizing radiation from alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ)

radiation, using representative radionuclides to illustrate the effects on specific organs and tissues. Other

radionuclides with similar emissions and kinetics may produce similar end points. This profile will not

provide an in-depth discussion of the more subtle points of radiation biology and toxicology. It will,

however, provide the reader with a comprehensive and informative overview of a cross-section of the

scientific literature that pertains to the potential adverse carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of α,

β, and γ radiation, focusing on key human and animal studies and using representative radionuclides for

illustration purposes. Readers are encouraged to consult both the glossary and Chapter 2 of this profile

to become familiar with the terminology used in discussing exposure to ionizing radiation and the

characteristics of these three radiations. Several excellent texts and review papers are also available in the

open literature that provide the salient background material for many of the sections of this profile (BEIR

IV 1988; BEIR V 1990; Faw and Shultis 1993; Harley 1991; Roesch 1987; UNSCEAR 1993; Raabe

1994).

3.2 HEALTH EFFECTS FROM EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

High doses of ionizing radiation can lead to various effects, such as skin burns, hair loss, birth defects,

illness, cancer, and death. The basic principle of toxicology, “the dose determines poison,” applies to the

toxicology of ionizing radiation as well as to all other branches of toxicology. In the case of threshold

effects (“deterministic effects” in the language of radiation toxicology), such as skin burns, hair loss,

sterility, nausea, and cataracts, a certain minimum dose (the threshold dose), usually on the order of

hundreds or thousands of rad, must be exceeded in order for the effect to be expressed. An increase in the

size of the dose above the threshold dose will increase the severity of the effect.
IONIZING RADIATION 84

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

For cancer induction, increasing the radiation dose does not increase the severity of the cancer; instead it

increases the chance of cancer induction. In the case of carcinogens generally, whether chemical or

radiological, safety standards are based on a postulated zero threshold (i.e., any increment of carcinogen,

no matter how small, is assumed to carry with it a corresponding increase in the chance of causing

cancer). Increasing the size of the dose increases the probability of inducing a cancer with that

carcinogen. Cancers that are, in fact, caused by radiation are completely indistinguishable from those that

seem to occur spontaneously or are caused by other known or suspected carcinogens. In a given

population, such as the Japanese survivors of the atomic bombings of 1945, investigators identified the

carcinogenicity of ionizing radiation only by measuring the frequency of occurrence of cancer. In the

case of the survivors of the atomic bombings in Japan, there was no observed statistically significant

increase in cancer frequency among people whose radiation dose did not exceed 0.4 Gy (40 rad) and no

increase in leukemia among those whose radiation dose did not exceed 0.1 Gy (10 rad). Because

investigators could not uniquely identify any cancer as having been caused by the radiation, and because

there was no observed increase in cancer frequency following low-level irradiation, the calculated cancer

risk coefficient (i.e., the probability of getting cancer per unit of radiation dose) is usually estimated by

extrapolation of data from observations on populations that received high doses of radiation.

For the purposes of this profile, we have divided the end points produced by ionizing radiation into

effects that were (at least initially) non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic effects. The non-carcinogenic

effects were further subdivided by major organ systems affected plus teratogenic effects. This was done

primarily to help the reader understand the broad scope of adverse health effects that can be produced by

ionizing radiation. This approach was also necessary to facilitate evaluating study designs found in the

literature. Some studies exposed laboratory animals to radiation, determined the non-cancerous end

points, and then sacrificed the animals to complete the study objectives. These studies imply that cancer

did not or would not develop after exposure to this radiation, which certainly may not be the case. Other

studies exposed animals to radiation, observed the non-carcinogenic end points (if any), and then allowed

the animals to live out their normal lifespans to determine if cancer would develop. These latter studies

provided more complete information on the overall effects of exposure to ionizing radiation. 

No acute-, intermediate-, or chronic-duration inhalation, oral, or dermal Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs)

were developed for internal exposure to alpha, beta, or gamma radiation. Radiation effect(s) on a

biological system during an acute, intermediate, or chronic duration of exposure depend on the radiation

dose; the dose, in turn, depends on several variables. For airborne radioactivity, these include physical

form (gas versus particle), particle solubility, particle size, type of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, or

combinations), and energy of the radiation. For oral and dermal exposure, toxicity is influenced by 
IONIZING RADIATION 85

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

solubility, metabolism within the body, and the type and energies of the radiation. Since there is a

biological equivalence of internal and external dose equivalent in units of sievert and rem, an MRL for

external radiation should be appropriate for internal radiation. 

Two MRLs have been derived for exposures to ionizing radiation:

• An MRL of 0.004 Sv (0.4 rem) has been derived for acute-duration external ionizing radiation

exposure (14 days or less).

The acute MRL is based on results from two studies, one by Schull et al. (1988) and one by Burt (1966).

Schull et al. (1988) evaluated the quantitative effect of exposure to radiation on the developing fetal and

embryonic human brain. The end point measured was change in intelligence test scores. Broadly

speaking, a large body of literature shows the effects of radiation on the embryonic and fetal brain. 

ATSDR recognizes that there is considerable public interest in and debate about the interpretation of

intelligence scores and that government agencies have been very careful in setting health benchmarks for

chemicals whose effects are measured by intelligence testing. ATSDR is basing the MRL on the

published results from relevant IQ studies and applies a conservative factor to account for uncertainties. 

Underlying assumptions in the MRL development are stated as clearly as possible. 

Schull et al. (1988) evaluated effects on individuals exposed in utero during the atomic bombing of

Hiroshima and Nagasaki, based on the original PE86 samples (n=1,759; data on available intelligence

testing) and the clinical sample (n=1,598). The original PE86 sample included virtually all prenatally

exposed individuals who received tissue-absorbed doses of 0.50 Gy or more, and many more individuals

in the dose range 0–0.49 Gy than in the clinical sample. The clinical sample does not include children

prenatally exposed at distances between 2,000–2,999 meters in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Children

prenatally exposed at greater distances or not present in the city were selected as controls. In 1955–1956,

Tanaka-B (emphasis on word-sense, arithmetic abilities, and the like, which were associated with the

more subtle processing of visual clues than their simple recognition and depended more on

connectedness) and the Koga (emphasis on perception of spatial relationships) intelligence tests were

conducted in Nagasaki; the Koga test was conducted in Hiroshima. No evidence of radiation-related

effect on intelligence was observed among individuals exposed within 0–7 weeks after fertilization or

after the 25th week. The highest risk of radiation damage to the embryonic and fetal brain occurred 8 to

15 weeks after fertilization under both T65DR and DS86 dosimetric systems (Otake and Schull 1984). 

The regression of intelligence score on estimated DS86 uterine absorbed dose is more linear than with

T65DR fetal dose, and the diminution in intelligence score under the linear model is 21–29 points at 1 
IONIZING RADIATION 86

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Gy. The regression of intelligence score on estimated fetal absorbed dose was linear for the exposed 8–15

weeks after fertilization and possibly linear for the 16–25-week group. The cumulative distribution of

test scores suggested a progressive shift downwards in individual scores with increasing exposure in the

8–25-week exposure group. The mean IQ scores decrease significantly and systematically with uterine or

fetal tissue dose within the groups exposed at 8–15 and 16–25 weeks.

The linearity of the response over the exposure ranges does not mean that there is no threshold for

ionizing radiation’s neurological effects. A threshold response (i.e., deterministic response) in the case

of ionizing radiation involves damage to brain stem cells or to cells that differentiate into brain cells. This

threshold, however, is indeterminate and therefore, there is no readily available lowest-observed-adverseeffect level (LOAEL). However, a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) is taken from a study by

Burt (1996). Results from the Schull et al. (1998) study are used in conjunction with the Burt (1966)

study described below. The Burt study (1996) is the basis of a population IQ differential used to establish

a NOAEL dose from the Schull et al. (1998) study.

The study by Burt (1966) determined differences in intelligence in monozygotic twins reared together

(n=95) and apart (n=53). All tests were conducted in school and consisted of (1) a group test of

intelligence containing both non-verbal and verbal items, (2) an individual test (the London Revision of

the Terman-Binet Scale) used primarily for standardization and for doubtful cases, and (3) a set of

performance tests based on the Pitner-Paterson tests and standardization. The methods and standard

remained much the same throughout the study. The children were brought up by parents or foster parents

(occupation ranged from unskilled to professional). The standard deviation of the group of separated

monozygotic twins was reported at 15.3 as compared to 15.0 of ordinary siblings. Twins brought up in

different environments were compared with those brought up in similar circumstances. The average IQ

scores of the twins measured on a conventional IQ scale (SD=15) was 97.8 for the separated monozygotes, 98.1 for monozygotes brought up together. The difference of 0.3 IQ point between the separated

and unseparated identical twins (97.8–98.1) is considered a NOAEL for this study. 

Husen (1959) reported a study involving 269 pairs of Swedish monozygotic (identical) twins where the

intrapair IQ difference was 4 IQ points for a combination of twins raised together and apart. This is

somewhat lower than the value of 7 IQ points for identical twins raised apart, and just larger than the

range of IQ scores for Washington DC children repetitively tested (Jacobi and Glauberman 1995). 

Supporting evidence for the acute MRL is provided by Jacobi and Glauberman (1995). Children in the

1st, 3rd, and 5th grades born in Washington DC were tested, and average IQ levels of 94.2, 97.6, and 94.6 
IONIZING RADIATION 87

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

were reported. The differences of up to 3.4 IQ points between the grades and over time were considered

to be small and could not be tied to environmental deficiencies. This difference is a potential LOAEL for

acute doses of ionizing radiation and would yield an MRL of 0.004 Sv (3.4 IQ points x 1 Sv/25 IQ points

÷ 30 [10 for use of a LOAEL and 3 for a sensitive human population]).

Additional supporting evidence for the acute MRL is provided by Berger et al. 1997, in a case study of

accidental radiation injury to the hand. A Mexican engineer suffered an accidental injury to the hand

while repairing an x ray spectrometer. The day after the accident, his symptoms included a tingling

sensation and itching in the index and middle fingers. On days 4 and 7, a "pinching" sensation, swelling,

and slight erythema were observed. By day 7, the tip of his index fingers was erythematous and a large

blister developed with swelling on other fingers. On day 10, examination by a physician showed that the

lesions had worsened and the fingers and palms were discolored. On day 10, he was admitted to the

hospital where hyperbaric oxygen therapy was administered without success. One month after the

accident, the patient entered the hospital again with pain, discoloration, and desquamation of his hand. 

Clinical examination showed decreased circulation in the entire hand, most notably in the index and

middle finger. Total white blood count decreased to 3,000/μL (normal range 4,300–10,800/μL). 

Cytogenic studies of peripheral blood lymphocytes revealed four dicentrics, two rings, and eight

chromosomal fragments in the 300 metaphases studied. The estimated whole body dose was reported to

be 0.382 Gy (38.2 rad). This dose is a potential LOAEL for acute ionizing radiation and would yield an

MRL of 0.004 Sv (0.38 Sv ÷100 [10 for use of LOAEL and 10 for human variability]). 

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission set a radiation exposure limit of 5 mSv (500 mrem) for pregnant

working women over the full gestational period (USNRC 1991). For the critical gestational period of 8 to

15 weeks ATSDR believes that the acute MRL of 4 mSv is consistent with the NRC limit and could be

applied to either acute (0–14 day) or intermediate (15–365 day) exposure periods.

The acute MRL is based on the finding that a 1 Gy dose (1 Sv dose equivalent) results in a 25 IQ point

reduction (range = 21–29 points; mean = 25) (Schull et al. 1988). This assumes that the relationship

between radiation dose and IQ point reduction is linear (Schull et al 1988). After applying an uncertainty

factor of 3 (human variability/sensitive population), this results in an MRL of 0.004 Sv (0.4 rem).

There are recognized uncertainties in the results from both the Schull et al. (1998) and the Burt (1966)

studies. Although the linear relationship developed for data from the Japanese fetal-exposed population is

strong, it has not been established that the linear relationship holds all the way to the lowest potential

exposure levels. Another important uncertainty is the selection of an appropriate population IQ shift that 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

could be accepted as a non-adverse effect. A change in median population IQ test results is far different

from natural fluctuations in individual test results or from the natural variation in a population (e.g.,

standard deviation in population IQ of 15 points). Selection of a population shift of 0.3 IQ points is an

understandably conservative, yet appropriate, approach in setting a health guideline for acute exposures to

ionizing radiation. Though the IQ reduction end point is based on a sensitive population (8–25 week-old

fetuses), ATSDR has applied an additional uncertainty factor of 3 for human sensitivity.

Our understanding of the health hazard posed by ionizing radiation will continue to expand and,

therefore, be subject to change. As additional new information concerning the potential public health

impact of ionizing radiation becomes available, ATSDR will evaluate that information. ATSDR will

continue to work with our Federal partners to ensure an up-to-date assessment of all relevant biomedical

data to protect the public from exposure to harmful levels of ionizing radiation. The acute MRL value is

supportive of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission fetal protection dose equivalent of 5 mSv (500 mrem)

during the gestation period. EPA has derived neither an RfD nor an RfC for ionizing radiation (IRIS 1999).

• An MRL of 1.0 mSv/yr (100 mrem/yr) above background has been derived for chronic-duration

external ionizing radiation exposure (365 days or more).

No individual studies were identified that could be used to base a chronic-duration external exposure

MRL that did not result in a cancer-producing end point. However, BEIR V (1990) reports that the

average annual effective dose to the U.S. population is 3.6 mSv/yr. A total annual effective dose

equivalent of 3.6 mSv (360 mrem)/year to members of the U.S. population is obtained mainly by

naturally occurring radiation from external sources, medical uses of radiation, and radiation from

consumer products. Since this annual dose of 3.6 mSv/yr has not been associated with adverse health

effects or increases in the incidences of any type of cancers in humans or other animals, the 3.6 mSv/yr is

considered a NOAEL for purposes of MRL derivation. An uncertainty factor of 3 (for human variability)

was applied to the NOAEL of 3.6 mSv/yr to derive the MRL of 1.0 mSv/yr.

The chronic MRL value is supportive of the 1 mSv/yr (100 mrem/yr) dose equivalent limit to the public

that is recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection and required by the

Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The EPA has derived neither an oral RfD nor an inhalation RfC for

ionizing radiation (IRIS 1999). EPA has derived limits for concentrations of selected radioactive

materials in drinking water under the Safe Drinking Water Act. The population is simultaneously 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

exposed to radiation through oral, inhalation, and external routes of exposure, and the chronic MRL is

applicable to the cumulative exposure by all routes. 

3.2.1 Acute (Immediate and Non-Carcinogenic) Effects from Ionizing Radiation Exposure

A considerable body of information is available in the literature on the acute exposure, high-dose health

effects of ionizing radiation. Such health effects would not be possible from levels of residual radioactive

material at NPL sites. There are three circumstances in which a person may conceivably be exposed to

acute high-level doses of ionizing radiation that would initially result in one or many immediate noncarcinogenic effects. One instance would involve being in the immediate proximity of an atomic blast, as

were the Japanese populations of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 or the Marshall Islands fallout

victims injured from fallout from an atomic weapons blast on Bikini Atoll in March 1954. The second

instance would be a laboratory or industrial accident, where only those onsite and involved with high

intensity radioactive sources or radiation generating equipment would be affected. The third and most

likely opportunity for exposure to high levels (or repeated doses) of ionizing radiation would involve

medical sources in the treatment of disease (protracted exposures to x rays, fluoroscopy, radioiodine

therapy, etc.) or exposure to displaced medical or industrial radiography sources. People who volunteer

to be exposed to ionizing radiation for the purpose of medical research also fall into the third category

(see Table 3-2). People who have a large enough area of their body exposed to high doses (>100 rad) of 

radiation in any of these situations may exhibit immediate signs known as acute radiation syndrome. In

addition to radiation sickness, overexposure to ionizing radiation can result in lens opacities (~0.2 Gy

threshold and protracted exposure), and fetal and developmental anomalies. 

The acute and delayed effects of exposure to ionizing radiation in humans and laboratory animals have

been studied quite extensively. Laboratory animal data have provided a large volume of information

related to the health effects of radiation; however, the most useful information related to human health

effects comes from human exposure data. The data collected from the larger exposed populations, such

as those from Hiroshima and Nagasaki, some medically-exposed populations, or the radium dial painters,

have provided valuable information on both the acute and the delayed (long-term) health effects in

humans exposed to radiation from certain radionuclides. A number of studies performed on smaller

groups of people as early as the 1930s have been recently identified and made public (DOE 1995). These

experiments will not be discussed in depth in this toxicological profile (for reasons listed below), but will

be briefly summarized. Most of these exposures to sources of ionizing radiation were performed in small 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

groups of human volunteers at a few institutions sponsored or supported by the Department of Energy

(DOE), U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), the U.S. Atomic Energy

Commission (AEC), the Manhattan Engineer District (MED), and the Office of Scientific Research and

Development (OSRD). Other studies took place at universities, private hospitals, and other institutions. 

The bulk of these human studies may be categorized as either tracer studies, metabolism studies, doseresponse studies, or as experimental treatments for disease. Many of the studies listed in the DOE report

were done before the 1970s, so the 1995 report represents the culmination of significant efforts to

assemble the appropriate documentation to reconstruct and describe the purpose of each experiment, the

experimental designs, the dates and locations of the exposures, the doses and routes of administration, the

population size and how the populations were chosen, the use of informed consent among these

individuals, and whether any of these individuals were followed through the remainder of their life in

order to determine possible delayed effects from exposures to these radionuclides. In spite of the

problems associated with interpreting these experiments, they yielded a useful database of information

that describes the health effects of radiation exposure in humans. Some of these studies are summarized

in Table 3-2. 

All cells that comprise the body’s tissues and organ systems are not equally sensitive to the biological

effects of ionizing radiation; the sensitivity of cells is affected by age at the time of exposure, sex, health

status, and other factors. Cells that are rapidly growing and dividing (such as those found in the

gastrointestinal tract, bone marrow, reproductive and lymphoid tissues, and fetal nerve cells) are more

sensitive to the cytotoxic effects of ionizing radiation. Higher doses showed more effects in the

gastrointestinal tract than in the bone marrow. Tissues that undergo little cell growth and mitosis under

normal conditions (such as those found in the central nervous system, the adrenal, adipose, and

connective tissues, and the kidney) are more resistant to these effects, requiring a much larger acute

absorbed dose before outward toxicological effects may be observed. Why are these growing and

dividing cells the most sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation? The answer relates to the effect on

the genome of the cell. Ionizing radiation may damage the cell’s DNA (which the cell relies on to

manufacture proteins and enzymes, perform routine cell functions, and maintain cell integrity and

homeostasis) to the point that normal cell functions are markedly decreased or stopped, resulting in cell

damage and death. Once damaged, the cell can either repair the damage or die. Repair or misrepair may

or may not result in cell lethality. When precursor cells in the hematopoietic system (which multiply

quite frequently to replenish aging leukocytes) are damaged or die, leukopenia may occur in the

peripheral blood, leaving the body susceptible to infections and disease. At ~0.5 Gy (50 rad), there may

be transient changes in formed elements of the blood in some individuals. At 1 Gy (100 rad), most

individuals express transient 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-2. Summary of Some Studies of Humans Exposed to Radiation and Radionuclides 

Location Year(s) Radionuclide

Purpose of

experiment

Number

of people

dosed

Dose and route of

exposure Result

ANL 1931-

1933

226Ra Determine the

retention time of

226Ra in humans

NA 70–50 μg;

injected

 Incomplete

ANL 1943-

1946

x rays;

32P

Determine effects

of radiation,

process chemicals

and toxic metals in

humans

4 x rays: 30 R 32P: route not

specified

White blood cell chemistry

was important in assessing

the radiation sensitivity of

workers exposed to

radiation

ANL 1944-

1945

32P Study the

metabolism of

hemoglobin in

cases of

polycythemia rubra

vera

7 15–40 μCi;

route not

specified

NA

ANL 1962 3

H Study the uptake

of 3

H thymidine in

tumors and the

effects of 3

H on

tumors

4 10 μCi; injected Similar growth was noted

in both cancerous and

non-cancerous cells

treated with 3

H

ANL 1943-

1944

x ray Study

hematological

changes at varying

doses of radiation

in cancer therapy

14 27–500 R;

external exposure

Reduction of white blood

cells formed in lymphoid

tissue; routine monitoring

of blood components not a

practical way of assessing

the usual occupational

radiation exposures

ANL 1948-

1953

76As Determine effects

of 76As on hematopoietic tissues in

leukemia patients

24 17–90 mCi;

intravenous

76As as effective as more

commonly used leukemia

therapeutic agents.

BNL 1950 131I Determine the

usefulness of 131I

to treat patients

with Grave’s

Disease and

metastatic

carcinoma of the

thyroid

12 4–360mCi or

6–20 mCi; route

not specified

NA

BNL 1951 131I Study interaction

of the thyroid and

131I in children with

nephrotic

syndrome

8 NA Maximum uptake of 131I

was 30-60% of

administered dose

(3–5 μCi); no impairment

of I uptake in children with

nephrotic syndrome.

BNL 1952-

1953

42K

38Cl

131I (1 patient)

Examine formation

and cycling of

cerebrospinal fluid

(CSF)

2 NA; injected route

not specified

The amount of CSF

produced daily is small

and fluid production is not

solely produced by the

choroid plexus
IONIZING RADIATION 92

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-2. Summary of Some Studies of Humans Exposed to Radiation 

and Radionuclides (continued)

Location Year(s) Radionuclide

Purpose of

experiment

Number

of people

dosed

Dose and route of

exposure Result

BNL 1963 59Fe Study iron

absorption in

women with

various menstrual

histories

9 1–10 μCi; oral Menstrual blood loss in

women with excessive

bleeding was 110–550 mL. 

Normal women lost 33–59

mL during menstruation. 

Heavy menstruating

women had higher

gastrointestinal tract (GIT)

absorption of iron than

normal women

BNL 1967 47Ca Study the role of

dietary Ca in

osteoporosis

7 25 μCi;

intravenous

Diets high in Ca had a

small but positive impact

on osteoporosis

BNL Early

1970s

82Br Study the kinetics

of halothane

4 2.5 μCi; inhalation Concentrations of

halothane were initially

high in upper parts of the

body and low in lower

parts of the body. 

Diffusion equilibrium

throughout the body was

achieved in about 24

minutes.

HS 1963 131I Determine uptake

kinetics of 131I in

humans

8 NA. Dairy cows

consumed 5 mg

to 2 g/day of I. 

Volunteers

consumed milk

produced by the

cows exposed to

131I in the diet.

Uptake of 131I in humans

was characterized.

LBL 1942-

1946

x ray Determine if blood

cell changes could

be used to indicate

exposure in

workers on the

Manhattan Project.

29 5–50 R, daily

dose

100–300 R, total

dose.

Whole body

external

exposure.

Significant deviations in

white blood cell counts,

anemia formed in relation

to dose.

LBL 1948-

1949

x ray Determine the

effects of radiation

on the pituitary

gland during

treatment of

cancers of other

tissues

> 1 8,000–10,000

rad; external

exposure

Pituitary is extremely

resistant to x rays.

LBL 1949-

1950

x ray Effect of radiation

on the pituitary

gland and its effect

on advanced

melanoma and

breast cancer.

3 8,500–10,000

rad; external

exposure

Pituitary is extremely

resistant to x rays.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-2. Summary of Some Studies of Humans Exposed to Radiation 

and Radionuclides (continued)

Location Year(s) Radionuclide

Purpose of

experiment

Number

of people

dosed

Dose and route of

exposure Result

LBL Early

1950s

60Co Determine

feasibility of

treating bladder

cancer using

beads labeled with

60Co 

35 5,000–6,000 rad

over 7 days. 

Beads were

placed inside the

bladder cavity.

Non-infiltrating cancers

were more successfully

treated than were the

infiltrating bladder cancers.

LBL 1961 90Y Determine the

effectiveness of

90Y in the

treatment of acute

leukemia in a child

1 200 rad to

lymphatic tissue;

route not

specified.

Therapy resulted in

temporary remission of

leukemia; little effect on

peripheral blood cells and

red blood cells.

LLNL 1980s 13N

41Ar

Determine the

uptake and

clearance of

nitrogen gas in

order to better

understand

“decompression

sickness” in deepsea divers.

11 NA. Inhalation

route of

exposure. Doses

in the mCi range.

Absorbed dose to

the lungs

estimated to be

0.3–0.5 rad.

NA

LANL 1955 NA Obtain information

needed to plan for

the safe and

effective use of

military aircraft

near “mushroom

clouds” during

combat operation 

4 #15 R;

Inhalation and

external routes

were the likely

routes of

exposure.

No significant internal

deposition of fission

products or unfissioned Pu

were detected in urine or

via whole-body counting.

LANL 1961-

1962

85Sr Determine the

cutaneous

absorption kinetics

of 85Sr through

human skin

2 70 μCi;

dermal exposure

Absorption of 85Sr across

the skin was low, and

ranged from 0.2% to 0.6%

total absorption.

OR 1956-

1973

60Co

137Cs

Study efficacy of

total-body

irradiation on the

treatment of

leukemia,

polycythemia rubra

vera, and

lymphoma

194 50–300 R, one

person received

500 R; external

exposure

Higher frequency of

remissions after 150 R

compared to 250 R. Total

body irradiation survived

as long-but not longer-than

patients treated with nonradiation treatments

OR 1953-

1957

233U 235U

Study the

distribution and

excretion of

uranium in humans

NS. 4–50 mg;

intravenously

99% of injected uranium

cleared the blood within 20

hrs and the remainder

either deposited in the

skeleton and kidneys or

excreted via the urine
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-2. Summary of Some Studies of Humans Exposed to Radiation 

and Radionuclides (continued)

Location Year(s) Radionuclide

Purpose of

experiment

Number

of people

dosed

Dose and route of

exposure Result

OR 1945 32P Study effects of

beta rays on skin

10 140–1,180 rad;

external

exposure.

Threshold dose of beta

radiation that resulted in

mild tanning was about

200 rad. Erythema

resulted after a dose of

813 rad

UC 1937-

1954

x rays Study the effect of

x rays for the

treatment of

gastric ulcers

116 1,100–2,930 rad;

external exposure

Claimed that moderate

irradiation of the stomach

reduced acid secretion and

was a valuable adjunct to

conventional gastric ulcer

therapy. Therapy was

later discontinued due to

risks outweighing benefits 

UC 1959 51Cr Determine

feasibility of using

implanted radiation

sources in the

treatment of

cancer

24 2–5 mCi;

Implanted within

cancerous tissues

16 had good or favorable

results; the remainder of

patients had questionable

or unfavorable results. 

Implants were generally

well tolerated.

UC 1960s Various. 

Fallout contains

many alpha,

beta, and

gamma

emitting

radionuclides. 

Simulated

fallout

contained 85Sr, 133Ba, or 134Cs

Gain information in

civil defense

planning prior to

nuclear fallout

10 0.2–0.7 μCi

actual fallout;

0.4–14 μCi

simulated fallout. 

Subjects ingested 

actual fallout from

Nevada test site,

as well as

simulated fallout

particles

No gastrointestinal

symptoms were reported. 

Studies provided a basis

for estimating the systemic

uptake and internal

radiation dose that could

result from the ingestion of

fallout after nuclear bomb

detonation.

UR 1946-

1947

234U 235U

Determine dose

level at which renal

injury is first

detectable;

measure U

elimination and

excretion rates

6 6.4–70.9 μCi/kg

intravenously

U excretion occurred

mainly via the urine and

70–85% was eliminated

with 24 hrs. Acidosis

decreased U excretion. 

Humans tolerated U at

doses as high as 70 μg/kg

UR 1956 222Rn Determine

radiation doses to

different parts of

the respiratory

tract from inhaled

222Rn

2 0.025 μCi;

inhalation

Average retention of 222Rn

and daughter products in

normal atmospheric dust 

was 25%; retention in

filtered air was 75%. 

Radiation exposure to the

lungs was due to radon

daughter products rather

than by 222Rn itself.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-2. Summary of Some Studies of Humans Exposed to Radiation 

and Radionuclides (continued)

Location Year(s) Radionuclide

Purpose of

experiment

Number

of people

dosed

Dose and route of

exposure Result

UR 1966-

1967

212Pb Study absorption

of lead from the

gastrointestinal

tract and

determine the

radiation hazard

and chemical

toxicity of ingested

lead.

4 1 μCi intravenous

and/or 5 μCi

orally

Lead might be released

from binding sites only

when red blood cells die.

MISC 1950s 131I Study the

transmission of 131I

in maternal breast

milk to nursing

infants

2 100 μCi; oral 131I concentration in

maternal milk was high

enough to allow significant

uptake in the thyroids of

nursing infants. 131I tracers

should be used with

caution when nursing

infants.

MISC 1953 131I Study uptake of 131I

by the thyroids of

human embryos

NA 100–200 μCi

(maternal dose);

route not

specified

Pregnant women were

scheduled for abortion

prior to receiving 131I. 

Results indicated that it

would be unwise to

administer 131I for

diagnostic or therapeutic

purposes while pregnant.

MISC 1963-

1973

x rays Determine the

effects of radiation

on human

testicular function

60 7.5–400 rad;

external exposure

Doses of 7.5 rad yielded

no adverse effect on

testicular function. 27 rad

inhibited generation of

sperm, and 75 rad

destroyed existing sperm

cells. Doses of 100–400

rad produced temporary

sterility. All persons

eventually recovered to

pre-exposure levels prior

to vasectomy.

Source: Human Radiation Experiments Associated with the U.S. Department of Energy and its Predecessors. U.S.

Department of Energy, Assistant Secretary for Environment, Safety, and Health, Washington, DC, July, 1995. 

Document #DOE/EH-0491

ANL = Argonne National Laboratory; BNL = Brookhaven National Laboratory; HS = Hanford Sites; LBL = Lawrence

Berkeley Laboratory; LLNL = Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; LANL = Los Alamos National Laboratory;

ORS = Oak Ridge Sites; UCLA = University of California, Los Angeles; UCACRH = University of Chicago Argonne

Cancer Research Hospital; UR = University of Rochester; MISC = Other miscellaneous studies performed at other

institutions; NA = information not available.
IONIZING RADIATION 96

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

hematopoietic manifestations. Similarly, the cells lining the gastrointestinal tract, which normally have

high turnover rates, will fail to multiply and replace dying cells, making the body susceptible to

malabsorption syndromes, secondary bacterial infections, fluid loss and electrolyte imbalance. Fetal

nervous system cells go through a period of rapid development between weeks 8–15, during which time

they are more sensitive to radiation damage. Mechanisms by which ionizing radiation affects cells are

described in greater detail in Chapter 5 of this profile. The phases of acute toxicity of ionizing radiation

are discussed in the following section.

Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS). Doses of radiation below 0.15 Gy (15 rad) produce no

observable symptoms or signs. Lifetime radiation exposure from radioactive NPL waste sites, nuclear

power plant operations, consumer products, natural background radiation, and most hospital nuclear

medical tests are in this range. As the radiation dose increases, subclinical responses begin to occur at

0.15–1 Gy (15–100 rad), and clinical responses occur from 0.5 to 30 Gy (50 to 3,000 rad). Acute

radiation syndrome (ARS) is seen in individuals following acute whole body doses of 100 or more rad. 

The degree of ARS in humans may be classified by the absorbed dose and the time over which the energy

from the radiation is deposited in tissue. The clinical phase can be divided into four overlapping phases:

(1) a mild phase (0.5–1 Gy, 50–100 rad), (2) hematopoietic syndrome (1–8 Gy, 100–800 rad), (3) the

gastrointestinal syndrome (8–30 Gy, 800–3,000 rad), and (4) central nervous system syndrome (>30 Gy,

>3,000 rad). If the energy is deposited over more than a few days (i.e., at a lower dose rate), the severity

of the effects may be greatly reduced and time of onset delayed. Each of these syndromes and the tissues

they are most likely to affect are briefly discussed below.

Subclinical Response (0.15 to <0.5 Gy, 15 to <50 rad). This phase is characterized by very

few, if any, clinical or hematological manifestations of illness. There are no visible symptoms from this

level of radiation exposure. Chromosomal breaks may occur within this dose range. At around 50 rad,

there may be transient changes in formed elements of the blood in sensitive individuals. 

Clinical Response (0.5 to 30 Gy, 50 to 3,000 rad). 

0.5–1 Gy, 50–100 Rad. This phase of ARS is characterized by mild, but non-specific signs of

toxicity. At 100 rad, most individuals express transient hematopoietic manifestations. Acute clinical

signs of toxicity appear within 4–8 hours of receiving the dose; these initially consist of nausea and

vomiting. Within 7–15 days after exposure, a moderate leukopenia appears; however, blood cell counts

eventually return to normal within 4–6 weeks after exposure. There is no perceptible decrease in mental

capabilities. Rest, extra fluids, antibiotics, and self-care are generally all that is needed for these 
IONIZING RADIATION 97

3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

individuals to fully recover. Any treatment which is offered could include antibiotics and supportive care,

much the same as one may treat cold or flu symptoms.

Hematopoietic Syndrome (1–8 Gy, 100–800 rad). This form of ARS is characterized by four

phases. The first phase, the prodromal phase, typically lasts up to 2–3 days, depending on the dose; it is

characterized by fatigue, listlessness, and lethargy that progresses to headache, anorexia, nausea, and

vomiting within approximately 8 hours after initial exposure, depending on the dose. Laboratory findings

are limited to varying alterations in the peripheral blood, with the earliest changes demonstrated as a

marked lymphopenia about 1 day after exposure. The second stage, the latent phase, begins on the third

to fourth day and may last up to 3 weeks from the time of initial exposure. This phase is marked by a

progressive decrease in total blood leukocyte counts and hair loss (epilation) toward the third week. The

third phase, the symptomatic or bone marrow depression phase, is present 18–21 days after exposure. 

Chills, fever, malaise, a swollen oropharynx (throat), gingivitis, bleeding gums, petechiae (small blood

blisters), ecchymoses (bruises), anemia, and acute infectious diseases are characteristic of persons in this

phase. The leukopenia and thrombocytopenia due to destruction of stem cells in the red marrow

undermine the body's natural defenses against disease and hemorrhage, leaving the body susceptible to

acute infections and illnesses. Depending on the dose and the aggressiveness of the treatment protocols,

the clinical picture can vary from serious to fatal. The fourth phase, the recovery phase, is marked by a

general improvement of the patient over a 3–6 month period. For doses from 1 to 6 Gy (100 to 600 rad),

the prognosis for recovery is good; for doses of 6–8 Gy (600–800 rad) the prognosis is poor, but some

victims are expected to survive if they receive aggressive medical treatment. The LD50/30 for whole body

irradiation is estimated to be between 350 and 450 rad (3.5–4.5 Gy) for those who receive minimal or no

medical treatment.

Gastrointestinal Syndrome (8–30 Gy, 800–3,000 rad). The prodromal phase of this syndrome is

very abrupt in onset, characterized by nausea and diarrhea, which typically subsides after several days,

followed by a short latent period. Symptoms then return, which include white blood cell depression as

seen in the hematopoietic form of ARS, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea (sometimes bloody), fever, and

massive electrolyte imbalances, which ultimately will result in death. Treatments are palliative. Persons

exposed to absorbed doses of 10 Gy (1,000 rad) are expected to die, although aggressive medical

intervention may improve survival rates. There is one exception. If the dose is fractionated, as with bone

marrow transplant patients who receive a standard whole body dose of 15.75 Gy (1,575 rad) and are wellmanaged, with fluids, antibiotics, and a sterile environment, the individual has a reasonable chance of

survival.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Central Nervous System Syndrome (30 Gy, 3,000 rad). Symptoms in this syndrome

classically have an immediate onset, and include violent nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, irrational

behavior, circulatory system collapse, and neuromuscular incoordination occurring within a few minutes

after irradiation. Convulsions, coma, and death ensue within 48 hours after irradiation.

The phases of acute radiation effects discussed above are summarized in Table 3-3. 

Studies of Acute Effects. Most studies which showed acute radiation effects were from external

radiation, indicating that internally-deposited radionuclides typically do not produce sufficient dose and

dose rate to induce acute effects. As Table 3-3 shows, the overt signs of radiation toxicity follow a doseeffect relationship as long as the radiation dose rate is high. Individuals exposed to single acute doses of 

radiation that are less than 1 Gy (100 rad) experience few if any significant clinical signs of toxicity;

however, as the dose is doubled (2 Gy, 200 rad), some systems begin to show signs of overt toxicity. At

this dose, the cells that multiply the most rapidly (gastrointestinal cells, blood-forming cells) are only

being mildly affected (nausea/vomiting, leukopenia). Red blood cell precursors are also likely to be

affected at this dose; however, because of the lifespan of a peripheral red blood cell (90–120 days),

anemia may not become clinically evident for several days or weeks after exposure. Cells that proliferate

more slowly (e.g., the cells of the central nervous system, connective tissues, etc.) are largely unaffected. 

As the absorbed dose increases to 6 Gy (600 rad), more severe changes in the hematopoietic and

gastrointestinal systems present as more intense, quicker onset vomiting for longer durations and severe

white blood cell depression (leukopenia). Infections are of a greater concern, since the white blood cell’s

main defenses against infectious microorganisms (gastrointestinal cell barriers, neutrophils, lymphocytes)

are severely compromised or non-functional. Coagulapathies begin to appear due to platelet anomalies

(pupura, hemorrhage) as well as hair follicle death (hair epilation). Also at this dose, the first signs of

central nervous system disruption begin to appear, with short periods of decreased cognitive abilities. As

the dose of ionizing radiation increases beyond 8 Gy (800 rad), a dose-dependent increase in the severity

of the hematological, gastrointestinal, and central nervous system toxicity occurs, and death will likely

ensue due to catastrophic multi-organ failure, including complete destruction of the blood forming cells in

the red marrow and destruction of the basement cells in the lining of the intestinal walls.

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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Death has been reported soon after an individual has received a very high single or multiple external

radiation dose. Most of these studies have in common very high doses (several hundred to several

thousands of rad) being administered over a relatively short period of time (acute exposure), usually over

the course of minutes or hours. This was seen in the human case report by Stavem et al. (1985) in which

a worker was exposed to 2,250 rad (22.5 Gy) within a few minutes time, resulting in death due to acute

radiation sickness (depressed leukocyte counts, vomiting, diarrhea, etc). 

There are many reports of studies in which animals inhaled large activities of soluble and insoluble

particles. The inhalation studies pointed to a number of immediate or near-immediate causes of death,

including bone marrow hypoplasia (Gillette et al. 1987a); radiation pneumonitis and fibrosis (Brooks et

al. 1992; Hahn et al. 1981, 1987; Lundgren et al. 1991); and blood abnormalities, such as

thrombocytopenia, neutropenia, lymphopenia, and anemia (McClellan et al. 1973). Death is most likely a

result of these systems being adversely affected by the deleterious effects that radiation has on the cell

functionality within these organ systems. The overwhelming damage that radiation induces in rapidly

dividing (or undifferentiated) cells at these high doses (i.e., cell functional loss, necrosis, apoptosis, and

death of precursor cells) leads to decreased numbers of functional cells for an extended period of time,

leaving the body highly susceptible to systemic infections that can lead to organ failure and death. It has

been suggested that the damage to lung tissue from radiation is principally vascular, with the sloughing of

dead and dying endothelial cells causing capillary leakage, both interstitially and onto the alveolar

surface. Another theory suggests that the damage to type II pneumocytes causes serious alterations in the

amount of surfactant phospholipids, ultimately altering the normal functioning of the lung and leading to

lung inflammation. A third theory suggests that type I pneumocytes necrose and slough, leaving denuded

basement membranes and alveolar debris. Finally, a few researchers believe that the role of lymphocytes,

the immune system, and the interaction of bacteria plays a major part in the induction of radiation

pneumonitis (Coggle et al. 1986). In the case of experimental animals given acute doses, causes of later

in life are primarily related to the cancerous effects (Boecker et al. 1988; Lloyd et al. 1994).

The clinical signs of toxicity from high radiation doses follow the classic dose-effect curve, with some

organs more severely affected at each dose than others. A number of studies have been summarized that

describe the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) and the lowest-observed-adverse-effect level

(LOAEL) of ionizing radiation on multiple body systems. These data are summarized in the Levels of

Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material tables in Chapter 8 of this profile. More

specific information on some organ systems affected after receiving high doses of ionizing radiation is

discussed in more detail below.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

3.2.1.1 Gastrointestinal Effects 

Prominent gastrointestinal effects due to high acute doses of radiation can occur, usually after oral intakes

of radionuclides or after whole-body exposures. Localized doses of external radiation of about 1,000 rad

(10 Gy), have been reported to cause inflammation and swelling of the oral cavity, including the cheeks,

soft and hard palate, tongue, and throat. The large doses necessary to cause these effects and the absence

of effects following dental x rays demonstrate that salivary glands are not very sensitive to radiation. The

structures near the stomach, which have stratified squamous epithelial coverings, seem to be much less

severely affected than the stomach, small and large intestines, and colon, largely due to the lower cell

turnover rates associated with this type of epithelium. The gastrointestinal epithelium, which includes the

epithelium covering the stomach and intestines, is the most sensitive to the effects of radiation due to the

high cell turnover rates. Very large doses (>1,000 rad, 10 Gy) to the germinal epithelium of the stomach

and intestines damage these cells, rendering them unable to divide and replace older, more senescent cells

lining these structures. As a result, ulceration, sloughing of cells, diarrhea, and hemorrhage may occur,

leading to the gastrointestinal syndrome described in Table 3-3 (Adams and Wilson 1993). 

Numerous laboratory animal studies identified gastrointestinal effects after exposure to high-level

radiation. For example, male Swiss albino mice were injected with tritiated water with a specific activity

of 10 mCi/mL, followed by maintenance on tritiated drinking water at 2.5 μCi/mL for 12 days. Mice

were estimated to have cumulative doses of 116, 440, 1,320, 2,200, and 5,280 mrad (1.2, 4.4, 13.22, and

5.3 mGy) for the 0.25, 1, 3, 5, and 12 days of treatment, respectively. A significant decrease in the total

cell population and mitotic figure per crypt section was observed 6 hours after exposure; the decrease

continued through day 1. After that, the total cell population stayed at a constant value for 3–5 days),

after which it showed a significant increase on day 12. The number of mitotic figures increased slightly

on day 3 followed by a decrease on day 5, but these changes were not significant. On day 12, the mitosis

also increased slightly. The number of pycnotic nuclei and necrotic cells increased significantly 6 and 24

hours after exposure, and then decreased on day 3. After that, the number of cells increased again on day

5. The number of cells per villus column showed a significant decrease 6 hours after exposure; this

decline continued up to day 5, when the cell count was 67.5% of normal (control). After this, the count

showed a significant increase on day 12. The villus height was slightly reduced 6 hours after exposure,

and significantly reduced from day 1 to 5. The height was 81% of normal at day 5, and 91.5% of normal

at day 12. In summary, all of the parameters studied showed partial recovery towards normal on day 12

at the doses tested (Kumar et al. 1983).
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Gastrointestinal effects have also been described after inhalation exposure to radionuclides. Gastrointestinal effects are most likely due to inhaled particles lodging in the nasopharyngeal mucus and in the

tracheobronchial mucus layers of the conducting airways of the lungs and then being carried up the

airways, where they enter the pharynx and are swallowed. Several reports describe such gastrointestinal

effects after inhalation exposure. Gillett et al. (1987a) exposed young adult Beagle dogs (12–14 months

old) once to soluble aerosols containing 90SrCl2. Different airborne concentrations (2.16–418.5 μCi

90Sr/L) and exposure durations (2–22 minutes) were used to produce graded levels of initial lung burdens;

72 Beagle dogs were exposed, and another 25 unexposed dogs served as controls. The long-term retained

burden ranged from 1.0 to 118.8 μCi 90Sr/kg body weight. Clinical signs of radiation-induced illness

appeared about 2 weeks after exposure. The first signs, fever and anorexia, including bloody diarrhea,

developed during the last 48 hours before death. In another study, Hahn et al. (1975) studied the effects

of 90Y laden particles clearing to the gastrointestinal tract after an acute-duration inhalation exposure. Ten

Beagle dogs were exposed by nose-only inhalation to aerosols of 90Y in fused-clay particles; three control

dogs were exposed to fused clay only. Gastrointestinal burdens ranged from 8 to 34 mCi. A rapid initial

decrease in body burden occurred (typical of an insoluble material deposited by inhalation), which was

largely due to the clearance of particles from the upper respiratory tract through the gastrointestinal tract

by way of mucociliary clearance mechanisms in the respiratory tract; 4 of 6 dogs with 18–34 mCi gastrointestinal burden developed a mucoid diarrhea. The dog with the highest exposure developed

hemorrhagic diarrhea; 2 of 7 dogs exposed to 18–32 mCi gastrointestinal tract burden (32–50 mCi wholebody burden) developed colitis. At necropsy, lesions were found to be confined to the colon, except for

one dog with ulcerative esophagitis. No gross lesions were seen in the stomachs or small intestines of any

of the dogs; no histologic lesions were found. In the dogs with colitis, ulcerative and atrophic foci were

scattered in the terminal third of the colon. Loss of mucosal epithelial cells and collapse of the lamina

propria were the most severe pathologic alterations in the colon. The colon received the highest radiation

dose in the two exposed dogs, although the stomach and small intestines also received significant doses. 

Of the two dogs sacrificed at 8 days postexposure, the only lesions that were seen at necropsy were in the

colon of the dog that received an estimated 3,200–5,700 rad (32–57 Gy). No lesions were seen in the

intestines of the dog that received 2,800 rad or less. Lesions were most likely in response to a high dose

of ionizing radiation due to the long transit time of the radiolabeled material through the colon (increased

exposure time).

Similar effects from external gamma radiation have been reported. In one human case report, Stavem et

al. (1985) described a 64-year-old male worker who accidentally received a large dose of gamma

radiation in a plant for sterilizing medical equipment. He was exposed for only a few minutes and was 
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most likely exposed to a mean whole-body dose of 2,250 rad. The worker developed ARS. 

Histologically, the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract (and respiratory tract) showed only a few

mononuclear cells, and no granulocytes. There was slight atrophy of glands in the stomach, marked

atrophy in the small intestine, and total atrophy of the glands in the large intestine. As in humans,

laboratory animals exposed to extreme doses of external radiation exhibit effects on the exposed organ

systems. A group of 12 male BALB/c mice was exposed to a single whole-body dose of 1,500 rad

gamma rays from a 60Co source. The degree of gastrointestinal motility and the condition of the

abdominal blood vessels, spleen, and the contents of the stomach and intestine were examined 1 hour, 3

hours, 18 hours, and 3 days after irradiation. Gastrointestinal mobility was present at all times after the

exposure. Vascular dilatation was absent at all times. Lumial contents were present 1–3 hours after the

exposure and slightly present 18 hours to 3 days after the exposure. The mucosal surface displayed

changes in the shape of the villi, with rudimentary villi being the most advanced type of collapse seen. 

Villus shape changes were seen at all times post-exposure. Changes in tissue structure were seen at the

18-hour time point including less distinct crypts with disintegrating cells present (Indran et al. 1991). Ijiri

(1989), studying the influence of circadian rhythm on apoptosis, found that gamma irradiation (from

137Cs) between 0900 and 1500 hours caused a higher incidence of apoptotic cells in the small intestine of

male C57BL/6crSlc mice than irradiation between 2100 and 0300 hours, irrespective of dose rate; similar

differences, but with lower incidences of apoptotic cells, were also noted in the descending colon. The

mean lethal dose values for continuous irradiation with gamma rays were 21 rad (0.21 Gy) for the cells of

the small intestine and 38 rad (0.38 Gy) for the cells of the descending colon, and the respective values

for HTO (beta radiation) were 13 and 28 rad (0.13 and 0.28 Gy), indicating the high radiosensitivity of

these cells.

In summary, higher doses, starting in the range of 200–300 rad (2–3 Gy), are required to produce effects

in the gastrointestinal tract than in bone marrow. The severity of effects follows a typical dose-effect

relationship. The cells responsible for lining the tract frequently undergo mitosis, leaving them

particularly susceptible to DNA damage, cell death, and altered cell kinetics that affect the cell’s ability to

proliferate. These effects include karyorrhexis (fragmentation of a nucleus with scattering of pieces in the

cytoplasm), pyknotic nuclei (having polymerized and contracted chromosomal components), necrosis,

decreased number of cells/villi, and changes in shapes of the villi and mucosal surfaces. The damage to

the epithelial lining cells results in the loss of the natural barrier between intestinal microbes and the

body, making it susceptible to systemic infections, fluid imbalances and losses, bloody diarrhea, colitis,

and a host of other clinical signs, depending on the radiation dose (Gillett et al. 1987a; Hahn et al. 1975;

Kumar et al. 1983).
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Data for acute gastrointestinal effects in humans and laboratory animals from large doses of radiation are

summarized in the Levels of Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material tables in

Chapter 8 of this profile. 

3.2.1.2 Hematological and Lymphoreticular Effects

Hematological effects are one of the syndromes seen after acute doses to bone marrow (see Table 3-3) of

about 50 rad (0.5 Gy). The magnitude of effect on hematopoiesis is dependent on the total dose absorbed,

regardless of the route of exposure. As Table 3-3 shows, hematological symptoms begin to occur at doses

of 100–200 rad (1–2 Gy). Like the gastrointestinal system, the hematopoietic system contains a large

population of cells that requires the frequent replacement of senescent cells. To meet this need, a pool of

undifferentiated precursor cells called stem cells in the red marrow of many bones (e.g., ribs, pelvis,

vertebrae, skull, and ends of long bones) undergo high rates of mitotic activity and differentiate into the

various cell types to replace those that die off naturally. This pool of cells is critical for the production of

replacement cell populations for erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes, and thrombocytes. The dose of

radiation received by stem cells damages or kills these cells, thereby depressing the marrow activity,

resulting in anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, septicemia, infections, and death. The severity of

these lesions depends on the depression of bone marrow activity due to the total dose absorbed, with

irreversible total destruction resulting from doses to the red marrow on the order of 800 or more rad

(8 Gy). 

As an example of hematological lesions in humans obtained after exposure to ionizing radiation, Klener et

al. (1986) reports one case in which a man was accidentally irradiated by a sealed 60Co source. His health

status was followed for 11 years after the accident. A film dosimeter worn during the accident indicated

an exposure of 159 rad (1.59 Gy). Twelve to 24 hours after the accident, the worker felt general malaise

without vomiting; however, a blood count showed no marked deviations from normal. Eight days after

the accident, he developed minor deviations in peripheral blood counts. Leukocyte values were lowest

31–49 days after exposure. The lymphocyte count was normal the first day after the accident, but

decreased on days 19–23 and day 49. Neutrophils with coarse granulations and hypersegmentation of

nuclei were observed. In another acute exposure case, Stavem et al. (1985) reported on a 64-year-old

male worker who was accidentally exposed to gamma radiation in a plant that used ionizing radiation for

sterilization purposes. He was exposed for only a few minutes and received an estimated 2,250 rad

(22.5 Gy). The worker developed ARS, with the leukocyte count rapidly diminished to low values. 

Extensive chromosome injuries were seen in cultured blood lymphocytes, and virtually no undamaged
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cells were found. The worker died 13 days after exposure. An autopsy found the bone marrow to be

markedly hypocellular with a few scattered plasma cells.

Hematological effects have been reported after inhalation exposures in laboratory animals. The effects

depend on the dose absorbed. Brooks et al. (1992) exposed male monkeys, divided into mature

(5.0±0.5 kg) and immature (2.1±0.3 kg) groups, to an aerosol of 239Pu (NO3)4 by nose-only inhalation to

produce projected initial lung burdens of either 1.08, 0.27, or 0.1 μCi (40, 10, or 3.7 kBq). No significant

changes in blood lymphocyte numbers were observed. Gillett et al. (1987a) exposed young adult Beagle

dogs (12–14 months old) to soluble aerosols containing 90SrCl2. A review of the hematological

parameters of all dogs showed a similar, consistent, and dose-related pancytopenia in those animals

having a long-term retained burden greater than 10 μCi (370 kBq) 90Sr/kg. A profound dose-related

depression of platelet counts was also found. Decreases in platelet numbers were manifested by 7 days

and were maximal by 28 days. Platelet counts were depressed in all exposed groups, compared to

controls, when evaluation was extended to 1,000 days after exposure. Platelet counts among animals

having a long-term retained burden greater than 40.5 μCi (1,500 kBq) 90Sr/kg frequently fell to less than

10% of pre-exposure values. Animals having slightly lower long-term retained burden also exhibited

depressed but less severe thrombocytopenia. The degree of platelet depression was related to the degree

of long-term retained 90Sr. The decline in platelet counts seen in dogs with a long-term retained burden of

27.0–118.8 μCi 90Sr/kg at 1,000 days was also associated with the presence of hemangiosarcomas. 

Thrombocytopenia and neutropenia persisted in all exposed dogs through 1,000 days after exposure. 

Lymphocyte numbers were also depressed in a dose-related manner at activity concentrations greater than

10 μCi (370 kBq) 90Sr/kg. Reduced erythrocyte mass occurred in dogs having a long-term retained

burden greater than 10 μCi (370 kBq) 90Sr/kg between 14 and 21 days after exposure. Red blood cell

counts fell to 70–80% of pre-exposure values, with maximal depression at 32 days.

Hobbs et al. (1972) also observed dose-related clinical, hematological, serum chemical, and pathological

alterations more than 1 year after intake. Thirty-three Beagle dogs were given lung burdens of 3,600,

1,800, 1,200, 780, 400, 210, 110 and 0 μCi (133, 67, 44, 29, 15.8, and 4 MBq) 90Y/kg body weight. 

Cumulative doses between 990 and 55,000 rad (9.9–550 Gy) to the lungs through the end of the study or

the death of the animals were reported. Dogs that had initial lung burdens of 670–760 μCi/kg

(25–28 MBq) and radiation doses to lung of 8,400 to 9,400 rad (8.4–9.4 Gy) and died within 31 days after

intake had a dose-related depression of circulating lymphocytes (lymphopenia), as well as a marked 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

marrow suppression and deletion of hemic elements. Rib marrow was depopulated in dogs that died after

31 days. 

Exposure to primarily β and γ radiation from external sources yielded similar results. Seed et al. (1989)

exposed male and female Beagle dogs to 7.5 rad/day (0.075 Gy/day) gamma radiation for 150–300 days

from a 60Co source. The irradiated dogs showed a significant suppression/recovery pattern for the five

circulating types of cells studied (granulocytes, monocytes, platelets, erythrocytes, and lymphocytes),

compared with levels from the control animals. These daily doses were high and would have likely been

fatal if the entire dose had been received within a period of a few days.

A large number of reports are available in the literature regarding immunological effects associated with

radionuclides that have been inhaled by laboratory animals. Lymphopenia is a common sequela of

exposure to ionizing radiation affecting the immune system of both humans and animals. Gillett et al.

(1987a) exposed young adult Beagle dogs (12–14 months old) to soluble aerosols containing 90SrCl2 and

found that lymphocyte numbers were depressed in a dose-related manner at exposures greater than 10 μCi

90Sr/kg. Benjamin et al. (1976) exposed 6 Beagle dogs, (3 males and 3 females, 17–20 months old) by

nose-only inhalation to 90Y, 144Ce, or 90Sr in fused-clay particles. Initial lung burdens were 560, 46, and

28 μCi/kg (21, 1.7, and 1.0 MBq/kg) for 90Y, 144Ce, and 90Sr, respectively. Cumulative absorbed dose at

death or at sacrifice after 44 weeks were 8,700, 42,000, and 39,000 rad (87, 420, and 390 Gy) for 90Y,

144Ce, and 90Sr exposures, respectively. Lymphopenia was observed in dogs exposed to 90Y within several

days after intake and was statistically significantly depressed though 8 weeks but returned to control

levels by 16–20 weeks. No change in peripheral lymphocytes was observed. Lymphocyte counts in dogs

exposed to 144Ce were significantly lower (lymphopenia) than controls from 4 to 28 weeks after exposure. 

In a study conducted by Lundgren et al. (1976), the effect of 90Y inhaled in fused-clay particles on the

pulmonary clearance of inhaled Staphyloccus aureus in mice was investigated. Groups of male CFW

mice were exposed to 90Y for 10–20 minutes. Aerosol concentrations ranged from 14.5 to 428 μCi/L

(0.5–16 MBq/L) air and the activity median aerodynamic diameter (AMAD) ranged from 0.7 to 1.4 μm. 

The initial lung burden ranges of the groups were 2.5–4, 7–12, 20–47, and 50–76 μCi in experiment I and

5–7 and 8–12 μCi in experiment II. Pulmonary clearance of inhaled S. aureus was suppressed in mice

with an initial lung burdens of 20 μCi 90Y or greater at 2, 3, and 4 weeks after exposure. Lymphocyte

counts were suppressed in the 20–47 μCi and 50–76 μCi groups at 2 weeks postexposure and in the

50–76 μCi group at 3 weeks after intake. Clearance of bacteria at a reduced rate was observed in

20–47 μCi mice at 2, 3, and 4 weeks and in 50–76 μCi mice at 2 and 3 weeks after intake.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Similarly, Hobbs et al. (1972) observed dose-related pathological alterations more than 1 year postexposure in 33 Beagle dogs exposed to 90Y. Of the 33 dogs exposed, 21 with initial lung burdens from

670 to 5,200 μCi/kg (25–192 MBq/kg) and radiation doses to the lungs ranging from 8,400 to 55,000 rad

(84–550 Gy) died between 7.5 and 163 days after intake. Tracheobronchial lymph nodes (TBLNs) in the

early deaths showed marked lymphoid depletion, some sinus hemorrhage, and, later, phagocytosis of

hemosiderin pigment. In the dogs that died 38 days or more postexposure, the nodes were enlarged and

exhibited hyperplastic repopulation of lymphocytes. Hahn et al. (1976) also studied the effects of

exposure on TBLNs in 16 male and 14 female Beagle dogs exposed by nose-only inhalation to aerosols of

144Ce in fused-clay particles. Between 2 and 730 days postinhalation, the 144Ce dose to TBLNs ranged

from 240 to 230,000 rad (2.4–2,300 Gy). The concentration of 144Ce in the TBLNs increased during the

first year after exposure as a result of the translocation of 144Ce from the lungs via the lymphatics. 

Histologically, the changes were atrophic in nature. The cortex showed progressive reduction in size with

increasing time after intake; by 730 days after intake, there was little cortex remaining. Fibrosis was first

noted 128 days after intake and was more severe at each succeeding time period up to 730 days. There

was also a loss in numbers of lymphocytes in the paracortical area 56 days after intake, although this loss

was not as severe as the depletion of lymphocytes from the cortex. At later times the cortical and

paracortical areas were nearly devoid of lymphocytes and were populated mainly by macrophages. 

Particles could be seen in macrophages 2 days after inhalation exposure. The authors note that since

lymph nodes play a key role in immunologic responses associated with humoral antibody production and

cell-mediated immunity and, in view of the severe atrophy and fibrosis in the TBLNs in the dogs in this

study, the immunologic function in the TBLNs would seem to have been severely impaired.

Lymphocytes are responsible for providing cell-mediated and humoral-mediated (antibodies) resistance to

infection. Galvin et al. (1989) evaluated the cell-mediated and humoral immune responses to 239PuO2 in

the blood and lung lavage fluid. Four Beagle dogs per group (8 total) were exposed to monodisperse

aerosols (0.72–1.4 μm AMAD) of 239PuO2, with initial lung burdens ranging from 0.51 to 0.95 μCi

(0.02–0.04 MBq). Cumulative dose ranges were 1,400–2,400 rad (14–24 Gy) to the lungs;

620,000–930,000 rad (6,200–9,300 Gy) to the TBLNs; 290,000–440,000 rad (2,900–4,400 Gy) to the

mediastinal lymph nodes; 200–300 rad to (2–3 Gy) the sternal lymph nodes; and 2–3 rad (0.02–0.03 Gy)

to the spleen. The dog with the highest cumulative dose to the TBLNs (930,000 rad, 9,300 Gy) was the

only dog noted to have had chronic lymphopenia; blood cell counts of the other 3 dogs showed normal

lymphocyte counts. TBLNs of all dogs displayed severe diffuse fibrosis and atrophy with elimination of

all lymphatic cells and follicles. Lymphatic vessels were moderately to markedly distended. The spleen 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

and other peripheral lymph nodes were histologically normal. Systemic humoral response induced by

lung immunization was not different in the age-matched and exposed groups. Peak humoral immune

response (lung lavage, immunoglobulin G [IgG]) measured in immunized lung lobes of exposed and

control dogs was significantly greater than saline-lavaged control lung lobes.

Leukopenia (severe lymphopenia and granulocytopenia) and splenic congestion were found in one male

worker who accidentally received an external gamma dose of 2,250 rad (22.5 Gy) (Stavem et al. 1985). 

Mazur et al. (1991) exposed male Swiss mice to a single dose of 1,000 rad (10 Gy) whole-body

irradiation from a 60Co source. Spleen weights were significantly lower in the irradiated group during the

24-hour period. No statistically significant differences in acid phosphatase activity were seen in the

spleens and livers of radiation-exposed mice; however, the acid phosphatase activity in the spleen and

liver was statistically significantly higher in the irradiated rats as compared to controls. An increased

activity of beta-glucuronidase was seen in the spleen, but the enzyme activity did not differ from controls

in the liver. 

In summary, the hematological and lymphoreticular systems are target systems susceptible to the effects

of ionizing radiation, the severity of which occurs in a dose-dependent manner. As with the

gastrointestinal tract, the hemopoietic system is largely composed of undifferentiated rapidly dividing

cells, making it more susceptible to the toxic effects of ionizing radiation than are the tissues composed

of highly differentiated more slowly dividing cells (central nervous system). In many of the studies,

pancytopenia was one of the first major peripheral blood changes to occur. Neutrophils have a naturally

short lifespan in the peripheral blood (12–48 hours) and depend upon constant replenishment by the bone

marrow to adequately defend the body against infection. Acute high (sublethal) radiation doses from an

external source or from inhaled or ingested radionuclides that distribute to bone and irradiate the sensitive

cells in the bone marrow will first noticeably affect the progenitor cells that produce leucocytes, since

their turnover rates for this cell type are very high. The immediate peripheral blood counts of red blood

cells with longer lifespans in the peripheral blood and lower turnover rates will not be affected because of

their long lifetime (3–4 months). Radionuclides that preferentially distribute to the bone for long periods

of time will, if the dose is high, cause prolonged depression of most red and white blood cell types, due to

constant irradiation of the bone marrow components. Anemias, thrombocytopenia, and leukopenias (all

cell types) are also frequent findings in such situations (Benjamin et al. 1976, 1979; Davila et al. 1992;

Gillette et al. 1987a; Hahn et al. 1976; Hobbs et al. 1972). Animals administered sublethal doses of

ionizing radiation have the ability to recover from these effects once the radiation source is removed

(Gidali et al. 1985; Hobbs et al. 1972; Seed et al. 1989, 1993) or its dose rate is sufficiently reduced.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

The data for hematological and lymphoreticular effects in humans and laboratory animals are summarized

in the Levels of Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material tables in Chapter 8 of this

profile. Because of the high threshold dose for changes in peripheral blood counts, blood counts are not

used to routinely monitor the health of radiation workers.

3.2.1.3 Reproductive Effects

Cells that reproduce frequently, such as those found in intestinal crypts, bone marrow, and the

reproductive systems of animals, are more radiosensitive than cells that are highly differentiated and

reproduce slowly. This radiosensitivity is dependent on of the type of ionizing radiation or the source. 

Specific cells in the reproductive tract of both males and females replicate at accelerated rates, making

them more at risk to the effects of ionizing radiation. In males, the spermatogonia are the cells most

sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. These are the germ cells responsible for producing

spermatocytes and later, spermatids and mature sperm. Spermatids and sperm are very radioresistant to

cytotoxic effects of radiation. Decreases in sperm numbers in semen do not occur immediately; in

humans, decreased sperm counts are not seen until 30–45 days after significant exposures. Azospermia

can occur 10 weeks after exposure to absorbed doses >100 rad (1 Gy); a dose of 250 rad (2.5 Gy) may

cause sterility for 1–2 years. An absorbed dose of 600 rad (6 Gy) can cause permanent sterility (Adams

and Wilson 1993). In females, the mature oocyte is less sensitive than male spermatogonia cells, but it is

the most radiosensitive reproductive cell. Absorbed doses of 65–150 rad (0.65–1.5 Gy) have been

reported to produce temporary sterility (Adams and Wilson 1993); however, a fractionated dose of

600–2,000 rad (6–20 Gy) can be tolerated (BEIR V 1990).

Several studies were found in the literature that support these findings. In one human study, Birioukov et

al. (1993) investigated the reproductive effects of ionizing radiation in 12 men (29–78 years old) with

chronic radiation dermatitis caused by accidental exposure to beta and gamma radiation during and after

the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident. These men were examined for changes in sexual behavior,

hormonal status, and spermatogenesis. All were diagnosed with ARS, which was categorized as first

degree (100–200 rad, 1–2 Gy), second degree (200–350 rad, 2–3.5 Gy, Group A), and third degree

(350–550 rad, 3.5–5.5 Gy, Group B) based on their location at the time of the incident. Of the 12 men

evaluated, 9 reported decreased sexual potency, and 3 refused to answer the question. Two patients

reported impotence, and seven patients had decreased libido. The sperm of 7 patients were examined

(5 refused to give a semen sample). All patients tested had normal semen pH values. Other sperm 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

anomalies reported in both groups A and B included azoospermia, asthenospermia, and teratospermia. 

Others had slightly increased numbers of abnormal cells (morphological changes in the sperm head). 

Abnormal motility was present in all but one patient (in group B). Follicle-stimulating hormone was

increased in 6 of 9 patients in group A and was normal in group B patients. Testosterone was decreased

in 2 patients in each group. A decrease of luteinizing hormone and an increase of prolactin were

measured only in 1 patient.

Similar reproductive effects have been noted in laboratory animals. Ramaiya et al. (1994) performed a

comparative estimation of the frequencies of genetic disorders induced in germ cells of male mice by a

single or long-term exposure to incorporated 137Cs. Groups of 10 male mice received a single oral

administration of 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 μCi/g (3.7, 18, 37, 74, and 111 kBq/g) as 137Cs. Groups of

10–30 males were also given daily injections of 137Cs nitrate in phosphate buffer solution for 2 weeks at

activities of 0.5, 2.0, and 5.0 μCi/g (18, 74, and 190 kBq/g) as 137Cs. The total absorbed dose to the

testes during the 5 weeks after the single oral exposure was 10, 50, 100, 200, and 300 rad (0.1, 0.5, 1.2,

and 3 Gy), respectively, while the total absorbed doses during the 5 weeks of multiple injections was 38,

154, and 385 rad (0.38, 1.54, and 3.85 Gy), respectively. A decrease in the fertility of males was

observed in the 2.0 and 3.0 μCi/g (74 and 111 kBq) exposure groups, beginning from the 4th week for

radiation doses of 190–197 rad and 285–295 rad (1.90–1.97 Gy and 2.85–2.95 Gy), respectively. 

Complete, but temporary, sterility observed in animals exposed to 300 rad (3 Gy) after 6 weeks was

attributed to the death of spermatogonial cells. There was a significant increase in post-implantation

embryo mortality and, correspondingly, in the dominant lethal mutation frequency, at a total dose of 180

rad (1.8 Gy).

Pinon-Lataillade et al. (1991) irradiated male Sprague-Dawley rats so that only the testes and surrounding

organs were exposed to a gamma-ray beam of 900 rad (9 Gy). Groups of 6 irradiated rats and agematched controls were sacrificed at 7, 15, 23, 34, 50, 71, 118, and 180 days after irradiation. Testis

weight dropped to 85% of the control by day 7, 58% of the control by day 23, and 41% by day 34. 

Epididymal weight decreased to 88% of control by day 15, 63% by day 50, and plateaued out at 55% of

the control value. Spermatocytes were damaged, and by day 34, only elongated spermatids remained in a

few tubules and very little regeneration of the seminiferous tubule had occurred. From day 15 after the

irradiation, the epididymal content of androgen-binding protein (ABP) value dropped to 26% of the

control and by day 34 it was back to only 14% of this value. From day 50 to the end, the ABP value

remained below 10% of the control levels. No significant changes were observed in the weights of the

seminal vesicles or in the concentrations of seminal vesicles.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Another study of acute duration estimated comparative frequencies of genetic disorders induced in germ

cells of male mice by a single or long-term exposure to incorporated 137Cs or to external gamma radiation. 

Groups of 10 male mice were exposed to a 137Cs apparatus for a whole-body dose of gamma radiation of

300 rad (3 Gy) at a rate of 0.675 rad/hour. Subsequent data on effective matings and embryo mortality

were collected. Animals that mated and that were exposed to external gamma radiation had a significant

decrease in male fertility, and at 3 weeks the animals became sterile. During weeks 1 and 2, there was a

significant increase in total and post-implantation embryo mortality (Ramaiya et al. 1994).

Studies of longer exposure duration have demonstrated similar results. Searle et al. (1976) exposed 13

adult C3Hx101 hybrid male mice continuously to 1,128 rad (11.28 Gy) 60Co gamma radiation over

28 weeks at the rate of 5.8 rad/day (0.058 Gy/day). There were significant reductions in testis mass (35%

of controls) and epididymal sperm count (15% of controls). An increased percentage of abnormal sperm

was observed in gamma-irradiated animals (17.1% versus 3.9% controls). The frequency of

chromosomal translocations was significantly higher than in controls. There was also good evidence for

the induction of dominant lethal mutations, with an increase in pre-implantation loss from 16% (controls)

to 28% (radiation exposed) and in post-implantation loss from 10% (control) to 22% (radiation exposed). 

In addition, Grahn and Carnes (1988) exposed groups of 4–13 male B6CF1 mice to 60Co gamma-rays or

fission neutrons at once-weekly doses for periods up to 60 weeks (10, 25, 40, 50, or 60 weeks of exposure

and observations at 75, 90, and 99 weeks). Doses rates were 0, 5, 7.5, and 10 rad (0, 50, 75, and 100

mSv) per week. An increased frequency of abnormal sperm was observed at all doses and all exposure

durations. After exposure ended, frequencies of sperm abnormalities returned to near-normal levels.

In summary, male reproductive organs are at risk for non-carcinogenic effects when exposed to high

doses of ionizing radiation due to the relative high rates of cell divisions that occur in these organs. 

Sperm anomalies, temporary impotence, decreased libido, and hormonal imbalances have been reported

in men exposed to 100–550 rad (1–5.5 Gy) (Birioukov et al. 1993). Similar effects in laboratory animals,

such as decreased testes weights, decreased fertility, sterility, decreased sperm counts, chromosomal

reciprocal transformations, sperm anomalies, and embryo mortality, have been reported at similar dose

levels (Grahn and Carnes 1988; Pinon-Lataillade et al. 1991; Ramaiya et al. 1994; Searle et al. 1976;

Shevchenko et al. 1992).

The data for reproductive effects in humans and laboratory animals are summarized in the Levels of

Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material tables in Chapter 8 of this profile. 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

3.2.1.4 Teratogenic/Embryotoxic Effects

The rapidly dividing cells in the developing fetus, like those in the reproductive system, are also at a

much higher risk of radiation damage, independent of the type of ionizing radiation, or the source or

route of exposure, than slowly dividing, differentiated cells. The vast majority of the available literature

reported numerous toxicological end points on the developing fetus associated with external radiation

exposure. External exposure to the fetal animal by alpha and beta radiation is of no concern because α

and β radiation cannot penetrate the mother’s body tissues and the placental sac. Gamma radiation is very

penetrating and can expose the fetus. The embryo/fetus is always uniformly exposed to external gamma

rays from background radiation. There may also be partial body exposure from medical x rays or from

internal exposure to a radionuclide such as 90Sr, which results in preferential uptake during fetal bone

development. Of most concern in cases of human exposure are the effects of embryo organogenesis and

how these changes will affect the individual as a child and an adult.

During the early days of development, the human embryo largely consists of a mass of undifferentiated

cells, which are the cells most sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. These cells transform into

more specialized (differentiated) cells at specific times during gestation and develop into the more

organized tissues seen later at maturity. For the purposes of describing teratogenic and other effects of in

utero exposure, gestation is divided into three major periods: preimplantation, 0-2 weeks, major

organogenesis, 2–8 weeks, and the fetal period, 8–40 weeks (Brent et al. 1980). Central nervous system

(CNS) injury of radiological importance results from exposure in the early fetal period. CNS

development in humans can be subdivided into four basic periods of development after conception: weeks

1–7, weeks 8–15, weeks 16–25, and 25 weeks. During weeks 1–7, the cells that will later differentiate

into neurons are steadily multiplying. During weeks 8–15, the population of neurons rapidly increases,

and neurons migrate to their functional sites, and lose their ability to further divide. Between weeks 16

and 25, these neurons continue to develop, but more importantly, they undergo synaptogenesis in order to

communicate. From week 25 on, the neurons continue to differentiate into more mature neurons, with

continued growth of the cerebrum (cognitive thought and motor skills) and cerebellum (motor

coordination) (BEIR V 1990; ICRP 1986). 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Fetal Central Nervous System Developmental Defects (Mental Retardation and Impaired

Intelligence). Analysis of human data from fetuses exposed to very high doses of radiation during the

bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki suggests that the cells of the developing central nervous system are

among the cells most sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation in the developing human fetus. The

major clinical effects on these susceptible cells were mental retardation and IQ reduction; these effects

were observed after birth during childhood development. Human fetuses exposed to doses of ionizing

radiation from 1 to 7 weeks after conception suffered no discernable ill effects after birth. A dosedependent increase in mental retardation occurred in individuals who were irradiated in utero during

weeks 8–15 after conception. Severe mental retardation in all 30 cases in the clinical sample was

diagnosed before age 17, based on clinical impressions and not on IQ scores. A “no effect” threshold was

seen for doses in the range of 20–40 rad (0.2–0.4 Gy); at a dose of 100 rad (1 Gy), the frequency of

observed mental retardation was 43% (BEIR V 1988; ICRP 1986; Schull et al. 1988). Similar results

were seen in fetuses exposed from weeks 16 to 25; however, the relative risk of mental retardation was

significantly lower. No discernable adverse effects occurred in children exposed during the period from

week 26 to birth. Although the mothers of the retarded children had suffered very large radiation doses,

some groups have suggested that these CNS effects on their unborn children may not have been caused by

radiation but by genetic variation, nutritional variation, bacterial and viral infections during pregnancy,

and embryonic or fetal hypoxia (BEIR V 1990; ICRP 1986).

Intelligence quotient (IQ) test scores of children fetally exposed to high radiation doses during each of

these time frames support the supposition that exposure to ionizing radiation during fetal development

may cause adverse effects. The MRL is based on a combination of two studies, one by Schull et al.

(1988) and one by Burt (1966). Schull et al. (1988) evaluated the quantitative effect of exposure to

ionizing radiation on the developing fetal and embryonic human brain. The end point measured was

change in intelligence test scores. The effects on individuals exposed in utero during the atomic bombing

of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were based on the original PE86 samples (n=1,759; data on available

intelligence testing) and the clinical sample (n=1,598). The original PE86 sample included virtually all

prenatally exposed individuals who received tissue-absorbed doses of 0.50 Gy or more, and many more

individuals in the dose range 0–0.49 Gy than in the clinical sample. The clinical sample does not include

children prenatally exposed at distances between 2,000–2,999 m in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Children

exposed at greater distances or not present in the city were selected as controls. In 1955–1956, Tanaka-B

(emphasis on word-sense, arithmetic abilities, and the like, which were associated with the more subtle

processing of visual clues than their simple recognition and depended more on connectedness) and the 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Koga (emphasis on perception of spatial relationships) intelligence tests were conducted in Nagasaki and

the Koga test in Hiroshima. No evidence of radiation-related effect on intelligence was observed among

individuals exposed within 0–7 weeks after fertilization or in the 26th or subsequent weeks. The highest

risk of radiation damage to the embryonic and fetal brain occurred 8–15 weeks after fertilization under

both T65DR and DS86 dosimetric systems. These systems represent the best estimates of radiation doses

to individual Japanese survivors using the best data available through 1965 and 1986, respectively. The

T65DR dosimetry used site-specific data along with information obtained during later atomic bomb

testing under arid conditions, whereas the DS86 dosimetry incorporated effects of high atmospheric

humidity that existed when the weapons were exploded over Japan. The regression of intelligence score

on estimated DS86 uterine absorbed dose is more linear than with T65DR fetal dose, and the diminution

in intelligence score under the linear model is 21–29 points at 1 Gy. The regression of intelligence score

on estimated fetal absorbed dose was linear for the exposed 8–15 weeks after fertilization and possibly

linear for the 16–25 week group. The cumulative distribution of test scores suggested a progressive shift

downwards in individual scores with increasing exposure; the mean IQ scores decrease significantly and

systematically with uterine or fetal tissue dose within the groups exposed at 8–15 and 16–25 weeks.

In summary, analysis of intelligence test scores at 10–11 years of age of individuals exposed prenatally

showed that:

# There is no evidence of a radiation-related effect on intelligence scores among those individuals

exposed within 0–7 weeks of fertilization or in the 26th week of gestation and beyond;

# The cumulative distribution of test scores suggests a progressive shift downwards in intelligence

scores with increasing exposure to ionizing radiation (dose-response relationship);

# The most sensitive group was the 8–15 week exposure group. The regression in intelligence scores

was found to be linear, with a 1-Gy dose resulting in a 21–29 point decrease in intelligence scores.

Using the Schull et al. (1988) data in conjunction with the observations of Burt (1966), an MRL of

0.004 Sv (400 mrem) was derived for acute-duration external radiation exposures.

Embryo Organogenesis Defects and Body Weight Alterations. Beta and gamma radiation

have been demonstrated to induce embryo/organogenic defects in laboratory animals. As in the human

fetus, the developing central nervous system of laboratory animals during specific stages of development

is at varying degrees of risk from exposure to ionizing radiation. In laboratory animals, effects such as

hydrocephaly, anencephaly, encephalocele, spina bifida, functional and behavioral effects, motor defects, 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

hyperactivity, and defects in learning, as well as a host of other defects have been reported (BEIR V

1990). For example, Bruni et al. (1994) studied the effects of low levels of ionizing radiation on

embryogenesis. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed for 14–17 seconds on gestational days 9.5,

15, and 18 to 50 rad (0.5 Gy) of 60Co radiation. Irradiated rats and controls were sacrificed at prenatal

intervals of 4 hours, 48 hours, and 10 days (term) after exposure. No statistically significant difference

was seen in the number of embryos recovered per litter for control and irradiated embryos sacrificed 4

hours after exposure. With the exception of the neuroepithelium, no histopathological changes were

observed in embryos in this group. In irradiated embryos, mitoses were reduced within the

neuroepithelium; pyknosis and some necrosis of cells were apparent at this gestational interval. No

significant difference was seen in the number of embryos recovered per litter, the crown-rump length, or

the head length of irradiated embryos sacrificed 48 hours after irradiation compared to controls. Among

the gross developmental abnormalities observed in embryos 48 hours after irradiation, excessive flexion

of the embryo (seen in 3.7%) and abnormal flexion of the head (seen in 1.2%) were the only effects that

appeared to possibly be radiation-induced. At term, no significant differences in litter size or resorption

rates were observed in irradiated animals compared to the controls. Mean fetal body and placental

weights were not significantly different. There was a higher incidence of developmental abnormalities in

irradiated fetuses (9.7%) than in controls (4%), but this observation was not statistically significant. The

most common anomalies were defects in ocular development; microphthalmia (small eyes) and

anophthalmia (absence of eyes) were seen in 3% and 1.5% of irradiated fetuses, respectively. Scoliosis

was also significant with a prevalence of 1%. Viscerally, abnormally positioned kidneys were found in

5.8% of irradiated fetuses and 7.1% of controls. Ureteric anomalies and hemorrhagic liver lesions were

encountered in 2% and 11.5% of irradiated fetuses, respectively. No significant developmental

differences were observed in the nervous system of irradiated versus control fetuses at term. The authors

concluded that in utero doses of 50 rad (0.5 Gy) of gamma radiation during the period of early

organogenesis can produce some irreversible defects that are discernable at term.

External Malformations, Growth Retardation, and Death. Many other types of birth defects in

animals have been reported. Kusama and Hasegawa (1993) designed a study to precisely determine the

radiosensitive period in the development of mouse embryos during which external malformations and

growth retardation tended to occur. Pregnant mice were treated at various times during the gestation

period with a single whole-body gamma radiation dose of 150 rad (1.5 Gy) delivered at a dose rate of

20 rad/minute (0.2 Gy/min) from a 137Cs source. Death of the embryo/fetus, especially during the early

period of organogenesis, was most frequent in mice irradiated between days 6.75 and 8.25 of gestation. 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

There was no difference in radiosensitivity between male and female fetuses. Reduction of fetal body

weight was found to be a good indicator of radiation effects. Body weights of all irradiated fetuses were

significantly less than controls. The reduction in fetal body weights was marked in mice irradiated 

during the intermediate stage of organogenesis (between days 9.75 and 12.75 of gestation). The body

weights of abnormal fetuses with external malformations other than exencephalia (exposed brain) and

eventration were not significantly different from those of fetuses without external malformations. 

Exencephalia appeared most often in mice irradiated between 6.5 and 8.75 days of gestation (0.6–21.7%)

and at a low frequency between days 10.25 and 10.75 of gestation (0.5–1.5%). Cleft palate appeared in

mice irradiated between days 8.25 and 12.75 of gestation (1.1–20.5%). Micromelia, ectrodactyly, and

polydactyly were observed in fore- and hindpaws. The forepaw malformations appeared in fetuses

exposed on days 10.25–12 of gestation (0.8–46.2%). Hindpaw malformations showed two periods of

high sensitivity, from days 7.5 to 8.75 (0.6–3.8%) and from days 10.25 to 12 (0.6–28.9%) of gestation. 

Shortened and/or bent tails were observed in groups irradiated from days 7 to 11.5 of gestation

(0.7–32.5%), with the peak frequency among those irradiated on day 9.25 of gestation.

Other animal studies support the observation of increased incidences of birth defects after exposure to

ionizing radiation. Devi et al. (1994) exposed the whole abdominal region of pregnant Swiss mice (n=25)

to 5–50 rad (0.05–0.5 Gy) of 60Co gamma radiation (at a dose rate of 83 rad/min, 0.83 Gy/min) on

postcoitus day 11.5. Increased fetal mortality and retarded growth was seen among the 50 rad (0.5 Gy)

group. At this level, retarded growth was observed in 12% of fetuses, with body weight and body length

decreased (7% and 3%, respectively). A significant reduction in head length, width, and brain weight was

seen at 25 rad (0.25 Gy) and above. A significant increase in the incidence of microphthalmia was also

observed at 25 rad (0.25 Gy) and above in 14% of fetuses. Zaman et al. (1992) also studied the effects of

acute-duration prenatal radiation on myelination of the developing brain, as well as some physical parameters. Rats were treated with a single dose of gamma radiation (6.8, 15, or 150 rad, 0.068, 0.15, or

1.5 Gy) on the 20th day of pregnancy. At day 30, absolute brain, kidney, heart, and spleen weights of the

150 rad (1.5 Gy) treated group were significantly lower than that of any other treatment group. Relative

brain, ovary, adrenal, kidney, liver, heart, spleen, and lung weights showed no significant differences

among the lower treatment groups. At postnatal day 52, brain weight of the 150 rad (1.5 Gy) treated

group was significantly lower than the other treatment groups and controls. No significant differences

were seen in other organ weights at day 52. The relative weight of the cerebral cortex was significantly

less than controls in the 150 and 15 rad (1.5 and 0.15 Gy) groups at day 30 and in the 150 rad (1.5 Gy)

group on day 52 (9–11%). In addition, Reyners et al. (1992) evaluated the effects of radiation on fetal 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

brain development in pregnant Wistar rats exposed on gestation day (Gd) 15. Protracted gamma

irradiation to total doses up to 80 rad (0.8 Gy) was performed with a 60Co source. The dose rate varied

from 1 rad/day to 13.3 rad/day (0.01–0.133 Gy/day). Exposure was carried out either from Gd 12 to 16

(4 days) or from Gd 14 to 20 (6 days). 60Co gamma irradiation protracted over 4 days from Gd 12 to 16

significantly reduced the brain weight in 3-month-old rats by 3%, 4%, and 13% after 160, 350, and 560

rad (16, 35, and 56 Gy) exposures. Animals irradiated for 6 days from Gd 14 to 20 also showed a

significant reduction in the 3-month-old brain weight of 5%, 4%, and 7% after exposures to 17, 34, and

80 rad (0.17, 0.34, and 0.8 Gy), respectively. The cingulum volume was also significantly decreased in

the 80 rad group by 19%.

Dental and Oral Cavity Development. Ionizing radiation can also affect dental and oral cavity

development. Lee et al. (1989) irradiated Beagle dogs in utero at 8, 28, or 55 days postcoitus or

postnatally at 2, 70, or 365 days postpartum. Whole-body 60Co gamma radiation doses ranged from 0 to

380 rad (3.8 rad). After a threshold effect dose of 83 rad (0.83 Gy), there was an age-dependent

dose-related increase in premolar hypodontia for dogs irradiated at 55 days postcoitus or 2 days

postpartum. Dogs irradiated at 55 days postcoitus were the most sensitive, with fewer than 20% having

normal teeth at doses above 83 rad (0.83 Gy). After irradiation at 28 days postcoitus, no effect was seen

below doses of 120 rad (1.2 Gy). Similarly, Saad et al. (1991) exposed pregnant CD-1 Swiss albino mice 

on the 12th gestational day to an external gamma radiation dose of 400 rad (4 Gy). All irradiated fetuses

presented clefts of the secondary palate but usually not cleft lip. The development of the maxillary and

mandibular incisors was retarded in irradiated fetuses and was in early bell stage, whereas controls had

elaborated their matrices.

Fetal Blood Forming Organs. Significant doses of ionizing radiation can also affect the fetal

blood-forming organs. Koshimoto et al. (1994) mated female Wistar rats, and on the 13th, 14th, or 15th

day of gestation, and then externally irradiated them with 50–800 rad (0.5–8 Gy) of 137Cs gamma

radiation. Forty-eight hours later, the pregnant animals were sacrificed and the numbers of ovulations,

implantations, and surviving fetuses were determined. Blood cell volume was measured, and fetal blood

was collected. The numbers of erythrocytes and hepatocytes in the livers in the fetuses were counted. 

The number of blood cells in circulating blood after the fetuses were irradiated to 800 rad (8 Gy) on day

15 was significantly lower than the controls, and the formation of micronuclei was significantly increased

at 50 rad (0.5 Gy) and above. The erythrocyte counts in the fetal liver were significantly lower than

controls at 400 and 800 rad (4 and 8 Gy), and the ratio of the large hematocyte count to the small

hematocyte count was significantly higher than controls at doses of 100 rad (1 Gy) and above.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Reproductive Tract. The in utero exposure to large doses of ionizing radiation can affect the

forming reproductive tracts of male and female embryos. As an example, Inano et al. (1989) exposed

pregnant rats to whole-body irradiation at Gd 20, with 260 rad (2.6 Gy) gamma rays from a 60Co source. 

It was found that the seminiferous tubules of the irradiated male offspring were remarkably atrophied

with free germinal epithelium and contained only Sertoli cells. Female offspring also had atrophied

ovaries. The testicular and ovarian weight in irradiated offspring were 18% and 34%, respectively, of

controls. No oocytes or Graafian follicles were found in ovaries of the irradiated rats. Testicular tissue

obtained from control and 60Co-irradiated rats was incubated with 14C-labeled pregnenolone,

progesterone, 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone, and androstenedione as a substrate. Intermediates for

androgen production and catabolic metabolites were isolated after the incubation. The amounts of these

metabolites produced by the irradiated testes were low in comparison with the control. The activities of

delta[5]-3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 17-alpha-hydroxylase, C(17, 20)-lyase, and

delta[4]-5-alpha-reductase in the irradiated testes were 30–40% of those in nonirradiated testes. The

activities of 17-beta- and 20-alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases were 72% and 52% of controls,

respectively. The activity of delta[5]-3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase of the irradiated ovary was

only 19% of the control. The authors note that these results suggest that high-dose 60Co irradiation of the

fetus in utero markedly affects the production of steroid hormones in the testes, ovaries, and adrenal

glands after birth.

Behavioral Alterations. Behavioral changes have also been noted in laboratory animals after birth

when exposed to certain doses of ionizing radiation during the embryo stages of development. 

Minamisawa et al. (1992) investigated social behavior, in particular aggressive behavior (AB), in mice

exposed prenatally to ionizing radiation. Pregnant C57BL/6 mice (n=3) were exposed to whole-body

gamma radiation from a 137Cs source on Gd 14. The dose rate to the midline of the mouse was 25 rad per

minute (0.25 Gy/min) and doses of 0, 100, and 200 rad (0, 1, and 2 Gy) were given. AB in firstgeneration (F1) hybrid male offspring was studied. The number of instances of AB was significantly

higher in the 100-rad (1 Gy) group than in controls during the first 45 minutes of observation. The AB of

the 200-rad (2 Gy) group was significantly more intensive than that of the control group. There is little

information in the literature with which to compare these findings.

In a similar study, Zaman et al. (1993) treated adult female Fischer 344 rats with a single dose of totalbody gamma radiation (6.8, 15, or 150 rad [0.0068, 0.15, or 1.5 Gy]) on the 20th day of gestation (thus,

the offspring received the radiation doses on the 20th day of prenatal life). During the 3 weeks of the

offspring’s postnatal life, changes in pivoting, crawling, negative geotaxis, cliff avoidance, hindlimb 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

support, eye opening, and tooth eruption were studied. Pups irradiated with 150 rad (1.5 Gy) exhibited

significantly lower pivoting than any other group on days 15–16 of the observation period. No significant

differences were observed between treatment groups for crawling, geotaxis, or hindlimb support when

suspended. Cliff avoidance was recorded from days 3 to 10 postnatally. Cliff avoidance was

significantly different in the 15 and 150 rad (0.15 and 1.5 Gy) groups compared to the 6.8 rad (0.068 Gy)

group and controls on day 8 only; however, the mean score was not significantly different in the 15 rad

(0.15 Gy) group. Data from this study suggest that radiation affects several of the tested locomotion

parameters. Based on the data presented in this study, it appears that areas of cerebral cortex including

the somatosensory and sensory cortex, the primary cortex, and the premotor cortex were adversely

affected by doses of 150 rad (1.5 Gy) when delivered around gestation day 20.

Sensorimotor Effects. Norton and Kimler (1987) also investigated the early postnatal behaviors

involving sensorimotor integration and the thickness of the sensorimotor cortex in prenatally irradiated

rats which received a dose of 100 rad (1 Gy) from a 137Cs source. Performance in the negative geotaxis

test was poorer in irradiated rats than in controls. Rats irradiated on Gd 17 were unable to equal the

performance of either controls or rats irradiated on Gd 11 in the reflex suspension test. No gait alterations

were seen in the irradiated rats. In a later study, Norton and Kimler (1990) exposed pregnant SpragueDawley rats to whole-body gamma radiation from a 137Cs source on Gd 15 to doses of 25, 50, 75, or

100 rad (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 Gy). The fetuses of irradiated dams were examined 24 hours after irradiation

for changes in the cells of the cerebral mantle of the developing brain. Changes were seen in those rats

treated with 50 or more rad (0.5 Gy). Cortical thickness of the cerebral mantle was not significantly

altered. The number of pyknotic cells, the number of macrophages, the nuclear area, and the number of

mitotic cells were altered in a dose-related way. The number of mitotic figures in the ventricular zone

was significantly reduced and the number of macrophages was significantly increased in fetuses from the

50-, 75- and 100 rad (0.5, 0.75, and 1 Gy) treatment groups. The nuclear area in fetuses prenatally

exposed to 100 rad (1 Gy) was significantly increased. In fetuses prenatally exposed to 50 rad (0.5 Gy),

the nuclear area of subventricular zone cells was significantly increased compared to controls 12 hours

postirradiation but returned to almost the control value at 24 hours postirradiation. The number of

macrophages in the ventricle and in the cortical mantle was significantly increased at 12 and 24 hours in

fetuses prenatally exposed to 50 rad (0.5 Gy). Several vesicles containing nuclear fragments were present

in each macrophage at these times. The number of mitotic figures in the ventricular zones was

significantly increased at 3 and 6 hours postexposure and significantly decreased at 12 and 24 hours

postexposure in fetuses prenatally exposed to 50 rad (0.5 Gy) compared to controls. Pyknotic cells 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

developed rapidly after irradiation with 50 rad (0.5 Gy). At 3 hours postirradiation, the total number of

pyknotic cells in the cortical mantle had increased from nearly 0 to 166. This number increased slightly

from 3 to 6 hours and then declined from 12 to 24 hours. The number of pyknotic cells in the ventricular

and subventricular zones decreased while the proportion in the intermediate and cortical plate zones

increased. Both the percentage and number of pyknotic cells increased with time in the two latter zones. 

A positive correlation between the number of pyknotic cells and the number of macrophages developed

with time. At 3 hours after irradiation, about 60% of pyknotic cells were found in the subventricular zone

and about 25% in the intermediate zone and cortical plate. The number of such cells in the upper layers

of the cortex steadily increased up to 24 hours, at which time about 70% of pyknotic cells were in these

two layers.

In summary, the developing fetus, with its rapidly dividing cell characteristics, has been an area of intense

study relating to the effects of radiation, particularly for large gamma radiation doses. Laboratory animal

models have been used to delineate many of these effects. Radiation, above a threshold dose of about 25

rad (0.25 Gy) can impair development of embryonic structures, in particular the structures of the central

nervous system when delivered during a sensitive period. Radiation affects specific cells of the

developing nervous system at specific times during its developmental process, although the exact

mechanisms behind these alterations are not known. Many of these reports include descriptions of

decreased fetal body weights (Devi et al. 1994; Minamisawa et al. 1990; Norton and Kimler 1987; Zaman

et al. 1992) and developmental anomalies, such as necrosis of neuroepithelial cells, microphthalmia,

anophthalmia, scoliosis, decreased myelination of the brain, hypodontia, cleft palate, micromelia,

ectrodactyly, polydactyly, as well as many more defects (Bruni et al. 1994; Kusama and Hasegawa 1993;

Lee et al. 1989; Reyners et al. 1992; Saad et al. 1991; Zaman et al. 1992) at doses of <300 rad (3 Gy). 

Social behavior changes have also been reported in male mice at doses of 100 rad (1 Gy) and higher

(Minamisawa et al. 1992). Locomotor difficulties have also been reported (Norton and Kimler 1987,

1988; Zaman et al. 1993) as well as reproductive organ anomalies (Inano et al. 1989). From these animal

studies, it is clear that the developing embryo and fetus are subject to damage from radiation at doses

greater than 25–50 rad (0.25– 0.5 Gy).

Data for developmental effects in humans and laboratory animals are summarized in the Levels of

Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material tables in Chapter 8 of this profile. 
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3.2.1.5 Central Nervous System (CNS) Effects

As a whole, the central nervous system of the adult human and laboratory animal is extremely resistant to

the effects of radiation (see Table 3-2). In contrast to the rapidly dividing cells of the gastrointestinal and

hematopoietic systems, the central nervous system has a relatively static population of cells, with cell

mitosis occurring between long intervals of latency, if at all. This allows cells to be exposed to much

larger doses of radiation because the cells have much more time to repair themselves before they multiply. 

The brain appears to be sensitive to ionizing radiation only at extremely large doses; a dose of

approximately 1,500 rad (1.5 Gy) was necessary to produce discernable deterministic effects. Necrosis

of the brain (associated with demyelination and cerebral vascular damage) may occur within 3 years after

a 5,500 rad (55 Gy) dose received over a 6-week time frame. Demyelination and necrosis of neurons in

the white matter of the spinal cord can also develop within 6 months after exposure to high doses (>6,000

rad or 60 Gy) of radiation. These are very large doses of radiation.

Birioukov et al. (1993) reported that one man exposed to 200–350 rad (2–3.5 Gy) had clinical symptoms

such as permanent headache and vision impairment after accidental exposure to gamma radiation during

and after the Chernobyl atomic power plant accident. Reports are available that describe the effects that

radiation has on the nervous system of the developing embryo in laboratory animals (Minamisawa et al.

1992; Norton and Kimler 1987, 1990). Harmful effects have been found from extremely high doses of

radiation to adult animals. Cockerham et al. (1986) explored the effects of radiation on early transient

incapacitation (ETI) and performance decrement (PD) in support of nuclear warfare research efforts. 

Rhesus monkeys (n=6) were exposed to a lethal whole-body total dose of 10,000 rad (1,000 Gy) from a

60Co source. Autopsy findings included destroyed nerve cells (neurons), supporting tissue in the brain

(glial cells), and lining cells (endothelium) of the capillaries in the brain. 

Bassant and Court (1978) exposed rabbits to a 60Co gamma ray source, with a mean absorbed dose of

450 rad (4.5 Gy). According to the authors, the LD50/30 for rabbits ranges from 600 to 650 rad (6–6.5 Gy). 

Following irradiation, the hippocampal cellular activity was highly disturbed, as described by the EEG

activity.

Data for neurological effects in humans and laboratory animals are summarized in the Levels of

Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material tables in Chapter 8 of this profile. 
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3.2.1.6 Respiratory and Cardiovascular Effects

The respiratory tract has long been known to be a target organ of both internal and external radiation. 

Respiratory effects have been reported in humans (Stavem et al. 1985) who had received radiotherapy for

breast cancer and those who had been accidentally overexposed, as well as in laboratory animals (Rezvani

et al. 1989; Salovsky and Shopova 1992). No harmful effects have been seen in the millions of people

who receive occasional diagnostic x rays of the chest. Local injury is tolerated much more than diffuse

injuries. Irradiation of large portions of one or both lungs initially results in alterations in blood flow,

initially manifested as edema, and later as pneumonitis and pulmonary fibrosis, depending on the total

dose received. Radiation pneumonitis, followed by pulmonary fibrosis (i.e., fibrosis of alveolar structures

involving changes in the ratios of some pulmonary collagens), are two of the most commonly reported

aberrations in laboratory animals following an inhalation of large activities of radioactive material

(Benjamin et al. 1978, 1979; Brooks et al. 1992; Hahn et al. 1975, 1981; Lundgren et al. 1980a, 1991). 

The mechanism behind the induction of radiation pneumonitis is not completely understood; however, a

vascular component (comprised of sloughing and of dead and dying endothelial cells that may lead to

capillary leakage) has been suggested. Damage to type II pneumocytes, which can lead to serious

alterations in the amount of surfactant phospholipids and to lung inflammation, has also been considered. 

The role of type I pneumocytes, which by necrosing and sloughing leave denuded basement membranes

and alveolar debris, may also be significant. Any one or all of these mechanisms may be involved in the

development of pneumonitis. Fibrosis, a serious sequela of pulmonary inflammation due to large populations of cells dying and not being replaced, is seen in the lungs after exposure to ionizing radiation at

moderate to high doses or to fibrogenic dusts, such as quartz and asbestos or even aluminum (ATSDR

1999a). A more in-depth discussion of radiation pneumonitis and subsequent fibrosis after exposure to

ionizing radiation is available in a report by Coggle et al. (1986).

Most respiratory studies have focused on the effects of ionizing radiation on the lungs when associated

with inhaled insoluble (and, to a lesser degree, soluble) particles. Most of these studies looked at acute

inhalations of large quantities of radioactive material resulting in high initial lung burdens and cumulative

radiation doses on the order of hundreds of rad (several Gy). After the radioactive material was inhaled,

clinical signs were related to the organ system which received the major radiation dose during and after

redistribution of these particles had occurred. Important aspects of this redistribution related to whether

these radionuclides were in a soluble or insoluble form and to the size of the inhaled particle. Soluble 
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particles tended to dissolve in the lung matrix and redistribute based on chemical mechanisms; then they

had the potential to affect other organ systems. These soluble particles tended to deliver a higher dose

rate to the lungs shortly after inhalation; the rate tended to decrease rapidly as the material was dissolved

and the radionuclide redistributed to other organs via the normal lung clearance mechanisms. Soluble

particles deposited in the respiratory tract tended to result in lower overall lung dose and higher overall

distal organ dose over time when compared to insoluble particles because they exposed the lung tissue for

a shorter period of time.

Unlike the soluble particles, the bulk of the inhaled insoluble particles tended to remain for long periods

of time in the lungs (several days to several years), irradiating the tissues and depositing large radiation

doses to the tissue immediately around the particles. Some fraction of these particles would initially be

coughed up or removed by the ciliary clearance mechanism and then swallowed during the first few days

after exposure, thereby exposing the gastrointestinal tract as the particles passed through and cleared the

body. In addition, smaller particles (1–3 μm) tended to penetrate to the deeper regions of the lungs

(terminal bronchioles and alveoli); larger (>6 μm) particles were deposited in the upper respiratory tract

(trachea, conducting airways). The effect of inhaled radioactive particles, therefore, varied with the size

distribution and solubility of the inhaled particles, as well as the type and quantity of the inhaled

radioactivity. 

Respiratory insufficiency was a common finding in many studies following high radiation doses to the

lungs. This was manifested clinically as increased respiratory rates, increased abnormal lung sounds and

cyanosis, decreased lung volumes, and total lung capacity, and compliance (common but not pathoneumonic symptoms of pneumonia). These clinical symptoms were most likely related to inflammatory and

fibrotic changes occurring within the lungs. This observation is supported by radiographic, gross, and

histopathological evidence, such as increased radiographic focal or diffuse lung-field densities, and by

interstitial, perivascular, peribronchial, and pleural fibrosis; emphysema; inflammation; vascular damage;

fibrin exudation; congestion; and hemorrhage (Benjamin et al. 1976; Hahn et al. 1976; Lundgren et al.

1991).

Numerous assessments of human exposure to inhaled radionuclides (with no dermal or oral component)

have been identified in the open literature. A group of 26 workers inhaled quantities of 239Pu dust that

were many times larger than acceptable occupational standards. These workers have been followed

medically since the inhalation in 1944. To date, one person has died from heart disease and one from

bone cancer. Another report involved a U.S. military airplane crash near Palomares, Spain, in January 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

1966. The aircraft was carrying four thermonuclear weapons containing 239Pu. Two of the devices were

recovered, and the other two devices detonated their conventional explosives and released fissile material

upon ground impact. Partial ignition (chemical burning) of the fissile material resulted in a cloud

formation that contaminated approximately 2.25 km2

 of farmland. The deposition density of alpha

emitters was 32.4 μCi/m2 (1.2 MBq/m2

); estimates of the inhaled and ingested dose from 239Pu and 240Pu

were derived. Of the 714 people examined through 1988, 124 had urine concentrations of Pu greater than

the minimum detection limits. An estimate from Iranzo et al. (1987) states that the 70-year committed

effective dose for 55 of those 124 people, due to inhalation of radioactive particles, was 2–20 rem

(0.02–0.2 Sv); however, no acute respiratory effects were reported and there has apparently been no longterm follow-up of these individuals. 

There is a considerable database available on the effects seen from inhaled radionuclides in laboratory

animals. For example, Hobbs et al. (1972) exposed Beagle dogs to initial lung burdens of 3,600, 1,800,

1,200, 780, 400, 210, and 110 μCi (133, 67, 44, 29, 15.8, and 4 MBq) 90Y/kg body weight. The AMADs

of the aerosols used ranged from 0.8 to 1.2 μm. Death was reported in 21 of 33 dogs exposed within 7.5

and 163 days postexposure, with their initial lung burdens ranging from 670 to 5,200 μCi/kg causing

cumulative radiation doses through time of death of 8,400 to 55,000 rad (84–550 Gy). Clinical signs in

the dogs that died included progressive increase of respiratory rates, abnormal lung sounds on

auscultation, anorexia, progressive weight loss, and eventual cyanosis of the mucous membrane. 

Additionally, thoracic radiographs showed marked, generally diffuse nodular increases in density of lung

fields. The authors note that clinical signs did not differ from high to low doses; however, the time to the

onset and the duration of the illness varied considerably. A dose response could be demonstrated with

these exposures: “acute symptoms” occurring 7–10 days after inhalation, with initial lung burdens of

1,700–5,200 μCi/kg (62–190 MBq/kg) and doses to the lungs of 21,000–55,000 rad (210–550 Gy);

“subacute symptoms” with signs of respiratory insufficiency 3–4 weeks postexposure, initial lung burdens

of 1,000–2,400 μCi/kg (37–89 MBq/kg) and doses to the lungs of 13,000–29,000 rad (130–290 Gy);

“subacute to chronic symptoms” appearing at 6–8 weeks, which included a gradual deterioration in the

animals' condition. Animals in this group had initial lung burdens of 670–760 μCi/kg (25–28 MBq/kg)

and cumulative radiation doses to the lungs of 8,400–9,400 rad (84–94 Gy). Pathological findings at

necropsy included pulmonary and pleural fibrosis, occlusive pulmonary vascular lesions, metaplasia

and/or hyperplasia of terminal bronchiole and alveolar epithelium, right heart dilation, and hypertrophy. 

Small indurated hemorrhagic areas near the ventricular junction were present in the right atria of the

hearts of 7 of the 12 dogs that died 64–92 days postexposure. Infarctions of the right atria were found in

some animals. 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Similarly, Muggenburg et al. (1988) exposed 216 Beagle dogs by inhalation to initial lung burdens of

3–54 μCi (0.1–2 MBq) 239Pu/kg monodisperse 239PuO2 aerosols with AMADs of 0.75, 1.5, or 3.0 μm,

which produced a protracted alpha irradiation dose to the lungs. From the group of 78 dogs which

survived to 7.1 years post-inhalation, 20 were selected for cardiorespiratory function tests and further

clinical evaluation. Of these 20 dogs, 10 were selected because they had persistent respiratory

frequencies of 40 breaths/min for more than 1 year (group I). The second 10 dogs were selected because

they had similar or slightly lower plutonium lung burdens at the time of inhalation as the dogs in group I,

but had normal respiratory frequencies (group II). Ten controls were used (group III). The average dose

to the lungs through 2,600 days after inhalation for the dogs in group I ranged from 230 to 3,200 rad (2.3

to 32 Gy) and for the dogs in group II, from 80 to 1,570 rad (0.8 to 15.7 Gy). Respiratory tract injury was

again first observed as an increased respiratory frequency on average 3.4 years after inhalation; this

change in breathing pattern persisted for at least 1 year. Only the dogs in group I with signs of lung

injury had a mild respiratory function disorder consisting of smaller lung volumes, decreased total lung

capacity, vital capacity, functional residual capacity, reduced dynamic and quasistatic compliance, and

increased respiratory frequency and minute volume. Carbon monoxide diffusing capacity was

significantly reduced in both groups I and II. These findings indicate that alpha irradiation of the lungs of

humans could produce restrictive lung disease at long times after initial inhalation.

In addition to alterations in respiratory rates and respiratory function, pneumonitis and pulmonary fibrosis

are two of the most commonly reported respiratory effects in animals (and humans) after lung exposure to

large activities of inhaled radionuclides (Coggle et al. 1986). Hahn et al. (1975) studied the radiation

dose of 90Y to the upper respiratory tract in Beagles exposed by nose-only inhalation to aerosols of 90Y in

fused clay. Initial whole-body burdens ranged from 23 to 65 mCi (850–2,400 MBq), with initial lung

burdens ranging from 9 to 35 mCi (520–1,300 MBq). A rapid initial decrease in body burden, typical of

an insoluble material deposited by inhalation, was due to the clearance of particles from the upper

respiratory tract entering the gastrointestinal tract. Of the 7 dogs surviving 27–29 days, 6 dogs exposed to

14–35 mCi initial lung burden developed radiation pneumonitis. Radiation pneumonitis was

characterized by accumulations of alveolar macrophages, bizarre alveolar lining cells, and alveolar

hemorrhage; vasculitis was the most consistent histopathologic finding. Benjamin et al. (1976) exposed

6 Beagle dogs to a nose-only inhalation of 90Y, 144Ce, or 90Sr in fused aluminosilicate particles (FAP). 

The initial lung burdens were 560, 46, and 28 μCi/kg (21, 1.7, and 1 MBq/kg) for 90Y, 144Ce, and 90Sr,

respectively. Deterioration in the health of the dogs exposed to 90Sr included an increased respiratory

rate, dyspnea, cyanosis, and dry and moist rales. Increased radiographic focal or diffuse lung-field 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

densities, with clear evidence of ventricular enlargement, was apparent. The lungs of dogs exposed to 90Y

and 144Ce showed radiation pneumonitis characterized by interstitial, perivascular, peribronchial, and

pleural fibrosis, focal emphysema, and acute and chronic inflammation with increased numbers of

alveolar macrophages. Vascular damage included congestion, hemorrhage, fibrin exudation, and

occasional vessels with fibrinoid necrosis or proliferation. Epithelial changes included denudation of

terminal bronchioles and alveolar ducts, with regeneration of bizarre lining cells and proliferation of

bizarre, hypertrophied alveolar lining cells. Adenomatous epithelial proliferation and squamous

metaplasia were common findings in the 90Y dogs.

Later, Benjamin et al. (1978) again exposed Beagles to 144Ce in FAP by nose-only inhalation using

particle sizes 1.4–2.7 μm. Initial lung burden ranges were around 25–35 μCi/kg body weight in dogs

sacrificed or those that died between 1.4 and 4.1 years postexposure. The cumulative absorbed lung

doses to death for these groups of dogs ranged from 27,000 to 47,000 rad (270–470 Gy). Dogs were

sacrificed at half- to full-year intervals from 1.5 to 4 years. By 2 years after exposure, more than 90% of

the radiation dose had been delivered. Beyond that time, radiation pneumonitis and pulmonary fibrosis

were evident in approximately 80% of the dogs. Other reports of radiation pneumonitis and/or pulmonary

fibrosis have been described in dogs (Benjamin et al. 1979; Hahn et al. 1976), monkeys (Brooks et al.

1992; Hahn et al. 1987; LaBauve et al. 1980), mice (Lundgren et al. 1980a, 1981, 1991), and hamsters

(Lundgren et al. 1983).

Some laboratory animal studies were found that dealt with the effects of external radiation on the

respiratory tract. In one study, Rezvani et al. (1989) determined the effects of external radiation on the

diaphragmatic lobe of the left lung in female large white pigs irradiated with single doses of

900–1,470 rad (9–14.7 Gy) of 60Co gamma rays at a dose rate of 80 rad/min (0.8 Gy/min). Standard lung

function tests were performed prior to irradiation and at 4 and 13 weeks after irradiation, then at 13 week

intervals up to 104 weeks. At 104 weeks after irradiation, the animals were sacrificed and the lungs were

excised and examined for gross changes. A marked impairment in the ventilation capacity of the lungs

4 weeks after irradiation was seen, but was not considered to be dose-dependent. After a dose of 900 rad

(9 Gy), the initial impairment in lung function was resolved within 13 weeks, while at 1,470 rad (14.7

Gy) damage persisted. There was an elevation in the breathing rate at 4 weeks after irradiation, which

was most marked in animals irradiated with the highest doses; however, the breathing rate returned to

normal within 13 weeks at all dose levels. At 104 weeks after irradiation, postmortem examination

revealed only one case of adhesion between the lung and chest wall. In animals irradiated with

1,090 rad (10.9 Gy), atrophy of the irradiated left lobe of the left lung was seen. This was particularly 
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characteristic in all lungs irradiated with 1,470 rad (14.7 Gy) in which the lungs showed severe atrophy. 

At 1,280 rad (12.8 Gy), a general and severe thickening of the interlobular septa was seen in some

animals. The authors calculated a 50% effective dose (ED50) value for pathological changes (fibrosis and

focal scarring) in the lungs of 1,112 rad (11 Gy).

With regard to external exposure to radiation, Salovsky and Shopova (1992) exposed male Wistar rats to

0, 400, 800, or 1,500 rad in a single whole-body dose in order to study the changes present in broncheoalveolar tissue after exposure to ionizing radiation. Eight animals of each group were sacrificed on days

1, 5, and 15. Prior to sacrifice, a broncheoalveolar lavage was performed. The lavage fluid was analyzed

for lactase dehydrogenase (LDH), alkaline phosphatase (APH), acid phosphatase (AcPH), angiotensin

converting enzyme (ACE), and protein content. LDH activity was decreased on day 1 in the 1,500 rad

(15 Gy) group. At day 5, the 400 and 800 rad (4 and 8 Gy) groups LDH levels were significantly

decreased by 30% and 49%, respectively. No significant difference was observed at day 15. Both APH

(31–41%) and AcPH (40–67%) were significantly decreased on day 1 in all irradiated groups. In the

800 rad (8 Gy) group, APH was significantly increased on day 15 (203%). ACE activity was examined

only on day 1, with a significant increase in ACE in the 800 rad (8 Gy) (190%) and 1,500 rad (15 Gy) 

(187%) groups. Protein content decreased significantly only in the 1,500 rad (15 Gy) group, measured

only on day 1. ACE is normally bound to lung endothelial cell surfaces, with increased concentrations

suggesting endothelial cell injury. Increased protein content in the broncheoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF)

indicates vascular permeability changes due to adverse events in the endothelial cells lining the

capillaries. LDH, APH, and AcPH are normally intracellular enzymes, and their release into the

extracellular domain indicates lung cellular membrane damage. From these data, it appears that LDH

decrease may provide a non-specific biomarker of exposure to ionizing radiation at 1 week after exposure

has occurred, whereas APH increase would be a non-specific biomarker of exposure at 2 weeks after

exposure, to higher doses of ionizing radiation. 

No harmful radiation effects on the heart have been seen at dose levels below hundreds of rad (tens of

Gy). However, cardiovascular effects have been reported after exposure to inhaled radioactive material

that led to very high radiation doses to the heart. The study described earlier by Muggenburg et al. (1988)

noted no abnormal cardiac function parameters in any of the dogs studied; however, Hobbs et al. (1972)

reported cardiac lesions in 33 Beagle dogs exposed in groups to mean initial lung burdens of 3,600,

1,800, 1,200, 780, 400, 210, and 110, μCi (133, 67, 44, 29, 15, 8, and 4 MBq) of 90Y/kg body weight. 

Electrocardiogram changes, consistent with the right heart enlargement and/or conduction defect, were 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

observed in 5 of the animals that died 64–92 days postexposure after receiving a dose of 8,400 rad (84

Gy). Pathological cardiac findings included right heart dilation and hypertrophy. Small indurated

hemorrhagic areas near the ventricular junction were present in the right atria of the hearts of 7 of the 12

dogs that died 64–92 days postexposure. Infarcts of the right atria were also found in some animals. 

ECG changes occurred in 5 of 12 and hemorrhagic areas were found near the ventricular junction in the

right atria of 7 of 12 dogs that died 64–92 days after exposure. 

Durakovic (1986a) studied cardiac function in male Beagle dogs that received 3,000, 6,000, or 10,000 rad

(30, 60, or 100 Gy) of gamma radiation applied bilaterally to the precordium. The electrocardiograms

remained normal after irradiation at all dose levels. The atrium, right and left ventricle, and papillary

muscle of every dog all showed focal areas of perivasculitis. No evidence of focal necrosis was observed. 

The left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) did not show statistically significant decreases until

58–70 days after the irradiation, when a marked impairment of heart function was finally observed.

With regard to cardiovascular effects and external exposure to ionizing radiation, Stavem et al. (1985)

reported a case of a 64-year-old male worker who accidentally received a large dose of gamma radiation

in a facility that used ionizing radiation for sterilization. He was exposed for only a few minutes. From

spectroscopic analyses of electron-spin resonance in irradiated material, the following mean doses were

estimated: whole body, 2,250 rad (22.5 Gy); bone marrow, 2,100 rad (21 Gy); and brain, 1,400 rad

(14 Gy). The dose to nitroglycerin tablets that were in the worker's pocket at the time was 4,000 rad

(40 Gy). The worker developed an ARS and an autopsy was performed after death. The left ventricle of

the heart was hypertrophic and the anterior descending ramus of the coronary artery was markedly

stenotic; however, it was not clear whether this was an age-related effect or directly related to the effects

of the radiation since much larger doses to animals are needed to produce such effects.

In summary, respiratory effects have been reported in humans (Stavem et al. 1985) as well as in

laboratory animals (Rezvani et al. 1989; Salovsky and Shopova 1992) exposed to very high doses from

internal and external sources of radiation because the respiratory system appears to be resistant to high

doses of radiation. Most research has focused on radiation effects on the lungs when associated with

inhaled insoluble (and, to a lesser degree, soluble) particles. These studies were acute, high-dose

exposures resulting in high initial lung burdens on the order of several millicuries (tens of thousands of

Bq), which resulted in cumulative doses in the thousands of rad (tens of Gy). After the radioactive

material was inhaled, clinical signs were related to the organ system that received the major radiation 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

dose. Soluble particles dissolved in the lung and redistributed, depending on the radionuclide, to the liver

or bone to induce toxic effects in those organ systems. After an initial clearance phase from the lungs,

from which a portion of the initial lung burden was transferred to the gastrointestinal tract, the balance of

the insoluble particles remained for long periods of time in the lung (days to years), irradiating the tissues

closest to their immediate lung location and leaving the lungs very slowly. The effect of ionizing

radiation on the lungs varied with the dose and length of exposure of the lung tissue. Respiratory

insufficiency, manifested clinically as increased respiratory rates, increased abnormal lung sounds, and

cyanosis, was a common finding in these studies (Hobbs et al. 1972; Muggenburg et al. 1988), in

association with decreased lung volumes, total lung capacity, and compliance (common but not

pathognomonic of pneumonia) (Muggenburg et al. 1988). These clinical signs are most likely related to

inflammatory and fibrotic changes occurring within the lungs. This observation is supported by

radiographic, gross, and histopathological evidence, such as increased focal or diffuse radiographic lungfield densities, and by interstitial, perivascular, peribronchial, and pleural fibrosis; emphysema;

inflammation; vascular damage; fibrin exudation; congestion; and hemorrhage (Benjamin et al. 1976;

Hahn et al. 1976; Lundgren et al. 1991). Radiation pneumonitis, followed by pulmonary fibrosis (fibrosis

of alveolar structures involving changes in the ratios of some pulmonary collagens), are two of the most

commonly reported aberrations in laboratory animals following the inhalation of radioactive substances

(Benjamin et al. 1978, 1979; Brooks et al. 1992; Hahn et al. 1975, 1981; Lundgren et al. 1980a, 1991). 

Radiation pneumonitis is characterized by sloughing of dead and dying endothelial cells that may lead to

capillary leakage. Damage to type II pneumocytes, which can lead to serious alterations in the amount of

surfactant phospholipids and lung inflammation, has also been considered. The role of type I

pneumocytes, that by necrosing and sloughing leave denuded basement membranes and alveolar debris,

may also be significant. Alterations in cardiovascular functions could not be definitively linked to

ionizing radiation after inhalation or external ionizing radiation exposures in laboratory animals

(Durakovic 1986a; Hobbs et al. 1972; Muggenburg et al. 1988) or in one man exposed to external

ionizing radiation (Stavem et al. 1985); however, some changes in regional cerebral blood flow were

noted in one study (Cockerham et al. 1986) that used Rhesus monkeys as a model and these were

probably linked to histamine release. However, all of these effects are due to very high radiation doses,

which are extremely unlikely at radioactive waste sites.

Data for respiratory and cardiovascular effects in humans and laboratory animals are summarized in the

Levels of Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material tables in Chapter 8 of this profile.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

3.2.1.7 Ocular Effects

The lens of the eye is not among the most radiosensitive tissues in the body, but it has less efficient repair

capabilities than many other tissues. This allows radiation damage to build up with less repair, even when

doses are fractionated or delivered at low dose rates. Exposure of the lens to sufficient doses of ionizing

radiation results in cataract formation, which can range from minimally detectable opacities that do not

impair vision to blindness. The target cells in the lens are the epithelial cells on the interior surface of the

anterior capsule of the lens. These cells differentiate into lens fibers, which are normally transparent. 

The function of the lens is to focus the light entering the pupil onto the retina. After exposure to ionizing

radiation, these cells fail to divide to produce lens fibers of the appropriate length or transparency. These

defective fibers then tend to migrate to the posterior pole of the lens, where they can be seen ophthalmologically as a small, opaque dot. The appearance of the opacities can appear anytime between 0.5 and

35 years postexposure. Occurrence is affected by the dose, dose rate, and the type and energy of the

radiation. Cataracts can be induced with as little as 2 Gy (200 Gy) of x ray irradiation (Adams and

Wilson 1993). Data from those victims exposed to large doses of ionizing radiation after the bombings of

Hiroshima and Nagasaki show a threshold of 0.6–1.5 Gy (60-150 rad) of low LET radiation. However,

typical human exposures over a long period of time are thought to have a vision impairing threshold

greater than 8 Gy (800 rad) (BEIR V 1990).

The effects of ionizing radiation on the eye have been reported in some human exposure cases. Ham

(1953) described the radiogenic cataracts in cyclotron physicists from mixed gamma-neutron doses of

700–1,000 rad (70–100 Gy) to the lens. Klener et al. (1986) reported on a human case study in which a

male technician was accidentally irradiated by a sealed 60Co source he had been installing. His health

status was followed for 11 years after the accident. A film dosimeter worn during the accident indicated

it received an exposure of 159 rad (1.59 Gy), but the dose to his eye was not reported. Changes in the

lens of the left eye began to appear gradually, leading to the deterioration of visual acuity. Later,

opacities of the lens of the right eye were also found. 

Schweitzer et al. (1987) exposed Beagle dogs to single, bilateral, whole-body exposures to 60Co gamma

radiation at various stages during fetal ocular development. Dogs were irradiated during middle or late

pregnancy at 28 or 55 days postcoitus (dpc) or as neonates on the second postpartum day (ppd), with

mean whole-body doses ranging from 100 to 386 rad (1–3.86 Gy). The dose to the eyes was essentially

equivalent to the whole-body dose. For dogs exposed on ppd 2, the most prominent fundic alteration on 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

or before 70 days of age was a reduction in arterioles and a narrowing of the venules. The venules were

dull, the tapetal fundus mottled in appearance, the nontapetal fundus lighter in color than controls, the

optic disc paler, and the eyes characterized by a generalized slight haziness of the ocular media. Dogs

sacrificed at 2–4 years of age had more marked reductions in arterioles and attenuation of the venules. 

Hyperreflectivity from the eye was found, and homogeneity was often lost in affected eyes. General and

focal degenerative lesions were evident as were color changes. Partial tapetal atrophy with increased

pigmentation in the area previously occupied by tapetum was noted in some eyes. Loss of color and

hyperreflectivity were related to focal loss of pigment and thinning of atrophic retinal foci. With severe

retinal atrophy or degeneration, choroidal circulation was seen in the nontapetal fundus. Retinal lesions

were progressive in severity and extent, and the degree of injury was similar for both eyes. A correlation

was seen between lesions (mostly in the retina and lens) and radiation treatment, with respect to both age

at exposure and radiation dose. Due to fixation and sectioning artifacts, most lenses couldn't be

adequately evaluated histopathologically. Retinal dysplasias and atrophy were the most striking lesions

seen. The stage of development at exposure had a marked effect on the distribution of retinal lesions. 

The most severe changes were seen in the portion of the retina undergoing differentiation at the time of

the insult. In dogs sacrificed at 70 days of age, the lesions were primarily dysplasias, consisting of

ectopic nuclear aggregates in the photoreceptor layer, retinal folds, and retinal rosettes. With increasing

age, there appeared to be progression of the extent of the clinically evident lesions, and there was a

change in the nature of the lesions from dysplasia to atrophy. This was accompanied by marked

attenuation of the retinal vasculature. In dogs exposed on ppd 2, retinal degeneration was evident in all

dogs sacrificed at 70 days, 2 years, or 4 years of age. Retinal dysplasias were evident in all dogs

sacrificed at 70 days of age and in 4 of the 13 dogs sacrificed at 2 years. Retinal dysplasia was not

evident in dogs sacrificed at 4 years. Atrophy in dogs exposed on ppd 2 was evident in 19 of the 20 dogs

sacrificed at 70 days of age and in all dogs sacrificed at 2 and 4 years of age. Dysplasias included focal

aggregates of nuclei in the rod and cone layer, retinal folds, and retinal rosettes. Atrophic changes

included altered rosettes, as well as the rest of the retina, loss of rods and cones, and/or thinning of inner

and outer nuclear layers. These lesions were bilateral and focal-to-diffuse in nature. They increased in

severity with increasing radiation dose. In dogs exposed on ppd 2, central retinal lesions only were seen

in 1 of the 20 dogs sacrificed at 70 days of age. No lesions were seen in dogs sacrificed at 2 or 4 years. 

Central and peripheral retinal lesions were seen in 19 of the 20 dogs and in all dogs sacrificed at 70 days

and at 2 or 4 years, respectively.

In summary, ocular effects have been reported in both humans and laboratory animals after radiation

doses exceeding 0.6 Gy (60 rad). These effects range from mild opacities of the lens to cataract formation
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

and alterations in both the posterior chamber of the eye and of the retinal structures. The effects are not

immediate, and in people may occur several years after the initial exposure.

3.2.1.8 Dermal Effects

Clinically observable dermal radiation effects ranging from erythema (skin reddening) to necrosis have

been observed following external beta, gamma and x ray exposure above threshold doses at high dose

rates. A transient erythema, the earliest sign of overexposure of the skin, occurs after a dose of about 300

rad (3 Gy), and was once used by physicians to calibrate x ray machines. The erythema appears several

hours after exposure, and disappears within a day. Much greater radiation doses lead to a second

erythema several weeks later, which lasts for about a month. Greater doses lead to loss of hair, peeling of

the skin (dry desquamation), blistering (wet desquamation), ulceration, and necrosis (Potten 1985). The

USNRC limit for occupational exposure of the skin is 50 rem (0.5 Sv) per year is protective for such

effects. The skin has a susceptible cell population sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. The target

cells are those comprising the germinal cells of the skin (stratum germinativum), also known as the basal

cell layer, which is itself affected by the thickness of the various skin layers of the epidermis. Normally,

the basal cells give rise to the outer layers of the skin (stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, etc.) and

finally form the outmost protective dead layer of the skin, the stratum corneum. 

Radiation effects on the skin are proportional to the dose received by this germinal cell layer and to the

type of radiation received. Alpha particles with energies greater than 7.5 MeV (8.8 MeV 212Po in the

232Th series, 8.8 MeV 213Po in the 241Pu series, 7.7 MeV 214Po in the 238U series and possibly 7.4 MeV 215Po

in the 235U series) can penetrate the stratum corneum; therefore, there could be an alpha skin dose in these

situations, but much of their energy will be expended in the epidermis, leaving only a small portion for

dermal exposure. In general, alpha particles with energies less than 7.5 MeV that deposit on the skin

surface (stratum corneum) have little effect, given the short penetration range of this type of radiation. 

The bulk of the dose is absorbed by the stratum corneum, comprised of dead cells, phospholipids, waxes,

and other large complex molecules (Riviere and Spoo 1995). Beta and gamma radiation, which can

penetrate deeper to live cell layers, can produce erythema, indicating a vascular component manifested by

vasodilation and probably mediated by histamine or other inflammatory mediators. As the dose increases,

epilation, dry and/or moist desquamation, and necrosis can occur. The threshold dose of gamma radiation

in humans required to produce skin erythema over an area of 10 cm2

 is 600–800 rad (6–8 Gy) for single

doses and 3,000 rad (30 Gy) for multiple (fractionated) doses (Adams and Wilson 1993). The threshold 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

dose increases with decreasing area of the irradiated skin. The dermis is less severely affected, given its

population of less active cells, connective tissue, sebaceous glands, and nerve fibers. However, the endothelial cells associated with the dermal blood vessels are somewhat more susceptible and may play a role

in the production of erythema after receiving doses of ionizing radiation. The long-term effects on the

skin after receiving over 1,000 rad (10 Gy) of ionizing radiation include pigmentation, epidermal atrophy,

dermal fibrosis, and atrophy of several dermal and epidermal structures, such as sweat and sebaceous

glands and hair follicles.

Hahn et al. (1975) reported the effects of ionizing radiation on the skin of Beagle dogs after inhalation

exposure to 90Y in FAP. Four of the 7 dogs exposed to 14–22 mCi (520–814 MBq) initial lung burden

(32–40 mCi [1,200–1,500 MBq] whole-body burden) developed a nasal dermatitis. Hobbs et al. (1972)

exposed 33 Beagle dogs to initial lung burdens of 3,600, 1,800, 1,200, 780, 400, 210, 110, and 0 μCi

(133, 67, 44, 29, 15, 8, 4, and 0 MBq) 90Y/kg body weight. Patches of radiation alopecia were found on

the dorsum of the nose of four animals that died 70–91 days postexposure. These patches were characterized by a thinning of the outer epidermal layer of the skin, atrophy, and loss of hair follicles and hair

shafts. Dermal collagen seemed unaffected. Nasal dermatitis, however, is unlikely to occur in humans

for two reasons: (1) these animals were exposed to very high activities of 90Y that are essentially out of

the realm of possibility for humans, and (2) these effects are likely to occur in animals with long snouts or

muzzles.

Syrian golden (23) and white (24) hamsters (8 weeks of age) were exposed to a 85Kr source that was in

direct contact with the skin. Skin-absorbed doses ranged from 2,000 to 10,000 rad (20–100 Gy) and were

delivered at the rate of 495 rad/min (4.95 Gy/min). Within 24 hours after radiation, erythematous

reactions developed and persisted for several days postexposure. At sites where larger doses were

applied, severe radiation dermatitis developed and sometimes resulted in ulcerative changes in the

epidermis. Permanent epilation resulted at doses of 10,000 rad (100 Gy), and doses of 4,000 rad (40 Gy)

induced temporary epilation up to the 17th week in all males and most of the females. Growth of grey

hair was subsequently observed in the exposed areas of all animals in the 4,000 rad (40 Gy) dose group. 

Females receiving 2,000 rad (20 Gy) showed about 12 weeks of epilation followed by growth of grey hair

in most of them. Some males showed epilation for a short period of time, and the rest of the males

showed initial and transient periods of epilation followed by growth of normal hair. Complete epilation

occurred in white hamsters receiving 4,000 and 10,000 rad (40 and 100 Gy) and recuperation of hair

growth in these animals was not observed. A short period of epilation was observed, followed by growth 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

of normal hair in animals exposed at the 2,000-rad (20 Gy) level. Few animals showed complete

epilation preceded or interrupted by periods of growth of normal hair. No spreading of the hair-greying

effect of beta particles was observed in this experiment (Garcia and Shubik 1971).

Similar results were found in pigs, whose skin is considered to be most like that of humans. Hopewell et

al. (1986) studied the dose-effect relationship as a function of an irradiated area of the skin by irradiating

an area of skin in 3–4 month old large white pigs with 90Sr, 170Tm, or 147Pm disk sources of different

diameters. These radionuclides emit beta particles with energies of 0.55, 0.97, and 0.22 MeV that can

penetrate 2, 4, and 0.5 mm of tissue, respectively, compared with 0.007 mm for the stratum corneum. The 

diameter of the sources varied from 1 to 40 mm for 90Sr, from 0.1 to 19 mm for 170Tm, and from 2 to

15 mm for 147Pm. In the porcine model, the ED50 values for moist desquamation for 90Sr varied from

2,750 rad (27.5 Gy) for the 22.5-mm diameter source to 7,500 rad (75 Gy) for the 5-mm source. An

increase in source diameter to 40 mm did not significantly change the ED50 value from that obtained with

a 22.5-mm source. 170Tm irradiation in the pig produced no distinct area effect for sources 5–19 mm in

diameter (ED50 for moist desquamation ~8,000 rad [~80 Gy]). Acute tissue necrosis was only achieved in

pig skin by very high doses (ED50 14,000 rad [140 Gy]) from sources #2 mm in diameter. Irradiation

of pig skin with 147Pm produced acute epithelial breakdown but only after high skin-surface doses (ED50

55,000–72,500 rad [550–725 Gy] for 15–2 mm sources). In a similar experiment, Hopewell et al. (1986)

exposed SAS/4 randomly-bred male mice, 11–12 weeks old to 90Sr, 170Tm, and 147Pm, again with the

sources varying in diameter. 90Sr and 170Tm exposure in the mouse resulted in a distinct field-size effect

for sources 5–22.5 mm in diameter; the ED50 values for moist desquamation were 2,200–2,750 rad

(22–27.5 Gy) for the 22.5-mm source and 7,500–9,000 rad for the 5-mm source. There was a distinct

source area effect; the ED50 values decreased as the source diameter increased. Acute tissue breakdown

was only achieved in mouse skin by very high doses (ED50 14,000 rad) from sources of #2 mm in

diameter from both types of beta emitters. The large differences in doses required to produce the same

effect, with higher energy beta particles producing a greater effect from the same size source by these

three radionuclides, may be due to differences in penetrating power. The lower energy beta particles

deposit a larger portion of their energy in the dead layers of the stratum corneum, compared with live

tissue, so the actual live tissue doses may be larger for the higher energy beta emitters.

A study by Song et al. (1968) examined the efficacy of several anti-inflammatory agents on the

suppression of the early increase in radiation-induced vascular permeability to plasma protein in guinea 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

pigs (radiodermatitis is one limiting factor in radiation therapy because the skin is the first in line for

exposure to absorb the energy). Albino male guinea pigs were exposed to 3,000 rep (1 rep1 rad) of β

particles (750 rad/min [7.5 Gy/min]) from a 90Sr /90Y source. Immediately after irradiation, 125I-labeled

guinea pig serum albumin (15 μCi [0.56 MBq] in 0.15–0.20 mL of saline) was injected into the blood. 

The peak increase in accumulation of vascular permeability as measured by plasma protein between the

control and the 3,000-rad (30 Gy) beta-irradiated skin was determined to occur at 18 hours. A significant

increase in vascular permeability occurred in the control group receiving no anti-inflammatory drug, as

demonstrated by an approximately 3- and 1.6-fold increase in the 18-hour accumulation of plasma protein

in the irradiated epidermis and dermis, respectively.

External radiation exposure shows similar results in humans. Birioukov et al. (1993) reported on a case

study in which 12 men developed different forms and stages of chronic radiation dermatitis caused by

accidental exposure to beta and gamma radiation during and after the Chernobyl nuclear power plant

accident. Nine of the men were close enough to the accident to receive doses ranging from 350–550 rad

(3.5–5.5 Gy). Three men received doses ranging from 200–350 rad (2–3.5 Gy): two had worked in the

contaminated zone for 2 months to 3 years and one was inside the power plant during the accident. All

the men were diagnosed with ARS of varying severity after the accident. All the men except one had

chronic radiation dermatitis on the upper and lower extremities. The other patient had slight radiation

dermatitis on the neck. 

Klener et al. (1986) reported another human case study in which a male technician was accidentally

irradiated by a sealed 3,000 Ci (110 TBq) 60Co telotherapy source that he had been installing. A film

dosimeter worn during the accident indicated a dose of 159 rad (1.59 Gy); however, his whole body was

highly non-uniformly irradiated. His health status was followed for 11 years after the accident. 

Eight days after the accident, he developed severe skin changes on the left hand (reddening and painful

inflammation) that would result from doses much greater than 159 rad (1.59 Gy). Clearly, his left hand

suffered a very much greater dose than that shown on his film badge. Since he was left-handed, it seems

likely that his left hand was closer to the radioactive source and received a much larger dose than his film

badge. Apparently, he severely overexposed his left hand during his several unsuccessful attempts and

his final successful attempt to place the source back into the container using improvised tools. He also

suffered epilation in a small area of the left temporal region, with minor deviations in peripheral blood

counts. In the following year, repeated surgery due to secondary skin defects of the left hand resulted in 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

the loss of the second through fifth fingers; effects included serious trophic changes characterized by a

smoothed discolored skin, hard swelling of deep skin layers, and disturbed local blood flow.

In laboratory animal studies, Hulse (1966) exposed albino hairless mice to 750–1,500 rad (7.5–15 Gy) of

204Tl radiation (0.77 MeV beta particles) to determine if a nonepilating dose produced skin erythema. No

visible changes in the skin of albino hairless mice were observed with a 750-rad (7.5 Gy) exposure. Only

slight erythema was noted in the 1,500-rad (15 Gy) animal groups. Using slightly higher doses, Etoh et

al. (1977) irradiated male albino guinea pigs at a total of 6 sites per animal. Maximum cell loss of

recognizable basal cells of 20% on day 8, 60% on day 12, and 75% on day 15 occurred after irradiation

with 1,000, 2,200, and 3,000 rad (10, 22, and 30 Gy), respectively. The data for the 5,000-rad (50 Gy)

exposure were similar to data for 3,000 rad (30 Gy). Regeneration occurred from survivors within the

irradiated area after 1,000 and 2,200 rad (10 and 22 Gy), and was completed in 5 days. No hyperplasia

was seen at 1,000 rad (10 Gy), but a long-lived hyperplastic epidermis resulted after the higher doses. 

Lefaix et al. (1993) exposed large white pigs to a single dose of 12,000, 16,000, or 25,600 rad (120, 160,

or 256 Gy) applied to the outer side of the right thigh; in another group, some animals were given single

doses of 1,600, 3,200, 4,800, 6,400, 8,000, and 9,600 rad (16, 32, 48, 64, 80, and 96 Gy) applied to the

back skin. Data were collected 30 weeks after exposure. No change in the skin surface was observed

following a dose of 1,600 rad (16 Gy). After a 3,200-rad (32 Gy) dose, erythema was observed. After

4,800 rad (48 Gy), desquamation of the epidermis developed at the 12th week post-irradiation. At 6,400,

8,000, and 9,600 rad (64, 80, and 96 Gy) all showed a moderate erythema in the first 3–4 days, a distinct

erythema after 3–5 weeks, and moist desquamation after 7–12 weeks. Skin necrosis was observed during

the 5th week following doses to 12,000 and 16,000 rad (120 and 160 Gy), and cutaneous and muscular

ulceration during the 6th week. The highest dose of 25,600 rad (256 Gy) caused skin necrosis at the end

of the second week and well-delimited ulceration by the third week. After doses of 12,000, 16,000, and

25,600 rad (120, 160, and 256 Gy), which all induced skin and skeletal muscle ulceration, and 6,400,

8,000, and 9,600 rad doses, which induced dried exudate crusts, damaged skeletal muscles healed by

replacement fibrosis and scar formation. It should be noted that the 0.77 MeV 204Tl beta particles can

penetrate 300 mg/cm2

 of material, or approximately 0.3 cm of tissue, which is enough to penetrate all

layers of the skin and continue to penetrate into the skeletal muscle.

In summary, the skin is resistant to the deterministic effects of radiation until a threshold of 200–300 rad

(2–3 Gy) is reached, after which the effects appear to follow a dose-effect relationship (Etoh et al. 1977; 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Hulse 1966; Lefaix et al. 1993). Ionizing radiation affects the deep, rapidly multiplying cells of the

epidermis (basal cells), which are at a mean depth of 0.007 cm below the outer surface layer of dead cells

and which are responsible for the production of the more superficial layers of the epidermis. Other cells

within the epidermis that multiply rapidly, such as cells that surround the hair follicle, can also be affected

by ionizing radiation, resulting in epilation. Dermal radiation effects seem to be most common after

either a direct dermal exposure to a beta or gamma emitter or after external exposure scenarios; alpha

emitters, due to their short penetration range, do not penetrate the upper, dead layers of the epidermis

(stratum corneum). A clear dose-effect relationship between radiation and skin damage as a whole was

demonstrated in humans and in animals. In humans, the earliest response is a mild, transitory erythema

that appears several hours after a dose of about 300 rad (3 Gy). Responses ranged from mild epilation

that led to the return of normal hair growth at a dose of 2,000 rad (20 Gy), to ulcerative dermatitis and

permanent epilation at doses up to 10,000 rad (100 Gy) (Garcia and Shubik 1971). Moist desquamation

occurred in pigs at 2,250–7,500 rad (22.5-5.75 Gy) and acute tissue necrosis occurred at doses of 14,000

rad (140 Gy) and above (Hopewell et al. 1986). Erythema and epilation, followed by serious trophic

changes and altered skin blood flow, have also been reported in a man whose film badge showed a dose

of 159 rad (1.59 Gy); however, the affected areas on the hand received a much higher dose than that

reported on the film dosimeter (Klener et al. 1986). Men exposed to external radiation (200–550 rad

[2–5.5 Gy]) from the Chernobyl reactor accident also developed chronic dermatitis as a result of the

exposures.

Data for dermal and ocular effects in humans and laboratory animals are summarized in the Levels of

Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material tables in Chapter 8 of this profile.

3.2.1.9 Genotoxic Effects

The scientific literature contains abundant information on the genotoxic effects of all forms of ionizing

radiation from multiple routes of exposure. Tables 3-4 and 3-5 summarize several representative studies

that demonstrate the genotoxic end points that can be caused by radiation using in vivo and in vitro testing

systems. However, genetic effects of radiation have never been seen in any human population exposed to

any level of radiation.

The data presented in Tables 3-4 and 3-5 show that genotoxicity is a major toxicological end point for

exposure to ionizing radiation; specific end points consist of chromosomal aberrations and breaks, 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

reciprocal translocations, deletions, sister chromatid exchanges, dominant lethal mutations, sperm

anomalies, and mutations. DNA is a major target molecule during exposure to radiation (see Chapter 5). 

Other macromolecules, such as lipids and proteins, are also at risk of damage when exposed to ionizing

radiation. The genotoxicity of ionizing radiation is an area of intense study, as damage to the DNA is

ultimately responsible for many of the adverse toxicological effects described so far in this chapter. Cells

depend on their DNA for coding information to make specific enzymes, proteins, hormones, vasoactive

substances, and a host of other essential chemicals. When the genetic information containing the

“blueprint” for these substances is disturbed, cellular homeostasis is disrupted, resulting in a wide-range

of immediate and/or delayed toxicological effects in a number of organ systems, as described earlier in

this chapter. Disruptions and changes of the cellular genome are also thought to be responsible for the

formation of cancer in both humans and laboratory animals. 

Radiation can interact either directly or indirectly with the cellular DNA to produce the effects seen in

Tables 3-4 and 3-5. These interactions can be classified as direct and indirect interactions. In direct

interactions with DNA (as well as other macromolecules), an alpha particle, beta particle, or gamma ray

knocks an electron out of the DNA molecule through an ionizing collision. This can break the

intramolecular chemical bond that contains the vital information that must be transmitted to the daughter

cells. Complete repair is normally expected, but if the damage goes unrepaired, the information encoded

in the DNA structure is distorted, and faulty information is transmitted to the daughter cells during

mitosis, or else the cell dies and terminates the genetic defect. These effects can result in the genetic

effects listed in Tables 3-4 and 3-5. In indirect interactions of with DNA, radiation has no direct contact

with the DNA; instead it interacts with smaller molecules, especially water, surrounding the DNA to

produce highly reactive radicals and ions like those produced in normal metabolic processes, and the endproducts of this reaction diffuse away from the site of interaction with the radiation and interact with the

DNA, breaking its molecular bonds just as with direct radiation. Misrepair and replication can then

produce the adverse effects listed in Tables 3-4 and 3-5. More specific information about how radiation

produces its effects on DNA and other macromolecules is presented in Chapter 5 of this profile.






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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

The structure of the DNA molecule is damaged after direct or indirect interactions by radiation. 

Significant amounts of damage to the DNA lead to errors for gene coding of essential enzymes, proteins,

and other essential molecules. DNA base-pair damage is the predominant type of DNA damage,

followed (in decreasing order of incidence) by single strand breaks (which are four times less prevalent

than base-pair lesions), DNA-protein cross-linkages, and double-strand breaks. At the molecular level, an

important type of change to DNA that is frequently produced by radiation is the removal of a base,

forming an apurinic or apyrimidinic site. The deletion or total destruction of DNA bases, destruction of

deoxyribose residues, and deamination of cytosine or adenine are only a few of the many ways radiation

can alter the DNA at a molecular level. Minor damage left unrepaired or damage that was not completely

or correctly repaired can result in mutations. A more in-depth discussion of the alterations at the DNA

level by radiation, including some DNA repair mechanisms, is presented in BEIR V (1990) and in

Chapter 5.

Damage to genetic material in an organism may have one of several outcomes. First, enough damage can

cause cell death. Second, the genetic material may be repaired by the cell’s native DNA repair

mechanisms. If the damage is small and the DNA can be repaired correctly prior to cell division, no

adverse effects are likely to come from the genetic damage. Chromosomal repair mechanisms have likely

existed since life began and our knowledge of these mechanisms has existed for many years. Without

these repair mechanisms, the normal damage that occurs to the entire organisms's DNA every day

spontaneously, and from other sources such as normal metabolic products, mutagenic chemicals and

background radiation, could be lethal. Chromosomal repair mechanisms are a method of minimizing

damage, including radiation damage to DNA, providing that the dose of radiation is not so large as to

overwhelm them. If the damage is reparable and the cell divides prior to repair, or if the damage is so

extensive it cannot be repaired by the normal mechanisms, the cell may die. The results range from no

apparent effect on the organs if few or scattered cells die to damaged tissues at higher doses. Another

alternative is that the DNA damage is not repaired, the cell lives and carries out its normal functions, and

then divides to produce progeny cells. If the progeny cells die, then the mutational event is considered a

lethal mutation with no consequences. If the progeny cells live, then the cells will likely carry these

genetic mutations forward into all future daughter cells. In-depth reviews of these mutation processes and

their impact on the induction of cancer in animals and humans are available (Hoffman 1996; Pitot III and

Dragan 1996; Sanders 1983; Sanders and Kathren 1983).
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

If the cell survives the radiation-induced genetic damage and carries the mutations into future cell

populations, two events can take place. First, the cell may carry the DNA defect and express an adverse

event, such as altered protein and enzyme synthesis and defects in cellular metabolism. These defects can

be numerous, depending largely on where on the genome the mutation takes place and how critical the

normal gene is to normal cell function. The second event is multi-stage carcinogenesis, which is

discussed in more detail later in Chapter 5.

Both somatic and reproductive cell chromosomes can sustain damage after exposure to radiation. 

Damage to the human genome in exposed populations of humans has potentially serious implications. If

genetic damage occurs in the reproductive cells (sperm and ova), this may result in decreased fertility,

malformed fetuses, and certain hereditary diseases. These effects have been observed in animal studies,

but long-term follow-up of radiation-exposed human populations has not identified any genetic effects.

Estimates of spontaneous genetic diseases vary. Table 3-6 shows that genetic diseases occur

spontaneously (naturally) in approximately 5% of the population (excluding genetic contributions to

heart, cancer, and other selected human diseases). UNSCEAR (1993) reported that about 8% of liveborn

humans will have a hereditary disease that leads to a serious handicap manifested before 25 years of age.

This 8% figure includes all serious congenital anomalies, some of which may be only slightly influenced

by transmitted mutations. Before one begins to determine whether human genetic damage can be caused

by exposure to increasing doses of radiation, it is necessary to know what the normal, spontaneous, or

“background” rates of genetic diseases are in the human population exposed to ambient levels. Several

investigators have performed work to measure the spontaneous frequencies of genetic anomalies and

spontaneous mutation rates of many genetic traits in humans throughout the world (Childs 1981; Czeizel

and Sankaranarayanan 1984; Stevenson 1959, 1961; Stevenson and Kerr 1967). Difficulties are clearly

inherent in such comprehensive studies. As an example, as our knowledge of human and animal genetics

increases, discrepancies in the data may arise from changes in the classification of some genetic disorders. 

For example, Stevenson (1959) estimated that 30.7/1000 live births were due to autosomal dominant

genetic disorders, while in a study 15 years later by Trimble and Doughty (1974) estimated that only 

0.8/1000 live births for the same class of genetic disorders. The data from the Stevenson (1959) data 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-6. Estimated Genetic Effects of 1 Rem (0.01 Sv) of Radiation per Generationa

Type of disorder

Spontaneous/

not irradiated

Irradiated

Additional cases/106

 liveborn offspring/rem

(0.01 Sv)/generation

Current incidence per million

liveborn offspring First generation Equilibrium

Autosomal dominant b

 Clinically severe

 Clinically mild

2,500c

7,500g

 5–20d

 1–15d

25e

75e 

X-linked 400 <1 <5

Recessive 2,500 <1 Very slow increase

Chromosomal

 Unbalanced translocation

 Trisomies

600h

3,800i

<5

<1

Very little increase 

<1

Congenital abnormalities 20,000–30,000 10j 10–100k

Other disorders of organs l

 Heart m

 Cancer

 Selected others

600,000

300,000

300,000

Not estimated Not estimated

a

Risks pertain to average population exposure of 1 rem per generation to a population with the spontaneous genetic

burden of humans and a doubling dose for chronic exposure of 100 rem (1 Sv) b

Assumes that survival and reproduction are reduced by 20-80% relative to normal (s=0.2-0.8), which is consistent

with the range of values in Table 2.2 in BEIR (1990). CApproximates incidence of severe dominant traits in Table 2-2 in BEIR (1990). DCalculated using Equations (2-7) in BEIR (1990) with s=0.2-0.8 for clinically severe and s = 0.01-0.2 for clinically

mild.

e

Calculated using Equations (2-1) in BEIR (1990), with the mutational component = 1. f

Assumes that survival and reproduction are reduced by 1-20 percent relative to normal (s=0.01-0.02). g

Obtained by subtracting an estimated 2,500 clinically severe dominant traits from an estimated total incidence of

dominant traits of 10,000.

h

Estimated frequency from UNSCEAR (1982, 1986).

i

Most frequent result of chromosomal nondisjunction among liveborn children. Estimated frequency from UNSCEAR

(1982, 1986).

j

Based on worse-case assumption that mutational component results from dominant genes with an average s of 0.1:

hence, using Equation 2.3 in BEIR (1990), excess cases <30,000 x 0.35 x 100-1 x 0.1 = 10. k

Calculated using Equation 2-1 in BEIR (1990), with the mutational component 5-35%. l

Lifetime prevalence estimates may vary according to diagnostic criteria and other factors. The values given for heart

disease and cancer are round-number approximations for all varieties of the diseases, and the value for other

selected traits approximates that for the tabulation in Table 2-4 of BEIR (1990). mNo implication is made that any form of heart disease is caused by radiation among exposed individuals. The effect,

if any, results from mutations that may be induced by radiation and expressed in later generations, which contribute,

along with other genes, to the genetic component of susceptibility. This is analogous to environmental risk factors

that contribute to the environmental component of susceptibility. The magnitude of the genetic component in

susceptibility to heart disease and other disorders with complex etiologies is unknown.

Source: adapted from BEIR V 1990
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

set included disorders now known to not be of an autosomal dominant mechanism, resulting in an

artificially high estimate in the 1959 report. Definitions of serious and mild genetic disease, size of the

population sampled and the specific world location sampled, in addition to the frequencies of some

genetic diseases tending to wax and wane over a number of years, will all significantly contribute to the

problem of obtaining stable and accurate estimates of background genetic disease burdens in humans.

Table 3-6 summarizes the current incidence of some generalized genetic anomalies (background levels of

genetic disease) and the estimated genetic effects of 1 rem (0.01 Sv)/year/generation of radiation on the

genome of humans based on an assumed doubling dose of 100 rem (1 Sv) (BEIR V 1990).

Determining the genotoxic effects of ionizing radiation in a population of humans is difficult. Several

factors complicate making such predictions of genotoxic effects in humans. First, the genotoxic effects of

radiation in humans must be detected in the offspring from the parent(s) that were irradiated. 

Given the normally long life cycle of humans compared to laboratory animal models, it may be a

few weeks to many years before any genetic effects induced by radiation express themselves in the

offspring of an exposed human population. The epidemiologic studies that are needed to accumulate a

sufficient database of information after such an exposure would be both time consuming and expensive,

with the final results most likely not being available for years after exposure. In addition, radiation

effects in an exposed population may vary significantly by exposure location: all of the population may

not have received a uniform whole body dose, and different individuals would have received different

radiation doses, thus complicating the data collection process. Distance-from-exposure source and total

organ dose received are only estimates and not a precise measurement. Age and sex distribution of the

exposed population and their normal probabilities of producing children must also be accounted for and

determined using relevant control populations. 

A major problem with the genetic studies on humans relates to the many remaining uncertainties about

dosimetry. Many of the difficulties described above were encountered with the data collected from the

exposures to radiation resulting from the atomic bombing at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan; these

exposures consisted primarily of external gamma radiation. The original dosimetry measurements from

that exposure (T65D) have been revised (DS86) and are still undergoing revision to more accurately ]
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determine the actual doses of radiation received by individuals who survived the atomic bomb explosions

in August 1945. Although no increased incidence of hereditary effects among the children and

grandchildren of the atomic bombing survivors has been seen, certain authors and committees made

certain assumptions about the induction of radiation-induced hereditary effects and have calculated the

chances of the occurrence of these effects; the results and assumptions are presented and discussed in

other texts (BEIR IV 1988; BEIR V 1990; UNSCEAR 1993). Another major problem in quantifying

genetic effects is the wide spectrum of possible health outcomes that may be attributable to genotoxic

events. The total genetic detriment includes health effects that may have minor or insignificant impact,

major genetic diseases, and death. Some of these outcomes may be very difficult to measure.

Today, two basic models are used to estimate the risk for radiation-induced hereditary disease for low

doses of radiation. These models are the Direct Method and the Doubling Dose Method. Both models are

linear, no-threshold models for dose response. 

In the Direct Method, the dose-related rate of hereditary effects in mice is extrapolated to humans. 

However, because of the many uncertainties in this extrapolation, this method is not favored for

estimating the chances of a radiation-based hereditary effect in humans.

The Doubling Dose Method requires fewer assumptions and estimates than the direct method. The

"doubling dose" of radiation is defined as the dose that induces a mutation frequency equal to the total

spontaneous mutation frequency per generation. Hence, the doubling dose of radiation doubles the total

mutation frequency per generation. In other words, the dose of radiation to the gonads (testes or ovaries)

that, if delivered per generation to all members of a population would, at equilibrium after many

generations, doubles the spontaneous burden that existed before exposure began (BEIR V 1990; Faw and

Shultis 1993). This method uses the natural frequency of human hereditary disease in determining an

estimate of the increased frequency of genetic alterations as a result of a sudden increase in radiation

exposure to the general public. Compared to the direct method, the doubling dose method directly takes

into account the effect of a genetic anomaly on all generations beyond the first generation. The problem

of species extrapolation from animal to human is also somewhat circumvented; in theory, this method
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relies entirely on a known estimate of a specific genetic mutation frequency in the human, although some

of the doubling-dose estimates originate from data collected in the mouse animal model. Risk estimates

of genetic disease using the doubling dose method have been adopted by the latest BEIR committee;

however, UNSCEAR still relies on the direct method of risk estimation.

Risk estimates have been reported for humans exposed to radiation, despite the difficulties with the

availability of data. Using the epidemiological data gathered after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and

Nagasaki in August 1945, which encompasses nearly 50 years of data, together with data from studies

with mice, some estimates of genetic disease risk using the doubling dose method can be derived for

human exposures to radiation. These estimates are presented in Table 3-7. 

Table 3-7. Estimated Lower 95% Confidence Limits of Doubling Dose (in rem) from Chronic

Radiation Exposure for Malformations, Stillbirths, Neonatal Deaths, and All Untoward Pregnancy

Outcomes (Based on the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Atomic Bombing Data)

Group Malformations Stillbirths Neonatal death

All untoward

outcomes

All groups 96 124 90 60

Only mother

exposed 277 32 23 29

Only father

exposed 65 344 56 41

Combined 119 64 35 36

Both mother

and father exposed 41 73

 

75 37

Source: adapted from BEIR V 1990 and Schull et al. 1981

NOTE: Data are the lower 95% confident limits of the doubling dose adjusted for concomitant sources of variation. 

For acute doubling doses, divide by 3. For all estimates adjusted for concomitant sources of variation, the range of

the doubling dose is 23–344 rem (0.23–3.44 Sv), the median is 62 rem (0.62 Sv), and the mean is 86 rem (0.86 Sv).

Table 3-7 provides the lower 95% confidence limits of the minimum doubling dose estimates (in rem) on

adjusted data from those individuals that survived the atomic blasts of 1945, and are for chronic radiation

exposures only. The human data set closely approximates the median values obtained in mice (data not

shown), and overall may suggest that humans are somewhat more radioresistant than mice, implying

lower risk. Due to the data restrictions in this human population (discussed previously in this section), the

human data may be biased in such a way as to yield an artificially lower number than that obtained using 
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the mouse data. The numbers in Table 3-6 are based on the application of actual doses to models derived

from animal experiments. In the case of the survivors of the atomic bombing, Dr. J.V. Neel, who had

been studying the genetic effects of these bombings since 1946, concluded that “the children of the most

highly irradiated population in the world’s history provide no statistically significant evidence that

mutations were produced in their parents. . . . In particular, the studies should prove reassurance to that

considerable group of exposed Japanese and their children, without whose magnificent cooperation these

studies would have been impossible and who over the years have been subject to a barrage of

exaggerations concerning the genetic risks involved” (Neel et al. 1990). In short, Neel and others believe

that humans may be less sensitive to induction of mutations than mice. The data of Neel and colleagues

indicated that mice may be much less sensitive than has been thought, however, to reach this conclusion

they had to disregard the genes that have been studied the most (the specific-locus data), based on the

argument that those genes might be atypically mutable.

In summary, the intracellular genetic materials in humans and in animals may be damaged by radiation. 

The severity of these lesions depends on the dose and type of ionizing radiation received and the extent to

which these lesions can be repaired by the resident cellular repair systems. These lesions range from

point mutations, which cause serious hereditary diseases, and chromosomal aberrations and breaks to

lethal mutations of the genetic material, which lead to cellular death. 

The amount of radiation needed to cause hereditary effects is not known, because hereditary effects have

not been detected in humans. As stated in the UNSCEAR (1993) report, “Epidemiology has not detected

hereditary effects of radiation in humans with a statistically significant degree of confidence. The risk

estimate based on animals is so small that it would have been surprising to find a statistically significant

effect in the end-points studied in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. . . . Risk estimation therefore rests on genetic

experimentation with a wide range of organisms and on cellular studies, with limited support from the

negative human findings.” The two models that currently exist for making these determinations have

both strengths and weaknesses. One of the weaknesses is the high rate of spontaneous chromosomal

breaks; about 200,000 broken chromosomes are repaired per hour. The main difficultly with estimating

genetic effects of radiation is that the frequency of the postulated effects, even for high radiation doses, is

less than the annual statistical variability in the number of these that occur spontaneously.
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3.2.2 Children’s Susceptibility

This section discusses potential health effects from exposures during the period from conception to

maturity at 18 years of age in humans, when all biological systems will have fully developed. Potential

effects on offspring resulting from exposures of parental germ cells are considered, as well as any indirect

effects on the fetus and neonate due to maternal exposure during gestation and lactation. Relevant animal

and in vitro models are also discussed.

 

Children are not small adults. They differ from adults in their exposures and may differ in their

susceptibility to hazardous chemicals. Children’s unique physiology and behavior can influence the

extent of their exposure.

With respect to chemical toxicity, children sometimes differ from adults in their susceptibility to

hazardous chemicals, but whether there is a difference depends on the chemical (Guzelian et al. 1992;

NRC 1993). Children may be more or less susceptible than adults to health effects from environmental

insults, and the relationship may change with developmental age (Guzelian et al. 1992; NRC 1993). 

Vulnerability often depends on developmental stage. There are critical periods of structural and functional

development during both pre-natal and post-natal life and a particular structure or function will be most

sensitive to disruption during its critical period(s). Damage may not be evident until a later stage of

development. There are often differences in pharmacokinetics and metabolism between children and

adults. For example, absorption may be different in neonates because of the immaturity of their

gastrointestinal tract and their larger skin surface area in proportion to body weight (Morselli et al. 1980;

NRC 1993); the gastrointestinal absorption of lead is greatest in infants and young children (Ziegler et al.

1978). Distribution of xenobiotics may be different; for example, infants have a larger proportion of their

bodies as extracellular water and their brains and livers are proportionately larger (Altman and Dittmer

1974; Fomon 1966; Fomon et al. 1982; Owen and Brozek 1966; Widdowson and Dickerson 1964). The

infant also has an immature blood-brain barrier (Adinolfi 1985; Johanson 1980) and probably an

immature blood-testis barrier (Setchell and Waites 1975). Many xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes have

distinctive developmental patterns and at various stages of growth and development, levels of particular 
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enzymes may be higher or lower than those of adults and sometimes unique enzymes may exist at

particular developmental stages (Komori 1990; Leeder and Kearns 1997; NRC 1993; Vieira et al. 1996).

According to the Law of Bergonie and Tribondeau, rapidly dividing and undifferentiated cells are more

sensitive to radiation damage than slowly dividing and highly differentiated cells. This applies to fetal

cells as their sensitivity changes with level of activity during the different stages of development, and to

all types of radiation whether the dose is delivered internally or externally. Gamma and x rays from

sources such as 60Co and x ray machines are the radiation types with enough penetrating power to

externally expose the fetus while in utero; alpha and beta emitters, such as 239Pu and 90Sr which

preferentially distribute to fetal bone, must be internalized by the fetus to cause a radiation dose. The

specific organ systems are expected to be the most sensitive to radiation damage during that system’s

primary period(s) of organogenesis. Prenatally injured cells that replicate while damaged may affect the

individual as a child and as an adult. Exposure to radiation after birth results in similar effects in children

and adults.

Radiation damage to the fetus thus depends on the dose and type of radiation that delivered it, and the

sensitivities of the various organ systems during exposure. The expression of that damage will depend on

the efficiency of the fetal repair system that all humans use for protection against low-level radiation to

which all life is exposed. External radiation dose depends on the radiation dose rate which would exist if

the mother and fetus were not present, the time of exposure, and the shielding which the mother’s body

and fluids provide the fetus. Natural terrestrial, cosmic, and internal radiation will normally represent the

largest radiation dose to the fetus. This can be supplemented by external radiation doses from x ray and

nuclear medicine procedures to the mother and any gamma radiation field from sources around the

mother, such as radioactive fallout and any nearby radioactive sources. Terrestrial and cosmic radiation

doses are affected by the concentrations of various radioactive materials in the surrounding environment,

such as soil and construction material, and the altitude, which affects cosmic ray intensity. Internal

radiation dose depends on the combination of gamma dose rate to the fetus from radionuclides inside the

mother, plus the dose equivalent rate from alpha, beta, and gamma emitting radioactive materials which

have entered and distributed within the fetus. Potassium-40, which is the inseparable radioactive

component of natural, biologically important potassium, will probably cause the largest portion of the

internal dose, but the dose from radon transformation products which cause the largest adult dose will be 
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minimally important in the fetus because it doesn’t breathe. Absorption, distribution, metabolism (if any),

and excretion of radionuclides depend largely on the pharmaco/toxicokinetics for both mother and fetus. 

If the mother can metabolize and excrete the radioactive compound prior to distribution to the fetal

compartment, the dose to the fetus is minimized. Those compounds that are easily absorbed and freely

distributed to the fetal and/or placental compartments may give a larger dose than those that have low

absorption coefficients or those that never leave the maternal blood supply to penetrate peripheral tissues. 

Compounds that distribute to the fetal compartment and undergo little metabolism and excretion (i.e.,

extended fetal compartment residence times) are also more likely to cause damage to fetal tissues. The

overall dose equivalent, which considers all radiation doses and the quality factors of the radiation, and

the dose rate are the major players in predicting fetal toxicity. 

Some of the fetal effects which have been observed in humans include mental retardation, IQ reduction,

and microencephaly. The pivotal study that links the effects of external radiation to defects in child

development is the study conducted by Schull et al. (1988) that describes decreases in IQ scores with

increasing maternal doses of ionizing radiation. That study evaluated the quantitative effect of exposure

to ionizing radiation on the developing fetal and embryonic human brain after the Hiroshima/Nagasaki

atomic bombings of 1945. The sample included virtually all prenatally exposed individuals who received

tissue-absorbed doses of 0.50 Gy (50 rad) or more, and many more individuals in the dose range 0–0.49

Gy (0–49 rad) than in the clinical sample. The clinical sample does not include children prenatally

exposed at distances between 2,000–2,999 m in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. No evidence of

radiation-related effect on intelligence was observed among individuals exposed within 0–7 weeks after

fertilization or in the 26th or subsequent weeks. The highest risk of radiation damage to the embryonic

and fetal brain occurs 8–15 weeks after fertilization under both the T65D individual specific dosimetric

system, developed using data accumulated through 1965 and atomic bomb radiation data from tests in

arid climates, and the DS86 system, which accounts for neutron dose reduction from the high ambient

relative humidity in Japan during the 1945 blasts. The regression of intelligence score on estimated fetal

absorbed dose was linear or linear-quadratic for the group exposed 8–15 weeks after fertilization and

possibly linear for the 16–25 week group. The cumulative distribution of test scores suggested a

progressive shift downwards in individual scores with increasing dose. The mean IQ scores decreased 
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significantly and systematically with uterine or fetal tissue dose within the groups exposed during 8–15

and 16–25 weeks postgestation. This effect was not reversible and was the basis for the acute duration MRL.

3.2.3 Carcinogenic Effects from Ionizing Radiation Exposure

3.2.3.1 Introduction

Cancer is the major latent harmful effect produced by ionizing radiation and the one that most people

exposed to radiation are concerned about. The ability of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation to produce

cancer in virtually every tissue and organ in laboratory animals has been well-demonstrated. There is also

a large database that exists for people exposed to radiation for diagnostic purposes, those treated for

disease with radiation, occupational exposure populations, people that live in high background regions,

survivors of radiation accidents, and nuclear bombing survivors. It is presently not clear whether humans

are more or less sensitive to the adverse effects of low-levels of radiation than are the laboratory animal

models.

The development of cancer is not an immediate effect. It may take several years to develop (referred to as

the latent period or latency), if it develops at all. Radiation-induced cancers are the same types that are

normally found in an unexposed individual. However, after exposure to radiation, these cancer types may

occur with some increasing frequency and therefore can be detected only by epidemiological means. 

Most of these cancers occur only when those individuals reach an age when these cancers would normally

be expected to develop (except for leukemia). For example, a female #10 years of age who was exposed

to external radiation from the atomic blast, who survived the acute effects of the initial radiation

exposure, would have an increased probability of developing breast cancer as a result of that exposure,

but not before the end of the latent period for this specific cancer. The same would be true for the other

types of cancers. Radiation-induced leukemia has the shortest latent period at 2 years, while other

radiation induced cancers have latent periods >20 years. Radiation carcinogenesis has not been demonstrated in several types of human cells, possibly because the latent period exceeds the human lifespan. 

Raabe (1994) has developed two- and three-dimensional models of risk of developing cancer as a

function of isotope and dose rate. The typical plot of lifespan vs. daily dose rate has three portions based

on the cause of death, natural life-span, cancer, and acute radiation syndrome. According to Raabe, at

low dose rates the animal’s natural life-span is the cause of death before cancer can develop. As the daily 
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dose rate increases, a threshold is reached where cancer deaths dominate in a dose-responsive manner. 

Similarly, at high dose rates, a threshold is reached where acute radiation syndrome is the cause of death. 

These are lifetime studies involving a wide range of dose rates from very high down toward levels that

humans may normally experience. 

The mechanism by which cancer is induced in living cells is complex and is a topic of intense study. The

accepted theory states that the induction of cancer by exposure to radiation takes place in three steps. The

first step is initiation, which is a mutational event caused by the effect of the radiation interacting with the

cellular genome. This may involve a single gene or multiple genes on one or many chromosomes, and

may involve the activation of an oncogene or the mutation and subsequent inactivation of tumor

suppressor genes. The mechanism may stall at this point, with the gene(s) either undergoing repair or

remaining mutated and dormant. If repair fails to take place at all, if the repair is unsuccessful, or if cell

division occurs before repair is complete, and the cell remains viable through future cell generations, the

gene(s) appear in the progeny cells and will then enter into the stage of promotion. The second step,

promotion, is generally thought to be unrelated to the dose of radiation (initiation step) received, even

though thyroid cancer in children from 131I or external exposure may suggest otherwise; therefore, the

latent period is clearly independent of the initial dose of radiation received. This would be a reasonable

explanation of why cancers develop at the ages that they would normally develop in unexposed

populations, with the increased incidence of cancer related to the increased number of cell insults/injuries

in the genome of the damaged cells. Several promotor agents have been identified, with some acting as

both initiators and promotors. In the third step, cell transformation and proliferation, neoplasic cells are

produced. More information on how radiation interacts with the genome and on the mechanisms by

which it induces cancer is presented in Chapter 5 of this profile.

A few human studies are available that describe the incidences and types of cancers produced by some

radionuclides. Osteogenic sarcomas were found in people whose average skeletal doses exceeded 1,380

rad (13.8 Gy) of alpha radiation following exposure to 226Ra and 228Ra via several routes of exposure (Aub

et al. 1952; Evans 1966; Martland 1931; Rowland et al. 1978; Woodard 1980). 224Ra, used in the

treatment of ankylosing spondylitis, has also been implicated in producing osteosarcomas (Chemelevsky

1986; Mays 1988; Spiess and Mays 1970, 1973; Wick et al. 1986). One of the largest cohort of humans

available for studying the effects of external radiation and cancer is the group of people exposed to the

varying doses of radiation produced by the two atomic bombs detonated in Japan in August 1945. In this 
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population, an increase in leukemia incidence rate was seen only in those persons whose dose exceeded

10 rad (0.1 Gy). An increased incidence of solid tumors was seen only in those whose dose exceeded

40 rad (0.4 Gy). 

Exposure to radiation can produce cancer at any site within the body; however, some sites appear to be

more common than others. The BEIR V (1990) committee report came to some conclusions about which

sites are more at risk than others in humans, and these data are summarized in Table 3-8. The relative risk

of death normalized to a dose of 100 rad (1 Gy) from several types of cancer among 75, 991 atomic bomb

survivors whose radiation doses are known are given in Table 3-9.

The conclusions of the BEIR V (1990) report were based on many human epidemiological studies over

the past 70–80 years. Laboratory animal data have also proven useful for understanding human risks

from radiation, particularly to the respiratory tract of humans, and were included when relevant. The use

of human epidemiological data is certainly a valuable tool in determining the long-term carcinogenic

effects from radiation. The BEIR V (1990) committee used human epidemiological data whenever

possible; however, it also recognized its many limitations when attempting to draw conclusions about the

carcinogenic effects of low doses of radiation. No increase in cancer has been observed at low doses. 

Therefore, for purposes of setting safety standards and public policy, we resort to mathematical models

with a postulated zero threshold.

Most of the literature examined reported the effects of radiation in laboratory animal species, such as

monkeys, dogs, rats, pigs, mice, and guinea pigs. The short- and long-term effects of radiation in these

animals as a result of this research have been studied. When the laboratory animal data are examined

more closely, the researcher and risk assessor are faced with a difficult and complex question: “Is this

what happens when humans are exposed to this dose of ionizing radiation?” The answer will likely

depend on a number of variables, including the toxicological end point being examined (in this case,

cancer). The use of human subjects in scientific research is a highly regulated area and, for obvious moral

reasons, is not an acceptable practice in the area of radiation biology unless there is full informed consent

and the radiation doses are low. This normally leaves radiation biology risk assessors with the following

sources of information from which to determine the risks associated with radiation exposure in humans:

(1) extrapolation of data from laboratory animal models (which is associated with many uncertainty 
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Table 3-8. Summary of Risks of Developing Cancer After Exposure to Ionizing Radiation

Organ or system BEIR Committee conclusions about risk

Cancer Relative Risk (RR)

Factors (low dose/low dose

rate) per 106

 rad (104 Gy) a

Mammary/breast 1. The development of cancer from susceptible mammary

cells due to exposure to ionizing radiation depends on

the hormonal status of these cells.

2. The age-distribution of radiogenic breast cancers and

those breast cancers from unknown causes is similar.

3. Women irradiated at #20 years of age are at higher risk

than those irradiated later in life.

4. There is no evidence to suggest that radiogenic breast

cancer will appear during the first 10 years after

exposure to ionizing radiation. Peak incidences occur

15 to 20 years after exposure.

5. The data show little if any decrease in the yield of

tumors when multiple radiation doses are compared to

single, brief exposures to ionizing radiation.

92.5

Lung 1. Absolute risk of lung cancer from exposure to ionizing

radiation is similar for both males and females.

2. The data suggest that smoking has a “greater than

additive” effect on the development of lung cancer after

exposure to ionizing radiation.

75.4

Stomach/digestive

system

1. The incidence of stomach cancers increases with

increased exposure to ionizing radiation.

2. Females are at greater risk for developing cancers than

are males

3. The relative risk for developing cancer is higher for

those exposed when 30 years of age or younger.

4. The baseline risk for digestive cancers increases with

age; most of the excess cancers occur after middle age.

49.3

Thyroid 1. Susceptibility to radiation-induced thyroid cancer is

greater in childhood.

2. Development of thyroid cancer is dependant on the

hormonal status of the individual; sustained levels of

TSH increase the risk of developing thyroid cancer.

3. For those exposed before puberty, the tumors do not

appear until after sexual maturation. The risk is

greatest for children exposed within the first 5 years of

life.

4. Females are 2–3 times more susceptible than males to

radiogenic (and spontaneous) thyroid cancer.

5. Radiogenic cancer of the thyroid is usually preceded by

benign thyroid nodules and the frequency of

hypothyroidism and goiter is increased in those exposed

to large doses when very young.

32.1

Esophagus 1. Increased incidences of cancer of the esophagus have

been observed to occur in humans receiving doses of

ionizing radiation.

2. Little human data are available to make strong

conclusions about the risk of developing esophageal

cancer after exposure to ionizing radiation, although a

risk estimate is available.

9.5
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Table 3-8. Summary of Risks of Developing Cancer After Exposure to 

Ionizing Radiation (continued)

Organ or system BEIR Committee conclusions about risk

Cancer Relative Risk (RR)

Factors (low dose/low dose

rate) per 106

 rad (104 Gy) a

Small intestine

(duodenum,

jejunum, ileum)

1. Cancers of the small intestine have been produced in

laboratory animals exposed to large doses of ionizing

radiation.

2. None of the human epidemiological studies have

conclusively demonstrated an increased risk of

developing cancers of the small intestine after exposure

to ionizing radiation.

NR

Large intestine

(colon/rectum)

1. Data imply that there is an increased risk of developing

either colon or rectal cancer after exposure to ionizing

radiation

2. Based on human exposure data, the development of

colon or rectal cancer is not apparent until 15 years

after exposure or longer.

178.5

Skeleton 1. Large doses of low-LET ionizing radiation can result in

the development of bone cancers.

2. The data suggest a threshold of between 4 Gy of lowLET or 13.8 Gy of high-LET radiation before increased

bone cancers begin to occur.

1.3

Brain/central

nervous system

(CNS)

1. Increased incidences of CNS tumors have been

observed in both humans and laboratory animals

exposed to ionizing radiation.

2. Tumors are both malignant and benign.

3. The brain is considered to be relatively sensitive to

developing cancer after exposure to ionizing radiation.

4. Increases have been reported when irradiated during

childhood at doses less than 1–2 Gy.

NR

Ovary and uterus 1. There is no clear relationship between exposure to

ionizing radiation and the development of uterine or

ovarian cancers

23.8

Testis 1. There are few human data available for studying the

relationship between exposure to ionizing radiation and

testicular cancer.

2. The existing data suggest that the testis is relatively

insensitive to the carcinogenic effects of ionizing

radiation.

NR

Prostate 1. There is a weak association between cancer of the

prostate and exposure to ionizing radiation.

2. The relative risk of cancer of the prostate due to

exposure to ionizing radiation is small.

NR

Urinary tract 1. Exposure to ionizing radiation can cause cancer of the

bladder, as well as cancers of the kidney and other

urinary structures.

2. Women < 55 years old at the time of exposure are at

greater risk than older women, with this risk increasing

with time after exposure.

3. Gender appears to have little effect on the incidence of

bladder cancer mortality.

49.7
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Table 3-8. Summary of Risks of Developing Cancer After Exposure to 

Ionizing Radiation (continued)

Organ or system BEIR Committee conclusions about risk

Cancer Relative Risk (RR)

Factors (low dose/low dose

rate) per 106

 rad (104 Gy) a

Parathyroid

glands

1. Increased incidences of hyperparathyroidism,

parathyroid hyperplasia and parathyroid adenoma occur

after exposure to ionizing radiation.

2. The data suggest that the incidences of

hyperparathyroidism and parathyroid neoplasia increase

with increasing doses of ionizing radiation.

3. Time to diagnosis normally is 30 years.

NR

Nasal cavity and

sinuses

1. Little human data is available for analysis. Nasal and

sinus tumors have been noted after human exposure to

internally deposited 226Ra and 232Th.

2. The latency of these tumors is at least 10 years.

3. The risk of developing nasal and sinus cavity tumors

from routes other than from internalized sources of

alpha ion radiation are extremely low.

NR

Skin 1. Increased incidences of basal cell and squamous cell

carcinomas of the skin have been reported after

occupational and therapeutic exposures to ionizing

radiation.

2. Incidence from radiation exposure may be 5 times

greater if the skin is also exposed to sunlight 

1.0

Bone marrow

(leukemia,

lymphoma, and

multiple myeloma)

1. Examples include multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkins

lymphoma, and chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

2. Multiple myelomas are observed to form after irradiation

of the bone marrow.

3. The latent period for multiple myeloma is considerably

longer than that of leukemia.

4. In Japanese A-bomb survivors, an excess of multiple

myeloma cases did not appear until 20 years after

exposure.

5. Excess mortality from multiple myelomas has been

observed at doses as low as 0.5-0.99 Gy

6. No other form for lymphoma has been consistently

observed in human populations exposed to excess

amounts of ionizing radiation.

NR
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Table 3-8. Summary of Risks of Developing Cancer After Exposure to 

Ionizing Radiation (continued)

Organ or system BEIR Committee conclusions about risk

Cancer Relative Risk (RR)

Factors (low dose/low dose

rate) per 106

 rad (104 Gy) a

Pharynx,

hypopharynx, and

larynx

1. Increased incidences of cancer do arise in these tissues

after therapeutic radiation (i.e., ankylosing spondylitis) in

the 30–60 Gy range. Increases in these cancers were

not statistically significant at the p<0.05 level.

2. There were no increases in the incidences of these

cancers in the Japanese A-bomb survivors exposed to

<1 Gy.

3. The risk of developing cancers of these tissues after

exposure to ionizing radiation appears to be very low.

NR 

Salivary gland 1. The incidence of salivary gland tumors was increased in

the Japanese A-bomb survivors, patients treated with

x rays to the head and neck during childhood, and

women treated with 131I when middle-aged.

2. Increases in salivary gland neoplasia are dosedependent in the Japanese A-bomb survivors, but with

no detectable increases in excess mortality.

3. The salivary gland appears to be particularly susceptible

to the development of cancer after exposure to ionizing

radiation.

NR

Pancreas 1. An association between cancer of the pancreas and

exposure to ionizing radiation has been suggested in

some literature reports.

2. Pancreatic cancer has been found in occupationally

exposed thorium workers. b

2. The existing data suggest that the pancreas is relatively

insensitive to the carcinogenic effects of ionizing

radiation.

NR

a

 Values from EPA Report 402-R-96-016, Radiation Exposure and Risk Assessment Manual, June 1996.

 Sum of all values = 760.6, including a remainder incidence risk of 173.4 for all other organs, including those listed 

in column 3 as NR.

b

 Polednak et al. (1980), Health Physics 44 (Suppl 1): 239-251.

Source: summarized from BEIR V 1990

LET = linear energy transport; NR = RR factor not reported.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-9. Summary of Radiation Dose Response for Cancer Mortality by Sitea,b

Site of cancer

Number

of deaths

Statistical

p testc

Estimated relative

risk at 1 Gy

 (100 rad)

Excess risk per 104

person-year Gy

(PY Gy)

(per 106

 PY-rad)

Attributable risk

(%)d

All malignant

neoplasms

5936 0.0000 1.39 (1.23, 1.46) 10.0 (8.36, 11.8) 10.2 (8.50, 12.0)

Leukemia 202 0.0000 4.92 (3.89, 6.40) 2.29 (1.89, 2.73) 55.4 (45.7, 66.3)

All cancers except

leukemia

5734 0.0000 1.29 (1.23, 1.36) 7.41 (5.83, 9.08) 7.86 (6.19, 9.64)

Digestive organs and

peritoneum

3129 0.0000 1.24 (1.16, 1.33) 3.39 (2.27, 4.59) 6.58 (4.41, 8.91)

Esophagus 176 0.02 1.43 (1.09, 1.91) 0.34 (0.08, 0.67) 12.7 (2.92, 25.0)

Stomach 2007 0.0000 1.23 (1.13, 1.34) 2.07 (1.19, 3.05) 6.26 (3.61, 9.23)

Colon 232 0.0000 1.56 (1.25, 1.98) 0.56 (0.26, 0.91) 15.1 (6.96, 24.7)

Rectum 216 0.67 0.93 ( , 1.27)† -0.07 ( , 0.25)† -1.93 ( , 7.12)†

Liver (primary) 77 0.57 1.12 (0.87, 1.70) 0.05 (-0.05, 0.25) 3.90 (-4.38, 20.5)

Gallbladder and bile

ducts

149 0.13 1.37 (0.98, 1.96) 0.22 (-0.01, 0.53) 8.24 (-0.55, 19.5)

Pancreas 191 0.53 0.89 ( , 1.23)† -0.10 ( , 0.20)† -3.01 ( , 6.21)†

Other (unspecified) 81 0.29 1.32 (0.87, 2.14) 0.11 (-0.05, 0.35) 7.73 (-3.29, 24.2)

Respiratory system 747 0.0000 1.40 (1.21, 1.63) 1.29 (0.71, 1.96) 10.1 (5.50, 15.3)

Lung 638 0.0000 1.46 (1.25, 1.72) 1.25 (0.70, 1.89) 11.4 (6.36, 17.1)

Breast (female) 155 0.0000 2.00 (1.48, 2.75) 1.02 (0.53, 1.60) 22.1 (11.4, 34.8)

Cervix uteri and

uterus (female)

382 0.08 1.22 (1.01, 1.50) 0.60 (0.04, 1.29) 5.30 (0.34, 11.5)

Cervix uteri (female) 90 0.17 1.43 (0.93, 2.30) 0.26 (-0.04, 0.70) 10.0 (-1.68, 26.9)

Ovary (female) 82 0.03 1.81 (1.16, 2.89) 0.45 (0.10, 0.90) 18.7 (3.97, 37.7)

Prostate (male) 52 0.85 1.05 ( , 1.73)† 0.03 ( , 0.40)† 1.89 ( , 24.8)†

Urinary tract 133 0.0000 2.02 (1.45, 2.87) 0.55 (0.26, 0.89) 22.7 (10.8, 37.1)

Malignant lymphoma 110 0.81 1.92 ( , 1.40)† -0.02 ( , 0.18)† -1.75 ( , 13.6)†

Multiple myeloma 36 0.002 2.86 (1.55, 5.41) 0.21 (0.07, 0.39) 32.5 (11.3, 59.5)

Liver (including not

specified as primary)

590 0.02 1.24 (1.06, 1.47) 0.63 (0.07, 1.18) 7.02 (1.87, 13.2)

Kidney 38 0.18 1.58 (0.91, 2.94) 0.09 (-0.02, 0.26) 15.7 (-2.77, 43.3)

Bladder 90 0.003 2.13 (1.40, 3.28) 0.41 (0.16, 0.70) 23.6 (9.31, 40.8)

Tongue 26 0.40 0.83 ( , 1.49)† -0.02 ( , 0.06)† -5.35 ( , 14.1)†

Pharynx 23 0.61 0.83 ( , 2.04)† -0.02 ( , 0.09)† -6.14 ( , 31.6)†

Nose 44 0.58 0.84 ( , 1.67)† -0.03 ( , 0.12)† -4.04 ( , 14.5)†

Larynx 46 0.16 1.51 (0.95, 2.68) 0.10 (-0.01, 0.29) 13.4 (-1.47, 37.1)
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Table 3-9. Summary of Radiation Dose Response for Cancer Mortality 

by Sitea,b (continued)

Site of cancer

Number

of deaths

Statistical

p testc

Estimated relative

risk at 1 Gy

(100 rad)

Excess risk per 104

person-year Gy

(PY Gy)

(per 106

 PY-rad)

Attributable risk

(%)d

Skin (except

melanoma)

21 0.69 1.17 ( , 2.47)† 0.02 ( , 0.12)† 5.60 ( , 38.7)†

Bone 27 0.65 1.22 ( , 2.79)† 0.02 ( , 0.16)† 6.56 ( , 42.9)†

Brain tumors 47 0.97 1.03 (0.51, 2.09) 0.01 (-0.12, 0.20) 1.0 (-13.0, 22.5)

Tumors of central

nervous system

(except brain)

14 0.08 3.09 (1.06, 9.74) 0.10 (0.00, 0.24) 35.9 (1.4, 82.2)

Other 907 0.03 1.20 (1.05, 1.38) 0.77 (0.19, 1.44) 5.65 (1.37, 10.5)

a

 Adapted from Shimizu et al. 1988. Number in parentheses indicate 90% confidence intervals. b

 Data includes Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, both sexes (unless specifically otherwise stated), all ages at time of

bombing (ATB), from 1950 to 1985.

c

 p-value based on the test for increasing trend in radiation dose. d

 Based on 41,719 human subjects exposed to 1 rad (average = 29.5 rad).

† Lower confidence limit not reported by study authors.

factors), (2) epidemiological studies of populations that live in high and low background areas, and of

populations of accidentally or occupational exposed persons, and (3) data from patients who have

received diagnostic radiation and radiotherapy.

The use of human data pools theoretically provides the most direct and informative approach to assessing

the toxicity of radiation in humans. This would likely be the case in laboratories using controlled

exposure scenarios. Much of the information regarding exposures to radiation does not use a controlled

exposure situation. Most of the human information comes from epidemiological studies following the

detonation of nuclear bombs (Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Bikini Atoll, etc.), from accidents involving the

release of radionuclides (Palomares, Spain; Thule, Greenland; Rocky Flats, Colorado; Hanford,

Washington and others), or from exposed radiation workers or patients.

Epidemiology is the study of the incidence of disease in groups of people. Epidemiologists attempt to

determine the risk factors that may cause health effects by comparing the rate of occurrence of a disease

among exposed and non-exposed populations with similar attributes. Epidemiologists prefer to compare

the rate of occurrence of the effects under consideration. The major questions asked are: (1) Do the rates

of occurrence differ between populations? (2) Are any noted differences a real effect or are they merely

due to chance? and (3) Is there a relationship between an agent or other risk factor (such as radiation) and
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the effect? In studying populations, epidemiologists must characterize the subjects based upon both the

risk factor and the disease status. There are three main types of observational epidemiological studies:

 cohort, case-control, and prevalence (cross-sectional). Prevalence studies measure the presence or

absence of a disease in a particular population at a particular time. Cohort (or incidence) is a prospective

study that looks at the development of a disease in an initially disease free cohort in the context of

postulated risk factors. Case-control studies compare a population with an existing disease to a sex- and

age-matched disease-free population.

Prevalence, cohort, and case-control studies are the most likely types of epidemiological studies to be

conducted in the case of exposure to ionizing radiation. Cohort studies follow a group of initially healthy

persons with differing levels of exposure or risk factors and compare the rate of occurrence of disease in

each population over time. Because exposure is assessed prior to development of the effect, there is less

chance for bias; in addition, the relationship of other disease outcomes to the pre-assessed risk factors

may also be studied. In case-control studies, a population with a particular disease and a matched (except

for the disease) disease-free population are assessed for exposure or risk factors in order to determine

whether a causal relationship exists. By studying populations after the development of the disease, the

causes of relatively rare diseases can be assessed without following thousands of people; thus, a casecontrol study is a quicker and less expensive study than a cohort study. However, there is more

opportunity for bias due to the fact that the disease has already occurred prior to determining exposure or

risk factors. Also, only one disease may be investigated per study. 

All epidemiological studies have inherent weaknesses due to the potential for bias in the experimental

design or implementation. Common forms of bias include selection bias, recall bias, misclassification,

and confounding factors.

Selection bias occurs when subjects are not recruited uniformly. When information about health and

exposure status is not collected consistently or reliably, this will also artificially affect the outcome of the

study. Recall bias occurs when subjects do not uniformly report the incidence or severity of exposures or

health effects. Misclassification refers to mislabeling or incorrectly characterizing a study participant

with regard to the toxic end point or outcome (disease). A common type of misclassification occurs in

patients with cancer; the cause of death in these subjects may be complicated and classified as the result 
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of a secondary illness. Even when death is attributed to cancer(s), the specific cancer listed on the death

certificate may be a secondary metastatic cancer. Exposure may also be misclassified, particularly when

study subjects are aware that they are practicing risky behavior. Confounding refers to the interaction of

multiple factors on a given effect and the possibility of attributing risk to an inappropriate factor. For

example, when assessing the risk of a disease due to a factor such as the wire code of high power lines

(involving non-ionizing radiation), one must consider that the wire code of power lines may be highly

correlated with urbanization, heavy traffic, and increased pollution, and not associated with the actual

electric and magnetic field strengths to which individuals are exposed. In such a case, an association

between power lines and disease must be investigated while taking these other factors into account; otherwise, the results and any statistical correlation found may not be interpretable or appropriate.

Epidemiological studies should be carefully crafted to identify and account for appropriate confounders,

and their unique data interpreted objectively. The following pages contain a synopsis of some of the

more important human radiation epidemiological studies.

3.2.3.2 Nuclear Detonations of 1945 in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan

The first atomic device was exploded in a test on July 16, 1945, in Alamogordo, New Mexico. The U.S.

military, in an effort to bring a swifter end to the war and to avoid the casualties of a ground invasion of

Japan (actually planned for November 1945), detonated a 235U atomic bomb over the city of Hiroshima,

Japan, on August 6, 1945. Three days later, another atomic bomb using 239Pu was detonated over the city

of Nagasaki, Japan. In both Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a total of 64,000 people within 1 km of the air

detonation site (the air detonation side is designated as the "epicenter" and the point on the ground below

the epicenter is designated as the "hypocenter" or "ground zero) were killed by a combination of the blast,

intense heat, and to a much lesser extent gamma and neutron radiation emitted by these bombs. Blast,

heat and light, and ionizing radiation accounted for 50%, 35%, and 15%, respectively, of the energy

released by the bombs (Glasstone and Dolan 1977; Zajtchuk 1989). Survivors 1–2 kilometers away from

the hypocenter received up to several hundreds of rad (several gray) of radiation and suffered the ill

effects of ARS. The doses dropped off fairly rapidly with distance. In Hiroshima, the dose at 1 km was

on the order of 100 rad (1 Gy), dropping to approximately 1 rad (0.01 Gy) at 2 km. For Nagasaki, the

doses were on the order of 1,000 rad (10 Gy) and 10 rad (0.1 Gy), respectively. Those who survived the

immediate effects, including those who were far enough away or shielded from a portion of the radiation, 
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were potential candidates for the latent effects of radiation. A more in-depth discussion of the events

surrounding the creation of the atomic devices appears in Chapter 2 of this toxicological profile.

A few years after the atomic bombs were detonated, an effort was begun to study the effects that the

different doses of ionizing radiation had on the surviving populations of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This

study was instituted by the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) in 1950; the effects continue to

be monitored today by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF). Periodic reports are

published on the effects of ionizing radiation in the human populations of these cities in the main study,

called the Lifespan Study (LSS). The LSS includes 120,321 individuals living in Hiroshima and

Nagasaki in 1950; of these, 91,228 were exposed at the time of the bombing (BEIR V 1990). 

At the time of the bombing of both cities, it was not possible to determine the exact doses of ionizing

radiation each person had received; therefore, estimates were made as to the dose of radiation received by

persons located at different distances from the hypocenter. The dose estimates, called the Tentative 1965

Dose (T65D), used the air dose (gamma ray + neutron kerma in air) adjusted for shielding by structures

and natural terrain based on data obtained at the Nevada test sites, the Bare Reactor Experiment Nevada

(BREN) experiment, and from large-scale shielding experiments. The accuracy of this computational

system was questioned in 1978. After re-examining the available data, a new system of dose estimation,

the Dosimetry System 1986 (DS86), was created and is available in its final format (Roesch 1987). The

DS86 system provides more accurate radiation dose estimates than the T65D estimates because of

improvements in assessing shielding of building materials, in verifying the gamma-ray component of the

radiation doses to survivors using thermoluminescence of quartz crystals in roof tiles, and in considering

the reduction in the neutron component of the radiation dose caused by the high humidity in Japan as

compared to the Nevada desert. The DS86 data are currently being reevaluated, largely because of 

differing opinions on the magnitude of the Hiroshima neutron doses, which could produce small changes

in the individual dose estimates, and because these doses directly affect the risk estimates 

Based on the new dosimetry system, there are sufficient data from these large-scale human exposures to

derive some conclusions about the cancer-inducing effects of external radiation. A report by Shimizu et

al. (1988) used the exposure data from 75,991 survivors of the atomic bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki

(based on the DS86 dosimetry) to estimate the risk of developing cancer when humans are exposed to 

radiation. Of these 75,991 exposed persons, 59,784 were distally exposed and 16,207 were proximally 
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exposed to the explosions. These persons are being followed to their time of death from 1950, with the

specific types of cancers found through 1985 in these deceased individuals summarized in Table 3-9. The

Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) plans to continue studying the survivors and their

offspring throughout the survivor lifespan in order to further refine the risk estimates. 

As shown in Table 3-9, external radiation induces site-specific cancers in some organs but not in others. 

This extensive data set indicates that leukemia (acute and chronic myeloid and acute lymphocytic, but not

chronic lymphocytic), cancers of the esophagus, stomach, colon, lung, female breast, ovary, and bladder,

and multiple myelomas have statistically significant increases in incidences after exposure to radiation. 

The incidence of these types of cancer increases with the dose (as measured by estimated relative risk at

100 rad [1 Gy] and excess risk per 10,000 individuals each exposed to 100 rad [1 Gy] [104

 personyear Gy]). Conversely, incidences of cancers of the rectum, gallbladder, pancreas, uterus, brain, and

prostate, and incidences of malignant lymphoma do not appear to increase after exposure to ionizing

radiation.

A number of other conclusions can be drawn from the data sets that are presented in many extensive

tables in the Shimizu et al. (1988) report. Due to the size of these data sets, much of the raw data has

been omitted from this toxicological profile.

Table 3-9 shows the risks associated with certain types of cancers over all age groups; when cancers are

further classified by age at the time of death (ATD) and age at the time of the bombing (ATB), other

trends are seen. For ATB <10 years, the risk of stomach cancer appears to be greater for those younger

ATD groups (as observed for all cancers), but this trend is not statistically significant. No definable

trends are observed for breast, lung, and colon cancers; this is most likely because in 1985, this age

group had not yet reached the age where expression is likely. However, the relative risk of leukemia

peaked at 6–8 years after the bombing and tends to decrease every year thereafter.

In humans, cancers do not begin to appear immediately after exposure to radiation; it is only after some

minimum latent period (defined in this study as the time from exposure to the time of observation) that

cancers induced by the effects of radiation will occur. This is the case with leukemia and with solid 
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tumors shown in Table 3-9. The incidence of radiation-induced leukemia began to occur 2–3 years after

the detonation occurred, reached a peak within 6–8 years, and has been steadily declining ever since. A

small (yet significant) excess in leukemia mortality still existed as of the writing of the Shimizu et al.

(1988) report. This study also suggested that the incidence rate of radiation-induced cancers increases

significantly only when the survivors reach those ages at which cancers normally develop. Thus, the

minimum latent period is longer for the younger irradiated groups. These data also have demonstrated

that the latent period for all the cancers shown in Table 3-9 (except for leukemia) appears not to be dosedependent; the latency period is not affected by the dose. The latency period, however, is shorter among

the young who were exposed to higher doses within the first 10 years of life. For the solid tumors (all but

leukemia), the data from this study suggest that the minimum latent period is 15–19 years for stomach

cancer, 20–24 years for lung and breast cancers, 25–29 years for ovarian cancer, and 30–34 years for

cancers of the colon and urinary tract and for multiple myeloma. Some benefits of following this group

until the last individual dies are (1) the improvement of radiogenic cancer risk estimates and (2) the

possibility of verifying that certain cancer types whose incidence rates have not increased may have very

long latency periods.

Other factors were examined in this cohort that may affect cancer rates. The relative risk of developing

leukemia was not significantly different for males and females. For cancers other than leukemia,

particularly those of the esophagus and lung, the relative risk is higher for females than for males. As for

the effect of smoking on the rate of development of lung cancers, the relative risk of lung cancer at

100 rad (1 Gy) is greater for females than males. Adjusting for the effects of smoking in both males and

females, the relative risk differences no longer are statistically significant. Also, no shortening of the lung

cancer latency period was noted in male or female smokers.

The Shimizu et al. (1988) report addressed the occurrence of leukemia in the populations of Nagasaki and

Hiroshima; the report did not elaborate on the specific types of leukemia found in those populations as a

result of age and dose. Tomonaga et al. (1993) reported on the differential effects of radiation in inducing

major leukemia types in these two cities using the DS86 dosimetry system. That study included

766 leukemia cases (249 among LSS subjects) occurring as of the end of 1980 in people who were

exposed within a 9-kilometer radius of the detonation hypocenter. Bone marrow and blood specimens of 
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the registered cases were reassembled and re-examined for 493 of the 766 leukemia-diagnosed cases,

including 177 of the 249 LSS cases, using the French-American-British classification system of leukemia

diagnosis. Leukemias were further subclassified into a specific type of leukemia: acute lymphocytic

leukemia (ALL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), and other leukemias

(OTHER, including adult T-cell leukemia and other specifically diagnosed leukemias). Once a diagnosis

was ascertained, the type of leukemia was correlated with the total body kerma received by that person,

the city the dose was received in, and the elapsed time since exposure. Incidence estimates for each type

of leukemia by exposure category and time period were determined (see Table 3-8) as well as incidence

estimates for each type of leukemia by exposure category (see Table 3-9).

Meaningful statistical analysis on the leukemia data set could not be performed and should be taken as

descriptive only. For the three lowest exposure categories, incidence rates were either similar or slightly

increased over time; the two highest dose categories had incidence rates for all types of leukemias

declining over time. CML and OTHER leukemia incidence rates returned to background levels during

the late 1970s, while at the highest exposure levels (150 rad [1.5 Gy]), the overall incidence rates of

ALL and AML were 4–5 times higher than background levels from 1976 to 1980. The age at time of

bombing seemed not to modify the temporal trends of leukemia in the three lowest exposure groups. 

Tomonaga et al. (1993) states in regard to this data, "In the two highest exposure groups, type-specific

incidence rates declined with time in the youngest age-ATB group (0–15 years) for all types. In the

young adult age-ATB group (16–35 years), however, this pattern held for ALL and CML in the two

highest exposure categories and for OTHER in the 50–149.9 rad (0.5–1.499 Gy) group. The incidences

of OTHER among those exposed to 1.5 Gy (150 rad) and of AML among those exposed to 50–149.9 rad

(0.5–1.499 Gy) held nearly constant in time and that of AML among those exposed to >150 rad (1.5 Gy)

increased. Among older adults (i.e., 36 years old ATB), there was either no change or an increase in

incidence over time for AML and OTHER in the two highest exposure categories. CML and OTHER

rates declined with time in the 50–149.9 rad (0.5–1.499 Gy) group, and CML and CML and ALL

declined with time in the 150 rad (1.5 Gy) group. There was an increase over time in the excess rates of

AML among those exposed to very high radiation levels (150 rad [1.5 Gy]) at adult ages ATB. Thus

age ATB appears to moderate the temporal patterns of incidence in the highest exposure groups." The 

incidence estimates for these types of leukemias suggest that the incidences for ALL, AML, CML, and

OTHER were all greater in the higher dose categories. In the highest dose group, the estimated incidence 
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of ALL decreased with increasing age ATB, while those of ALL, CML, and OTHER were less dependent

on age ATB. The risks of ALL and CML increased more rapidly with an increasing dose than did those

of AML and OTHER. These findings suggest that ALL and CML leukemogeneses are more affected by

atomic bomb radiation production than AML.

3.2.3.3 Human Exposures to 226Ra and 228Ra: The Radium Dial Painters

Radium was one of the first radioactive isotopes discovered (see Chapter 2). It was used in medicines and

concoctions around 1900; however, the highest exposures to radium involved its use in dial paint.

Martland (1931) reported that approximately 800 females employed in a factory in New Jersey painted

the dials of watches and clocks with special luminous paint. The paint consisted of a crystalline,

phosphorescent zinc sulfide, with the addition of varying amounts of radium and its progeny containing

primarily 226Ra, 228Ra, and 228Th, all in the form of insoluble sulfates in the paint. These young women 

“tipped” or pointed the end of the paint brush with their mouth and lips whenever needed to restore a

sharp painting point. This resulted in oral ingestion of small amounts of radium, mainly 226Ra (t1/2 =

1,600 years) and 228Ra (t1/2 = 5.75 years). In the women who died, deposits of these isotopes were found

over the entire skeleton, and in particular in the cortical bone surface. Martland also estimated the total

lifetime body burden of radium to be between 2 and 20 μg Ra in those exhibiting clinical signs of

“radium poisoning.” Radiation toxicity seemed more evident in those individuals who worked at the

factory for >1–2 years or who had swallowed the paint for >1–4 years.

One of the main findings in this study was the increased incidence of death in some of the exposed

women. Death was noted in 18 women in the study. Thirteen of the women who died also had jaw

necrosis and anemias that developed within 4–6 years after they left the factory for other employment. 

The other eight deaths occurred at a later date. Jaw necrosis and anemia occurred with less severity and at

lower levels; these individuals developed bone lesions which were characterized as radiation osteitis. 

Osteogenic sarcomas (scapula, knee, pelvis, femur, orbit) also developed in this study population.

A study by Evans et al. (1966) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) reported on the

incidence of tumors in individuals exposed to 226Ra and 228Ra in both the radium dial painter population

and other populations exposed to alpha emitters. The study included approximately 5,000 or more

persons, including chemists who inhaled or ingested radioactive compounds, patients receiving 
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intravenous injections of 224RaCl, those who ingested water containing 224Ra, and the female radium dial

painters. As a group, the total duration of exposure was usually less than 1 year but in some cases was as

long as 20 years. The conclusion from this study confirmed the study findings of both Martland (1931)

and Rowland et al. (1978)— people who inhale or ingest radium (224Ra, 226Ra, 228Ra) have an increased

chance of developing tumors of the bone or of the paranasal sinuses but little, if any, chance of

developing leukemia from any of the doses studied. The data also supported the conclusion that the time

required to develop these sarcomas or carcinomas tended to increase as the total activity of radium

decreased. When all measured cases were included, the skeletal dose at which tumors began to be

observed was 1,200 rad (12 Gy) of alpha radiation. No tumors were observed in the population that

received less than 1,200 rad (12 Gy), the “practical threshold”; the tumor incidences began to climb in a 

linear dose-response manner from 1,200 to 50,000 rad (12–500 Gy) skeletal dose. Not all persons

receiving a >1,200 rad (12 Gy) skeletal dose developed sarcomas or carcinomas; the tumor incidence at

>1,200 rad (12 Gy) skeletal dose was placed at 40% at the time the study ended. Rowland et al. (1978)

conducted a follow-up study on the incidences of osteosarcoma and “head carcinomas” (carcinomas

originating in the mastoid air cells or paranasal sinuses) on this population of female dial painters. The

data sets are shown in Tables 3-10 and 3-11.

Using statistics from the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), it was estimated that approximately 2,000

individuals had been employed in the radium dial painting industry prior to 1929, with 1,474 workers

identified who worked in the industry prior to 1930. Most of the dial workers were not located until as

late as the 1960s. For the osteosarcoma analysis, the combined intake of radium (226Ra + 228 Ra) ranged

from <0.5 to 2,500 μCi (0.02–92 MBq), with the time-weighted average ranging from 0.74 to 3,602 μCi

(0.03–133 MBq). The average age at first exposure to these two isotopes ranged from 18.4 to 19.8 years. 

For the head carcinomas, the intake of 226 Ra ranged from <0.5 to 1,000 μCi, with the time-weighted

average ranging from 0.71 to 1,577 μCi. The average age at first exposure ranged from 17.8 to

22.3 years. The increased incidence of osteosarcoma in this exposed population can be attributed in part

to radium’s distribution and elimination kinetics. Radium has distribution patterns similar to those of

calcium. Once ingested, radium distributes primarily to the bone surfaces and within about 10 μm from

the osteogenic cells (the target cells for radium toxicity). The range of alpha particles in soft tissue is

estimated to be approximately 30–70 μm (see Chapter 2), well within the range of these radiosensitive 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-10. Distribution of Osteosarcomas in a Population of Female Dial Painters 

Exposed to 226Ra and 228Ra

Systemic intakea

(

226Ra + 2.5 228Ra)b

 Activity range

(μCi)

 Activity

weighted

average (μCi)

Number

of cases

Average age at

first exposure

(years)

Number of

bone

sarcomas

Personyears

Personyears at

risk

Sarcomas per 1,000

person-years at risk

(10-3 years -1)

2500 3602 16 18.5 4 299 219 18.3

1000–2499 1675 22 19.2 15 529 419 36.8

500–999 675 18 19.7 8 700 610 13.1

250–499 375 32 19.8 9 1409 1249 7.21

100–249 171 27 18.4 2 1299 1164 1.72

50–99 68.0 21 18.6 0 1082 977 0.00

25–49.9 35.2 45 19.5 0 2331 2106 0.00

10–24.9 16.3 71 19.2 0 3642 3287 0.00

5–9.9 7.04 66 19.1 0 3378 3048 0.00

2.5–4.9 3.63 83 18.8 0 4217 3802 0.00

1.0–2.49 1.56 101 18.9 0 5240 4735 0.00

0.5–0.99 0.74 52 18.4 0 2731 2471 0.00

<0.5 –- 205 19.0 0 10535 9510 0.00

a

estimated amount that entered the blood after oral exposure

b

dose adjustment factor for 226Ra (and daughters) energy (29.4 MeV) and t1/2 (1600 years), in relation to 228Ra (and

daughters) energy (10.6 MeV) and t1/2 (5.75 years)

Source: Rowland et al. 1978

cells but outside the range of red marrow cells from which leukemias would originate. The osteogenic

cells initially receive a large radiation dose after each intake of 226Ra and/or 228Ra. Owing to the long

physical t1/2 of both 226Ra (1,600 years) and 228Ra (5.75 years), both radionuclides will eventually

redistribute throughout the bone matrix over time, moving out of range of the osteogenic cells but

continuing to irradiate other less sensitive cells and tissues within a 70-μm radius of each atom of radium.

A similar proximity of exposure scenario is likely true for the development of the head carcinomas in this

population of exposed workers. The most likely explanation for the head carcinomas is that they are due

to accumulation of 222Rn gas and radon daughters in the mastoid air spaces of the sinus cavities. This

explains the lack of effect of 224Ra and 228Ra, which transform through 220Rn by short half-life transitions,

and which produce much lower doses in the parasinal cavities than from 222Rn (Rowland 1994).
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-11. Distribution of Head Carcinomas in a Population of 

Female Dial Painters Exposed to 226Ra

Systemic intakea

(

226Ra)

 Activity

range (μCi)

 Activity

weighted

average

(μCi)

Number

of cases

Average age at

first exposure

(years)

Number of

head 

carcinomas

Personyears

Personyears at

risk

Carcinomas per

1,000 personyears at risk

(10-3 years -1)

1000 1577 10 17.8 3 264 164 18.3

500–999 584 11 22.3 2 385 275 7.27

250–499 366 25 20.1 5 1062 812 6.16

100–249 176 31 18.3 5 1255 945 5.29

50–99 68.3 23 18.2 1 1123 893 1.12

25–49 35.5 34 18.8 1 1666 1326 0.75

10–24.9 15.9 59 19 0 3025 2435 0

5–9.9 6.99 41 18.4 0 2114 1704 0

2.5–4.9 3.52 70 19.6 0 3558 2858 0

1.0–2.49 1.55 145 19.3 0 7531 6081 0

0.5–0.99 0.71 73 18.7 0 3799 3069 0

<0.5 – 227 18.9 0 11624 9354 0

a

 estimated amount that entered the blood after ingestion

Source: Rowland et al. 1978

The data presented in both tables show that a dose response is present when comparing the weightedaverage dose to the number of osteosarcomas or head carcinomas observed throughout the lifespan of

these exposed individuals. In addition, a dose-squared-exponential function most closely described the

bone sarcomas induced by these two radionuclides. In contrast, a linear dose-response function was

found to best describe the head carcinoma data.

3.2.3.4 Human Exposures to 224Ra via Injection

During 1944–1951, injections of 224Ra were administered to approximately 2,000 German adults and

children as a treatment modality for several debilitating diseases, including tuberculosis and ankylosing

spondylitis. A report by Spiess and Mays (1970) summarized the health effects of 925 humans (708

adults and 217 children) injected with 224Ra who received alpha doses of up to 5,750 rad (57.7 Gy). The

duration of treatment ranged from a few weeks to a few years, depending on the disease being treated. 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

For this study, treated individuals were classified by age and dose received during the treatment

period(s). These subpopulations are shown in Tables 3-12 and 3-13.

As was the case with 226Ra and 228Ra, the critical organ for 224Ra was bone tissue, with an overall

increased incidence of osteosarcoma in the exposed population. Tables 3-12 and 3-13 report the dose

parameters and incidences of osteosarcomas induced by 224Ra by age distribution. These data show that

the lowest dose that resulted in a detectable osteosarcoma was 90 rad (in an adult). The incidence of

osteosarcoma in this population increased in a dose-responsive fashion, with a 0.7% rise in incidence of

osteosarcomas per 100 rad (1 Gy) skeletal dose from 224Ra in adults and a rise of 1.4% per 100 rad

(1 Gy) in children (see Table 3-13). The ability of 224Ra to induce bone tumors in males and females,

with or without pre-existing bone disease, was equal in all instances. At the time of publication of the

Speiss and Mays (1970) report, no head carcinomas or leukemias attributable to 224Ra exposure had been

observed.

The lowest alpha dose to induce osteosarcoma in this population exposed to 224Ra was 90 rad (0.9 Gy),

significantly lower than the 1,200 rad (12 Gy) (skeletal dose at death) required to induce osteosarcoma in

the radium dial painters (226Ra and 228Ra). The answer lies in the physical half-life of 224Ra, and the total

dose to the critical tissue. 224Ra distributes in an identical fashion within the bone matrix as does 226Ra

and 228Ra, with the initial deposition of each of these isotopes within 10 μm from the osteogenic cells on

the bone surface. In cases of 226Ra and 228Ra exposure, the dose of radiation was initially received by the

osteogenic cells; however, as time progressed, natural bone formation (remodeling) resulted in the

redeposition of these isotopes (and other minerals) away from these target cells and into the mineral

volume of the bone, out of the range of the alpha particles (50–70 μm) emitted by these isotopes. These

longer-lived isotopes continued to transform for several years; however, many of the radium atoms were

out of range of the target tissues (osteogenic cells) and not likely to cause bone cancer. This was not the

case with those exposed to 224Ra. 224Ra deposits initially on bone surfaces as does 226Ra and 228Ra;

however, the half-life of 224Ra is 3.62 days and the dosimetery is quite different from other radium

isotopes. The local dose to the skeleton of 224Ra within 0–10 μm is estimated to be nine times the average

skeletal dose of 226Ra (because the radiation dose is almost exclusively delivered to the osteogenic cells

during 224Ra’s short half-life). However, the dose from 226Ra to the critical osteogenic cells is only

0.63 times the average skeletal dose, which is randomly distributed throughout the bone matrix. 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-12. Alpha Doses from Injected 224Ra (in rad) by Age Group, Number, and 

Percentage of Subpopulation Developing Osteosarcoma

Age at first injection of 224Ra

Dose range

(rad) Parameters 

1–5 

years

6–10 

years

11–15 

years

16–20 

years

All children

(1–20 years)

Adults

(>20 years)

0–89 Average rad dose 46 ND 24 55 47 53

No. of persons 1 ND 1 3 5 210

% Bone sarcomasa 0.00 ND 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

90–199 Average rad dose 152 126 ND 148 146 139

No. of persons 2 1 ND 4 7 229

% Bone sarcomas 0.00 0.00 ND 0.00 0.00 1.3

200–499 Average rad dose 446 397 344 342 363 306

No. of persons 2 9 7 17 35 214

% Bone sarcomas 0.00 0.00 29 0.00 5.7 1.9

500–999 Average rad dose 860 703 727 719 727 650

No. of persons 7 30 22 17 76 55

% Bone sarcomas 0.00 10 5 0.00 5.3 5.5

1000–1999 Average rad dose 1426 1381 1340 1246 1345 ND

No. of persons 16 19 18 19 72 ND

% Bone sarcomas 38 26 22 21 26.4 ND

2000–5750 Average rad dose 3491 3451 2550 3100 3329 ND

No. of persons 9 9 3 1 22 ND

% Bone sarcomas 22 67 0.00 0.00 36.4 ND

All persons

with a known

dose of 224Ra

Average rad dose 1662 1207 984 747 1103 204

No. of persons 37 68 51 61 217 708

% Bone sarcomas 22 21 14 7 15.2 1.4

a

 % of bone sarcomas as of 1969 ND = No data available

Source: adapted from Speiss and Mays 1970 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Table 3-13. Age Distribution, Alpha Dose (in rad), and % Incidence of Osteosarcomas 

Induced by 224Ra Injection

Age (years)

Exposed

patients Sarcoma cases % Incidence

Average dose

(rad)

% Incidence per

100 rad

1–5 37 8 21.6 1662 1.30

6–10 68 14 20.6 1207 1.70

11–15 51 7 13.7 984 1.39

16–20 61 4 6.6 747 0.88

All children 217 33 15.2 1103 1.38

Adults 708 10 1.4 204 0.69

Source: adapted from Speiss and Mays 1970 

Other similar studies include those involving tinea capitis treatment (Albert et al. 1986; Harley et al.

1983; Ron and Modan 1984), uranium miners (NIH 1994), and iron miners (Radford and Renard 1984).

3.2.3.5 Other Human Cancer Studies

Cancer data from other sources are available in the open literature. Sorahan and Roberts (1993)

performed a case-control study examining the association between childhood cancer and the occupational

exposure of the child’s father to radiation. Data from the Oxford Survey of Childhood Cancers collected

from 1953 to 1981 were used. There was a total of 15,279 cases and the same number of matched

controls (matched for sex, date of birth, and local area). Estimates of exposure were completed based on

job descriptions. Dose groups were: not exposed (<0.1 rem, 0.001 Sv), 0.1–0.4 rem (0.001–0.004 Sv),

0.5–0.9 rem (0.005–0.009 Sv), and 1 rem (0.01 Sv). There were also 27 case fathers and 10 control

fathers who had been exposed to radionuclides. Based on the information gathered, it was determined

that 67 fathers of children with cancer and 50 fathers of controls were exposed to external radiation within

6 months of conception of their children. Relative risks for estimated external radiation doses and all

childhood cancers were near one, and none of the specific types was statistically significant. Among

fathers with likely exposure to radionuclides (from unsealed radioactive material), the relative risk for all

childhood cancers was statistically significant at 2.87 (95% CI 1.15–7.13). There is considerable

uncertainty associated with this value, and the findings are not supported by those in the studies of the

survivors of the atomic bombings in Japan. Cancer incidence during the first 20 years of life among the

children of parents who suffered a mean gonadal dose of 43 rem (0.43 Sv) was 43 cases in 31,150

offspring, and there were 49 cases among 41,066 offspring from the control population. For leukemia,
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

there were 16 cases among 31,150 children of exposed parents and 21 cases among the 41,066 children

from the unexposed controls (Yashimoto et al. 1991).

In 1991, Matanoski (1991) reported on the health effects of low-level radiation exposure to shipyard

workers. Many of the earlier human radiation studies had been of groups exposed to large doses of

radiation where there was a clear dose response for cancer induction. The typical dose response curve

assumes a linear no-threshold shape that starts with zero effect at zero dose and extends linearly upward

to intersect the measured effect at doses above 10–40 rad (0.1–0.4 Gy). Previous attempts to demonstrate

the shape of the curve at low and occupational doses had not produced a clear result. The purpose of the

Matinoski study was to better define the upper and lower bounds of risk associated with radiation

exposure using a relatively large population group whose radiation doses had been measured carefully,

many of which were elevated above ambient levels, and for which there was an adequate control

population. The selected group was workers in public and private U.S. shipyards involved in the

overhaul and refueling of nuclear-powered warships. Concern over the risk to these workers had been

raised earlier in a limited study of deaths among Portsmouth, New Hampshire, shipyard workers

(Najarian 1978). Also, a report had been released on an apparent leukemia excess among U.S. military

veterans (Caldwell 1980). However, a subsequent cohort study by Rinsky (1981) did not observe a

relationship between exposures and leukemia. These groups had received approximately the same

radiation dose. The Matinoski study group involved workers at eight nuclear facilities throughout the

United States, who had been occupationally exposed from 1957 through 1981. The study group was

divided into dose groups and exposures were lagged by 2 years for leukemia and lymphoma, and 5 years

for lung cancer to account for disease latency. The numbers in each of the three major dose groups were:

32,510 non-radiation workers, 10,348 radiation workers whose doses were below 0.5 rem (0.005 Sv), and

27,872 radiation workers whose doses were over 0.5 rem (0.005 Sv). The data were analyzed statistically 

using methods suggested by Gilbert (1983). In this manner it was estimated that the statistical power had

a 79% probability of finding a risk of leukemia from cancer if the risks were as large as five times the

linear model estimates in BEIR III (1980). For those whose doses exceeded 0.5 rem (0.005 Sv), the death

rate from leukemia was only 91% of the normally expected death rates from that disease (95% confidence

interval = 56–139%), and the death rate from lymphatic and hemopoietic cancers was 82% (95%

confidence interval = 61–108%) of the normally expected death rates from those diseases. The death

rates from these diseases in the less than 0.5 rem (0.005 Sv) group were similar to those in the above 0.5

rem (0.005 Sv) group. Standard mortality ratios (SMRs) for the lower-dose group were similar. This 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

indicates the risks of these diseases is lower among shipyard workers than in the general population. The

risk of lung cancer, however, was significantly higher (p<0.05) in the non-nuclear work group and

slightly higher in the nuclear work groups than for the public. Mesothelioma was selected as a biological

marker for the presence of asbestos exposure in the population, and a high SMR for mesothelioma (>5 for

radiation workers and 2.4 for non-radiation workers) suggests that the excess is due to asbestos exposure

and not to radiation. The radiation worker population did not show a significant increase in the risk of

any of the cancers studied, except for mesothelioma which was attributed to asbestos. The data suggest

that there is a threshold greater than 0.5 rem (0.005 Sv) for leukemia, and lymphatic and hemopoietic

cancers.

In another human study, Checkoway et al. (1988) used a historical cohort mortality study of 8,375

workers at the Y-12 plant at Oak Ridge who were exposed to gamma radiation and/or alpha radiation by

inhaling uranium compounds. The population studied included employees who had worked for at least

30 days between May 1947 and December 1974. The median duration of exposure in that study was

9.2 years. There were 862 deaths in the cohort, which was composed of 6,781 white males. The majority

of the cohort was followed for 10 years. Exposure from gamma radiation was measured with dosimeters

or film badges, and internal alpha contamination was estimated with urinalysis for uranium (reported as

cumulative radiation dose). Mortality was compared with both U.S. and Tennessee rates. For all causes

there were fewer deaths than expected (Standardized Mortality Ratio [SMR] 0.89, 95% CI 0.84–0.96). 

These findings are consistent with the healthy worker effect. There were a total of 196 cancer deaths in

the population compared to 193 expected, (SMR 1.01). Relative to U.S. white males, there were

statistically significant excesses of lung cancer (SMR 1.36, 95% CI 1.09–1.67) and possibly cancers of

the and central nervous system (SMR 1.8, 95% CI 0.98–3.02). Cancer SMRs for Tennessee white males

were lower than those for the U.S. white male referent population. A trend was observed for increasing

lung cancer deaths with increasing radiation dose, although the trend was greater with a zero-year latency

assumption than for a 10-year latency assumption. Mortality for brain and central nervous system cancers

was unrelated to either the alpha or gamma dose. The authors point out that the dose-response trend for

lung cancer mortality should be viewed with some caution because the rate ratio estimates are imprecise,

as reflected by the wide confidence limits because of small numbers. Also, the dose-response gradients

are reduced considerably when a 10-year latency is assumed. No data on cigarette smoking were

included in the study. Other studies have also shown that the lung is the primary target organ of airborne

radon when mixed with diesel fumes, cigarette smoke and silica dust related to uranium mining, but not

from uranium itself (BEIR IV 1988), which was the most important airborne radioactive material at this
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

plant. Readers are referred to the effects of cancer induced by the chemical and radiological effects of

uranium mining in the ATSDR Toxicologic Profile for Uranium (ATSDR 1999b).

In a later related report, Kneale et al. (1981) responded to criticism of previous reports of a study of

cancer risks from radiation to workers at Hanford using the method of regression models in life-tables. 

The population included employees up to 1975 who wore film badges for their external dosimetry record

and included deaths through 1977. Some internal monitoring was also completed: individuals for whom

internal monitoring was completed tended to have higher external exposures. Cause of deaths was

classified into three categories: (1) cancers of radiosensitive tissues (stomach, large intestine, pancreas,

other intestinal, pharynx, lung, breast, lymphoma, myeloma, myeloid leukemia, other reticuloendothelial

system cancers, and thyroid); (2) other cancers; and (3) non-cancer. The reported risk per unit of

radiation dose for cancers of radiosensitive tissues was much greater than the generally accepted risk

based on other studies which had been used in setting safety levels for exposure to low-level ionizing

radiation. The estimated risk calculated from this study was about 10–20 times greater than would have

been expected by extrapolating downward from higher doses analyzed in previous studies, notably studies

of the atomic bomb survivors. The authors suggested that after statistically controlling for a wide range

of possible interfering factors, there was a significant downward curve at about 10 rem (0.1 Sv) in the

dose-response relationship. Therefore, the agreement with other studies, conducted at higher doses, may

be stronger than is widely assumed. The authors also point out that the findings on cancer latency (about

25 years) and the effect of exposure age (increasing risk with age) are in general agreement with other

studies. The unexplained finding is a significantly higher dose for all workers than for workers who

developed cancers in tissues that are supposed to have low sensitivity to cancer induction by radiation. 

The “healthy worker effect” was very large in this study—the SMR for all causes of death was 75. 

Therefore, the fact that living workers at Hanford in Washington State have higher radiation doses than

workers who died could reflect a healthy worker effect. Using a model that allowed for cancer latency

and variation in sensitivity to radiation with age of exposure, investigators estimated a doubling dose for

cancer of 15 rad (0.15 Gy) with a 95% CI of 2–150 rad. The interval between cancer induction and death

was estimated (maximum likelihood estimate) to be 25 years. The investigators also discuss the fact that

Japanese bomb survivor data and ankylosing spondylitis data indicate that the doubling dose is about 200

rem (2 Sv). No records of smoking were available for the Hanford population. Internal monitoring

showed evidence of internal exposure in only 225 of the Hanford workers; the investigators indicate that 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

the effects were a result of external rather than internal radiation. The authors pointed out that the

Hanford study could not distinguish between effects of neutron and gamma radiation. 

3.2.3.6 Laboratory Animal Reports

Cancer is a major latent biological effect of inhaling many of the various isotopes and chemical forms of

radioactive materials. The literature contains many studies describing the onset and specific types of

cancers that occur after inhalation exposure(s) (see the ATSDR profiles on uranium and radon for more

complete information). The vast majority of reports concerning the inhalation of radionuclides with the

subsequent development of cancer dealt with alpha and beta particle emitters incorporated into soluble or

insoluble particles of varying sizes for an acute duration of delivery (usually only a few minutes to

achieve the desired initial lung burdens) followed by a long-term exposure of the tissues. Due to the large

database describing the neoplasia associated with exposure to ionizing radiation, only a cross-section of

these reports will be discussed in some detail here.

Cancer has been reported in laboratory animals after inhalation of different radionuclides (see Table 3-1). 

For example, isotopes of strontium (85Sr and 90Sr) have strong affinities for bone; therefore, it is

reasonable to expect that the initial site of neoplasia formation will be in bone tissues. Metastases may

occur to more distant organs at a later time, depending on the type of tumor induced. For example, Gillett

et al. (1987b) studied the late-occurring biologic effects in Beagle dogs given graded levels of 90SrCl2 via

single brief inhalation exposures and then observed for their lifespans. The cumulative absorbed beta

dose to bone ranged from 12 to 1,200 rad (0.012–12 Gy) at 30 days and from 200 to 170,000 rad

(92–1,700 Gy) at 1,000 days after exposure. The most frequent cause of death in exposed dogs was

primary bone cancer (30 of the 66 exposed dogs). Bone-tumor-related deaths occurred from 759 to

3,472 days after exposure. Four additional animals developed carcinomas in soft tissues adjacent to the

bones of the skull (invasive baso-squamous carcinoma, transitional carcinomas of the nasal cavity, and an

adenocarcinoma in the maxilloturbinate region). The remaining exposed and control dogs died from a

variety of other causes not related to 90Sr exposure. Radiation-induced lesions were confined to the bone,

bone marrow, and adjacent soft tissue. Forty-five primary bone tumors occurred in 31 of the 66 exposed

dogs (47%). Metastasis occurred from 21 tumors, with the lungs being the most frequent site of

metastasis (76%). Twenty-seven tumors were classified as different subtypes of osteosarcoma, 14 as

hemangiosarcomas, 3 as fibrosarcomas, and 1 as a myxosarcoma.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

Using 241Am, Gillette et al. (1985) determined the retention, translocation, and excretion of inhaled monodisperse (1.8 μm AMAD) or polydisperse aerosols (AMAD 0.75, 1.5, 3.0 μm) and explored the development of osteosarcomas in dogs. 241Am was soluble and transported in blood and deposited in the liver and

skeleton. Two years after exposure, 0.5–3.0% of the initial lung burden was present in the lung, 10–47%

was in the liver, and 10–36% in the skeleton. Four of 15 dogs developed osteoblastic osteosarcomas

#1,000 days after exposure to 241Am. Three of these were in the 1.8-μm AMAD group and one was in the

3.0-μm AMAD group. Initial lung burdens for all 15 ranged from 1.0 to 6.2 μCi (0.04–0.2 MBq). 

Radiation doses to 1,000 days for dogs ranged from 185 to 1,260 rad (1.85–12.6 Gy) to the lungs, 180 to

1,070 rad (1.8–10.7 Gy) to the liver, and 67 to 410 rad (0.67–41 Gy) to the skeleton, while the skeletal

doses to death for the 4 dogs developing osteosarcoma were 500, 300, 240, and 180 rad (5, 3, 2.4, and

1.8 Gy). Metastasis was evident in only 1 of the 4 dogs.

Neoplastic formation after exposure to 238Pu and 239Pu has been extensively studied in Beagles. Hahn et

al. (1981) exposed 72 Beagle dogs by inhalation to monodisperse aerosols of 238PuO2 measuring 1.5 μm

and another 72 dogs to particles measuring 3.0 μm. Twenty-four control dogs inhaled an aerosol

produced from a diluent solution. Equal numbers of males and females were used. Groups of 12 dogs

were exposed to concentrations expected to produce initial lung burdens of 0.56, 0.28, 0.14, 0.07, 0.029,

0.01, and 0 μCi/kg (0.021, 0.010, 0.0052, 0.0826, 0.0011, 0.00037, and 0 MBq/kg). However, mean

actual initial lung burdens were 0.97, 0.43, 0.26, 0.11, 0.055, 0.017, and 0 μCi/kg (0.0359, 0.0159,

0.0096, 0.0041, 0.0020, and 0 MBq/kg), respectively, for 1.5 μm particles, and 1.2, 0.57, 0.30, 0.14,

0.069, 0.024, or 0 μCi/kg (0.044, 0.021, 0.011, 0.0052, 0.0026, 0.00089, or 0 MBq/kg), respectively, for

3.0 μm particles. Necropsy and histopathological examinations were performed at death. Primary bone

cancers developed in Beagle dogs briefly exposed by inhalation to aerosols of 238PuO2. 238PuO2 was

initially deposited in the respiratory tract where it was retained with a half-time greater than 100 days. A

portion of the 238Pu was solubilized and translocated to the liver and skeleton; 46 of 144 exposed dogs and

2 of 24 control dogs died (as of date of publication). Deaths unrelated to bone tumors are as follows: 7 of

the 144 dogs died from severe radiation pneumonitis and pulmonary fibrosis 536–1,213 days after

exposure (3,700–8,600 rad [37–86 Gy] to lungs) and 4 of the 144 dogs died of pulmonary carcinomas

1,319–2,143 days after exposure (2,100–5,900 rad [21–59 Gy] to lungs). Five years after exposure, 46

osteosarcomas developed in 35 of 144 exposed dogs. The cumulative absorbed radiation doses to the

skeleton for these dogs ranged from 210 to 830 rad (21-83 Gy), and time from inhalation exposure to

death ranged from 1,125 to 2,078 days. Of the 46 bone tumors, 22 originated in the vertebrae (49%), 
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

12 in the humeri (26%), 6 in the pelvis (13%), and 6 in miscellaneous long and flat bones (13%). Most of

the tumors were well differentiated sarcomas. Only 10 of the tumors metastasized; the lung was the organ

most often invaded. Bone tumors were associated with lesions of radiation osteodysplasia. The number

of bone tumors found in this study indicated that inhaled 238PuO2 was an effective skeletal carcinogen. 

The authors noted that the rate of solubilization in the lungs and translocation to the bone may be factors

in the radiation dose pattern and the type and location of bone tumors that developed after inhalation of

238PuO2.

In another study, Muggenburg et al. (1994) exposed 144 Beagle dogs to 238PuO2 aerosols; 72 of these

dogs inhaled monodisperse aerosols of 238PuO2 with AMADs of 1.5 μm, and 72 dogs inhaled 3.0-μm

AMAD particles. For each particle size, dogs were exposed to achieve one of the following six graded

activity levels of initial lung burden: 0.57, 0.27, 0.14, 0.08, 0.03, or 0.01 μCi of 238PuO2/kg. These dogs

were observed for biological effects (cancerous and non-cancerous effects) over their natural lifespan. 

The 238PuO2 aerosol exposures resulted in initial lung burden ranging from 37 to 0.11μCi and from 1.50 to

0.01 μCi (1.4–0.004 and 0.06–0.0004 MBq) of 238PuO2/kg of body mass for the 1.5- and 3.0-μm particles,

respectively. The particles were found to dissolve slowly, resulting in translocation of the Pu to liver,

bone, and other tissue sites. The principal late-occurring effects were tumors of the lung, skeleton, and

liver. Lung tumors were detected in 47 of the exposed dogs; within this group, lung tumors were the

primary cause of death in 8 dogs that died from 3.6 to 12.3 years after exposure. Twenty-seven dogs that

died from bone tumors also had lung tumors. Lung tumors were primarily bronchoalveolar carcinomas

and papillary adenocarcinomas. Skeletal tumors were detected in 92 dogs; of this group, bone tumors

were the primary cause of death in 89 dogs that died from 3.1 to 13.2 years after exposure. These tumors

were primarily osteosarcomas that occurred in the axial skeleton and head of the humerus. Liver tumors

were detected in 19 dogs and caused the death of 2 dogs that died from 6.6 to 13.2 years after exposure. 

Thirteen of these dogs had a variety of malignant liver tumors and 6 had only benign liver tumors. Risk

factors estimated for these cancers were 2.8 lung cancers per 106

 dog-rad, 8.0 liver cancers per 106 dograd, and 6.2 bone cancers per 106

 dog-rad. 

Using a different isotope of Pu, Muggenburg et al. (1988) exposed 216 Beagle dogs to 239PuO2 aerosols. 

The 239PuO2 aerosols were monodisperse with AMADs of 0.75, 1.5, or 3.0 μm. After the inhalation was

completed, all animals were matched by age and sex (6 males and 4 females in each group). Group I dogs

had initial pulmonary burdens (IPBs) of 8.91–109.9 μCi (0.3–4 MBq) of 239PuO2/kg of body mass with a

mean of 42.9 μCi/kg (1.6 MBq/kg). Group II dogs had IPBs of 2.97–52.9 μCi (0.1–2 MBq) of 239PuO2/kg 
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of body mass with a mean of 15.9 μCi/kg (0.6 MBq/kg). The plutonium particles produced protracted

alpha irradiation of the lungs over the course of several years. The average alpha dose to the lungs to

2,600 days after exposure for the dogs in group I ranged from 230 to 3,200 rad and for the dogs in group

II, 80 to 1,570 rad. Five dogs died within 1 year of exposure. Lung carcinomas were observed in 3 dogs

(2 males and 1 female) from group I (2,900–3,200 rad) and in 1 dog (male) from group II (1,000 rad). 

These 3 dogs from group I had the highest doses and had many small, dense, parenchymal scars and small

foci of alveolar septal fibrosis scattered throughout the lungs. Alveolar epithelial hyperplasia was

associated with many of the fibrotic foci. Oral melanoma was found in one dog (male) from group II that

died (190 rad).The authors note that these findings indicate that alpha irradiation of the lungs of humans

could produce restrictive lung disease at long times after initial exposure. Other studies in dogs have

demonstrated that exposure to 239Pu can induce lung cancer (Boecker et al. 1988; Galvin et al. 1989).

In addition to Pu, other radionuclides have been shown to induce cancer in dogs. Hahn et al. (1977)

reported on a series of lifespan studies initiated to study the biological effects of beta emitters using

aerosols of insoluble fused-clay particles containing 90Y, 91Y, 144Ce, or 90Sr. AMADs ranged from 0.8 to

2.7 μm and the duration of exposure was 2–48 minutes. 90Y exposures resulted in a range of initial lung

burdens of 0 or 80–5,200 μCi/kg body weight; 91Y exposures resulted in a range of initial lung burdens of

0 or 11–360 μCi/kg; 144Ce exposures resulted in a range of initial lung burdens of 0 or

0.0024–210 μCi/kg; and 90Sr exposures resulted in a range of initial lung burdens of 0 or 3.7–94 μCi/kg. 

The approximate effective half-lives in the lungs of insoluble 90Y, 91Y, 144Ce, and 90Sr are 2.6, 50, 180, and

400 days, respectively. Dogs exposed to 144Ce or 90Sr generally had more active inflammation and

pulmonary fibrosis than dogs exposed to 90Y or 91Y, perhaps due to their longer average survival time

after inhalation exposure and the influence of the continuous irradiation. Primary malignant lung tumors

were found in 5 of the 91Y exposed dogs (cumulative lung doses to death of 16,000–25,000 rad), 9 of the

144Ce exposed dogs (22,000–61,000 rad), and 14 of the 90Sr exposed dogs (34,000–68,000 rad). Several

dogs died with primary hemangiosarcomas of the heart or mediastinum, and several died with primary

bone tumors or epithelial tumors associated with the nasal cavity. Exposure to 144Ce or 90Sr, with dose

rates that decreased slowly, induced pulmonary hemangiosarcomas. Pulmonary irradiation from 91Y, with

a rapidly decreasing dose rate, resulted in bronchoalveolar carcinomas. Benjamin et al. (1978) exposed

dogs to 144Ce in fused aluminosilicate particles with particle sizes ranging from 1.4 to 2.7 μm. Radiation

pneumonitis and pulmonary fibrosis were evident in 13 of 14 dogs that died. Additionally, there was one

bronchoalveolar-squamous carcinoma and four pulmonary hemangiosarcomas. The tumors observed 
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developed within a time period when the dogs showed severe lymphopenia and also were likely to have

immune suppression. These studies suggest that chronic pulmonary irradiation from internally deposited

radionuclides may have a dual effect in terms of combined carcinogenic and immunosuppressive effects.

Other species exposed to Pu isotopes show similar results. Brooks et al. (1992) exposed male monkeys

by nose-only inhalation to an aerosol of soluble 239Pu (NO3)4 to produce projected initial lung burdens of

either 1.08, 0.27, or 0.1 μCi (0.04, 0.01, or 0.004 MBq). Total skeletal plutonium activity was nearly

constant for the first year after exposure; however, the skeletal burden at sacrifice increased with time up

to 99 months after exposure to 1.08 μCi (0.04 MBq) because of transfer from other organs. 239Pu in the

liver peaked at 1 year and then decreased to about 10% of the peak value at 99 months postexposure. In

the testes, Pu was localized in the interstitial tissue with only 0.01–0.002% of the projected lung burden

remaining in the testes at 99 months after inhalation. Animals exposed to 1.08 μCi (0.04 MBq) died (3 of

the 8) of radiation-related pulmonary pneumonitis and fibrosis, and a primary papillary adenocarcinoma

of the lung was identified in one animal in that group. Of 2 animals exposed to 0.27 μCi (0.01 MBq),

1 developed fibrosis and 1 developed fibrosis and pneumonitis. Of those exposed to 1.08 μCi

(0.04 MBq), 6 developed pneumonitis, 9 developed fibrosis, 7 developed alveolar epithelial proliferation,

and 1 developed lung cancer. Overall, results of this study indicate that the lungs, the bone, and the liver

are the major sites of deposition following inhalation of soluble plutonium in monkeys. The primary

biological effects, pneumonitis and pulmonary fibrosis, were seen in monkeys with large initial plutonium

burdens. There was little indication of chromosome damage at levels of plutonium at which there were

no major histological changes in the lungs.

 Hahn et al. (1987) exposed 16 male Rhesus monkeys to particles laden with 239PuO2 via inhalation

(AMAD 1.6 μm). Initial lung burdens ranged from 0.0018 to 1.8 μCi (0.00007–0.07 MBq). A

pulmonary fibrosarcoma of bronchial origin was discovered in one monkey that died of pulmonary

fibrosis after 9 years (3,277 days) with a radiation dose to the lungs of 1,400 rad (14 Gy). The

fibrosarcoma proliferated around the major bronchus of the right cardiac lung lobe and extended into the

bronchial lumen and surrounding pulmonary parenchyma. The time-dose relationship for survival is

consistent with that of dogs and baboons that inhaled plutonium dioxide and died with lung tumors.

In addition to dogs and monkeys, induction of cancers in rats irradiated with different radionuclides has

also been studied. A lifespan study was conducted by Lundgren et al. (1981) in CFW random-bred male 
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mice for the toxicity of 90Y (AMAD 0.7–1.4 μm) inhaled in insoluble fused aluminosilicate particles. 

Groups of 25–393 mice were exposed to achieve initial lung burdens of 1–10, 11–20, 21–30, 31–40,

41–50, 51–60, and 61–140 μCi (0.04–0.4, 0.4–0.7, 0.8–1.1, 1.2–1.5, 1.5–1.8, 1.9–2.2, and 2.3–5.2 MBq). 

Exposures were 10–20 minutes. Control mice (n=763) were either unexposed, sham exposed, or exposed

to nonradioactive Y in fused aluminosilicate particles. At death, animals were necropsied and major

organs examined. Mean absorbed dose to the lungs to death were 1,100, 2,300, 3,800, 6,000, 7,200,

8,800, and 14,000 rad (11, 23, 38, 60, 72, 88, and 140 Gy) for initial lung burdens of 1–10, 11–20, 21–30,

31–40, 41–50, 51–60, and 61–140 μCi (0.04–0.4, 0.4–0.7, 0.8–1.1, 1.2–1.5, 1.5–1.8, 1.9–2.2, and 2.3–5.2

MBq), respectively. The cumulative survival rates of mice in groups with initial lung burdens up to 20

μCi (0.7 MBq) that produced lung doses as large as 2,300 rad (23 Gy) were not significantly different

from that of controls. Larger lung burdens caused lung doses >3,000 rad (30 Gy) and resulted in radiation

pneumonitis and a significant shortening of the lifespan (p<0.05). Median survival time ranged from 12%

to 2.1% of controls at initial lung burdens of more than 20 μCi, and median time of survival after

exposure ranged from 66 to 12 days for these dose levels. Radiation pneumonitis was observed in

75–100% of mice at these dose levels. The incidences of all lung tumors and other lesions in exposed

mice were similar to those of controls, except for pulmonary adenomas, which were found more

frequently in groups of mice with initial lung burdens of as large as 20 μCi (0.7 MBq). The early

occurring biological effects observed in mice in this study were similar to those observed in Beagle dogs

exposed to 90Y.

Hahn and Lundgren (1992) also studied lung cancers induced in rats by inhaled 144CeO2. Rats were

exposed once or repeatedly by inhaling 144CeO2 and observed over their natural lifespan. Three groups (a

total of 314 rats) were exposed once, briefly, to 144CeO2 to achieve lung burdens of 0.06, 0.32, 1.16, or

6.48 μCi (0.002, 0.01, 0.04, and 0.24 MBq). Another group of 201 rats was repeatedly exposed briefly

once every other month for 1 year (7 exposures) to initially establish and subsequently re-establish

desired lung burdens in groups of 18–38 males and 19–38 females of 0.35, 1.30, 5.67, or 32.4 μCi (0.01,

0.05, 0.2, and 1.2 MBq). There was significant life shortening only in those rats exposed repeatedly at the

highest radioactivity level (32.4 μCi, 1.2 MBq). In these rats, there was a high percentage of squamous

cell carcinomas of the lungs, as well as much lower percentages of adenocarcinomas of the lungs,

hemangiosarcomas of the lungs, and pleural mesotheliomas. At lower doses, adenocarcinomas were the 

predominant tumor, with alveolar, papillary, tubular, or undifferentiated adenocarcinomas most

commonly observed histologically. The lung neoplasms induced by this beta-emitting radionuclide are 
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similar in nature to those induced by alpha-emitting radionuclides deposited in the lung in rats. However,

the radiation-induced squamous cell carcinomas of the lungs differed from those induced by 

nonradioactive compounds.

Many other studies also confirm the formation of cancers of the respiratory tract in laboratory animals

(Benjamin et al. 1975, 1978, 1979; Boecker et al. 1988; Gillette et al. 1992; Hahn et al. 1976, 1980, 1988;

Lundgren et al. 1974, 1980a, 1983, 1991; McClellan et al. 1973).

Skin and bone cancer have been demonstrated after external exposure to radionuclides, particularly those

that are beta and gamma emitters. Ootsuyama and Tanooka (1989) exposed female mice to beta

irradiation from 40,000 μCi (1,500 MBq) of 90Sr and 90Y which delivered a surface dose rate of 228

rad/minute (2.28 Gy/min) and a 20–80% lower dose rate to the top of the vertebrae. Mice were irradiated

three times weekly at skin entrance doses per exposure of 135, 150, 250, 350, 470, and 1,180 rad (1.35,

1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4.7, and 11.8 Gy), respectively, and irradiation was continued until a palpable tumor

appeared (up to 86 weeks). Tumors that formed in the irradiated area were of skin and bone origin. Most

mice had either an osteosarcoma or a skin tumor, while some mice had both osteosarcomas and skin

tumors. Osteosarcomas were induced most frequently with skin surface doses of 250–350 rad (2.5–3.5

Gy) per exposure. These doses were 20–80% lower at the depth of the bone. The skin is incidentally

irradiated in the radiotherapy of deep tumors. Repetitive irradiation was essential, or at least more

effective, for induction of osteosarcomas, as well as for skin tumors, and the carcinogenic dose for

osteosarcoma was less than that for skin tumors. 

Hulse (1966) irradiated female mice with 204Tl and then allowed them to live out their natural life (unless

they were moribund or sacrifice was deemed necessary). Nominal doses ranged from 750 to 12,000 rad

(7.5–120 Gy). 204Tl beta particles have a low energy (mean 0.24 MeV) and a maximum range in soft

tissue of 3 mm. Doses to the dermis and epidermis were 69–72% and 40–70%, respectively, of the

epidermal entrance dose. Mice were irradiated on one or two zones. The single-zone exposure included

the middle of the trunk, and the two-zone exposure included the thorax (with proximal forelimbs) and

pelvis (with hindlimbs), with an intervening unirradiated gap of about 1 cm. In one group, two zones

were arranged to be immediately adjacent (thorax-midtrunk, midtrunk-pelvis) with the potential for slight

overlap due to the movement of the mice. The percentage of mice irradiated on one zone only and dying

with skin tumors was 7, 25, 42, and 57 for the 1,500-, 3,000-, 6,000-, and 12,000-rad (15, 30, 60, and 120 
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Gy) dose groups, respectively. In mice exposed to two separate zones, the percentage dying of skin

tumors was 3, 17, and 50 for the 750-, 1,500-, and 3,000-rad (7.5, 15, and 30 Gy) dose groups,

respectively. Mice that were irradiated on two adjacent zones received 1,500 rad (15 Gy) only. Twenty

percent of these mice died with skin tumors. A total of 133 tumors arose in tissues which were affected

by the irradiation, and 7 tumors arose in similar tissues outside the irradiated zones. There were 20

epidermal tumors: 2 benign and 18 squamous cell carcinomas, which were situated on the torso. There

were 96 dermal tumors; 77 of those were malignant and of those 74 were fibrosarcomas. Five

fibrosarcomas occurred beneath the irradiated skin and 12 breast tumors occurred. No tumors of the

epidermis or dermis were seen in the unirradiated control mice. The maximum incidence of dermal

tumors in all dose groups occurred during the third year after irradiation. Increasing the number of

irradiated zones from one to two zones, which doubled the exposed skin area, essentially doubled the

animal’s chance of dying from skin cancer.

In summary, cancer is the major latent biological effect in several studies identified in this profile after

inhalation, ingestion, or external exposure. Reports of cancer induction after ingestion and the more

unconventional exposure routes are numerous (Evans et al. 1966; Martland 1931; Raabe 1994; Rowland

et al. 1978; Speiss and Mays 1970). Excess cancer has been reported in humans after exposure to varying

amounts of radiation during the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic blasts (Shimizu et al. 1988), which has

provided risk assessors a unique data set to determine the short- and long-term biological effects of

radiation in humans. Several other studies that monitored cancer death rates from radiation exposure in

humans were also located (Checkoway et al. 1988; Kneale et al. 1981; Sorahan and Roberts 1993). 

Reports of humans receiving an acute inhalation, oral, dermal, or external dose of radiation under

controlled conditions were not identified in the open literature. Levels of Significant Exposure to

Radiation and Radioactive Material tables that describe Cancer Effect Levels (CELs) from exposure to

radiation in humans and laboratory animals are provided in Chapter 8 of this profile.

Many laboratory animal inhalation exposure studies were identified that described increased incidences of

cancer developing in a variety of species after exposure to alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Many of

these studies were selected for discussion in this profile because they were lifespan studies, concentrating

on the effects of alpha (238Pu, 239Pu) and beta (90Sr, 144Ce, 91Y, 137Cs) emitters. The main animal model, the

Beagle dog, has lungs that are similar anatomically, physiologically, and morphologically to human

lungs, making them an ideal lung model to study the potential effects of inhaled nuclides in humans. The

nasopharageal structure of the Beagle is significantly different from a human’s; therefore, comparisons of

nasal tissue and bone cancers between the species are not practical at this time. These studies provide
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valuable data on the long-term toxicity of many radionuclides that would be likely to be inhaled in

soluble and insoluble forms during a nuclear fallout or an acute exposure event, as well as low-level

radionuclide exposure from fallout and natural in the atmosphere. Biennial reports of these lifespan

studies that summarize the most recent findings from these laboratory animal studies are available.

These animal studies, especially the Beagle dog studies, clearly demonstrate that the inhalation of very

large amounts of radionuclides in soluble or insoluble forms, which results in very high absorbed doses to

the lungs, has the potential to produce lung cancer and to induce cancers in other organs. These cancers

are the same cancers that would normally appear with a lower frequency in an unexposed animal

population. After exposure(s) to one or to a combination of radionuclides, the incidence of these naturally

occurring cancers tend to increase, though the latent periods do not change. This observation was

demonstrated by the studies performed by many investigators in which 238PuO2 and 239PuO2 exposed dogs

had increases in lung, skeletal and liver tumors after exposures to varying doses of these nuclides

(Boecker et al. 1988; Brooks et al. 1992; Gillett et al. 1985; Hahn et al. 1987, 1981; Muggenburg et al.

1994). This trend, also noted with the cancers that were produced in those individuals exposed to external

sources of ionizing radiation after the atomic blasts in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, in August 1945, is

discussed in more detail below (Shimizu et al. 1988).

The sites where these cancers occurred in exposed laboratory animals depended largely on (1) the dose,

which depends on the quantity of radioactive material, (2) the physical properties of the particle (or

vapor) they were incorporated into, (3) the solubility of the particle, (4) the particle size, and (5) the

radiological and biological properties of the material. For example, for dogs exposed to insoluble

aerosols of 238Pu (1.5 and 3.0 μm), it may be reasonably surmised that these animals would develop lung

tumors based on the physical half-life of the radionuclide, the insoluble nature of the particle, the small

particle size (long retention times), the dose, and the tissues at risk of receiving large doses of radiation

within a short distance of the particle retention site. Lung tumors did in fact develop in these animals at

an increased incidence rate many years after the initial exposure. Liver and bone tumors also developed

in conjunction with some of these lung tumors. Over a period of time, the particles slowly dissolved and

the 239Pu was transferred to the hepatic and skeletal tissues, subsequently irradiating other susceptible

tissues and inducing cancers of the liver and osteosarcomas of the bone (Muggenburg et al. 1994). 

Metastasis also is a factor in the appearance of cancer in some organs.
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External exposure has also been found to induce cancers in both humans and laboratory animals. A few

human studies that involved external exposures to radiation and resulted in cancer were identified, but the

best study available to date is the Life Span Study (LSS) currently being conducted by the Radiation

Effects Research Foundation (RERF) with the survivors of the atomic bombings of Japan in 1945. A

large database is available from the persons exposed to radiation from the atomic bombing of Hiroshima

and Nagasaki. According to DS86 doses, the major type of radiation was gamma emissions, with lesser

amounts of neutron radiation than originally anticipated using T65D dosimetry assumptions; the estimates

of doses to these individuals are still being refined today. Exposures are considered to be mostly from

external radiation, with much smaller amounts of internal radiation from inhalation and oral exposure

routes, due to relatively little fallout from those atomic blasts. In Nagasaki, however, survivors were

exposed to the “Black Rain,” which is fallout radioactivity mixed in a rain shower. Many of these

individuals received high doses to their unprotected skin and even to skin under water-saturated clothing

due to the high-activity, beta and gamma-emitting fission products. This ongoing epidemiologic study

provides an excellent source of data for use in studying the delayed effects of radiation in humans.

As with cancers induced after inhalation of radioactive material by laboratory animals, cancers in humans

or animals exposed to external radiation do not appear immediately after the initial exposure. In the

Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombing survivors, and in the dog studies discussed above, there was no

dose-dependent shortening of the latent periods for cancer induction, except possibly for those individuals

exposed to radiation within the first 10 years of life (which was dose-dependent). This observation may

reflect a higher sensitivity to the effects of radiation in very young humans. Cancers were also of the type

that are normally found in unexposed individuals, but they occurred with some increasing frequency. 

These cancers occur only when those individuals reach an age when these cancers normally would be

expected to develop (except for leukemia). For example, a female #10 years of age who was exposed to

external gamma radiation from the atomic blast and survived the acute effects of the initial radiation

exposure would have an increased probability of developing (and dying from) breast cancer as a result of

the latent radiation effects, but not before she reached the age at which the majority of unexposed women

would be expected to start developing this specific cancer. The same would be true for the other types of

cancers as well, except for leukemias. Deaths due to leukemia did exhibit a minimum latent period

(2–3 years). The incidence of the cancer increased to a peak at 6–8 years after exposure and the incidence 

declined after that. A slightly significant increase in deaths due to leukemia existed at least through 1980 
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(the cut-off date for much of the DS86 dosimetry system data), some 35 years after the initial exposure;

this increase was independent of the age at which the initial exposure had occurred.

In another report by Upton (1991) and in the report by Shimizu et al. (1988), the same cohort was

reported to show linear dose-mortality relationship responses for cancers (other than leukemia) ranging

from 40 to 300 rad (0.4–3 Gy). In the most recent report on this cohort, solid cancer excess deaths

increased greatly in the last 5-year study period, 1986–1990; for those exposed as children, 50% of the

excess deaths occurred during this period (Pierce et al. 1996). For all cancers, most of the excess deaths

were due to leukemia and most leukemias occurred in the 15 years following exposure. Though excess

relative risk for those exposed as children declined over the recent years, the excess absolute risk

increased rapidly and excess absolute risk is seen to be an important measure of radiation’s population

impact. Solid cancer excess lifetime risk per sievert was estimated at 0.10 for males (10 cancers per 100

people) and 0.14 for females, and still shows a linearity up to about 3 Sv (Pierce et al. 1996). However,

leukemia showed nonlinearity of risks: risk at 0.1 Sv was 1/20 of the risk at 1 Sv. 

Cancer mortality due to ionizing radiation has been evaluated extensively (BEIR V 1990; Shimizu et al.

1988; Upton 1991). In summary, for the Japanese atomic bomb survivors, the relative risk for the whole

exposed population (all ages and both sexes) for malignant neoplasms (including leukemia) for the years

1950–1985 has been estimated to be 1.39 (range 1.32–1.46) per 100 rad (1 Gy), corresponding to an

absolute risk of 13.1 (10.1–15.9) excess deaths per million person rad (104

 person-Gy)/year. When

leukemia is excluded from the previous estimates, the relative risk for the whole exposed population (all

ages and both sexes) for solid cancers is estimated to be 0.41 (0.32–0.51) per 100 rad (per Gy) organabsorbed dose, corresponding to a lower absolute risk of 10.13 excess cancer deaths per million person

rad (104

 person-Gy)/year organ-absorbed dose. When total cancer mortality (including leukemia) is

reexamined on the basis of sex, sex ratios of radiation-induced cancers at specific sites are not

significantly different from those of the unexposed general population. The relative risk for some

epithelial tumors tends to be somewhat higher in females than in males (Upton 1991). Finally, when the

data are re-examined as to cancer mortality and age at exposure, the current data suggest that the lifetime

risk of developing radiation-induced cancer is substantially lower in those persons exposed during their

adult years than in those exposed during childhood or adolescence, a conclusion supported by BEIR V

(1990). Several types of 
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cancer were observed with increased frequencies in this exposed population and are summarized in 

Table 3-8.

CELs from exposure to ionizing radiation in humans and laboratory animals are summarized in the Levels

of Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material tables in Chapter 8 of this profile.

3.3 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA NEEDS

The database appears to have a sufficient volume of information for regulators to allow workers to work

safely with radiation sources. This is verified by the fact that the nuclear power industry has the best

overall safety record of all industries. This good safety record, with a Standardized Mortality Ratio

(SMR) of less than 100 is usually attributed to the “Healthy Worker Effect.” However, for scientific

reasons, the following have been identified as potential data needs regarding health effects that may be

associated with exposure to ionizing radiation:

• Since somatic and reproductive cell chromosomes are radiosensitive tissues that can sustain

damage after exposure to ionizing radiation, damage to the chromosomes and the genes on them

in exposed populations has potentially serious implications. Better methods are needed by

which to estimate the levels of exposure to ionizing radiation that may result in an increased risk

of hereditary disease.

• Important gaps in knowledge should be filled to permit more reliable estimation of genetic and

hereditary risks. In some cases this might include collection of new data that could remove or

refine assumptions needed in the direct and indirect (doubling-dose) methods of hereditary risk

estimation. In other cases, gaps in knowledge could be filled by the reevaluation of the masses

of data collected in the past (for example, specific-locus experiments) in the light of new

understandings about hereditary risk. In addition, information gathered as part of the Human

Genome Project may lead to improvements in the existing methods or to entirely new methods

of estimating hereditary risk.

• The largest group of workers that receive elevated doses of ionizing radiation are airline air

crews. Assuming a dose of 1 mrem/hr (0.01 mSv/hr) and 72–100 hours/month airtime for 11

months, this leads to an approximate dose of 800–1,100 mrem/year (8–11 mSv/year), about

twice the annual dose of an average nuclear power plant worker. There is a need to determine

whether or not this long-term, continuing, low-level radiation dose rate leads to harmful effects.
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• The mechanisms by which cancer is induced in living cells are complex and an area under

intense study. More research is required to better understand the mechanisms by which cancer is

induced after exposure to chemical carcinogens and to ionizing radiation. This would include

the identification of unique biomarkers and biochemical pathways at the cellular and tissue level,

and the study of radiological and chemical mixtures.

• Regarding radon exposure, several studies involving underground-miner surveys need to be 

completed and the data analyzed for the interaction between radon and smoking. These studies

should also provide more information on radon dosimetry and narrow some uncertainties in

applying the lung-cancer risk data derived from the miner data sets to estimation of risk of radon

exposure in the general population.

• Epidemiological studies need to continue in order to more firmly describe the risks of lung

cancer in underground miners and the risks of indoor home radon exposure to those potentially

exposed to radon and radon progeny. In addition, adding a thoron (220Rn- and 220Rn- plus decay

products) study to the radon studies would be of benefit, because thoron is hard to get into the

home. If it does, the decay products are long-lived; there are limited data on in-home thoron and

thoron decay product levels.

• Further modeling of the indoor air environment is needed to assess potential health

consequences of indoor radon exposure.

• The role of 210Po in tobacco smoke and lung cancer should continue to be evaluated; this 

includes bronchial and lung dosimetry, identification and characterization of target cells, and the

role of cofactors in the carcinogenic response.

• The deterministic acute and delayed health effects from 210Po, particularly those affecting the

renal, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems, should continue to be investigated.

• More quantitative information regarding the 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra human exposures is needed

to more adequately evaluate the magnitude of some dosimetric uncertainties and what impact these

uncertainties have on quantitative risk estimation.

• The bone cancer information from all of the human 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra exposures should be 

integrated and more adequately analyzed.
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• Research should continue on identifying the cells at risk after exposure to radium. This should 

include cell behavior over time, changes in cell behavior, location of cells in relation to the

microenvironment of the radiation field, responses of the cell to the radiation, and the time

course and distribution of radioactivity in the bone.

• The dosimetry of the mastoids should be examined in order to calculate the risk per unit of 

epithelial tissue and per unit of cell dose.

• Data should be obtained from the five major epidemiological studies of Thorotrast-exposed

patients and the data analyzed to develop risk models for liver and other cancers.

• The dosimetry of the thorium isotopes at the cellular level in target organs should be closely 

examined.

• The mechanism of uranium deposition and redistribution in bone should be further investigated

in order to more accurately define the potential carcinogenic effect of natural uranium based on

results obtained from enriched uranium or other alpha particle emitters.

• The current epidemiological studies of worker populations exposed to transuranic elements

should be continued.

• The current lifespan studies with dogs should be completed and the results reported.

• The current lifespan studies of the Japanese atomic bomb survivors should be continued and the 

results reported regularly every 5 years.

• Studies should continue regarding the genetic effects of low-level exposure to ionizing radiation,

particularly in the second generation offspring of the Japanese atomic bomb survivors. Better

methods for extrapolating data from animal studies for applications in human genetic risk

assessment are also needed.

• It would be useful to have some information on induced dominant damage in female mice for

use in the direct method of hereditary risk estimation, as none has been known to have been

collected. Presently the application of the direct method to females assumes that the relative

risks of the sexes are the same for serious dominant mutations as they are for specific-locus

mutations, which are recessives.
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3. SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

• Efforts to assess the carcinogenic risks of exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation, for both

single dose and protracted and fractioned doses, should continue.

• The carcinogenicity of neutron radiation exposure in human populations should continue to be 

examined. Similarly, the mutagenicity of low doses of neutron radiation should continued to be

investigated in order to more comfortably predict the potential genetic risks observed in

laboratory animals and extrapolate those findings to human populations.

3.4 CONCLUSIONS

This chapter has provided an overview of the health effects related to ionizing radiation exposure in

humans and laboratory animals. These effects can be both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic in nature. 

Non-carcinogenic effects primarily result in immediate effects, mainly to organs with rapidly dividing

cells, which include the hematopoietic system, gastrointestinal tract, and skin, or delayed effects such as

cataracts and embryo/fetal development problems. Carcinogenic effects also may occur in any number of

organ systems. This end point may not be expressed for several years after the initial exposure. The

dose-response relationships for these effects are known from the massive amount of data from studies on

both humans and animals. Epidemiology studies are not likely to provide significant refinement of

radiation risk estimates. The most fruitful approach to further understanding risk from exposure to

ionizing radiation is through molecular studies, including the identification of unique biomarkers and

pathogenic pathways at the cellular and tissue levels.
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Radiation accidents may be viewed as unusual exposure events which provide possible high exposures to

a few people and, in the case of nuclear plant events, low exposures to large populations. A number of

radiation accidents have occurred over the past 50 years involving radiation producing machines, radioactive materials, and uncontrolled nuclear reactors. These accidents have resulted in a number of people

being exposed to a range of internal and external radiation doses, and those involving radioactive

materials have involved multiple routes of exposure. Some of the more important accidents involving

significant radiation doses or releases of radioactive material, including any known health effects, are

discussed below. It is important to carefully and critically assess each individual accident in order to

identify the causes and then to implement indicated corrective measures that will prevent a recurrence. 

An analysis of the common characteristics of accidents is useful in resolving overarching issues, as has

been done following nuclear power, industrial radiography, and medical accidents. Success in avoiding

accidents and responding when they do occur requires planning in order to have adequately trained and

prepared health physics organization; well-defined dose limits and action levels; a well-developed

instrument program; close cooperation among radiation protection, experts, local and state authorities,

and emergency responders; and solid communication among response groups, the medical community,

the media, and the public (Morgan and Turner 1973). Focus is given to the successful avoidance of

accidents and the response in the event they do occur. Examples of some accidents are discussed below.

4.1 PALOMARES, SPAIN

From the 1950s through the late 1960s, the Strategic Air Command (SAC) conducted Operation Chrome

Dome which, in the interest of national defense, required the Air Force to fly aircraft carrying nuclear

weapons around the world 24 hours a day. On January 16, 1966, two B-52 airplanes, each carrying four

thermonuclear weapons containing 239Pu, flew to the southern fringes of the former Soviet Union. On

their return trip to the United States, one collided in mid-air with a KC-135 tanker aircraft during a

refueling operation over Spain. After fire erupted on the planes, the B-52 broke apart and scattered all

four nuclear weapons. The weapons were dispersed over Palomares, a town located in a remote area of

Spain. Two weapons landed without incident, one in the water and the other on the beach near

Palomares, and both were recovered. The third weapon landed in low mountains west of the town, and

the fourth landed on agricultural land to the east. The high explosives in these last two weapons 
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

detonated and burned, causing some of the plutonium inside to also burn and spread plutonium

contamination throughout the area. There were chemical but no nuclear explosions (Civil Defense

Technology Workshop 1995).

Partial chemical burning of the fissile material from the two bombs that had been blown apart by their

high explosive charges resulted in a cloud formation which was dispersed by a 35-mph wind. 

Approximately 2.25 km2

 of farmland was contaminated with plutonium at levels of 50–500 μg/m2

(3–32 μCi/m2), and low levels of plutonium were detectable for a distance of 2 miles. Initially, 630 acres

of land were reported to be contaminated; however, an additional 20 acres were subsequently classified as

contaminated due to resuspension by the wind. The primary form of income for the citizens of Palomares

was their tomato crop. The U.S. government purchased the tomato crop for a total of $250,000. These

mildly contaminated tomatoes were washed free of contamination and were considered safe to eat. Crops

in highly contaminated fields where levels exceeded 5 μg/m2 (0.3 μCi/m2

) were dug up and burned in

open-pit fires, which further spread the contamination. 

An agreement between the United States and Spain called for removing the top 10 cm (4 inches) of soil in

areas contaminated with more than 32 μCi/m2

 (500 μg/m2). This resulted in the removal of 1,100 m3 of

soil. The decontamination procedure required 747 people and 8 weeks of labor and resulted in the filling

of 4,879 metal 55-gallon drums with contaminated soil. Soil with surface contamination levels between

approximately 5 and 500 μg/m2

 was mixed with petroleum oil, plowed under to a depth of 8 inches, and

then covered over with another layer of top soil. Following this decontamination, the concentration of

activity in surface soil averaged 1 μg/g, with a maximum of 40 μg/g. The plutonium concentration in

plants ranged from uncontaminated to 30 times the ambient level in Spain. The Air Force contracted 140

trucks to move 3,400 truck loads of replacement soil from a dry river bed. These actions essentially

destroyed all of the indigenous population’s crop lands. All soil levels greater than 462 μg/m2

, together

with other contaminated materials, were transferred to the United States for burial. All but two of the

barrels were shipped to the Savannah Naval Storage Facility in Aiken, South Carolina. The other two

barrels were sent to Los Alamos National Laboratories in New Mexico, where they are still being

monitored and tested (Civil Defense Technology Workshop 1995; Shapiro 1990; UNSCEAR 1993). No

plutonium was found in the 100 residents of Palomares who were the most likely to have been exposed. 

The potential dose to the lungs, bone surface, and bone marrow of the local residents has been estimated

to be much less than the ICRP recommended limits (Iranzo et al. 1987). Follow-up studies on this group 
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of exposed individuals are not likely to provide useful information on the long-term effects of plutonium

exposure in humans.

The Spanish government, concerned about public perception and panic, prohibited the U.S. Air Force

cleanup crews from wearing anti-contamination suits or full face masks. Only uniforms, hats, and

surgical gloves with tape over the openings between gloves and clothing were permitted. This resulted in

internal contamination of some service members, who were monitored by urinalysis for plutonium

content. Data indicate that a small number registered readily measurable levels, and some of those levels

decreased to below detection limits in a few months. Long-term monitoring of the others was eventually

discontinued. Counter to U.S. recommendations, civilians were not restricted in their movements in or

around the area. In the hilly, rocky area surrounding the impact site of the fourth weapon, it proved

impossible to reach the initial cleanup standards set by the Spanish Government, so the limits for this area

were adjusted to meet the conditions, with the agreement that the area would not be used for agriculture. 

Where the soil could not be removed, the workers soaked it with water to force the contamination into the

soil. This area has never been restricted by local authorities, and, although the local population was

warned that the area was contaminated, Spanish citizens eventually began to farm some of this land (Civil

Defense Technology Workshop 1995). Six years after the incident, follow-up studies found that there

was little change in the community and in exposed persons (Shapiro 1990). Of the 714 people examined

through 1988, 124 had urine concentrations of plutonium greater than the minimum detection limits

(MDLs). 

4.2. GOIANIA, BRAZIL

On September 13, 1987, two scavengers found an abandoned teletherapy device in an abandoned medical

clinic in Goiania, Brazil. The machine contained a radioactive 137Cs source with an activity of 1,375 Ci

(50.9 TBq) in the form of powdered and soluble 137CsCl. After removing the source from its shield, they

took it home and, in a crude attempt to break it apart, managed to rupture the source and spread pieces

about the property. Both became ill within hours. Either 1 or 5 days later, according to various versions

of the story, the device became the property of a junk dealer. This dealer noticed a luminescence

emanating from the unit and used tools to cut the unit apart to gain access to the material inside. The

rupture allowed the 137CsCl powder to disperse easily and be further distributed by wind suspension and

rainwater runoff. Several land areas and 129 people were significantly contaminated, resulting in four

deaths and one forearm amputation (Amaral et al. 1991; Rosenthal et al. 1991).
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Initial External Response. On September 29, 1987, the Secretary of Health for the State of Goiania

allowed a local physicist to notify the Department of Nuclear Installations (DNI) which, in turn, notified

the National Nuclear Energy Commission (CNEN) in Rio de Janeiro. The Director of DNI and

technicians from the Institute of Nuclear Energy research (IPEN) left that day and arrived in Goiania the

next morning (Moreira 1991). The abandoned hospital was searched first, but there was no source of

contamination. Next, the houses of presumably contaminated patients were checked and contamination

was found. A detailed search found 7 highly contaminated areas that included 2 houses, 4 lots, and the

Public Hygiene Control Unit. Part of the original source was found at this unit. Testing showed

maximum radiation readings of 1,000 rem/hr (10 Sv/hr) on contact and 40 rem/hr (0.4 Sv/hr) at 1 meter. 

The source was shielded with concrete for personnel protection. That night the Goiania task force

developed its site action plan. 

Initial Patient Management. The accident primarily exposed or contaminated about 80 people, who

were all related, and an additional 170 were later contaminated to much lower levels. Initially, 11

individuals who had handled the source and who were the most highly contaminated were taken to the

Hospital of Tropical Diseases or to the Santa Maria Hospital. The most highly contaminated of these

were then transported to the Marcilio Dias Naval Hospital in Rio de Janeiro. People from the primary

contamination zones were assessed and, based on clinical findings, sent to Goiania Hospital, FEBEM, or

the House of the Good Shepherd. Twenty-two people who were evacuated from contaminated homes

were taken to Olympic Stadium, and others who were in the vicinity were encouraged to go there. In a

prioritized manner, the contaminated victims were provided with medical care, clean clothing,

nourishment and orientation, and contamination monitoring; the public was informed. Because of

exaggerated claims of water contamination by the press, an additional 112,000 unaffected individuals

went to Olympic Stadium for monitoring. A total of 249 were found to be contaminated. About half had

shoe and clothing contamination, that could have been picked up from walking in the stadium. Of the

other 129, who were both internally and externally contaminated, 21 required intense medical treatment. 

Ten of these were seriously compromised, four died, and one required forearm amputation (BrandaoMello et al. 1991; Oliveira et al. 1991a, 1991b).
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Contamination Spread. The 137Cs contamination was spread by social contacts, the sale of

contaminated material, the movement of pieces of the source, and wind and rain dispersal (Amaral et al.

1991; Becker et al. 1991; da Silva et al. 1991; Godoy et al. 1991). Contamination was found on 7 major

properties; in 42 residences, including 22 homes of family and friends who were evacuated and 20 others

where radiation levels ranged from 0.1 to 1 rem/hr (1–10 mSv/hr); and on 68 of the more than 10 million

currency bills tested. The population was internally exposed by inhalation and the ingestion of fruits and

vegetables, and externally exposed to the penetrating 137Cs gamma radiation, but the drinking water

supply was found to be clean.

Contaminated materials in the environment were removed from the various sites and loaded into

containers, with liquids being immobilized in concrete. Decontamination limits for solids were set by the

national standard. Anything contaminated below 74 kBq/kg was considered to be clean and unaffected

by the accident. Contamination level was characterized by the contact radiation level, with values of 0.2

and 2 rem/hr (2 and 20 mSv/hr) being the respective limits for low- and medium-level contamination. An

estimated 1,200 Ci (44 TBq) of 137Cs was recaptured during the decontamination effort, which left the

area with no significant residual hazard (Rosenthal et al. 1991).

The type of media coverage of this accident caused a psychological impact on a community with recent

memories of the Chernobyl reactor accident in the former Soviet Union. The situation improved when

the news media refocused their efforts toward balanced reporting and public education.

4.3 THULE, GREENLAND

In January 1968, a U.S. Air Force plane experienced an on-board fire and subsequently crashed while

attempting an emergency landing near Thule, Greenland. The plane was carrying four unarmed

1.1-megaton nuclear weapons; although the nuclear weapons did not detonate, the conventional

explosives of the weapons exploded on impact, depositing an inventory of 1 TBq (27 Ci) combined 239Pu

and 240Pu, 0.02 TBq (0.54 Ci) 238Pu, and 0.1 TBq (0.27 Ci) 241Am; igniting fuel; and creating an intense

fire that burned for almost 4 hours. The force of the crash and explosions resulted in the spread of

plutonium-laden debris over an area approximately 100 m by 700 m. The burning plutonium was

converted mainly into insoluble oxides and dispersed as fine particles. Measurements of 239Pu and 240Pu 
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indicated that the radionuclides preferentially deposited in the fine-grained bottom sediments covering the

basins in the vicinity of the crash site. Follow-up investigations found that plutonium levels in bivalves

and crustacea to be increased by a factor of 10–1,000 over pre-accident levels (Aarkrog 1971, 1994;

Handler 1992; Shapiro 1990; Smith et al. 1994).

The cleanup effort, called project Crested Ice, lasted 8 months and resulted in the shipping of almost

240,000 tons of contaminated ice and snow to the United States. About 99% of the plutonium was

contained in the blackened ice at the crash site; this was recovered by road graders and mechanized

loaders scraping away the affected ice. A total of sixty-seven 25,000-gallon fuel tanks were filled with

debris and four additional containers were used for storing contaminated recovery equipment and gear. 

The materials were shipped to the United States for disposal. Although low-level contamination was

detected on land close to the crash site, it is believed that minimal amounts of plutonium escaped from the

crash site. No significant radionuclide exposure and no long-term effects to neighboring populations

were expected (Handler 1992; Shapiro 1990).

4.4 ROCKY FLATS, COLORADO

The Rocky Flats Nuclear Weapons Plant, located approximately 15 miles from Denver, Colorado,

occupies approximately 2 square miles of federally owned land. Approximately 2.2 million people from

the 8-county Denver metropolitan area live within a 52-mile radius of the facility. As of December 1995,

there were approximately 4,700 employees at the Rocky Flats facility. Since beginning operations in

1953, the plant has been a major processor of plutonium. During the Cold War, Rocky Flats was

responsible for the fabrication of the hollow plutonium sphere, or "pit," that serves as nuclear fuel for

nuclear warheads. Rocky Flats also was responsible for recycling plutonium retrieved from retired

nuclear warheads. A high-tech machine shop produced other weapons parts from stainless steel,

beryllium, depleted uranium, and other metals.

Due to its proximity to an urban area (Denver, Colorado) and because its property boundaries border two

creeks feeding public waters, there is a potential for public exposure to radioactive material following an

accident at this plant. Several significant incidents have occurred at this plant: two fires in 1957 and 1969

and leakage of plutonium-contaminated cutting oils from storage drums (Rocky Flats Citizens Advisory

Board 1995; Shapiro 1990).
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

Probably no individual location at the Rocky Flats site has achieved more attention than the site known as

the 903 Pad. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Rocky Flats stored barrels at this location which were

filled with plutonium-contaminated oil left over from the pit manufacturing operations. Over time, many

of the oil barrels had corroded, allowing the contaminated oil to spill out onto the ground. The leakage

was first detected in 1964, and efforts to prevent the spread of leakage were initiated the same year. 

Managers at the site attempted to solve the problem by removing all of the barrels and cleaning up the

storage area. However, the cleanup effort resulted in the disturbance of the contaminated soil, and the

radioactive dust was picked up and spread further by the high winds that are common at Rocky Flats. 

The Health Advisory Panel overseeing the Dose Reconstruction Project for the Colorado Department of

Public Health and Environment lists the 903 Pad as one of the major contributors to off-site

contamination from Rocky Flats (Rocky Flats Citizens Advisory Board 1995; Shapiro 1990). 

The first of two major fires at the Rocky Flats facility occurred on the evening of September 11, 1957,

when some of the plutonium on the glove box line spontaneously ignited. Although the area was

designed to be fireproof, it was soon engulfed in flames. Firemen switched on ventilating fans, which

ultimately spread the flames to contact more plutonium. Attempts to quench the fire with carbon dioxide

also failed. Meanwhile, the filters designed to trap plutonium escaping up the stacks caught fire. The

shift captain and other observers reported a billowing black cloud pouring some 80–160 feet into the air

above the 150-foot-high stack. When the carbon dioxide gas failed to extinguish the fire, the firefighters

began pouring water into the blaze. The fire was extinguished roughly 13 hours after it began. Some

14–20 kg of plutonium were estimated to have burned in the fire, not including plutonium liberated from

the burning filters. In addition, the water used to extinguish the fire became contaminated with

radioactive material, and approximately 30,000 gallons of it escaped unfiltered, spreading contamination

into local streams and into the water table. Although some of the buildings were heavily contaminated,

plutonium pit production was back under way within a few days (Wasserman et al. 1982).

The fire in 1969 also started with the spontaneous ignition of plutonium metal. Several kilograms of

plutonium burned and the resulting smoke plume spread to surrounding areas. Soil samples collected

from 15 locations ranged from background levels of 20 pCi/kg (0.7 Bq/kg) of material to 6,000 pCi/kg

(220 Bq/kg) in the top centimeter; 7 water samples ranged from 0.001 to 0.2 pCi/L (10-5 to 10-2 Bq/L. 

Another study in 1970 of soil samples to a depth of 20 cm found levels up to 2 Ci/km2

 (70,000 MBq/km2)

at sites adjacent to the property boundaries (Shapiro 1990).
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

Figure 4-1. Schematic of Three Mile Island Unit 2 

Nuclear Reactor (adapted from PSU 1999)

Johnson (1981) examined the relation between cancer rates and plutonium exposures using cancer

diagnosis data for 1969–1971 and plutonium exposures estimated from an analysis of soil samples

collected near Rocky Flats in 1970. Johnson claimed to have found increases in many cancer types for

persons in exposed areas, as compared with those for unexposed areas. However, a feasibility study for

an epidemiologic study of persons who lived near the plant concluded that exposures were not high

enough to be evaluated statistically (Dreyer et al. 1982). Cobb et al. (1982) compared plutonium

concentrations in autopsy samples from persons who lived near Rocky Flats with those who lived far

from the plant. A weak relation between plutonium concentrations in autopsy samples and distance from

Rocky Flats was detected; however, these authors did not believe that the elevated concentrations could

be conclusively linked to emissions from Rocky Flats. Crump et al. (1987) re-evaluated cancer diagnosis

data for 1969–1971 and for 1979–1981 using the study designed by Johnson (1981). For both study

periods, the authors found no increase in cancer rates for combined cancers, for radiation-sensitive

cancers, or for cancers of the respiratory system in those living within 10 miles of Rocky Flats. A

National Cancer Institute (NCI) study of cancer incidence and mortality around nuclear facilities in the

United States found slight elevations for some cancers in some age groups among those living near the

Rocky Flats facility; however, the study should be interpreted with caution because county-by-county

cancer mortality data were used and because of limited information on potential confounding factors

(Jablon et al. 1990), and because it appears that plutonium exposures were not detectable.

4.5 THREE MILE ISLAND, PENNSYLVANIA

On March 28, 1979, an accident occurred at the unit 2

civilian nuclear power reactor at Three Mile Island

(TMI). Figure 4-1 is a simplified diagram of the TMI

pressurized water nuclear reactor design. Under

normal operating conditions, the control rods are

withdrawn from the reactor core to produce power,

and water from the principal source (#1) circulates

through the core and a primary heat exchange loop.

A secondary water source (#2) is in standby. To

prevent a major accident, it is imperative that the

reactor core be submerged in water at all times. Although the water should never be allowed to boil inside
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

the pressure vessel, a pressure safety relief valve exists to release steam to an alternate collection location in

the event of inadvertent boiling; during normal operation, this valve is closed. During shutdown, there is no

chain reaction, but the cooling water continues to circulate through the core to remove the heat generated by

the decay of the radioactive fission products in the fuel rods.

In the TMI incident, water from supply #1, which returns condensed steam from the steam generators,

was interrupted because the feed water pumps that pumped water from the reactor to the reactor’s steam

generators stopped. The loss of water flow resulted in a loss of cooling of the reactor core. The operators

immediately switched on the emergency feedwater pumps. However, the water did not enter into the

cooling loop because the valve was accidentally left closed the previous day following a scheduled

maintenance activity (the reactor operators didn't realize this). Emergency water injection pumps started

automatically, but an operator misinterpreted the gauge readings and reduced the flow. The water

overheated and steam bubbles began forming. The operators responded improperly, draining water out of

the system, exacerbating the coolant problems. The fuel heated up and partially melted, releasing

radioactive material into the remaining coolant, which continued flowing out of the reactor through the

relief valve and onto the containment room floor (Eisenbud 1987; PSU 1999; Shapiro 1990).

The cleanup is still in progress at a cost that has already exceeded 1 billion dollars. The high cost is not

only due to the cleanup itself, but to the research into the materials and their behavior during the accident. 

This has made the cleanup a huge research project. However, very little radioactivity was released to the

environment. The main contaminants reaching the environment were 133Xe and 131I, with total releases of

approximately 370 PBq (10 MCi) and 550 GBq (14.85 Ci), respectively. The actual quantity of 131I

released was much smaller than the overconservative models of the time projected. Subsequent research

confirmed previous scientific studies which showed that hot iodine is very reactive; during the accident,

much of the iodine plated out on the concrete and structural metal components inside the containment

dome, greatly limiting the quantity released. The average dose to the general public within 80 km was

estimated to be 0.0015 rem (0.000015 Sv), and the highest dose was estimated to be 0.085 rem

(0.00085 Sv), mainly in the form of external gamma radiation. In contrast, the average annual radiation

dose from natural radiation is approximately 0.3 rem (0.003 Sv), of which 0.036 rem (0.00036 Sv) is from

radioactive material naturally inside the human body (PSU 1999; UNSCEAR 1993). No radiation effects

have been reported among the surrounding population because population exposures were small relative

to normal background radiation. Psychological effects have been documented at TMI. One cause was the

very large 131I release estimates that were projected using models known to be overconservative, and 
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

Figure 4-2. Aerial View of the Damaged Chernobyl Reactor Facility

(adapted from http://193.125.172.36/www-klae/POLYN/history.html)

another was the emotional political response and media coverage which projected fetal health outcomes

based on those projected releases and uninformed reporting. Public panic ensued despite the small

radiation doses. Research in the aftermath led regulators to accept more realistic radionuclide release

models on which to base emergency response recommendations. Lessons learned from this event include

the need to accurately project releases of radioactive material and to keep the news media accurately

informed of the situation and response actions. The media must then make the decision to provide fair

and balanced coverage in the public interest.

4.6 CHERNOBYL, UKRAINE

In April 1986, an accident at the civilian nuclear reactor facility at Chernobyl in the former USSR,

resulted in the largest accidental release of radioactive material to date. The RBMK-1000 reactors

utilized at Chernobyl have a design flaw that makes their operation at low power unstable. In this mode

of operation, any increase in the production of steam can boost the rate of energy production in the

reactor. If that extra energy generates still more steam, the result can be a runaway power surge. While

performing an unauthorized engineering test on a generator, instabilities developed in the reactor system

which could not be controlled; the operators had deliberately disabled safety systems that could have

averted the reactor's loss of control because the safety systems might have interfered with the

performance of the test. At 1:23 a.m, an operator pressed a button to activate the automatic protection

system, but by this time it was too late. 

Within 3 seconds, the fission rate in

the reactor dramatically increased to

hundreds of times the normal operating

level. The fuel temperature consequently

rose within seconds to beyond the melting

point of uranium dioxide (2,760 EC;

5,000 EF). The resulting steam explosion

lifted the 90-ton covering of the reactor,

destroyed the roof, and ejected fuel debris

from the facility (Figure 4-2). Molten

nuclear fuel and graphite from the reactor

core caused fires in and around the reactor

that burned for 10 days. 
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

Figure 4-3. Hot Spots of Radioactivity in Regions

Surrounding the Chernobyl Facility (BRAMA 1996)

Efforts to quench the flames included dumping 5,000

tons of various materials (boron carbide, dolomite,

sand-clay mixture, and lead) by helicopter. By the

time the fires were extinguished, 250 tons of graphite

had been consumed by the fires (Shapiro 1990;

Shcherbak 1996). The total release of radioactive

material from Chernobyl was estimated to be

1–2 EBq (27–54 MCi). The major radionuclides

released were 131I (630 PBq; 17.0 MCi), 134Cs

(35 PBq; 0.95 MCi), and 137Cs (70 PBq; 1.9 MCi). A

plume containing these radionuclides moved with the

prevailing winds to the north and west, and then east

around the world, transporting the radioactive

material thousands of miles (Figure 4-3). 

The deposition on the ground varied considerably during the accident due to variations in temperature and

other atmospheric conditions during the release. 137Cs was the main contributor to the radiation doses

received by the population once the short-lived 131I had decayed. The three main areas of 137Cs

contamination resulting from the Chernobyl accident were identified as the Central, Bryansk-Belarus, and

Kaluga-Tula-Orel spots. The central spot, formed during the initial, active stage of the release, had

ground depositions of 137Cs of more than 40 kBq/m2

 (1.1 μCi/m2) over large areas of Northern Ukraine

and Southern Belarus. The most highly contaminated area was the 30-km zone surrounding the reactor,

where 137Cs ground depositions exceeded 1,500 kBq/m2

 (40.5 μCi/m2). The Bryansk-Belarus spot,

centered 200 km to the north-northeast of the reactor, was formed as a result of rainfall on the region. 

The ground depositions of 137Cs in the most highly contaminated areas reached 5,000 kBq/m2

(135.1 μCi/m2) in some villages. The Kaluga-Tula-Orel spot, approximately 500 km northeast of the

reactor in Russia, was also formed as a result of rainfall; the levels of 137Cs deposition in this area were

usually less than 600 kBq/m2

 (16.2 μCi/m2). Outside the three main hot spots there were many areas in

the European territory of the former Soviet Union contaminated with 137Cs at levels ranging from 40 to 
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

200 kBq/m2 (1.1–5.4 μCi/m2). Overall, the territory of the former Soviet Union initially contained

approximately 3,100 km2

 contaminated by 137Cs at levels exceeding 1,500 kBq/m2 (40.5 μCi/m2);

7,200 km2 with levels of 600–1,500 kBq/m2 (16.2–40.5 μCi/m2); and 103,000 km2 with levels of 

40–200 kBq/m2

 (1.1–5.4 μCi/m2) (NEA 1995). The regions affected included not only the Ukraine,

Belarus, and Russia, but also Georgia, Finland, Poland, Sweden, Germany, Turkey, and other countries. 

Even such distant lands as the United States and Japan received measurable amounts of radioactive

material. In Poland, Germany, Austria, and Hungary as well as in the Ukraine, some crops and milk were

contaminated and had to be destroyed, while others were destroyed out of panic. In Finland, Sweden, and

Norway, carcasses of reindeer that had grazed on contaminated vegetation were destroyed (Shcherbak

1996; UNSCEAR 1993).

A total of 237 plant workers and firefighters suffered from ARS (Shapiro 1990). Within 3 months, the

death toll from the incident was 30 persons; all of the deceased were either plant operators or firefighters

(UNSCEAR 1993). Approximately 15,000 persons from the plant or surrounding communities were

reported to have lost their ability to work as a result of diseases which they claimed could be attributed to

radiation exposure including: gastrointestinal (inflammatory immediately after the accident and ulcerative

in later years); immunological; metabolic (5–6 year latency period); respiratory (chronic obstructive

bronchitis); hemopoietic (increase or decrease in white blood cell numbers); and neuropathologies

(reduced mental capacity, inability to estimate one’s own abilities). In addition, 12,000 children received

large doses to the thyroid, and 9,000 persons were exposed in utero. An increase in thyroid cancer among

those who had been exposed as children is the only major public health effect documented and

authenticated to date. An investigation of brain damage in utero, performed by the International

Programme on the Health Effects of the Chernobyl Accident (IPHECA), found some evidence of retarded

mental development and deviations in behavioral and emotional reactions in exposed children; however,

the extent to which radiation contributed to these problems could not be determined due to the lack of

individual dosimetry data (Bebeshko 1995; WHO 1995). By 1992, the frequency of occurrence of

thyroid cancer had increased dramatically in the children of Belarus, but these data may be difficult to

interpret because of endemic goiter in the population. The pattern of the increases was not uniform but

was correlated with those areas in the direct path of the radioactive fallout (Kazakov et al. 1992). Other

health-related side effects of the accident included: radiophobia, an increase in stress-related illnesses due

to both fear of radiation and to the dislocation of people; poor diets due to stringent safeguards against

potentially contaminated food, that may have led to vitamin deficiencies; the aborting of as many as

200,000 healthy fetuses because of concern that they might have been damaged in the womb by minor

radiation exposures; and an increase in alcoholism following the accident (Atomic Energy Insights 1996).
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

Figure 4-4. A View of the Sarcophagus Covering the 

Chernobyl Reactor Facility 

 (adapted from http://193.125.172.36/www-kiae/POLYN/history.html) 

About 200,000 people involved in the initial cleanup received an average whole-body dose on the order

of 10 rem (0.1 Sv). An exclusion zone (within 30 km [18.6 mi] of the reactor) was established that

required the evacuation of 116,000 of the surrounding residents. Fewer than 10% of these people

received doses greater than 5 rem (0.05 Sv), and the dose to more than 95% of these was less than

10 rem (0.10 Sv), but exceeded 30–40 rem (0.3–0.4 Sv) in some cases. In contrast, the average annual

radiation dose from background radiation is approximately 0.36 rem (0.0036 Sv). A total of 786

settlements in Belarus, the Russian Federation, and the Ukraine were declared strict control zones. In the

settlements, food consumption was restricted as a protective measure. The average dose during the first

year to persons in these settlements was 3.7 rem (0.037 Sv); in 2 subsequent years, average annual doses

were approximately 2.3 rem (0.023 Sv) (UNSCEAR 1993). 

The collective dose (the sum of all individual

doses) from the Chernobyl accident has been

estimated to be 600,000 man•Sv. The majority

of this dose is expected to be received by the

population in the former USSR (40%)

and Europe (57%). The remainder (3%) is

expected to be dispersed over other countries

of the northern hemisphere (UNSCEAR 1993).

Direct costs of the accident, due to loss of the

facility, firefighting, and relocating citizens,

approached $7 billion (Shapiro 1990). This

figure does not include current or predicted

future medical expenses. The explosion left

approximately 180 metric tons of fuel exposed to the atmosphere. In an attempt to prevent the further escape

of radiation, the Ukrainian government built a concrete covering over the entire facility, referred to as the

sarcophagus (Figure 4-4), beginning in May 1986 and completed in November of that year. However, the

sarcophagus is not leak-tight. There is concern that rainwater and wind might enter the structure and disperse

some of the residual contamination to the environment (NEI 1995). 
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

4.7 KYSHTYM

In September 1957, a major accident occurred at the Chelyabinsk-40 military plutonium production

facility near Kyshtym in the southern Ural mountains of the former Soviet Union. The facility, built in

1953, had a number of underground steel storage tanks equipped with cooling systems to store high-level

waste so that it would not be dumped in the River Techna. These high-level wastes overheated when the

cooling system failed. The heat buildup resulted in evaporation of the coolant water, which allowed the

sediment to heat further and dry. The chemicals in the tank exploded on September 29, 1957, with an

explosive power of 70–100 tons of TNT, which hurled the 2.5-m-thick concrete lid 25–30 m away. The

radioactive cloud from the explosion reached about 1 km. Due to calm wind conditions, about 90% of the

materials deposited locally, while 100 PBq (2.7 MCi) was dispersed away from the plant in an oblong

fallout pattern about 300 km in length, including parts of Chelyabinsk, Sverdlovsk, and Tyumen

counties. Almost all of the radioactive fallout occurred within the first 11 hours (UNSCEAR 1993;

Wasserman et al. 1982). 

The major contaminants released were 144Ce, 95Zr, 95Nb, and 90Sr. Most fission products deposited on the

ground, allowing the strontium isotopes to enter the food chain. A ban on food containing 90Sr at

concentrations greater than 2.4 Bq/g (64.8 pCi/g) resulted in the destruction of 10,000 tons of agricultural

produce in the first 2 years. All stores in Kamensk-Uralskiy which sold milk, meat, and other foodstuffs

were closed as a precaution against consuming radioactive material, and new supplies were brought in

2 days later by train and truck. Approximately 10,000 people were evacuated from the highcontamination area, while approximately 260,000 people remained in less contaminated areas. The

highest individual doses were experienced by those evacuated within a few days of the accident. These

individuals received an average external dose of 17 rem (0.17 Sv) and an average internal

(gastrointestinal) dose of 150 rem (1.5 Sv); the average effective dose equivalent was approximately

52 rem (0.52 Sv). The average 30-year committed dose for persons living in areas with a 90Sr surface

contamination level of 40–70 kBq/m2

 (1.1–1.9 μCi/km2) was estimated to be 2 rem (0.02 Sv) (CIA 1959;

UNSCEAR 1993).

4.8 WINDSCALE, U.K.

In October 1957, the first substantially publicized release of radioactive material from a nuclear reactor

accident occurred at the Windscale nuclear weapons plant at Sellafield in the United Kingdom. During a

routine release of stored energy from the graphite core of a carbon dioxide-cooled, graphite-moderated
IONIZING RADIATION 209

4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

reactor, operator error allowed the fuel to overheat. This led to uranium oxidation and a subsequent

graphite fire. Attempts to extinguish the fire with carbon dioxide were ineffective. In the end, water was

applied directly to the fuel channels but not before the fire had burned for 3 days, resulting in the release

of 131I (740 TBq; 20 kCi), 137Cs (22 TBq; 0.6 kCi), 210Po (8.8 TBq; 0.2 kCi), 106Ru (3 TBq; 0.08 kCi), and

133Xe (1.2 PBq; 32.4 kCi). The fire consumed much of the uranium fuel, and some of the resulting fallout

was in the form of flake-like uranium oxide varying in size from 1 to 25 cm (Schultz 1996; UNSCEAR

1993).

The contamination of pastureland was widespread; for those in close proximity to the accident, the

greatest threat of exposure was considered to be from 131I via contaminated cow’s milk. Those living

farther from the accident were exposed to significant amounts of 131I via milk consumption and air

inhalation. The consumption of cow’s milk was quickly banned; this lessened the exposure to 131I. The

highest individual doses (approximately 100 mGy) were to the thyroids of children living near the

accident site. The collective dose equivalent received in the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe was

estimated to be 2,000 man•Sv, of which 900 man•Sv was from inhalation, 800 man•Sv was from

ingestion, and 300 man•Sv was from external exposure. The main radionuclides contributing to the

exposures were 131I (37%), 210Po (37%), and 137Cs (15%) (UNSCEAR 1993). There has been no detected

impact on the health of the public from this accident.

4.9 TOMSK

An incident occurred at a plant near Tomsk in the Russian federation in 1993 in which individual

exposures were low and few in number. The Tomsk site featured one of Russia's three operating

plutonium production reactors. The Tomsk reactors were built to produce plutonium and to supply steam

for the city's district heating plant. Reprocessing, which involves the use of chemical processes to

separate uranium and plutonium from spent nuclear fuel, occurs at the plant. Under certain conditions,

the chemical solutions can cause an explosion. In April 1993, a tank containing a blend of paraffin and

tributyl phosphate chemically exploded, resulting in the involuntary release of uranium, plutonium,

niobium, zirconium and ruthenium. The tank had a volume of 34.1 m3

, and held 25 m3 of solution. The

solution contained 8,773 kg of uranium, and about 310 kg of plutonium. The total amount of radioactivity

in the solution was approximately 20.7 TBq (559.3 Ci). The explosion caused substantial damage to the

facility and contaminated a largely unpopulated area of about 123 km2

. The release from the tank was

estimated to be 4.3 TBq (115 Ci) of long-lived isotopes. Radioactive material spread to the north-east and 
IONIZING RADIATION 210

4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

fallout was detected over an area of 120 km3. Gamma radiation 20 times higher than the norm was

measured in the area that received the most fallout. The personnel who assisted in putting out the flames

received the maximum radiation dose of 2 mSv (200 mrem). The accident could have had more serious

local consequences if the wind had carried the contamination to two large nearby cities. In June 1993,

DOE officials visited Tomsk to investigate the accident. Although they were not permitted to view the

chemical tank that had exploded, they did see other parts of the facility. Several operational errors, such

as improper mixing of chemicals in the reprocessing tank, and possible design flaws, such as inadequate

tank ventilation, were identified as contributors to the accident (GAO 1995; Nilsen 1997; OTA 1994;

UNSCEAR 1993).

4.10 LOST INDUSTRIAL OR MEDICAL SOURCES

Four incidents in which sealed sources of radiation intended for industrial or medical use were lost or

damaged have occurred since 1982. 

In 1983, an obsolete teletherapy machine from a hospital in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico, containing 16.7 TBq

of 60Co was sold as scrap metal. As a result, thousands of tons of steel products sold in Mexico and the

United States, as well as several foundries and streets and hundreds of houses, were contaminated and

approximately 1,000 people were exposed to an approximate dose of 0.025 rem (0.25 mSv). About 80

people received doses of 0.25–3 Sv (25–300 rem), and 700 people received doses of 0.005–0.25 Sv

(0.5–25 rem) (UNSCEAR 1993). No deaths resulted from this exposure.

In 1984, a family in Morocco found and kept within their house a sealed radiography source containing

192Ir. The source was used to radiograph (make x-ray-like pictures) to noninvasively check the integrity

of metal welds at construction sites. The capsule holding the source became disconnected from the

restraint system inside the source shield and fell out of the shield. A passer-by found the source and took

it home, consequently exposing himself and his family. The resultant effective doses were estimated to

be 800–2,500 rem (8–25 Sv); 8 members of the family died (UNSCEAR 1993). A poorly designed

source- capsule-locking device along with personnel error on the part of the contractor led to these deaths

and injuries. Radiography source-locking mechanisms have been redesigned to help prevent such

accidents from occurring. 

In Goiania, Brazil, in 1987, 54 people were hospitalized and 4 died after removing a teletherapy source

containing 137Cs from its enclosure. Individual doses were estimated to range up to 500 rad (5 Gy)

(UNSCEAR 1993). This accident is described in more detail in Section 4.2.
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

In 1992, in the Shanxi province of China, three people in one family died after a member found a 60Co

source. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has published a safety document that describes the

acute health effects of these types of radiation accidents (USNRC 1982).

4.11 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA NEEDS

The following has been identified as a potential data need regarding health effects associated with

exposure to ionizing radiation.

A number of people have been exposed to a range of radiation doses as a result of the accidents discussed

in this chapter. Some human data do exist on the health effects associated with acute exposure to ionizing

radiation (see Chapters 3 and 5); however, most of the radiological effects have been derived from

laboratory animal data. It would be helpful to estimate the dose of radiation each of these individuals was

exposed to and monitor these people over the long term to determine what health effects (if any) these

doses of ionizing radiation had on lifespan, cancer rates, and reproductive effects. There is ongoing

research in these areas, mainly the observation of the survivors of the nuclear bombings in Japan and their

children and grandchildren by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF). The RERF is a

binational agency that is supported by the United States and Japan.

4.12 CONCLUSIONS

Although most radiation to which the public is exposed is of natural origin, that portion arising from

human activities, particularly accidental releases, is perceived by the public to be a very serious threat to

health. For the majority of the world’s population, less than 1% of radiation exposure arises from nuclear

weapons testing fallout and the generation of electricity in nuclear, coal (many coal-fired electric

generating stations emit more radioactivity than do nuclear stations), and geothermal power plants. 

Selected military and civilian accidents have resulted in the exposure of certain populations to substantial

amounts of radiation. Few exposures of general populations have been of sufficient size to produce

quantifiable deleterious effects. The thyroid cancer rates (the only type of excess cancer seen to date)

associated with the Chernobyl accident have begun to rise. After the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings,

there was a surge of childhood leukemia cases into the 1950s (Pierce et al. 1996). There are also elevated

incidence rates for some cancers in the population exposed by the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings. 

To date, there have been about 500 excess deaths from cancer among the survivors of the bombings. The

circumstances and results of nuclear power plant accidents indicate that rapid mobilization of clean-up

efforts, imposed dietary restrictions, and evacuation of residents (especially pregnant women) minimizes
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4. RADIATION ACCIDENTS

the public risk. Three-Mile Island and Chernobyl are cases in which the evacuations caused a health

detriment and a health benefit, respectively.

4.13 OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION

This chapter provided a brief synopsis of population exposures to ionizing radiation. Readers are

encouraged to read Chapters 2 through 6 of this toxicological profile for more in-depth information on the

basic principles of ionizing radiation, the health effects of ionizing radiation, and the sources of

population exposure to ionizing radiation. Further scientific information can be obtained from the United

Nations specialized agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland, and

the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria. Readers are also referred to the

Internet sites listed in Table 4-1 for further information on the general principles and health effect issues

involving the different types and doses of ionizing radiation. These sites are sponsored by scientific,

government, and academic organizations.

Table 4-1. Internet Sites Pertaining to Population 

Exposures to Ionizing Radiation

HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Address Web Page Contents 

http://www.hps.org The Health Physics Society, a scientific organization

dealing with radiation safety

http://www.rerf.or.jp Atomic bomb survivor studies provide by Radiation

Effects Research Foundation, a joint Japanese-U.S.

sponsored research organization

http://www.sandia.gov/LabNews/LN01-19-96/palo.html A newspaper for the employees of Sandia National

Laboratories and recounts the Palomares incident

http://fema.gov/home/fema/radiolo.htm Federal Emergency Management Agency information

on how to prepare for an emergency and what to do if

an accident occurs

http://www.radres.org/intro.htm The Radiation Research Society

http://www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/index.html The Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute

http://cedr.lbl.gov Comprehensive epidemiologic data resource related

to radiological releases from sites

http://radefx.bcm.tmc.edu/ Radiation Health Effects Research Resource page. 

A comprehensive page on radiation and health

effects, including extensive literature searches on

Chernobyl health effects
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 5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Radiation ionizes cellular atoms and molecules; if immediate recombination does not occur, these can

manifest as some type of molecular, cellular, or organic system alteration. An ionizing event can cause a

variety of damage scenarios: (1) no damage if the ionized molecule reforms immediately; (2) repairable

damage that causes no clinical effects if repaired; (3) repairable damage to DNA, which can be

tumoriginic or carcinogenic if not repaired prior to cell division; (4) irreparable small-scale damage which

causes cell death to a small population of cells that is insignificant and produces no clinical effects; and

(5) irreparable large-scale damage that kills enough cells within an organ system to produce deterministic

threshold effects such as cataracts and acute radiation syndrome

A very large radiation dose received in a short enough period of time to preclude significant repair can

cause cellular walls to collapse and disrupt organ systems, producing deterministic effects such as acute

radiation syndrome, cataracts, and teratogenesis (mental retardation, IQ reduction, microencephaly,

stunted growth). These effects can be caused by acute exposure to sources of high intensity radiation,

such as can be found in hospitals, government, and industry. Overexposure events which have caused

such effects are not applicable to NPL site residual radioactive contamination. The discussion below

largely relates to lower radiation doses and dose rates which can cause non-deterministic effects and

which are more relatable to radiation exposure from NPL sites.

A number of direct and indirect radiation interaction pathways can produce damage to the DNA of

irradiated cells. DNA damage occurs by indirect action (mediated through radiolytic products in water)

or direct ionization. Cells depend on their DNA for coding information to make various classes of

proteins that include enzymes, certain hormones, transport proteins, and structural proteins that support

life. When the genetic information containing the “blueprint” for these substances is disrupted, cell

homeostasis is disrupted, resulting in a wide-range of immediate and/or delayed toxicological effects. 

Direct and indirect ionization of DNA is ultimately responsible for the DNA alterations that adversely

affect the structural and genetic integrity of the system. These alterations can be repaired, or can result in

mutations in the genetic coding that can be passed on to daughter somatic cells or to progeny offspring
IONIZING RADIATION 214

5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

from reproductive cells. These alterations can result in the wide range of somatic and reproductive effects

described in greater detail in Chapter 3.

The human body has nearly 1013 cells. Each somatic cell (cells other than sperm and eggs) contains

23 pairs of chromosomes. Each cell (except for red blood cells) contains a nucleus that houses these

chromosomes. The total chromosomal content of a cell involves approximately 105

 genes in a specialized

macromolecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is composed of alternating sugar and phosphate

groups, with the sugar attached to 1 of 4 possible nucleotide bases (adenosine, cytosine, guanine,

thymidine). These bases attach to each other in a specific pattern: adenosine:thymidine and

cytosine:guanine. Genetic sequences of the bases are read in groups of three (called a triplet), with a

possibility of 64 configurations or “words” in which to code information. 

Specialized cell structures called ribosomes are the cellular organelles that actually synthesize the

proteins (RNA transcription). RNA polymerases read the codes from specific areas of the DNA and

transcribe the information into a mRNA copy of the DNA. At the ribosome, the processed mRNA is

translated to produce proteins from amino acid units. When the genetic information containing the

“blueprint” for these substances is disrupted, cell homeostasis is disrupted, with a wide range of possible

non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic toxicological effects. These effects were described in some detail in

Chapter 3. Radiation can disrupt the structure of the DNA (and other macromolecules), thereby

disrupting normal cell and organ functions. 

Direct macromolecule damage by radiation involves partial or complete energy transfer to one or more

electrons on the molecule. Each electron that is given enough energy to overcome the attractive forces of

the nucleus escapes from the DNA or other macromolecule and leaves it in the form of a charged ion; this

process, called “ionization,” is the source of the term “ionizing radiation” (see Chapter 2). Unlike nonionizing radiation (such as microwaves and ultraviolet radiation), which has insufficient energy to eject

molecular electrons, ionizing radiation deposits sufficient energy to remove electrons from atomic orbits

and create molecular ion pairs along particle tracks.

Ionizing radiation can exert a number of adverse toxicological effects on many tissues in the body by

ionizing and subsequently altering the DNA in the nucleus and other macromolecules of the irradiated 
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

cell and possibly even the cytoplasm itself. This radiological toxicity occurs independently of, and in

addition to, whatever chemical toxicological effects are produced by internally deposited radionuclides. 

Chapter 3 describes in some detail the biological effects of radiation in different organ systems in humans

and laboratory animals and demonstrates that some systems or tissues are more sensitive to the effects of

radiation than others. Chapter 3 also provides some general explanation for the presence of marked

toxicity differences. DNA damage and cell wall destruction are the likely bases for lethality due to

radiation; however, other molecules and cellular organelles may be damaged by radiation. These other

molecular alterations may also result in adverse cellular activity and may be responsible for some of the

biological responses observed after exposure to radiation. This chapter is an overview of the specific

mechanisms that result in the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic biological effects.

5.2 EVIDENCE OF THE EFFECTS ON DNA

Before any mechanism of action of ionizing radiation on DNA can be presented, it is necessary to

demonstrate that DNA is indeed the critical molecule after exposure to radiation. Indirect evidence comes

from studies which show that cells that divide frequently (undergo mitosis or meiosis in the case of

spermatogonia) are the most sensitive to the effects of radiation. This phenomenon is described in

Table 5-1. Conversely, structures that undergo less frequent mitotic cycles (myocytes, connective tissue,

nervous tissue) are relatively more resistant to the effects of radiation. Early experiments, in which either

the cytoplasm of the cell (not the nuclear material) or the nucleus only were irradiated with alpha

radiation, demonstrated that the DNA is the most critical cellular component in radiation toxicology

(Munro 1970). Those experiments showed that, although some minor effects could be induced after

exposing the cytoplasm to alpha radiation, the nucleus (and the genome) were many times more sensitive

to the effects of ionizing radiation. Recently developed research techniques, which allow precise

irradiation of individual cell components with a predetermined number of alpha particles, have also

concluded that cellular cytoplasm is less radiosensitive than DNA (Miller et al. 1999; Wu et al. 1999). 

These alterations are what ultimately gives rise to lethal or phenotypic genetic alterations of the DNA and

may lead to the induction of many types of cancers in the irradiated individual (see Chapter 3 of this

profile).
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Table 5-1. Relative Sensitivities of Major Organs and Tissues to the 

Effects of Ionizing Radiation

Radiosensitivity category Organ system General cell type affected Frequency of mitosis

High Lymphoreticular Lymphocytes Very frequent

Hematological Immature hematopoietic cells

Reproductive Spermatogonia

Ovarian follicular cells

Gastrointestinal Intestinal epithelium

Esophageal epithelium Frequent

Gastric mucosa

Renal Urinary bladder epithelium

Dermal Epidermal epithelial cells

Mucous membranes

Ocular Epithelium of optic lens

Medium Circulatory system Endothelium

Musculoskeletal Growing bone and

cartilaginous tissues

Moderately frequently

Brain/CNS Glial cells

Dermal Glandular epithelium of the

breast

Respiratory Pulmonary epithelium,

tracheobronchial epithelium

Renal Renal epithelium

Hepatic Hepatic epithelium

Endocrine Pancreatic epithelium

Thyroid epithelium

Adrenal epithelium

Low Hematological Mature hematopoietic cells

(erythrocytes, neutrophils,

eosinophils, basophils,

macrophages)

Infrequently/rarely

Musculoskeletal Myocytes, osteocytes

Mature connective tissues

Mature bone and cartilage

Brain and peripheral

nervous system

Ganglion cells

Other evidence exists to support the thesis that radiation's toxicological effects are intimately related to

nuclear DNA damage. For example, when non-radioactive thymidine is incorporated into the DNA of a

cell, no change in the cell's lifespan is encountered; however, when the same thymidine is labeled with

radioactive tritium (3

H), which emits short-range beta particles (see Chapter 2), cell lethality dramatically

increases. Coupled with the other indirect evidence, this suggests that the low-energy beta particles are 
IONIZING RADIATION 217

5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

ionizing the nuclear DNA, resulting in increased incidences of cellular death. Additionally, work

involving radioactive material in viruses and plants has shown a strong correlation between the

chromosome volume of a cell with radiosensitivity—the larger the volume of chromosomal material, the

greater the relative radiosensitivity of the cell. Radiosensitivity is relative to a specific biological end

point. For instance, sperm have a high radiosensitivity with respect to mutation induction but a very low

sensitivity with respect to cell killing. A direct correlation has been demonstrated between aberrant

chromosome formation at the first cell division after irradiating hamster cells. These and many other

studies provide strong evidence that exposure to radiation has detrimental effects on cellular DNA (Hall

1988). 

5.3 INTERACTIONS OF IONIZING RADIATION WITH DNA

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the types of radiation and their ability to transfer energy when ionizing

biological matrices. The interaction of radiation with all molecules (including DNA and other cellular

components) may be classified as either direct or indirect interactions. Each produces damage by a

specific pathway (or mechanism) that is described in more detail in this section. 

Depending on the energy of alpha and beta particles when they are formed, the initial velocity of an alpha

particle can be a few tenths the speed of light and that of a beta particle can approach the speed of light;

however, these velocities reduce toward zero as they interact with the medium through which they pass,

losing energy as they excite and ionize molecules along their paths. Since gamma rays are

electomagnetic radiation, they travel at the speed of light even as their energy is transferred to the

medium. As described above, a direct interaction occurs when an alpha particle, beta particle, or gamma

ray hits and ionizes an atom or molecule. Both high and low LET radiation can directly ionize a molecule

at the point of impact, producing two adjacent pieces which are chemically reactive. If the two pieces

immediately recombine to reproduce the same original molecule, no damage results. Alternately, the

pieces may drift apart, engaging neighboring atoms and molecules in any stabilizing chemical reactions

that are thermodynamically feasible. Each chemical reaction produces a different molecular species. In

the case of high LET radiation or high intensities of low LET radiation, the distance between ionizing

events is short enough that the radiation can ionize adjacent molecules or even multiple bonds on the

same molecule. For a large macromolecule such as DNA with its multistrand arrangement in

chromosomes, these actions can damage the molecular structure in a number of ways. Radiation can

remove large or small pieces of the molecules, and can open purine rings (leading to depurination) and

break phosphodiester bonds. This action may result in the genetic effects listed in Tables 3-4 and 3-5. 
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Genotoxic effects are a major toxicological end point for exposure to ionizing radiation and are likely

involved in the induction of cancer in humans. The data from Tables 3-4 and 3-5 demonstrate that the

typical genotoxic effects associated with radiation exposure of genetic material primarily consist of

deletions, mutations, chromosomal aberrations, and breaks, resulting in reciprocal translocations, sister

chromatid exchanges, dominant lethal mutations, and sperm anomalies. When the cell enters a mitotic

cycle, these damaged chromosomal units have an increased probability of failing to replicate properly due

to structural damage unless chromosomal repair mechanisms repair the damage prior to entering mitosis. 

If the repair mechanisms fail to perfectly and seamlessly repair the damage to the chromosome, restoring

it to its original preionized structure, or do not repair the damage at all, the chromosome may not replicate

properly. This results in critical portions of that chromosome being deleted during the replication cycle,

resulting in cell death (which equates to no damage at low doses) or genetic mutations in cell progeny. 

Table 5-1 shows that those cells that undergo rapid mitotic cycles (intestinal crypt cells, fetal cells, and

other rapidly dividing cells) have less time for repair mechanisms to reverse the radiation damage to the

nuclear DNA, making chromosomal anomalies more likely to be present during subsequent mitotic cycles

and increasing the chances for cell death, genetic mutations, and abnormal cell functions in cell progeny. 

Ionizing radiation can affect other macromolecules in a similar fashion; these effects are discussed in

Section 5.4.

Indirect interactions are molecular disruptions occurring at distances from the radiation’s direct

interaction site. Indirect interactions are mediated by radiation-produced chemical species (free radicals

and oxidizers) with sufficient life-times and reactivity to diffuse away from the primary site and disrupt

molecules with which they collide. Some of the radiation degradation (radiolysis) products of water,

including the hydrogen and hydroxyl radicals produced by the reactions below, are recognized cytotoxins,

and oxygen enhances these effects. Thus, oxygenated tissue is more radiosensitive than anoxic tissue. 

Water comprises approximately 60% of the total body mass of humans and laboratory animals, and

75–80% of the chemical composition of the living cell. When radiation interacts with water molecules

surrounding DNA, the end products diffuse away and react with any DNA that is in their paths. 

Biological material that has a low water content, such as spores, exhibits a greater resistance to radiation

effects.

Radiolysis of water

H2O + IR v e– + H2O+

e–

 + H2O v H2O– vOH– + H•

H2O+ v H+

 + OH•
IONIZING RADIATION 219

5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

In the first reaction, radiation interacts with free cellular water to produce one free electron (e–) and one

ionized water molecule (H2O+), a reaction commonly known as radiolysis. This free electron is highly

reactive and interacts with another un-ionized water molecule to produce a negatively charged and highly

unstable water molecule. This molecule quickly decomposes to form the OH–

 ion and the H• free radical;

the H• radical is reactive, but the OH– ion is more stable and can then diffuse out into the cellular fluid and

interact with any number of macromolecules it encounters in its path, such as molecules of DNA. The

remaining H2O+

 molecule can also transform into a free and ionized hydrogen ion (potentially affecting

intracellular or extracellular pH) and the hydroxyl radical. From these reactions, four products of

radiolysis can occur after ionizing radiation interacts with a water molecule: H•

, OH•, H+, and OH–.

Of the radiolysis products, 55% are either H•

 or OH– and are the most important species biologically;

however, they have lifetimes of approximately 10–11 seconds, which is long enough to produce damage to

DNA and other macromolecules. These ionized particles will react with DNA, resulting in the addition of

atoms or loss of atoms or pieces of the molecule; this will ultimately result in structural degradation,

cross-linking, breakage of chemical bonds, and a host of other adverse effects. H•

 or OH– may also

interact with each other, to form an innocuous water molecule.

In the presence of water and oxygen, radiation can produce another set of reactions that have more

potentially destructive capabilities within the cell. The radiolysis reaction, in the presence of molecular

oxygen, results in the formation of three chemical entities: hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroperoxy

radicals (HO2

•

), and hydroperoxy ions (HO2

–

). All have potent oxidizing potential and lifetimes of

approximately 10–11 seconds. With an extended lifetime (when compared to the 10–11 second half-lives of

H•

, OH•, H+, and OH–), there is a greater diffusion length and potential for interacting with and inducing

more damage to the DNA. Oxygen is, therefore, considered a radiosensitizing agent, associated with the

production of relatively longer-lived and more potent by-products than in tissues containing less oxygen. 

The oxygen-water-ionizing radiation interactions have practical applications in clinical medicine. 

Radiotherapy is often used to treat large cancerous tumors in humans. Oxygen tension is lowest at the

center of these large cancers, due to an inadequate blood supply to the cancer, compression from

surrounding cells, or altered aerobic metabolism in these cancerous cells. Many of these masses may

have liquified and necrotic centers as well. Low oxygen tension in these cancers may not result in the

production of significant amounts of hydrogen peroxide and hydroperoxy ions/radicals to damage

macromolecules within these abnormal cells and, therefore, may limit the efficacy of radiotherapy in
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

these patients. The use of oxygenating chemicals to offset this oxygen deficit and enhance the oxygen

tension can make cancer tissue more radiosensitive than the surrounding healthy tissue.

Radiation frequently produces an important type of change to DNA at the molecular level by removing a

base to form an apurinic or apyrimidinic site. The deletion or total destruction of DNA bases, destruction

of deoxyribose residues, and deamination of cytosine or adenine are a few of the many ways radiation can

alter the DNA at a molecular level. The attack by direct and indirect radiation action results in the

degradation of bases and sugars, breakage of the hydrogen and sugar-phosphate bonds, and crosslinkages, all of which are deleterious to the structural integrity of the DNA macromolecule. Significant

amounts of damage make the DNA unable to successfully replicate during mitosis and/or unusable for

transcription into RNA. The magnitude of the damage is dose-dependant. A more in-depth discussion of

the alterations at the DNA level by radiation, including a few of the known DNA repair mechanisms, is

presented in BEIR V (1990). 

DNA base damage is the most predominant type of DNA damage, followed (in decreasing order of

incidence) by single-strand breaks, DNA-protein cross-linkages, and double-strand breaks. In base

damage, thymidine appears to be the most radiosensitive base, followed by cytosine, adenine, and

guanine. A 100-rad (1 Gy) dose of low LET radiation can produce 63–70 double-strand breaks per cell

and 1,000 single-strand breaks (Cockerham et al. 1994). In addition, it was noted that there were 440

sites of multiple DNA strand lesions that are in close proximity to each other that interact in such a way to

cause cell death (called Locally Multiple Damaged Sites [LMDS]). It would appear that simple single- or

double-strand breakage is responsible for cell death; however, in cases of genotoxicity after chemical

exposure, single-strand breakages have numbered into the hundreds of thousands, suggesting that the

relatively low number of single-strand breaks after exposure to radiation is not likely to be the primary

cause of cell toxicity, probably because of the presence of repair systems. Double-strand breaks are likely

too few to be of consequence for cell death, but they are critically important in cancer initiation. Given

that there are only three types of damage to the DNA that could be responsible for cell death, this leaves

LMDS as the primary cause for cell death (Faw and Shultis 1993). 

Strand breakage is also responsible for chromosomal anomalies, some of which were listed in Tables 3-4

and 3-5. DNA strand damage is a serious cellular event; however, the cell comes equipped with chromosomal repair mechanisms. Without them, the damage that occurs to the entire organisms's DNA every

day could prove lethal. Chromosomal repair mechanisms provide a mechanism for minimizing the 
IONIZING RADIATION 221

5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

adverse DNA effects of radiation on the genome, providing that the dose is not so large as to overwhelm

the inherent repair mechanisms. However, like many other biological functions, they are not always

100% efficient at performing this task. Single-strand breaks stand a better chance for repair by the

cellular DNA repair enzymes (DNA ligase) than do double-strand breaks. First, with single-strand

breaks, only one strand of the double-stranded DNA is broken, whereas both strands are broken with

double-strand DNA damage. Because one strand is still intact, single-strand breaks are usually stable and

within a reasonable distance from each other for repair enzymes to function; however, this is not always

the case with double-strand DNA breaks. Secondly, there is a template on the adjacent strand in singlestrand DNA breaks to determine where various bases go on the missing strand. The ionizing event that

produces a double-strand break may leave the displaced sections close enough together to rejoin with

minimal repair, or it may displace large sections, leaving no template for repair enzymes to follow in

order to replace the missing segments. Because single-strand breaks in DNA are more easily repaired,

cells can tolerate much more of this type of strand breakage before the repair mechanisms are

overwhelmed.

Chromosomal aberrations and chromatid aberrations are the two most common types of chromosomal

anomalies that can be visibly observed during the metaphase or anaphase stages of the cycle. Chromosomal aberrations are a result of a cell that was irradiated early in the interphase cell cycle (G1 or early S

phase), prior to the chromosome being duplicated. Chromatid aberrations are commonly observed when

the damage was received in the later stages of interphase (late S or G2 phase) after the chromosome has

duplicated and consists of two strands of chromatin. Specific radiation-induced aberrations in

chromosome and chromatid structure have been discussed in more depth by Hall (1988). These

aberrations may or may not result in the disruption of normal cellular functions, depending on which

chromosome the breakage occurred in and where on the chromosome the damage occurred. When

examined more closely, the broken ends of the chromosomes appear "sticky" and may fail to mitotically

separate with the proper chromatid (Hall 1988). However, when the cell enters a mitotic cycle, these

damaged chromosomal units will ultimately fail to replicate properly unless chromosomal repair

mechanisms can repair the damage prior to entering mitosis/meiosis. If the repair mechanisms fail, cell

death or genetically deficient progeny cells result. Of the single and multiple gene mutations that result,

point mutations and small deletions usually involve a small number of bases (~20 to 60), whereas large

base deletions or base rearrangements may involve several hundred or many thousands of bases. The 

mutation frequency increases with the radiation dose (Borek 1993). The cells that undergo more frequent

mitotic cycles (intestinal crypt cells, fetal cells, and other rapidly dividing cells) have less repair time, and
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

a resulting increase in sensitivity to radiation induces genetic mutations and abnormal cell functionality.

Cells with less frequent mitotic activity (nerve, lens, musculoskeletal) are conversely less radiosensitive. 

The types of genetic damage described above for radiation exposure are also caused by other

environmental agents, and their rates are in addition to a high rate of spontaneous production. An average

of 200,000 repairs per hour are made to spontaneously occurring damage to DNA in humans. Actually,

the damage occurs at a much greater rate than can be observed because the damage is simultaneously

being repaired by many physiological mechanisms. Damage is expressed when the rate at which the

damage is produced exceeds the body’s natural repair mechanisms or when those mechanisms fail. 

5.4 EFFECTS ON OTHER CELLULAR MACROMOLECULES

DNA is the most critical molecule for damage from radiation. A number of other critical cellular

components have been reported; some effects on these molecules are outlined in Table 5-2.

Table 5-2 shows that a wide range of molecules, varying in both size and molecular weight, can be

adversely affected by exposure to radiation. The mechanisms by which each is affected are the direct and

indirect effects of radiation discussed for DNA. The end results are broken chemical bonds, crosslinkages, and conformational changes. These changes may affect the molecule’s biological function; for

example, a conformation change in the structure of an enzyme or protein could affect its ability to

perform a critical function in a metabolic pathway and thereby halt a certain function.

Amino acids and their larger counterparts, peptides, polypeptides, and proteins, are also susceptible to

radiation damage. Irradiation of these molecules frequently results in breakage of hydrogen bonds,

disulfide bridges, and cross-linking with DNA or with other proteins. All of these effects can result in

conformation changes and alterations in function. Radiation causes the depolymerization of glycogen and

cleavage of α-glycosidic bonds within glycogen and other molecules containing α-glycosidic bonds. 

Glycogenesis and gluconeogenesis pathways within the cell are activated; insulin and blood glucose

levels also rise due to increased release of insulin and adrenocorticoid release. By comparison, radiation

doses that are orders of magnitude larger than required to produce these effects are used in industry to

polymerize monomers to produce hard plastics and bond materials. Even larger doses are required to

inactivate bacteria and viruses during sterilization of medical equipment, spices, vegetables, and meat.
IONIZING RADIATION 223

5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Table 5-2. Some Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Molecules in Animal Tissues

Molecule General effects

Amino acids Production of ammonia, H2S, pyruvic acid, CO2, hydrogen molecules

Carbohydrates Cleavage of glycosidic bonds, depolymerization of monomers, oxidation of

terminal alcohols to aldehydes

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Degradation from base loss and modification, breakage of hydrogen bonds

and sugar-phosphate bonds; DNA-DNA and/or DNA-protein cross-linking;

single- or double-strand breakage; formation of guanyl, thymidyl and sugar

radicals 

Lipids Peroxidation and carbon bond rearrangement: conjugated diene formation,

aldehyde formation, β-scission, lipid cross-linking, increased microviscosity,

cell membrane rupture 

Proteins Degradation and modification of amino acids, chain scission, cross-linkage;

denaturation, molecular weight modifications, changes in solubility 

Thiols Redox reactions, radical formation, cross-linkages, inhibit thiol from

mediating damage to lipids 

Source: adapted from Cockerham et al. 1994.

Lipids are ubiquitous macromolecules that participate in a number of cell process. They comprise cell

membranes, disruption of which leads to disruptions of homeostasis, cellular dysfunction, and death. 

Lipids are also involved in the production of prostaglandins, which modulate a number of biological

functions, including digestion, reproduction, and neural function. Lipid peroxidation occurs primarily

through free-radical attacks at double-bond sites and at carbonyl groups, and starts a chain reaction within

cells. When a lipid radical interacts with another organic molecule, that molecule is transformed to a freeradical state which then interacts with another molecule. Given this chain of events, the damage induced

after lipid peroxidation can be formidable. Fortunately, animals have several mechanisms by which to

slow or stop this chain reaction. A number of free-radical scavengers such as vitamin A, vitamin E, and

thiols are available to inhibit the chain reactions. Other detoxification systems that can inhibit the effects

of lipid peroxidation include metallothionine, glutathione transferase, reduced NADPH-dependent

glutathione reductase, selenium-dependant glutathione peroxidase, ferric manganese and copper-zinc

superoxidase dismutases, and catalase. A more in-depth discussion on the specific mechanisms by which

each system functions is available (Cockerham et al. 1994). Several of these systems and a number of

chemicals have been more closely studied in order to potentially decrease the harmful effects of moderate

to high doses of radiation in humans and animals, but results have been mixed (Biambarresi and Walter

1989).
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

5.5 MECHANISMS OF CARCINOGENESIS

The exact mechanism(s) by which cancer is produced are not clearly understood, but over the years,

several theories and models have been developed that describe the events that scientists suggest must take

place in order for cancer to occur. Some of the more traditional carcinogenesis models are briefly

summarized in Table 5-3. A number of factors have been identified (such as diet; hormonal status;

genetics; and exposure to some solvents, chemicals, and ionizing radiation) that appear to predispose

some individuals to developing cancer. Both chemicals and ionizing radiation are known to induce many

types of cancer and much of the evidence for this observation was discussed in Chapter 3 of this profile. 

Cancer is the major latent effect after exposure to radiation, with the critical molecule being the DNA. 

Cells depend on their DNA for coding information to make very specific enzymes, proteins, hormones,

vasoactive substances, and a host of other chemicals in order to live. When the genetic information

containing the “blueprint” for these substances is disrupted, cell homeostasis is disrupted, with a wide

range of carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic toxicological effects that have been described in Chapter 3.

Not all alterations in the genome will result in the expression of immediate adverse events. Radiation

may cause genetic damage, which includes gene deletions, point mutations, frameshift mutations, and

“nonsense” coding of some genes on one or many chromosomes. These alterations occur by the same

direct and/or indirect mechanisms outlined in Section 5.3. If these genes are not used by the cell or if

their mutation or total absence is of little consequence to normal cell function, no immediate effects may

be incurred. Cell function and homeostasis is not disrupted. These seemingly inconsequential genetic

effects may initially be of minimal importance. However, with spontaneous changes in the genetic

apparatus of somatic cells continuing over time and with further exposure to environmental carcinogens,

the amount of misinformation in the genetic apparatus continues to increase within the cell’s DNA. If this

misinformation affects the DNA coding that either controls or suppresses an oncogene, then oncogenic

lesions may be initiated.

The formation of cancer has been an area of intense research in the scientific community for centuries. In

1775, Percival Pott was the first to report that cancer could be caused by environmental factors. Pott

described a number of cases of cancer in men employed as chimney sweeps sometime during their life. 

Pott concluded from his observations that their exposure to soot was in some way related to their

developing 
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Table 5-3. Some Models That Describe the Induction of Cancer in Animals

Model Model type and premise Model characteristics

Single Hit a Mechanistic model: One “hit” is

sufficient for a cell to mutate and then

transform into a neoplastic cell.

Tumor development depends only on the total dose

received and not on the pattern of exposure; yields high

estimations of risk compared to other models

Multi-Hit Mechanistic model: A critical number

of hits must occur before the cell

becomes neoplastic.

May produce very high or very low “safe-dose” estimates;

doesn’t easily account for dose-response relationships that

are linear at low doses; begins to curve as dose increases

Multistage/

Linearized

Multistage

(LMS)

Mechanistic model (based on the

model of Armitage and Doll 1957): A

progression of orderly events must

occur in a cell in order for cancer to

occur.

Use of upper bounds results in a model less sensitive to

changes in data; multi-degree polynomials are fitted using

only 2 or 3 dose levels; a constant dose rate is assumed

(which is not always the case); does provide conservative

risk estimates

MVK Mechanistic model; Two-stage

model: Similar to the LMS, but it

assumes that altered cells have a

selective advantage over normal

cells.

Assumes tumors come from mutations of anti-oncogenes;

assumes 2 events must occur for malignant

transformation;

allows for cell kinetic information and mutations to be

incorporated into the model

Probit Statistical model Estimates probability of a response at a given dose; may

not reflect scientific observations of dose-response when

extrapolating from a 50% response dose to a 1/1,000,000

risk estimate

Logit Statistical model Derived from chemical kinetic data; used to derive “virtually

safe doses” by some government agencies until the late

1970's; similar to Probit model

Weibull Statistical model Used to derive “virtually safe doses” by some government

agencies until the late 1970s; uses power transformations

to describe the data; greater flexibility than either the Probit

or Logit models; risk estimates range between the LMS

and multihit mechanistic models; dose and time

relationship are described

a

 A “hit” is defined as a critical cellular interaction, such as a gene mutation, that alters the cell’s DNA (Faustman and

Omenn 1996).

Source: summarized from Faustman and Omenn 1996 and Rees and Hattis 1994

cancer of the scrotum. Since that time, a number of chemical, environmental, and lifestyle factors have

been identified as either be directly or indirectly implicated in producing different types of cancer. Many

of these chemicals have similar physico-chemical and structural characteristics.

Today, the induction of cancer from exposure to some chemicals is believed to be a multi-stage process

that involves at least three distinct phases and multiple steps. Some chemicals or agents may be capable

of inciting one, two, or all three of these steps. It is believed that exposure to ionizing radiation involves

the same multi-step process as does the chemical carcinogen exposure, and that radiation can induce each
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

step. The first stage is initiation, which is characterized by the fixation of a somatic mutational event in

the cell’s DNA. This damage may occur by direct, indirect, or a combination of the events described in

Sections 5.2 and 5.3. This initiation may occur at one or multiple sites within the genome and may affect

any gene on any chromosome in any exposed cell. Once exposed, certain outcomes are possible. In cases

of high doses of radiation, the cell may sustain such extensive genetic damage that the cell is unable to

perform its functions or sustain itself metabolically, in which case it simply dies. High doses may kill so

many cells that the organism shows signs and symptoms, but lower doses can kill few enough cells that

effects are not readily observed. The cell may attempt to repair the damage using alkyltransferases, base

excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, mismatch repair, or other innate repair mechanisms inherent to

that cell. If all of the damage is repaired correctly, the cell is considered normal and not at risk for

developing cancer. However, repair mechanisms are not always 100% effective and may result in

incorrect repair or no repair at all. In this case, the cell may either live and tolerate the damage to the

genetic material or undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death). Only the cells that continue to live and

reproduce can potentially produce cancer. Exposure to ionizing radiation can result in changes to a cell’s

genetic apparatus and can act as an initiating agent in the development of cancer. Additional information

about the ability of radiation to inflict damage on the DNA structure is presented in Chapters 2, 3, and

earlier in this chapter. 

Initiation requires at least a partial failure of gene repair mechanisms and one or more cell mitotic cycles

before the genetic alteration can be “fixed” into place. Initiation is an irreversible process once this

fixation occurs. Whatever the mechanism, the end product is a mutation of the cell’s DNA that the cell’s

innate repair systems failed to restore to the normal genetic state. This mutation is considered an adverse

event; however, the initiation or “genetic recoding” alone is not sufficient to produce cancer.

The initiation step must be followed by the second stage, promotion. A promoting agent is one which

stimulates the initiated (or pre-neoplastic) cell to divide or otherwise provides certain conditions that

allow the preferential selection of mutated cells to survive over unmutated cells in the tissue. In contrast

to initiation, the promotion step is a reversible step both at the DNA and cellular level, and depends on

continuous exposure to the promoting agent. This reversibility is a characteristic of the promotion stage

of carcinogenesis. For promoting agents, there is no evidence to suggest that these chemicals or other

factors must interact directly with the DNA to affect cell proliferation. Promoters need not necessarily be

carcinogenic agents themselves. Many chemicals (phenobarbital, dioxins, cholic acid), as well as some

hormones (estrogen and thyroid-stimulating hormone) are not carcinogenic themselves, but have been 
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

found to promote carcinogenesis after certain cells have undergone the initiation process in some species

of animals. Promoting agents may also be species specific. A promoting agent for cancer in laboratory

animals may not necessarily be a promoting agent in humans. Although some promoters are actually

non-carcinogenic when administered by themselves, other promoters can act as both initiators and

promoting agents. Radiation is an excellent example of an agent that can act as both an initiator

(producing gene mutations and chromosomal alterations) and as a promoting agent by stimulating cell

division after exposure.

The last stage of carcinogenesis is called progression. Progression agents cause uncontrolled and

extensive proliferation of abnormal cell types. During this stage, a specific phenotype of mutated cells is

selected that effectively evades the host defense mechanisms and then undergoes massive proliferation. 

Arsenic salts, asbestos fibers, benzene, benzoyl peroxide, and hydroxyurea have all been identified as

proliferation agents associated with cancer formation. This uncontrolled and extensive proliferation of

abnormal cell types leads to the formation of solid tumors (adenomas, squamous cell carcinoma,

adenocarcinomas, etc.) or non-solid tumors (leukemia, lymphoma, etc.) at one or multiple locations

throughout the body. How locally invasive the tumor is (aggressiveness) or the ability of the tumor to

relocate to sites distant from the site of initial formation (metastasis) depends on the type of tumor

formed. If the progression becomes widespread throughout the body or causes severe harm to vital organ

functions, the organism will eventually succumb to organ failure and die. Radiation is capable of acting

as a proliferation agent in the formation of cancer in the skin of mice.

Gene mutation is a key step in the formation of cancer. Any gene or any locus on the DNA can be

affected by a genotoxic agent and undergo. Certain gene mutations and chromosomal irregularities are

associated with specific cancers in humans and laboratory animals. These genes are called protooncogenes, oncogenes, and tumor suppressor genes. Proto-oncogenes are similar to viral oncogenes. 

Proto-oncogenes are considered normal genes. When mutated, proto-oncogenes become oncogenes,

which, in turn, initiate carcinogenesis. Both proto-oncogenes and oncogenes are dominant genes that

normally function to regulate cell growth, signal transduction, and nuclear transcription (Pitot III and

Dragan 1996). Mutations in these genes result in the activation and subsequent neoplastic transformation

of cells containing these mutated genes. Conversely, tumor suppressor genes are recessive genes which

normally function to slow cell growth. When these genes mutate, cells lose this capacity to downregulate cell growth, which results in the activation and subsequent neoplastic transformation of the

mutated cells. Radiation may cause mutations in proto-oncogenes, oncogenes, and tumor suppressor

genes.
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Environmental factors have also been shown to play a role in lung carcinogenesis, particularly in the

promotion stage. These environmental factors include tobacco, silicon dust, diesel fumes, and possibly

other toxicants found in the breathable air of mines. Other factors that have been related to chemicallyinduced cancers include alcohol use, food additives, diet, sexual behavior, occupation, air and water

pollution, pharmaceuticals, and bacterial and viral infections. 

5.6 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA NEEDS

The following has been identified as a potential data need regarding health effects associated with

exposure to ionizing radiation.

Environmental factors, such as tobacco, silicon dust, diesel fumes, and possibly other toxicants found in

the breathable air of mines, together with radiation, have been shown to play a role in the development of

lung cancer. More research is needed on biomarkers as identifiers of unique DNA and cellular changes

associated with exposure to radiation. More research is also needed to determine possible interactions

between other carcinogens and ionizing radiation.

Human epidemiological studies have clear limitations in the low-dose range, and mechanistic studies may

be important in further clarifying the true effects at low doses. In this regard, there is a need to more fully

understand the role of DNA repair at low dose, gene expression in carcinogenesis, and the role of

radiation in cancer promotion and progression. Mechanistic studies should be considered for noncarcinogenic effects such as human developmental radiobiology, particularly for internal emitters.

5.7 SUMMARY

This chapter summarized the major mechanisms by which ionizing radiation exerts it toxic effects on cell

structure. Macromolecules, in particular DNA, are the critical molecules for damage from radiation. The

method by which radiation interacts with a biological medium may be direct or indirect. Damage can

occur due to direct ionization of the DNA molecule itself or indirectly through the formation of toxic

products, such as free radicals, hydrogen peroxide, hydroperoxy radicals, and hydroperoxy ions, that

diffuse from the site of formation and interact with any molecules in their path. Since cells rely heavily

on their DNA for instruction information, when the genetic information containing the “blueprint” for this

information is disrupted, cell homeostasis is disrupted, and a wide range of biological responses is 
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5. MECHANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

encountered. These responses include non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic end points. Other molecules,

such as lipids, proteins, thiols, amino acids, and carbohydrates, can also be damaged when irradiated. A

number of models were presented that reflect possible mechanisms of cancer induction, as well as a brief

discussion of the three steps of cancer formation. By knowing the specific mechanisms by which

radiation produces carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic end points, research can focus on identifying

biomarkers of effect with which to better assess the effects of low-level radiation exposure.
.
IONIZING RADIATION 231



 



 







 





















 

 















 















 









 









































Nuclear Medicine

4%

Radon

55%

X Rays

11%

Consumer 

Products 3%

Other

<1%

Terrestrial

8%

Cosmic

8%

Natural Internal

11%

Figure 6-1. Radiation Exposure to the Average U.S. Citizen

adapted from (NCRP1987a)

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

6.1 OVERVIEW

All organisms (e.g., bacteria, plants, or

animals, including humans) are exposed

everyday to varying amounts of ionizing

radiation. Figure 6-1 shows average

contributions from various sources of

radiation to which the average U.S.

citizen is exposed during his or her

lifetime. Approximately 82% of the

radiation dose is from natural sources:

55% from radon (see Figure 1-3), 8%

from cosmic radiation (from the sun and

stars), another 8% from terrestrial

sources (radioactive material in rocks and soil), and 11% from internal sources (radioactive materials,

primarily potassium-40, from food and water consumed in the daily diet).

The remaining 18% of the dose comes from anthropogenic (man-made) sources such as medical x ray

exposure (11%), nuclear medicine procedures exposure (4%), consumer products (3%), and other sources

(<1%). These other sources include occupational exposure, nuclear fallout, and the nuclear fuel cycle. 

The total average annual effective dose equivalent for the population of the United States, natural and

anthropogenic, is approximately 360 mrem (3.6 mSv) and is described further in Chapter 1 of this profile

(BEIR V 1990).

The majority of exposure to radiation comes from natural sources. With the exception of indoor radon

exposure (and to some extent exposure from terrestrial sources), exposure to natural radiation is only

moderately controllable. Controllability in relation to radon refers to mitigation of radon concentrations

in buildings and homes. The average annual effective dose equivalent from all natural sources combined

is approximately 3 mSv (300 mrem). Of this amount, approximately 98 mrem (98 mSv) is due to 
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

background radiation; this includes cosmic rays, 29 mrem (0.29 mSv); terrestrial gamma rays, 29 mrem

(0.29 mSv); and naturally existing radionuclides within the body, 40 mrem (0.40 mSv). Individual doses

from natural sources may be much greater. The magnitude of natural exposures depends upon numerous

factors such as geographic location, height above sea level, and the construction and ventilation of

buildings. For instance, the average annual radiation dose received by a person living in Boston,

Massachusetts, is approximately 300 mrem (3 mSv), while people living in Denver, Colorado, and

Kerala, India, receive average annual doses of approximately 600 mrem and 1500 mrem, respectively. 

The difference in these doses is due mainly to greater concentrations of radioactive materials found in the

soils of the Colorado and Kerala areas and to a smaller extent the increase in cosmic radiation at higher

altitudes in these areas (BEIR V 1990; Eisenbud 1987; Harvard Medical School 1996; UNSCEAR 1993).

Commonly used terms and scientific unit symbols and abbreviations used in this chapter are defined in

Table 6-1 and Table 6-2, respectively. These and other terms may also be found in the glossary in

Chapter 9 or in the index at the end of this toxicologic profile. The following sections discuss natural

external exposures (Sections 6.2 and 6.3), natural internal exposures (Section 6.4), and internal and

external man-made/industrial exposures (Sections 6.5, 6.6, and 6.7).

6.2 COSMIC RADIATION EXPOSURE

Cosmic radiation contributes an estimated 8% to the average population radiation dose. It is primarily

composed of galactic radiation originating outside the solar system in addition to a varying degree of

solar radiation. The primary cosmic rays that arrive in the upper atmosphere are high-energy subatomic

particles—primarily protons, but also nuclei and electrons— moving almost at the speed of light; these

primary rays create secondary rays that bathe the atmosphere in radiation. Austrian physicist Victor Hess

discovered cosmic rays in 1912 when he and two assistants flew a balloon to an altitude of 16,000 ft

(4,877 meters). Hess proved that the source of a mysterious radiation previously detected over the ocean,

where terrestrial radiation levels were expected to be very low, was actually coming from outside the

atmosphere; he also found that the rate of decline in radiation as the balloon ascended over land was

slower than would be expected if the radiation emanated from the earth. The difference is caused by the

cosmic rays. Only a small fraction of cosmic radiation originates from the sun; however, the proportion

of cosmic radiation contributed by the sun increases during periods of increased sunspot and solar flare

activity, which run in 
IONIZING RADIATION 233

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Table 6-1. Common Terms and Abbreviations

becquerel (Bq) SI unit for quantity of radioactive material; 1 Bq equals that quantity of

radioactive material in which there is 1 transformation or disintegration per

second (dps).

curie (Ci) Conventional unit for quantity of radioactive material. One Ci is the quantity

of any radionuclide in which there are 37 billion transformations or

disintegrations in 1 second. This is the activity of 1 gram of 226Ra. 

rad The unit of absorbed dose equal to 0.01 Joule/kg in any medium.

gray (Gy) SI unit of absorbed dose.

rem Conventional unit for dose equivalent. The dose equivalent in rem is

numerically equal to the absorbed dose in rad multiplied by the quality

factor.

roentgen (R) A unit of x ray and gamma ray exposure. It is measured by the amount of

ionization in air produced by x ray and gamma radiation. One R equals

2.58x10-4 coulomb per kg of air.

sievert (Sv) The SI unit of dose equivalent. It is equal to the dose in grays times a

quality factor; 1 Sv equals 100 rem.

quality factor (Q) The linear-energy-transfer-dependent factor by which absorbed doses are

multiplied to obtain (for radiation protection purposes) a quantity that

expresses the effectiveness of the absorbed dose on a common scale for all

ionizing radiation.

Table 6-2. Scientific Units

Prefix (symbol) Power of 10 Decimal Equivalent

atto 10-18 0.000000000000000001

femto (f) 10-15 0.000000000000001

pico (p) 10-12 0.000000000001

nano (n) 10-9 0.000000001

micro (μ) 10-6 0.000001

milli (m) 10-3 0.001

centi (c) 10-2 0.01

deci (d) 10-1 0.1

kilo (k) 103 1,000

mega (M) 106 1,000,000

giga (G) 109 1,000,000,000

tera (T) 1012 1,000,000,000,000

peta (P) 1015 1,000,000,000,000,000

exa (E) 1018 1,000,000,000,000,000,000
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

11-year cycles. Cosmic rays bombard the periphery of the earth’s atmosphere at a rate of 2x1018 particles

per second, at a density of about 4 rays/cm2

-sec, and at an energy flux of 2,000 MeV/cm2•sec. These

rays, referred to as “primary cosmic rays,” are deflected and slowed by particles in the earth’s

atmosphere, creating “secondary cosmic rays” that often reach and even penetrate the earth’s surface. 

The interaction of cosmic rays with the atmosphere leads to the production of several cosmogenic

radionuclides, notably carbon-14 (14C), tritium (3

H) and beryllium-7 (7Be). Because of the shielding

effect of the atmosphere and the earth’s geomagnetic fields, which tend to deflect charged cosmic ray

particles towards the magnetic poles, the cosmic ray dose rate increases with altitude and latitude. The

average annual dose from cosmic radiation in the United States is 29 mrem (0.29 mSv), but this value

doubles for every 6,000-foot (1,828 meters) increase in altitude. Thus, the dose from cosmic rays

received in Denver, Colorado, and Leadville, Colorado (altitudes of 1,600 m and 3,200 m, respectively),

is approximately two and four times that received at sea level, respectively (Eisenbud 1987; Korff 1964;

NASA 1995; Shapiro 1990; UNSCEAR 1993). At altitudes of 30,000 to 40,000 feet (9144 to 12192

meters), where most jet aircraft fly, the cosmic ray dose rate is about 1 mrem per hour (0.01 mSv/hr).

6.3 TERRESTRIAL RADIATION EXPOSURE

Cosmic radiation contributes approximately the same amount of background radiation as terrestrial

radiation (8%), which is emitted by naturally occurring radioactive materials found in the earth’s crust,

such as 40K, uranium and its progeny, and thorium and its progeny (see Figure 6-1). Uranium, for

example, is found in all types of soil and rock at concentrations ranging from 0.003 ppm in meteorites to

120 ppm in phosphate rock from Florida. Exposure to radioactive materials in the soil and earthen

products occurs continuously since we are surrounded by these sources. The radiation dose varies

tremendously and is affected by such factors as geographic location, concentration of natural radioactive

materials in the soil and building materials, and the types of materials used in building structures.

Some communities situated on soil with high concentrations of granite or mineral sand receive doses

many times the average. Examples include coastal areas in Espiritos Santos and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil;

Kerala, on the southwest coast of India; and the Guangdong province in China. In Brazil, the black sand

beaches are composed of monazite, a rare earth mineral containing 9% radioactive thorium. External

radiation dose rates from these sands may be as high as 5 mrem/hr (0.05 mSv/hr); permanent residents

experience an average annual dose equivalent of approximately 500 mrem (5 mSv). In Kerala, on the 
IONIZING RADIATION 235

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

west coast of India, residents receive 1,300–1,500 mrem (13–15 mSv) annually, due to the presence of

monazite sand. Some dose rates are as high as 3,000 mrem/yr (Eisenbud and Gesell 1997).

Apart from radiation exposures due to living in close proximity to the earth’s crust, people are also

exposed to additional radiation when earth crust products (oil, coal, coal ash, minerals) are extracted,

refined, and used. The naturally occurring radioactive materials in these products are concentrated into

what is called technologically enhanced naturally-occurring radioactive materials (TENORM). In

general, the hazards of exposure to TENORM during the extraction and processing of earth materials are

relatively small compared to the hazards of exposure to other chemicals. As a result, radiation exposure

from these sources, with the exception of uranium mining, milling, and processing, is not routinely

monitored (Eisenbud 1987; UNSCEAR 1993). The radiation hazards associated with the mining of coal,

oil, natural gas, phosphate rock products, and sand are discussed below.

Radon exposure makes up the largest fraction of total radiation dose and contributes to both internal and

external radiation exposures. The following subsections discuss various radioactive materials primarily

associated with external radiation exposures from various terrestrial activities. Radon is inherent in these

terrestrial sources, as well, and is discussed because of its association, but with the understanding that it is

a major internal radiation exposure source.

6.3.1 Coal Production

Exposure to radionuclides occurs during the mining and use of coal and coal ash. The methods of coal

usage vary considerably among countries; on average worldwide, about 40% of coal is burned in electric

power stations, 10% in dwellings, and 50% in other industries. Based on samples from 15 countries, the

average concentrations of 40K, 238U, and 232Th in coal are 50, 20, and 20 Bq/kg (1.35, 0.54, and

0.54 nCi/kg), respectively. These concentrations may vary considerably, depending upon the mine

location. For example, concentrations of these radionuclides in China are 104, 36, and 30 Bq/kg (2.81,

0.97, and 0.81 nCi/kg), respectively. Coal mine exhaust typically contains radon; the estimated annual

per person dose from radon in coal mine dust is 0.1–2 nSv. The average annual per person doses of

radiation from coal-fired power plants and from domestic cooking with coal are about 0.2 mrem (2 μSv)

and 0.04–0.8 mrem (0.4–8 μSv), respectively.
IONIZING RADIATION 236

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

About 280 million tons of coal ash are produced by power plants each year. Potential uses for the ash

include fertilizers and building materials for roads and dwellings. Most U.S. power plants recover fly ash

exhaust using scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, or bag houses. The radioactive content of coal tends

to concentrate in the ash, resulting in 5- to 10-fold increases in the concentration of lead-210 (210Pb) and

polonium-210 (210Po) as compared to unburned coal. When fly ash is used in building materials, the

degree of external exposure to radiation and the inhalation of radon gas increases directly with the amount

of ash incorporated into these materials, and, for radon, the porosity of the materials. The average annual

exposure associated with living in concrete and wooden houses is 7 mrem (70 μSv) and 3 mrem (30 μSv),

respectively. An EPA report published in 1979 estimated that the exposure to radioactive materials

emitted from all 250 coal-fired power plants resulted in an additional 1.5 cancers per year

(Eisenbud 1987; EPA 1979 as cited by Eisenbud; UNSCEAR 1982, 1988).

6.3.2 Crude Oil and Natural Gas Production

About 3x1012 kg of crude oil and 1012 m3

 of natural gas are produced worldwide annually. Oil-fired

power plants use about 15% of all oil. Gas-fired power plants are estimated to use about 15% of all gas. 

Radon is present in natural gas; concentrations of radon in gas at well heads average approximately

40 pCi/L (1.5 Bq/L). The processing and blending of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) tends to enhance

radon concentrations, and the long-lived radon daughters (210Pb and 210Po) tend to accumulate on LPG

processing machinery, resulting in low level exposure to maintenance workers. The annual per person

doses from crude oil and gas are estimated to be 0.001 mrem (10 nSv) and 0.0001 mrem (1 nSv),

respectively. The estimated doses are small and result from inhalation of radioactive particles and radon

gas (Eisenbud 1987; UNSCEAR 1993).

6.3.3 Phosphate Rock Products

Phosphate rock, the precursor of all phosphorous products including fertilizer, is mined at a rate of

130 million tons per year worldwide. The worldwide use of fertilizer, estimated to be 30 million tons,

constitutes the greatest source of 40K and 226Ra mobility. In the United States, the application rate for

fertilizers ranges from 30 kg of phosphate per hectare (barley) to 150 kg/hectare (potatoes and tobacco)

for commercial agricultural application, and possibly less for residential applications. Concentrations of

40K and 232Th in phosphate rock are similar to those in soil (a few grams per hundred grams of soil and a

few grams per million grams of soil, respectively). Levels of 238U and its transformation products are 
IONIZING RADIATION 237

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

much higher in phosphate rock than in soil. Concentrations of 238U in phosphate deposits are typically

about 1,500 Bq/kg (40.5 nCi/kg). The practice of using phosphate fertilizers has resulted in uranium

concentrations in food at levels up to 8 ng/g (0.005 pCi/g). Exposure to the general public occurs near

areas of mining and processing through waste effluent. Several end-products of phosphate processing,

phosphogypsum and calcium silicate, are used for fertilizer, for back-fill and road-base material, in

additives to concrete, in mine reclamation, and in the recovery of sulphur. Phosphogypsum is also used

as a substitute for natural gypsum in the manufacture of cement, wallboard and plaster. The primary

radioactive material in phosphogypsum is 226Ra, which is found at concentrations of 900 Bq/kg

(24.3 nCi/kg).

Exposure to phosphate-borne radioactivity also occurs as a result of discharges into surface waters. The

primary pathway of exposure to radioactivity in humans is through the consumption of fish and shellfish. 

Elevated concentrations of radon have been detected in structures built over reclaimed phosphate mines,

and over unmined mineral deposits. Maximum annual individual doses near phosphate facilities range

from 4 mrem (40 μSv) in the Netherlands to 600 mrem (6 mSv) in the United States. The average annual

per person dose of 40K derived from fertilizers is approximately 0.2 mrem (2 μSv); while the average per

person dose from potassium in the body is about 20 mrem (0.2 mSv) per year, maximum annual

individual doses, from consumption of seafood, have been estimated at 15 mrem (150 μSv), with 210Po as

the main contributor. The annual per person radiation dose from 226Ra-laden phosphogypsum in building

materials is estimated to be about 1 mrem (0.01 mSv) (Eisenbud 1987; Shapiro 1990; UNSCEAR 1982,

1988, 1993). The use and disposal of phosphogypsum is regulated by the EPA, and these regulations are

intended to ensure that the public is not exposed to unsafe levels of radionuclides from this material.

6.3.4 Sand

Mineral sands, defined as sands with a specific gravity of more than 2.9, originate from eroded rock. 

These sands are mined in Australia, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. The heavy

mineral is extracted from the sand and is processed into, among other items, paint pigment, titanium

metals, catalysts, and structural materials. The sand itself is used as abrasive material for sandblasting. 

The principal radioactive components are 232Th and 238U. Exposure is mainly external through minerals

spilled at the processing plants. Although information on exposures is scant, annual levels are estimated

to be in the low μSv range (UNSCEAR 1993).
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

6.3.5 Hot Springs and Caves 

Geothermal energy, produced in Iceland, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Russia, and the United States, is

produced from steam or water from high-temperature areas within the earth’s crust. Mineral springs and

spas, which are found in South America, Europe, Japan, and the United States, are also clustered around

these high-temperature areas of the earth’s crust. The primary radionuclides in this source are those of the

uranium transformation chain. Of these, 226Ra and 222Rn are considered to be the most important to public

health.

The diffusion of radon from ordinary rock and soils and from radon-rich water can cause notably elevated

radon concentrations in tunnels, caves, and spas. In Bad Gastein, Austria, approximately 5 million

gallons of mineral water are distributed to hotels and spas daily, allowing the release of about 58 Ci (2

Mbq) of radon per year into the environment. In comparison with levels in outdoor air, the concentrations

of radon and its transformation products in confined air spaces such as mines and caves are elevated. The

average annual per person radiation dose from this source is estimated to be 0.0001 mrem (1 nSv);

however, the doses received by those intentionally spending time in these environs (e.g., tourists,

workers, miners) are much greater than this amount (Eisenbud 1987; IARC 1988; UNSCEAR 1993).

6.4 NATURAL INTERNAL EXPOSURE 

Natural internal radionuclides contribute an estimated 11% to the average population radiation dose. 

Radioactive materials enter the body by inhalation, ingestion, or dermal absorption. Although radioactive

materials may also enter the body through punctures (either wounds or injections), this route of exposure

will not be addressed in this toxicological profile.

The effects induced by internally deposited nuclides or external radiation are classified as either "acute"

(early-occurring effects of radiation, which appear within days or weeks after exposure) or "latent"

(chronic or late-occurring effects of radiation, which appear months or years after exposure). Acute

effects are not expected for natural sources of radiation because they are not capable of producing high

dose rates in a short period of time. However, they may cause latent effects. The most common latent

radiation effect is an increased probability of certain types of cancer. More information on the health

effects of ionizing radiation can be found in Chapter 3 of this toxicological profile.
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

6.4.1 Inhalation

The sources of inhaled radioactive materials include debris from atmospheric nuclear testing; nuclear

reactor and medical gaseous waste; radioactive materials manufacturing; diagnostic medical radionuclide

use; coal- and gas-burning power plants; airborne soil; and naturally emanating gases. The radionuclides

(and their average concentrations) commonly found in the atmosphere include: 222Rn and 220Rn

(270 pCi/m3

 [10 MBq/m3] each); 210Pb (0.01 pCi/m3); 210Po (0.001 pCi/m3); 238U (12x10-5 pCi/m3); 232Th

(3x10-5 pCi/m3

); 230Th; (4.5x10-5 pCi/m3); and 228Th (3x10-5 pCi/m3), 14C and 3H. In addition, smokers are

exposed to radiation from the radionuclide 210Po, which is found in tobacco; the resulting dose to the

bronchial epithelium can be as high as 20 mrem (0.2 mSv) per year (NCRP 1984; Shapiro 1990;

UNSCEAR 1993).

The largest dose of radiation from natural sources comes from the inhalation of 222Rn and 220Rn (thoron)

gases. These colorless and odorless gases, which are in the uranium and thorium transformation chains,

respectively, are continuously released from the soil. Worldwide, the total emanation rate of radon is

estimated to be 50 Ci/sec (2 TBq/sec); the total atmospheric content is estimated to be 25 MCi (1 EBq). 

The main factors controlling the rate of radon release and subsequent exposure are: ground porosity,

ground cover, temperature, meteorological conditions, and the type of construction and ventilation

properties of dwellings. The rate of radon emanation from soil is thought to increase with diminished

atmospheric pressure and to decrease during periods of, or in areas of, elevated moisture, while the

atmospheric concentration of radon tends to increase during temperature inversions and as the humidity

decreases. 

The health hazards of radon exposure were first recognized in the 1930s when radium miners in Scheenburg, Germany, and Joachimstal, Czechoslovakia, were found to have a high incidence of lung cancer. 

Over half of all miner deaths were attributed to lung cancer, and most of the miners were less than 50

years of age when they died. In the general U.S. population, the EPA estimated that radon exposure

accounts for approximately 10% (17,000) of all lung cancers, while smoking accounts for approximately

85% (144,500) of all lung cancers. The average annual effective dose equivalent from radon is about

200 mrem (2 mSv), but individual doses may be much higher. It is estimated that 1–3% of all homes

have radon levels in excess of 8 pCi/L, which is twice the EPA recommended residential limit of 4 pCi/L. 

Approximately 50,000 to 100,000 homes in the U.S. have radon concentrations exceeding 20 pCi/L,

which results in exposures equal to or exceeding the limit for occupational exposure. The 220Rn doses are

considerably lower than those of 222Rn, due to its short half-life (55 sec for 220Rn versus 3.8 days for
IONIZING RADIATION 240

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

222Rn). Both 220Rn and 222Rn have several short-lived progeny in their transformation chains (see Table 6-

3), and radiation from these daughter products constitutes the hazard from radon. Thus, in assessing the

effects associated with radon exposure, one must consider the simultaneous and cumulative effect of the

entire radon series (BEIR V 1990; Eisenbud 1987; LBL 1993; NCI 1996; Shapiro 1990; UNSCEAR

1993).

Table 6-3. Radioactive Properties of 222Radon and its Daughter Products

Radiation energies (MeV)

Radionuclide Half-life αβ γ

222Radon 3.8 days 5.49 — —

218Polonium 3.1 minutes 6.00 — —

214Lead 26.8 minutes — 0.67

0.73

0.30

0.35

214Bismuth 19.9 minutes — 1.51

1.54

3.27

0.61

1.12

1.76

214Polonium 164 μseconds 7.60 — 0.8

210Lead 22.3 years — 0.016

0.06

0.05

210Bismuth 5 days — 1.16 —

210Polonium 138 days 5.31 — —

206Lead No half-life; stable element

Source: adapted from Schleien 1992 (includes radiations over 10% intensity)

Coal mine exhaust and the combustion products from the use of coal and oil typically contain radon and

daughter products, which contribute doses of 0.001 mrem (10 nSv) or less. The average annual per

person doses from radiation from coal- and oil-fired power plants are about 0.2 mrem (2 μSv) and

0.001 mrem (10 nSv), respectively. The average annual per person dose from radiation from domestic

cooking and heating with coal is about 0.04–0.8 mrem (0.4–8 μSv); this dose originates primarily from

radon and its daughter products (UNSCEAR 1993).

Several radioactive by-products of the nuclear power industry may be inhaled and result in internal

exposure. During uranium fuel fabrication, uranium hexafluoride gas is enriched to increase the

percentage of 235U and then converted into uranium oxide or metal. Depending upon the type of reactor 
IONIZING RADIATION 241

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

fuel or nuclear weapons material being produced, uranium must be enriched to a minimum of 3% 235U for

fuel and 93.5% for nuclear weapons. Emissions from fabrication facilities usually consist of the longlived isotopes 234U, 235U, and 238U, and the short-lived isotopes 234Th, and protactinium-234m (234mPa). 

The major route of exposure from this source is inhalation. More information about uranium is available

in the ATSDR Toxicological Profile for Uranium (ATSDR 1999).

6.4.2 Ingestion

The sources of radionuclides that contribute to radiation exposure by ingestion include nuclear weapons

testing, the accidental or intentional release of radioactivity from nuclear reactors, the release of medical

or experimental radionuclides into sanitary sewers, and naturally occurring radionuclides (which normally

represent the source of highest oral dose). For most radionuclides present at waste sites containing low

levels of radioactive nuclides, oral exposure is not a major route of exposure. There is a small probability

of radionuclide ingestion because of the potential for surface water and groundwater contamination and

uptake by plants and animals following erosion of ground cover from a contaminated site.

Among the naturally occurring radionuclides, uranium, 40K, and 226Ra are found in soils and fertilizers; as

a result, they are incorporated into foods consumed by animals and humans. The practice of using

phosphate fertilizers has resulted in uranium concentrations in food at levels up to 8 ng/g, resulting in an

estimated average annual intake of uranium from dietary sources of 10 Bq; as a result, the average

skeletal content of uranium is estimated to be 25 μg, which is equivalent to approximately 17 pCi

(Eisenbud 1987; UNSCEAR 1993). 

The most important radionuclides that are ingested are 40K, 226Ra, and the transformation products of

226Ra. However, wherever it is found, all potassium is radioactive because its natural isotope, 40K, is

radioactive. The body content of potassium is under strict homeostatic control and is maintained at a

relatively constant level of about 140 g/70 kg. This amount of potassium contains approximately 0.1 μCi

(4,000 Bq) of 40K. Because the body controls the potassium balance, environmental variations have little

effect on the 40K content in the body (Eisenbud 1987; Shapiro 1990). This natural 40K delivers a dose of

20 mrem/year (0.2 mSv/year) to the gonads and other soft tissues and 15 mrem/year (0.15 mSv/year) to

bone.

FDA has developed guidelines for radionuclide levels in food for individuals from 3 months to adult that

are summarized in Chapter 7 (Regulations), Table 7-4, FDA Derived Intervention Levels (FDA 1998).
IONIZING RADIATION 242

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

6.4.3 Dermal

For the purposes of this profile, dermal exposure to radionuclides refers to exposures from a radionuclide

placed in direct contact with skin surface. Dermal exposure is typically a minor route of internal and

external exposure. In general, depending on the specific physical properties of the radionuclide that may

reside on the skin, the percutaneous absorption of radionuclides from particles is negligible, especially if

the skin is thoroughly washed immediately after exposure. The long-term biological effects of dermally

absorbed radionuclides are limited to the level of the epidermis and dermis (and its vasculature). More

soluble forms of the radionuclides may result in a small percentage of the nuclide being absorbed if it is

not removed from the skin's surface, for example tritium, as tritiated water or vapor, is readily absorbed

into the body through the skin. Generally, the skin is an effective barrier against absorption of

radionuclides (except for tritiated water) into the body. The dermal exposure pathway is, therefore, a

minor route of exposure at low-level radioactive waste sites.

6.5 X RAY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE EXPOSURES

Radioactive materials and other sources of ionizing radiation are widely used in the diagnosis and

treatment of some diseases in human and veterinary medicine (NCRP 1989a; 1996). They represent 15%

of the average population dose, 11% for x rays and 4% for nuclear medicine. In 1989, the estimated

number of x ray machines used in the US was 109,000 for medical diagnosis, 143,000 for dental

diagnosis, and 1,300 for therapy: 3 million diagnostic examinations were made which produced a

collective US dose of 92,000 man•Sv (9,200,000 man-rem). Typical effective dose equivalents for

various procedures are 0.14 mSv (14 mrem) for a chest x ray, 1.0 mSv (100 mrem) for mammography,

and 7.2 mSv (720 mrem) for an upper GI tract evaluation. Due to the usefulness of nuclear medicine,

radioactive drugs and diagnostic compounds have become significant contributors to internal radiation

dose from man-made sources today. The average U.S. nuclear medicine examination gives an effective

dose equivalent of 5 mSv (500 mrem) with individual prodedured delivering 2.5 mSv (250 mrem) for a

thyroid uptake, 6.3 mSv (630 mrem) for a bone scan, and 14 mSv (1,400 mrem) for a cardiovascular

screen. Each year in the US, the collective effective dose from nuclear medicine procedures is 32,000

man•Sv (3,200,000 man-rem). Therapeutic doses are much larger to the individual but many fewer

individuals are exposed. After many millions of diagnostic radionuclide procedures, we have found no

increase in cancers from these procedures.
IONIZING RADIATION 243

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

The common sources of radiation exposure associated with radiotherapy and diagnosis include x rays,

thallium-201 (201Tl), technetium-99m (99mTc), 125I, and 131I. More exposures are related to diagnosis than

to therapy, and the average number of treatments per person increases as the level of health care

improves. Also, the average dose per individual treatment tends to decrease as techniques and equipment

improve. Overall, x ray treatments deliver a higher average per person dose in industrialized nations

(average of 0.3–2.2 mSv) than in countries with less developed health care (average exposure

0.02–0.2 mSv). On an individual basis, the average dose increases with age, from 52 mrem/year in

adolescents to 151 mrem/year in persons over 65 years of age. Exposures are usually lower for

examinations of the extremities and skull and higher for examination of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. In

the United States, the average annual dose to the bone marrow from this source increased from 83 mrem

in 1964 to 103 mrem in 1970. A person receiving a full set of dental x rays would add approximately

40 mrem to his or her annual dose. On the other hand, the average annual dose per patient from the

diagnostic use of radionuclides is lower in industrialized nations, largely because of greater use of 99mTc. 

This radionuclide is preferred over 131I because its shorter half-life (6 hours versus 8 days) gives a much

lower patient dose. There is currently no radioiodine in the atmosphere due to atmospheric testing

because of the 8-day half-life of 131I. The shorter half-life and higher cost of 99mTc make it more available

in developed than in developing nations, where 131I has frequent use. While the average dose (per

individual) in patients undergoing radiotherapy is much greater than in patients undergoing diagnosis, the

exposure group is much smaller, resulting in a lower overall population-at-risk. Unfortunately, serious

exposures resulting from failures of equipment, procedures, or personnel errors (usually a result of not

following procedures) sometimes occur, with several hundred failures out of several hundred million

procedures per year worldwide.

There are several emerging trends in diagnostic nuclear medicine. Some of these trends include: the

introduction of radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies for imaging and treatment; the emergence of new

compounds used in positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed

tomography (SPECT) studies; and the use of computed x ray tomography (CAT scans). Radiolabeled

monoclonal antibodies have proven useful in the localization of tumors and metastases. Common

radionuclides associated with these antibodies include indium-111 (111In), 131I, and 99mTc. SPECT is used

for tumor localization, brain and cardiac studies, and bone or abdominal imaging. PET, which uses

nuclides such as 11C and 18F, can gather anatomical and physiological information that would otherwise be

difficult to collect. Whole-body imaging using radiolabeled compounds (e.g., anticancer drugs) is

becoming a common PET application (DOE 1996; Eisenbud 1987; Shapiro 1990; UNSCEAR 1993).
IONIZING RADIATION 244

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

The use of radiopharmaceuticals has stabilized in industrialized countries but is increasing in developing

countries. Long-lived radionuclides are used more frequently in developing countries, while

industrialized countries tend to use short-lived radionuclides. This results in increased exposures per

examination among developing country patients compared to those of industrialized nations. For

example, a typical thyroid scintigraphy with 99mTc can give an effective dose of less than 0.1 rem (1 mSv),

while the same procedure using 131I gives 10 rem (100 mSv); however, 99mTc is less readily available in

developing countries. Although the average per patient dose equivalent is lower in developed (2–5 mSv

[200-500 mrem]) than in less developed countries (20 mSv [2,000 mrem]), an apparently larger fraction

of individuals in developed nations receive nuclear medicine treatment, so the average per capita annual

dose from radiopharmaceuticals in developed countries (0.07 mSv [7 mrem]) is an order of magnitude

more than that of developing nations (0.004 mSv [4mrem]) (UNSCEAR 1993).

Radionuclides are frequently produced and used in industry, medicine, and research. The number of

users and frequency of radionuclide use are both steadily increasing. The number of establishments in

Japan that generate and/or use radionuclides has increased from 100 in 1960 to 5,000 in 1990. The public

may be exposed to radionuclides from these sources as a result of routine use or from being near someone

who has recently received a nuclear medicine procedure, as well as improper handling, use, or disposal. 

In Japan, the usage of 14C, 125I, 3H, and 131I has been estimated to be 5.2, 6.1, 14, and 34 GBq (0.14, 0.16,

0.38, and 0.92 Ci) per million persons, respectively. In contrast, the production of 14C in the United

States and Britain has been estimated to be 30 and 55 GBq (0.81 and 1.49 Ci) per million, respectively. 

The annual global production and usage of 14C has been estimated to be 30 GBq (810 mCi) per million

persons, or a total of 0.05 PBq (1.5 kCi). The total amount of 131I produced in Sweden for medical

purposes was estimated to be 0.9 TBq (110 GBq [2.97 Ci] per million) in 1986, while the amount of 131I

discharged from Australian hospitals in 1988 and 1989 was estimated to be 2.9 TBq

(190 GBq [5.13 Ci] per million) (UNSCEAR 1993). Information about some radionuclides used for

medical applications is shown in Table 6-4.

3

H and noble gases are released to the air, while 14C release is through airborne and fluid effluents. The

isotopes 131I and 125I are primarily released through liquid effluent. The annual collective dose from

medical and radiopharmaceutical wastes to local populations is thought to be in the range of 

10,000 man•rem (100 man•Sv). This level of exposure is relatively unimportant compared to that from

other sources (Eisenbud 1987; UNSCEAR 1993).
IONIZING RADIATION 245

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Table 6-4. Some Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Medicine

Radionuclide Preparation Use Properties

99mTc Albumin Reduce pertechnetate 99mTc

in the presence of human

albumin, ascorbic acid,

FeCl2, and SnCl2. 

Primarily used for lung imaging. 

Also used for imaging of coronary,

urogenital, liver, gastrointestinal,

lymphatic, and peripheral

circulation.

The biological clearance halflife from the lungs of 14 to

15 hours. 

111In Albumin Incubate 111In with human

albumin in phosphate at

pH 3; adjust pH to 11 and

heat.

Primarily used for lung imaging. 

Also used for imaging of coronary,

urogenital, liver, gastrointestinal,

lymphatic, and peripheral

circulation.

The biological clearance halflife from the lungs of 14 to

15 hours. 

113mIn Albumin Incubate 113mIn with human

albumin in phosphate at

pH 3; adjust pH to 11 and

heat.

Primarily used for lung imaging. 

Also used for imaging of coronary,

urogenital, liver, gastrointestinal,

lymphatic, and peripheral

circulation.

The biological clearance halflife from the lungs of 14 to

15 hours. 

203Pb Albumin Incubate ionic 203Pb with

human albumin at pH 10

with heat.

Primarily used for lung imaging. 

Also used for imaging of coronary,

urogenital, liver, gastrointestinal,

lymphatic, and peripheral

circulation.

The biological clearance halflife from the lungs of 14 to

15 hours. 

51Cr Albumin Incubate 51CrCl3 with human

albumin

Detection and quantitation of

gastrointestinal protein loss and

placental localization

Cr (III) has strong affinity for

plasma proteins without

affecting (binding to) red

blood cells.

125I Albumin Mild iodination of human

albumin at 10 EC in slightly

alkaline medium

Diagnostic aid in determining total

blood and plasma volumes

Longer shelf life than 131I;

emits no beta radiation (all

gamma emissions); lower

doses needed to obtain

greater resolution compared

to 131I

131I Albumin Mild iodination of human

albumin at 10 EC in slightly

alkaline medium

Diagnostic aid in determining total

blood and plasma volumes,

circulation times, or cardiac output.

May cause sensitization.

131I Albumin,

aggregated

Mild iodination of human

albumin at 10 EC in slightly

alkaline medium

Diagnostic study of the lungs,

especially the diagnosis of

pulmonary embolisms.

Aggregates block a small

percentage (<0.5%) of the

fine capillaries. Disintegrating

aggregates are cleared by

phagocytic Kupffer cells in the

liver. Thyroid uptake may be

blocked by prior

administration of Lugol’s

solution.

197Hg

Chlormerodrin

Reflux allylurea with 197Hg 

mercuric acetate in

methanol; add aqueous

sodium chloride

Diagnostic aid in scanning the brain

for lesions. Also used for scanning

kidneys for anatomical and

functional abnormalities.

Rapidly cleared by the

kidneys. Provides smaller

radiation dose compared to

131I albumin. A high

tumor:background ratio is

obtained within 4 hours,

allowing quicker scans with

greater resolution.
IONIZING RADIATION 246

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Table 6-4. Some Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Medicine (continued)

Radionuclide Preparation Use Properties

203Hg

Chlormerodrin

Reflux allylurea with

203Hg mercuric acetate in

methanol; add aqueous

sodium chloride

Diagnostic aid in scanning the brain

for lesions. Also used for scanning

kidneys for anatomical and

functional abnormalities.

Rapidly cleared by the

kidneys. Provides smaller

radiation dose compared to

131I albumin. A high

tumor:background ratio is

obtained within 4 hours,

allowing quicker scans with

greater resolution.

32P Chromic

phosphate

React Na2H32PO4 with

chromic nitrate in a salinecarboxymethylcellulose

vehicle.

A neoplastic suppressant that

provides palliative treatment of

pleural and peritoneal effusions.

Emits virtually no gamma

radiation; delivers 10-fold

greater radiation dose per

millicurie compared to 198Au. 

Because it remains in situ

after injection, it may be

injected directly into a

malignancy.

60Co Neutron bombardment of 59Co

Replaced radium in various

therapeutic areas.

The gamma radiation

matches that of radium very

closely.

192Ir Neutron bombardment of 191Ir

Replaced radium in various

therapeutic areas. May be enclosed

in nylon mesh for interstitial use.

Provides softer (i.e., less

penetrating) radiation

compared to radium. 

57Co

Cyanocobalamin

Vitamin B12 in which a

portion of the molecule

contains 57Co.

Diagnostic aid in studying the

absorption and deposition of

vitamin B12, especially the diagnosis

of pernicious anemia. 

60Co

Cyanocobalamin

Vitamin B12 in which a

portion of the molecule

contains 60Co.

Diagnostic aid in studying the

absorption and deposition of

vitamin B12, especially the diagnosis

of pernicious anemia. 

Although the half-life is 5.24

years, 60Co cyanocobalamin

may decompose in storage;

thus, frequent radiochemical

analysis may be required.

Exametazime 99mTcO is incorporated into

the exametazine molecule.

An adjunct in detecting regional

cerebral perfusion in stroke;

leukocyte labeling.

Is rapidly cleared from the

blood. Maximum brain uptake

(3.5-7.0%) is reached within 1

minute of injection. Must be

used within 30 minutes of

reconstitution due to

conversion of lipophilic

complex to second lipophilic

complex that will not cross the

blood-brain barrier.

113In Ferric

hydroxide

113In is stirred with FeCl3

while titrated with 0.5 N

NaOH to a pH of 11 to 12. 

While stirring, a 20% gelatin

is added to attain a pH of

7.6 to 8.5 while heating in a

boiling waterbath;

preparation is then

autoclaved.

A diagnostic aid in lung imaging. Particles are in the 20 to

50 μm range.
IONIZING RADIATION 247

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Table 6-4. Some Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Medicine (continued)

Radionuclide Preparation Use Properties

59Fe Ferrous

Citrate

59Fe complexed with citrate;

neutron bombardment of

58Fe.

A diagnostic aid in studying the

kinetics of iron metabolism. 

It may be administered

directly into the bloodstream

where it reacts with the metalbinding globulin. 

99mTc Ferrous

hydroxide

Add 99mTc to a vial

containing ferrous sulfate;

the hydroxide is precipitated

with 0.1N NaOH at a pH of

7.5 to 10.7. Gelatin is

added to stabilize the

particles; final pH should be

7.1 to 8.3. 

A diagnostic aid in pulmonary

scintigraphy.

Most of the particles are in the

11 to 13 μm range; virtually all

particles fall in the 3 to 50 μm

range;.

125I Fibrinogen 125I in the form of I2, ICl or Iis combined with fibrinogen

and is oxidized by

chloramine-T, electrolytically

or enzymatically. Unreacted

iodine is removed by the

addition of sodium

thiosulfate.

A diagnostic aid in the localization of

deep vein thrombosis. Other

applications include detection of

renal transplant rejection, tumors,

and the study of fibrinogen turnover.

Accumulates in clots, the

radiation is easily detected at

the external surface of the

affected limb.

67Ga Gallium

citrate

67Ga is produced by proton

irradiation of 67Zn-enriched

ZnO2

Used in the diagnosis of lesions of

the lung, breast, maxillary sinuses

and liver. A positive 67Ga uptake is

potentially indicative of

malignancies such as lymphomas,

bronchogenic carcinoma, and

Hodgkin’s disease. Also useful for

placental localization and diagnosis

of pancreatitis and disk disc-space

infection.

Concentrates in tumors of soft

tissues and bone. The halflife of the isotope is 78 hours;

the biological half-life of the

citrate compound is 53 days.

111In Indium

chlorides

A cadmium target is bombarded with deuterons. The

111In is then etched from the

target with HCl, carrier Fe3+

is added, and the mixture is

precipitated with NH4OH. 

The precipitate is dissolved

in HCl and the ferric iron is

removed by extraction with

isopropyl ether.

111In has been used as a tag for a

variety of compounds such as

transferrin, EDTA and DTPA (used

in cisternography), bleoycin (used

for tumor localization), platelets

(detection of coronary thrombi),

lymphocytes (monitoring cardiac

antirejection therapy), and

leukocytes (diagnosis of upperabdominal infections). 

Indium normally exists in

aqueous solution as a

trivalent cation. In aqueous

solution InCl exists as a

mixture of hydrated chlorides.

111In Oxyquinoline Used to label various blood

components such as neutrophils,

platelets and lymphocytes; cardiac

imaging (labeled platelets);

localization of infectious and

inflammatory processes (labeled

leukocytes).
IONIZING RADIATION 248

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Table 6-4. Some Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Medicine (continued)

Radionuclide Preparation Use Properties

113mIn Indium

Chloride

113mIn is formed by the

radioactive transformation

of 113Sn. 113mIn is separated

from 113Sn using sterile,

pyrogen-free dilute HCl. 

Used in blood-pool studies,

including visualization of

aneurysms, and placental

scintigraphy; also used for bone,

liver, lung, brain, and renal imaging. 

Indium normally exists in

aqueous solution as a

trivalent cation. In aqueous

solution InCl exists as a

mixture of hydrated chlorides. 

Urinary excretion is low,

resulting in low urinary

bladder activity.

113mIn Indium

hydroxide

113mIn Indium chloride is

adjusted to a pH of 4 or

more, whereupon the

indium is converted to the

insoluble hydroxide. The

particle size and stability are

controlled by heating and

the addition of a stabilizer

(gelatin, mannitol, etc.).

Used in liver, spleen and bone

marrow scintigraphy.

125I or 131I Insulin Prepared by mild iodination

with high-specific-activity

radioactive iodine followed

by purification via dialysis,

ion-exchange or other

process.

Used for in vitro assay of circulating

insulin; study of in vivo insulin

kinetics

Longer shelf life than 131I;

emits no beta radiation (all

gamma emissions); lower

doses needed for correct

resolution compared to 131I

123 I or 131I Na

Iodohippurate

Iodobenzyl chloride is

condensed with glycine with

the aid of a

dehydrochlorinating agent. 

The resulting o-iodohippuric

acid is reacted with NaOH.

Used in the detection of renal

malfunction.

Excreted almost exclusively

by the kidneys.

81mKr gas A transformation product of 81Rb, which is produced by

alpha bombardment of 79Br.

Used for lung function, ventilation,

and perfusion. Also used in

radiocardiology.

123I Iofetamine

Hydrochloride

Used in assessing regional cerebral

blood flow.

Crosses the intact blood-brain

barrier. Concentrates in

metabolically active brain

cells. Binding by relatively

nonspecific high-capacity

binding sites results in brain

retention.

125I or 131I

Liothyronine

Synthetic liothyronine is

exchanged with 131I. The

mixture is then purified by

column or strip paper

chromatography. 

Used for in vitro evaluation of

thyroid function.

125 I binds to thyroxine-binding

proteins. Due to the high

specific activity, this

compound may not be taken

internally as radiation damage

can occur easily. This may be

prevented in part by the use

of propylene glycol (50%) as a

solvent. The materials should

be refrigerated or frozen and

should be used within 2

weeks.
IONIZING RADIATION 249

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Table 6-4. Some Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Medicine (continued)

Radionuclide Preparation Use Properties

125I or 131I

Levothyroxine

Obtained by synthesis, with

the I-tag in the 3'-position. 

Used to study the endogenous

metabolism of endogenous

thyroxine; to measure thyroxinebinding protein capacity.

Binds to thyroxine-binding

proteins.

111In Pentetate

Indium Disodium

Cyclotron-produced indium

chlorides mixed with

pentetic acid at low pH

(#3.5) to form an indiumDTPA chelate. A trisodium

salt of the complex is

formed by increasing the pH

to 7.0–7.5.

Used as a diagnostic aid for studies

of cardiac output, glomerular

filtration evaluation; used for

cisternography and renal

scintigraphy.

Shelf-life is limited by the halflife of 111In (67.5 hours).

113mIn Pentetate

Indium Trisodium

Pentetic acid containing

some ferric ion and HCl is

mixed with 113mIn. The

resulting chelate is

stabilized by increasing the

pH to 7.0–7.5, resulting in

the formation of a trisodium

salt. 

Used as a diagnostic aid for studies

of glomerular filtration; also used for

brain scanning and kidney imaging,

and cisternography of spinal fluid

circulation.

169Yb Pentetate

Ytterbium

Trisodium

Buffered, lyophilized

pentetic acid is mixed with

169Yb. 

Used as a diagnostic aid for brain

scanning and kidney imaging, and

cisternographic diagnosis of CSF

rhinorrhea.

May be administered orally or

intravenously.

42K Potassium

Chloride

By neutron bombardment of

natural potassium. 

Used for tumor localization and

studies of renal blood flow

measuring total exchangeable

potassium.

Suitable for intravenous

administration.

43K Potassium

Chloride

By alpha bombardment of a

natural argon target. 

Used as a diagnostic aid for heart

imaging.

131I Rose Bengal

Sodium

Prepared by thermal

condensation of

tetrachlorophthalic

anhydride with 2,4-

diiodoresorcinol. The

resulting phthalein is

reacted with NaOH, and the

purified product is labeled

by isotope exchange 

A diagnostic aid for liver function;

especially useful for differential

diagnosis of hepatobiliary disease.

Accumulates in the polygonal

cells of the liver and is

excreted via the biliary

system. If liver function is

impaired, it is excreted via the

kidneys.

75Se Selenomethionine

Extracted from yeast grown

on sulfur-free medium to

which trace amounts of

radiolabeled sodium

selenite have been added. 

Selenomethionine is

separated from separated

from the yeast proteins.

Used for scintigraphy of the

pancreas and parathyroid glands;

also used to visualize the parotid

and prostate glands.

Incorporated into newlyformed proteins. Blood levels

decline to a minimum value at

20 to 45 minutes after IV

injection; blood levels then

rise to about 3/4 that seen at

2 minutes postinjection.

22Na Sodium

Chloride

By deuteron bombardment

of 24Mg

Used for determination of circulation

times, sodium space, and total

exchangeable sodium.

The usual required tracer

dose is well within tolerated

levels. Emits positrons which

are easily detected by

coincidence counting.
IONIZING RADIATION 250

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Table 6-4. Some Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Medicine (continued)

Radionuclide Preparation Use Properties

51Cr Sodium

Chromate

By neutron bombardment of

enriched 50Cr.

Used as a biological tracer to

measure red-cell volume, red-cell

survival time, and whole-blood

volume. Also used to detect blood

cell loss due to hemolytic anemia or

GI bleeding.

Requires 15–60 minutes to

diffuse into red cells; binds to

globin molecules. Has no

deleterious effect on

erythrocytes.

18F Sodium

Fluoride

By neutron bombardment of

enriched 6

Li in the form of

lithium carbonate. 

Contamination with 3

H must

be removed prior to use.

Useful for bone imaging, especially

areas of altered osteogenic activity.

123I Sodium Iodide By proton bombardment of

enriched 124Te or by

deuteron bombardment of

enriched 122Te or by

transformation of 123Xe.

For diagnostic procedures in thyroid

function studies; for organ imaging 

including the thyroid, liver, lung, and

brain.

Short half-life (13.2 hours)

and radiation characteristics

result in a smaller radiation

dose compared to other

iodine isotopes.

125I Sodium Iodide By neutron bombardment of

xenon gas.

For diagnostic procedures in thyroid

function studies; for organ imaging 

including the thyroid, liver, and

brain; treatment of deep-seated

non-resectable tumors.

For organ imaging, dose to

patient may be decreased

with better delineation of

organ and clearer resolution

than 131I.

131I Sodium Iodide By neutron bombardment of

enriched 131Te or as a

byproduct of uranium

fission.

For diagnostic procedures in thyroid

function studies; a neoplastic

suppressant.

99mTc Sodium

Pertechnetate

Produced by the elution of

sodium pertechnetate

through a generator

containing 99Mo which

decays to 99mTc.

Used in the detection and

localization of cranial lesions,

thyroid and salivary gland imaging,

placenta localization, and bloodpool imaging.

99mTc has an ideal half-life

which is long enough for

diagnostic procedures but is

short enough to minimize

radiation doses to the patient.

Also, it lacks a beta radiation

component. Pertechnetate is

readily absorbed by the

thyroid; this can be reduced

by preinfusion of potassium

perchlorate.

32P Sodium

Phosphate

By neutron bombardment of

elemental sulfur in an

atomic reactor. 32P is then

separated by leaching with

NaOH.

A neoplastic and polycythemic

suppressant; a diagnostic aid for the

localization of certain ocular tumors.

85Sr Strontium By neutron bombardment of

a strontium salt enriched in

85Sr.

A diagnostic aid for scanning bones

and bony structures to detect and

define lesions and to study bone

growth and abnormal formations.

Has a long half-life (64 days),

resulting in high bone doses.

99mTc Albumin Albumin is tagged with a

reduced form of the

pertechnetate. The

pertechnetate may be

reduced by one of several

methods.

Diagnostic aid in determining total

blood and plasma volumes,

circulation times, or cardiac output.

See earlier comment on

99mTc.
IONIZING RADIATION 251

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Table 6-4. Some Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Medicine (continued)

Radionuclide Preparation Use Properties

99mTc Albumin,

Aggregated

Denatured human albumin

is tagged with a reduced

form of the pertechnetate. 

The pertechnetate may be

reduced by one of several

methods.

Diagnostic aid in study of the lungs.

Primary use is for diagnosing

pulmonary embolism. Also useful

for static blood-pool imaging,

angiography, dynamic function tests

and visualization of placental

tissues.

See earlier comment on

99mTc. 99mTc is preferred over 131I as the radioactive tag

because of the smaller

delivered dose.

99mTc Etidronate

or 99mTc

Oxidronate

Acetic acid is treated with

PCl3; the disodium salt is

formed when a solution of

etidronic acid is adjusted to

a pH of 8.5. Stannous

chloride and sometimes a

stabilizer such as sodium

ascorbate are added. 

Freshly eluted 99mTc is

added.

Useful for bone imaging. See earlier comment on 99mTc. This compound is

superior to 18F bone scans

and to roentgen studies and is

frequently more sensitive in

detecting metastases to the

bone. 

99mTc

Iminodiacetic

Acid (IDA)

Usually provided in kit form,

the compound is

reconstituted and tagged by

adding sterile 99mTc sodium

pertechnetate.

Useful for hepatobiliary imaging. See earlier comment on 99mTc.

99mTc Ferpentate Usually in kit form, the

compound is made by

adding a solution of

99mTc sodium pertechnetate;

the pH is adjusted with

sodium hydroxide and a

solution of pentetic acid is

added. The chelate is

formed by gentle mixing. 

Useful for kidney imaging. See earlier comment on 99mTc.

99mTc Pentetate Prepared by adding sterile 99mTc pertechnetate saline

solution to an aliquot of

buffered stock solution of

DTPA containing stannous

chloride as a reducing

agent. Instant DTPA 99mTc

kits are available.

Useful for brain and kidney

visualization, for vascular dynamic

studies for measurement of

glomerular filtration and for lung

ventilation studies.

See earlier comment on

99mTc. Does not concentrate

in any organ. DTPA is

uniformly distributed

throughout the extracellular

space and is rapidly cleared

by the kidneys without

retention.

99mTc

Pyrophosphate

Sodium pyrophosphate,

mixed with stannous tin, are

combined with a solution of

99mTc sodium pertechnetate.

Kits are available

commercially.

Used as a skeletal imaging agent;

used to demonstrate areas of

altered osteogenesis; also used as

a cardiac imaging agent, as an

adjunct in the diagnosis of

myocardial infarction. 

See earlier comment on

99mTc. The pyrophosphate

compound has been found to

concentrate in muscle tissue,

especially contused muscle

tissue. myocardium.

99mTc Sestamibi Usually in kit form, the

compound is reconstituted

and tagged with sterile 

99mTc sodium pertechnetate. 

Used as a myocardial perfusion

agent in the evaluation of ischemic

heart disease and distinguishing

and locating abnormal myocardium.

Accumulates in viable

myocardial tissue. 
IONIZING RADIATION 252

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Table 6-4. Some Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Medicine (continued)

Radionuclide Preparation Use Properties

99mTc Succimer Usually in kit form, the

compound is reconstituted

and tagged with sterile 99mTc

sodium pertechnetate.

Used in renal cortical imaging. Use within 30 minutes of

formulation.

99mTc Sulfur

Colloid

A colloidal suspension of

sulfur labeled with 99mTc. 

Used as a diagnostic aid for liver,

spleen, and bone marrow scanning. 

Also used in detection of

intrapulmonary and lower GI

bleeding, as well as visualization of

the lungs by inhalation of the colloid.

See earlier comment on

99mTc. Colloids are

phagocytized by the liver. 

The plasma clearance is rapid

(approximately 2.5 min). At

least 80% of dose

accumulates in the liver.

99m Tc Tebroxime Used for myocardial perfusion

imaging for distinguishing normal

versus abnormal myocardium.

Use within 6 hours of

reconstitution.

99mTc Gluceptate Freshly eluted 99mTc sodium

pertechnetate is added to

sodium glucoheptonate in

combination with stannous

chloride.

Useful as a renal imaging agent;

possibly useful for localization of

brain, lung, and gallbladder lesions.

See earlier comment on

99mTc. Optimal results are

obtained 1–2 hours after

administration.

99mTc Sodium

Methylene

Diphosphonate

Sodium methylene

diphosphonate, available in

kit form, is mixed

reconstituted with

99mTc sodium pertechnetate. 

Useful for skeletal imaging. See earlier comment on 99mTc. When administered by

IV, compound concentrates in

areas of altered osteogenesis.

99mTc Mertiatide Usually provided in kit form,

the compound is

reconstituted and tagged by

adding sterile 99m Tc

mertiatide.

Useful as a renal imaging agent;

provides information on renal

function, split function, renal

angiograms and renogram curves

for whole kidney & renal cortex.

Is reversibly bound to serum

protein and is excreted rapidly

by kidneys and cleared by the

blood.

99mTc Sodium

Phosphates

Polyphosphate polymer,

available in kit form mixed

with stannous chloride, is

mixed with

99mTc pertechnetate. 

Useful for bone and renal imaging. See earlier comment on 99mTc.

99mTc Sodium

Phytate

Sodium phytate, available in

kit form mixed with

stannous chloride, is

reconstituted with

99mTc pertechnetate. 

Useful for liver and spleen imaging See earlier comment on 99mTc. Cleared rapidly from

the blood by the

reticuloendothelial system. 

Over 80% of compound

localizes in the liver and

spleen within 30 minutes of an

iv injection. The addition of

ionic calcium to the 99mTc

stannous phytate mixture

enhances splenic uptake.

99mTc Tetracycline Tetracycline, available in kit

form, is reconstituted with

stannous chloride and

99mTc pertechnetate. 

For imaging kidneys and gall

bladder; myocardial imaging is

possible with larger doses.

See earlier comment on

99mTc. The compound

localizes in the gall bladder.
IONIZING RADIATION 253

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Table 6-4. Some Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Medicine (continued)

Radionuclide Preparation Use Properties

201Tl Thallium

Chloride

Thallium target material is

bombarded with protons to

produce 201Pb. The unused

thallium material is removed

by ion exchange, and the

remaining 201Pb

subsequently decays to

201Tl.

Used for myocardial perfusion

imaging for the localization of

myocardial ischemia and infarction;

used as an adjunct to angiography. 

Also useful for thyroid imaging,

particularly the detection of goiter

and thyroid carcinoma.

Thallium mimics potassium

ions and is taken up by the

cells of the heart; decreased

cell vitality is indicated by

decreased thallium uptake.

Rapidly disappears from the

blood.

15O Water Prepared by labeling with a

cyclotron-generated

radionuclide.

Used in blood-flow imaging using

positron emission tomography

scanning.

127Xe Xenon gas Produced by proton

bombardment of cesium133 with 127Xe.

As a gas, used for lung imaging to

detect alveolar block-age; also used

for mapping cerebral blood flow.

Dissolved in saline used as a tracer

for measurement of regional blood

flow.

The biological half-life of the

gas is approximately

15 minutes. 

133Xe Xenon A product of nuclear fission;

also formed by neutron

activation of 132Xe.

As a gas, used for lung imaging to

detect alveolar blockage; also used

for mapping cerebral blood flow.

Dissolved in saline used as a tracer

for measurement of regional blood

flow.

The biological half-life of the

gas is approximately

15 minutes. 

Source: Remington 1985; Remington and Gennaro 1995

6.6 EXPOSURE FROM CONSUMER PRODUCTS

Consumer products contribute an estimated 3% to the average population radiation dose. Several

consumer products, used both within the home and in many public areas, emit minuscule amounts of

radiation. Among these are ionization-type smoke detectors, television sets, and liquid propane gas

(LPG) appliances. The first smoke detectors contained radium (approximately 20 μCi [0.7 MBq]), but

now contain americium-241 (241Am), which is more economical and produces much less radiation dose. 

While present-day detectors contain 0.5–1.0 μCi (0.02-0.04 MBq) of 241Am, the original units contained

approximately 80 μCi (3 MBq). In the 1980s, annual sales of smoke detectors approached 12 million,

representing approximately 8.5 Ci (300 GBq) of 241Am. Smoke detectors contain a small ionization

chamber in which the air between two electrodes is ionized by the source radionuclide. This ionization

allows the flow of current across the gap between the electrodes. When the flow is stopped by smoke

particles, the interruption in current flow is interpreted by the detector to indicate the presence of smoke. 

Television sets accelerate electrons that bombard the screen; in the process, low-energy x rays are

emitted. The total annual dose associated with watching a color television has been estimated to be

2–3 mrad per year (0.02-0.03 mGy/yr). Radon is found in LPG, which may be used in water heaters,
IONIZING RADIATION 254

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

stoves, and fireplaces; it has been estimated that exposure to radon in homes using natural gas results in

an average annual dose of approximately 5 mrem (0.05 mSv) in the United States.

Among consumer products of the past are items that contained radium, such as medicines, tonics,

luminous paints, and ceramic glazes. After its discovery in the early part of the 20th century, radium was

used for many years in the treatment of rheumatism (arthritis) and mental disorders; oral solutions

contained 226Ra and 228Ra at concentrations up to 2 μCi/60 mL, while ampules for intravenous

administration contained 5–100 μg 226Ra and 228Ra. Radium was also used to produce luminescent paints

that were applied to wristwatches, clocks, static eliminators, fire alarms, electron tubes, and military and

educational products. During the peak years of production, approximately 3 million radium-laden

timepieces were sold annually in the United States. The radium content of a man’s wristwatch ranged

from 0.01 to 0.36 μCi (370-13,000 Bq), resulting in potential gonadal doses of 0.5–6 mrem/year

(0.005—0.06 mSv/yr). Radium has been replaced with 3

H and prometium-147 (147Pm), and watch cases

are sufficiently thick to absorb the beta emissions from these radionuclides. Uranium has been used as a

coloring agent for ceramic glazes, resulting in doses to the hands of up to 20 mrad/hour (0.02 mGy/hr). 

The dose from ceramics produced since 1944 is thought to be five-fold less than that from earlier pieces. 

For more than 40 years, 224Ra has been used in Europe to treat the symptoms of tuberculosis and

ankylosing spondylitis. Although its use in children was curtailed in the 1950s, 224Ra has been used for

treating the pain associated with ankylosing spondylitis. In two studies of patients treated with 224Ra,

average calculated skeletal doses ranged from 0.65–4.2 Gy (65–420 rad) (Eisenbud 1987; Harley 1996;

Harvard Medical School 1996; NCRP 1993). 

6.7 EXPOSURE FROM OTHER SOURCES

Other sources contribute less than 1% to the average population radiation dose. This radiation exposure

may result from several anthropogenic sources, including the radioactive debris still remaining from

atmospheric and underground detonation of nuclear weapons, electrical energy production,

radiopharmaceuticals, and radionuclide production and use (Shapiro 1990; UNSCEAR 1993).
IONIZING RADIATION 255

6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Figure 6-2. Schematic of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle 

6.7.1 Exposure from the Nuclear Fuel Cycle

The nuclear fuel cycle contributes around 0.1% to the

average population radiation dose and refers to the mining,

milling and enrichment of uranium; fabrication of fuel

elements; the production of electricity; and the recycling,

transportation, and waste storage/disposal of radioactive

materials used in nuclear weapons or

reactor-grade nuclear fuel. The steps involved in the

uranium fuel cycle are depicted in Figure 6-2 and described

in the Toxicological Profile for Uranium (ATSDR 1999b).

The primary radionuclide components of nuclear weapons

and reactors include 239Pu, 235U, 238U, and 3

H.

Radionuclides associated with uranium mining and milling

include 235U, 238U, and their natural decay chain radionuclides, such as 226Ra, 234Th, 234mPa, 230Th, and 222Rn,

while those associated with power production and subsequent waste disposal include (but are not limited to)

60Co, 3

H, 14C, 129I, 131I, 134Cs, and 137Cs. Noble gas radionuclides of Kr, Xe, and Zr are only associated with

operational reactor releases. The various steps within this cycle provide multiple opportunities for the

exposure of humans to these materials. 

Mining and milling. Uranium ore typically contains uranium at concentrations ranging from a tenth of a

percent to a few percent; thus, millions of tons of ore are mined and processed annually to meet the needs of

nuclear power plants for uranium fuel. Radon is the predominant radionuclide released from uranium mines. 

Radon containing air is discharged from mines at a rate of approximately 0.5–20 μCi/min/1,000 ft3

; these are

point releases whose concentrations dilute quickly with distance from the release shaft and, thus, pose no

additional health risk to the general public. Incomplete extraction of uranium during milling results in

uranium concentrations in mill tailings of 0.001–0.01%. The presence of radon precursors (226Ra and 230Th) in

mill tailings presents a potential long-term source for atmospheric radon. The rate of radon emanation varies

with meteorological factors such as barometric pressure and humidity. The rate of soil and mill tailings

migration depends primarily on wind and water erosion of the site (Eisenbud 1987; UNSCEAR 1993).
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Enrichment and fuel fabrication. In both nuclear weapons and nuclear fuel production, after being

mined and milled, uranium must be converted to uranium hexafluoride gas, which is then enriched and

converted to uranium oxide or metal. If enrichment is carried to about 90%, the uranium may be used to

make nuclear weapons or to fuel naval warships; alternatively, the uranium may be enriched by only a small

percentage for use in civilian nuclear energy facilities. Metallic uranium is capable of reacting with both air

and water exothermically; because of this reactivity, the more stable uranium oxide is the most commonly

used fuel in reactors. While this form is more stable, it has poor thermal conductivity, necessitating the use

of small-diameter fuel rods. The fuel is in the form of high melting point ceramic pellets, about 0.5 inches in

diameter and 1 inch long, in which UO2-enriched to 3–4% 235U is dispersed. These pellets are stacked end to

end in zirconium alloy or stainless steel tubes about 12 feet long (called cladding) and then sealed to retain

the fission products that are produced during operation. These fuel filled tubes are then assembled in groups

of 8 x 8 to 17 x 17 arrays into fuel rod assemblies. About 500 of these assemblies make up the core of a

nuclear power reactor. For a frame of reference, a single pellet contains the energy equivalent of about one

ton of coal or 3 barrels of oil. Emissions from fabrication facilities usually consist of the long-lived isotopes

234U, 235U, and 238U, and the short-lived nuclides 234Th and 234mPa; however, the relative value of the refined

and enriched uranium and the high level of accountability for uranium stock preclude any long-term or

widespread loss of material. The major route of exposure from this source is inhalation (Eisenbud 1987;

UNSCEAR 1993). More information about the toxicological properties of uranium can be found in the

Toxicological Profile for Uranium (ATSDR 1999b).

Power generation. Power production from nuclear plants has increased steadily since the industry’s

birth in the 1950s. During the years between 1970 and 1989, the number of nuclear reactors worldwide

increased from 77 to 426, and total nuclear power generation increased from 9 to 212 gigawatts per year. 

In 1996, nuclear power plants produced 17% and 19.4% of the world’s and U. S. electrical energy,

respectively (DOE 1997c). The annual worldwide production of uranium from 1979 to 1989 ranged from

19,000 to 44,000 tons; from 1985 to 1990, the annual production was approximately 50,000 tons. 

USNRC regulations require that all the component parts of the nuclear fuel cycle be designed and

operated to limit the annual dose to a member of the public from the total nuclear fuel cycle to a

maximum of 25 mrem (0.25 mSv). Various regulations identified in Chapter 7 of this profile are

designed to limit human exposure to radiation and radioactive materials. Guidance documents, such as

the ANSI air sampling standard (ANSI 1999), are available to aid in establishing monitoring programs for

assessing discharges from nuclear facilities. During the energy production phase, radioactive

contamination of the coolant occurs through small defects in the protective cladding surrounding the fuel
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

pellets, through fission of “tramp” uranium contamination on the outside surface of the fuel rods and

through neutron activation of contaminants in the cooling medium. 

In general, the levels of radionuclide emissions from reactors are not typically detectable, except at points

close to effluent discharges; because of this, estimates of radionuclide discharge levels must be modeled. 

Based on such models, the total collective dose due to reactor discharges through 1989 was estimated to

be 370,000 man•rem (3,700 man•Sv) over a 45-year period. This may be compared to the collective dose

to the U.S. public from the natural radioactive potassium within everyone’s body, which is about

5,000,000 man•rem (50,000 man•Sv) each year . A 1981 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

(USNRC) study of the doses received by 98 million people living within 80 km of 48 nuclear facilities

concluded, on the basis of a zero threshold model, that 0.02 excess fatal cancers per year, or 1 every 50

years, could be attributed to exposures from nuclear facilities (USNRC 1981). A study of the cancer rates

in populations surrounding 62 U.S. nuclear facilities, performed by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in

1990, found no evidence of a relationship between proximity to a nuclear facility and the occurrence of

cancer (Eisenbud 1987; NCI 1990; UNSCEAR 1993).

Weapons production. There is little public information regarding the amount of radioactive materials

produced for use as weapons. The atmospheric content of krypton-85 (85Kr), a by-product of plutonium

extraction, has been used to estimate the plutonium stockpiles in both the United States and Russia. After

adjusting for production and release of 85Kr from nuclear reactors, it is estimated from the atmospheric content

of 85Kr that plutonium stockpiles in both the United States and Russia is about 100 tons each. United Nations

estimates from 1981 and 1990 state that nuclear arsenals are comprised of 40,000 weapons with a combined

explosive power of 13,000 Mt. Tritium, which has a half-life of 12.32 years, must be continually produced

to replace aging stockpiles. It is estimated that an annual production of 3 kg is sufficient to replace that lost

by transformation in the United States. By inference, this would indicate a total U.S. stockpile of 55 kg and

a world stockpile of about 110 kg (UNSCEAR 1993).

The dose from nuclear weapons research, development, and production is less than 1% of the dose from

atmospheric testing. Variations in local exposure from former weapons plants have been reported. In the

United States, the Hanford nuclear weapons facility has released a significant amount of radioactive

material into the atmosphere and the Columbia River from its plutonium production and reprocessing

plants. The majority of the radioactive material (131I) was released between 1944 and 1946 (18 PBq;

486 kCi), although additional releases are known to have occurred from 1947 to 1956 (2 PBq; 54kCi). A 
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

recent study reconstructed the radiation doses to individuals who were exposed to the 131I released from

the Hanford site, medically determined their thyroid health, and found that the Hanford releases had not

caused thyroid problems. The thyroid radiation doses to the 3,193 participants averaged 0.186 Gy

(18.6 rad) and ranged from 0–2.842 Gy (0–284.2 rad). Health impacts to the thyroid which have been

related to radiation exposure in other studies include thyroid cancer, benign thyroid nodules,

hypothyroidism, and autoimmune thyroiditis. The study assessed these conditions and concluded that the

occurrence of these diseases in the population were not related to the Hanford releases’ radiation dose to

the thyroid (CDC 1999). 

The Chelyabinsk-40 center, located near Kyshtym in the Soviet Union, was the first nuclear weapons

processing facility in Russia. A uranium-graphite-moderated reactor and a fuel reprocessing plant were

opened in 1948. Due to poor waste handling and the storage of radioactive wastes in the open, significant

liquid releases (100 PBq; 2.7MCi) to the Techa River occurred from 1949 to 1956, with the majority of

the releases (95%) occurring from March 1950 to November 1951. The main nuclides released included

89Sr, 137Cs, 95Zr, 95Nb, and ruthenium and rare-earth nuclides. The population along the Techa River was

exposed to both external and internal doses of radiation; a total of 20 settlements (7,500 people) were

eventually evacuated. The average doses to persons living in the village of Metlino, 7 km downstream

from the plant, were estimated to be as much as 140 rad (1.4 Gy) (UNSCEAR 1993).

Fuel reprocessing. Fuel reprocessing allows the recovery of uranium and plutonium from the

irradiated fuel pellets. Less than 10% of the nuclear fuel is consumed in a spent fuel rod. The

radionuclides most commonly associated with reprocessing waste are: 3

H, 14C, 85Kr, 129I, 131I, 134Cs, 137Cs

and transuranium nuclides. At present, reprocessing is carried out in only a few countries, and only a

small portion of the total fuel inventory is being reprocessed (4% from 1985 to 1990). The remainder is

retrievably stored (UNSCEAR 1993).

The reprocessing of nuclear fuel has been performed almost exclusively at government-owned facilities

designed to meet military needs. Only 1 operable reprocessing facility exists in the U.S. As with nuclear

reactors, the facility and the equipment used have been designed with numerous safeguards to prevent

criticality and to ensure containment of radioactive material in the event of a non-nuclear explosion or

system failure. The estimated collective dose due to reprocessing to date is estimated to be 460,000

man•rem (4,600 man•Sv); the main radionuclide constituents (>90%) of these releases have been 137Cs

and 106Ru. Releases of gaseous 85Kr and 3

H from reprocessing facilities have also been reported. The

main pathways of exposure are consumption of locally caught fish and shellfish, external (whole-body)

irradiation from intertidal areas, and external (dermal) irradiation of fishermen handling pots and nets. 
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Figure 6-3. Replicas of the “Little Boy” and “Fat Man” Bombs

Dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (adapted from A-Bomb WWW

Museum, http://www.csi.ad.jp/ABOMB).

Annual individual doses were estimated for critical populations living near three foreign reprocessing

plants (Sellafield, England; Cap de la Hage, France; and Tokai-Mura, Japan) for which records of

radioactive effluent exist. For the critical population living near Sellafield, annual individual doses from

ingestion were estimated to be approximately 350 mrem (3.5 mSv) during the early 1980s and declined to

approximately 20 mrem (0.2 mSv) by 1986. The estimated doses in the same group due to external

irradiation were estimated to be about 100 mrem (1 mSv) in the early 1980s and 30 mrem (0.3 mSv) by

1986. In contrast, annual individual doses for critical populations living near the Cap de la Hage and

Tokai-Mura reprocessing plants were approximately 25 mrem (0.25 mSv) and 0.1 mrem (1 μSv)

(Eisenbud 1987; UNSCEAR 1993). A nuclear criticality accident occurred at the Tokai-Mura, Japan

uranium reprocessing plant on September 30, 1999 with acute exposures to workers and general

population (UPI 1999).

Waste disposal. Solid wastes derived from reactor operations and from the handling, processing, and

disposal of spent fuel are classified as low-, intermediate-, or high-level wastes. While low- and

intermediate-level wastes had been packaged and placed into shallow burial sites, high-level waste

disposal strategies have only recently been implemented. Some low-level wastes were packaged and

disposed at sea from 1946 to 1982. Currently, some high level waste is being vitrified (mixed with hot

liquid glass), solidified inside double-walled stainless steel containers, and prepared for long-term

retrievable storage. Exposure to uncontained buried wastes is thought to occur throught groundwater

migration from leakage at the burial site. The major radionuclide found in reactor waste is 14C

(UNSCEAR 1993).

6.7.2 Japanese Atomic Bomb

Exposure

A large human cohort (86,572 people who

survived the detonation of two atomic bombs

in Japan in 1945 and whose radiation doses

are reasonably well known) are being studied

for the effects of external exposure to ionizing

radiation. The Japanese survivors are not the

largest cohort; some medically exposed

populations are larger. However, the

Japanese survivors are probably the most

important because of the length of follow-up
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

and the wide range of doses received. The first atomic bomb was detonated on July 16, 1945, in Alamogordo,

New Mexico. The U.S. military, in an effort to bring a swifter end to World War II and to avoid a costly

ground invasion of Japan, which could claim more U.S. and Japanese lives, detonated a 235U atomic bomb,

nicknamed “Little Boy,” (see Figure 6-3) over the city of Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945. Three days

later, an atomic bomb using 239Pu, nicknamed “Fat Man,” was detonated over the city of Nagasaki, Japan. 

The uranium used in the “Little Boy” bomb was enriched to >80% 235U. (Natural uranium contains 0.7%

235U, and reactor fuel is enriched to 3–4% 235U). The uranium bomb design of Little Boy used a standard

explosion trigger, called the "gun" method, because it was originally made using a gun barrel. In this

configuration, a sub-critical uranium mass, referred to as the “bullet,” was propelled inside the gun barrel

toward a second sub-critical portion of the uranium mass (called the “target”), which was located at the

end of the gun barrel. The target contained slightly less than the amount of uranium needed to achieve

critical mass (the amount necessary to create a chain reaction). The instant the two subcritical pieces of

uranium came together, super-criticality was attained, and an explosion with a force equivalent to 15,000

tons (15 kt) of trinitrotoluene (TNT) occurred (Roesch 1987). In the case of Little Boy, the bullet was a

cylindrical stack of nine 235U wafers about 10 cm wide and 16 cm long, containing 40% of the bomb’s

total 235U mass (25.6 kg). The target was a hollow cylinder 16 cm long and wide; it weighed 38.4 kg and

was composed of two separate rings that were inserted into the bomb separately to prevent reaching

critical mass during assembly. The complete Little Boy weapon was 10.5 feet long, 28–29 inches in

diameter, and reportedly weighed between 8,900 and 9,700 pounds. The firing mechanism was so simple

and was considered so failproof that it was not tested prior to its use over Hiroshima. The gun-type firing

mechanism was, however, an unsafe weapon design, in that once the firing mechanism was loaded with

high explosive, anything that ignited it would cause a nuclear explosion. Also, a crash or even an

accidental drop of the bomb could have driven the bullet into the target, potentially resulting in a nuclear

explosion. No other weapon of this design was ever tested, and although several Little Boy units were

built, none ever entered the U.S. nuclear arsenal.

The plutonium bomb, Fat Man, was dramatically different from the Little Boy design. The gun-type

firing mechanism could not be used to unite two pieces of plutonium fast enough to achieve a nuclear

blast; impurities in the plutonium would have caused premature detonation. Fat Man contained a ball of

subcritical plutonium (plutonium core), which was surrounded with high explosives. The high explosives

were cast into spheres, called lenses, and were wired so they would all fire at the same instant. The

instantaneous pressure from all sides compressed the plutonium core in on itself, causing it to reach

critical mass and density, and create a nuclear blast. The combat configuration for the Fat Man bomb 
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

consisted of the implosion device encapsulated in a steel armor egg. Fat Man was 5 feet in diameter,

12 feet in length, and weighed 10,300 pounds (American Airpower Heritage Museum 1996; Sublette

1996). The explosion of Fat Man at Nagasaki was equivalent to 21,000 tons (21 kt) of TNT (Roesch

1987).

In Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a total of 64,000 people within 1 km of the hypocenter (the point on the

ground directly below where the bomb exploded in the air) died on the first day. The total numbers of

acute deaths from the explosions were 90,000–140,000 in Hiroshima and 60,000–80,000 in Nagasaki. For

bombs the size (approximate yield of 15 kilotons) and type of Little Boy, the energy released within the

first minute after detonation was in the forms of thermal radiation (35%), blast wave (50%), and ionizing

radiation (15%); most casualties (including fatalities) resulted from the heat and blast. Two-thirds of

those who died during the first day were burned. People close enough to suffer from radiation illness

were also well within the lethal zones from blast and heat; thus, the proportion of survivors experiencing

radiation illness (30%) was much smaller than the expected proportion based solely on exposure to

radiation. People within 1–2 km of the hypocenter who initially survived the blast and received several

hundred rad (several grays) of radiation, suffered the ill effects of acute radiation syndrome. It is

estimated that all persons whose bodies received a dose of 600 rad (6 Gy) and half of those whose

radiation doses were 450 rad (4.5 Gy) died shortly thereafter, as a direct result of radiation exposure. Of

those who survived the immediate radiation illness effects, a portion would suffer from the latent effects

of radiation-induced cancer (the excess cancer death rate among the exposed population is on the order of

5% greater than that of an unexposed population). It is estimated that approximately 500 survivors have

died of radiation induced cancers since 1945. Given the estimated altitudes at which Little Boy and Fat

Man detonated (1,900±50 ft. and 1,650±33 ft., respectively), little or no soil was carried up into the

fireball, so the fallout produced came mainly from the detonation itself. Of that, very little radioactive

material was deposited on the ground in the vicinity of ground zero; the majority was carried high into the

atmosphere by heat convection. A small amount of fallout did occur in areas close to the cities due to

rainfall that occurred shortly after the explosions; the affected areas were to the west and northwest of

Hiroshima and a few miles east of Nagasaki. Fatality rates in the Hiroshima and Nagasaki attacks were

1–2 orders of magnitude greater than rates from conventional bombings because of the nearly

instantaneous destruction of buildings that occurred without warning, and because survivors were so

incapacitated that they could not escape the rapidly ensuing fire storms. Approximately one-third of all

Japanese bombing fatalities occurred in these two cities (Masse 1996; Sublette 1995, 1996; Uranium

Information Center 1995; Zajtchak 1989). 
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

6.7.3 Exposure from Nuclear Weapons Testing

Nuclear weapons testing is conducted to assess design efficiency and magnitude of resulting damage. 

Nuclear explosions world wide were carried out above ground from 1945 to 1980, with the periods of

greatest activity occurring from 1952 to 1958, and from 1961 to 1962. A total of 520 tests with an

estimated total equivalent energy of 545 megatons (Mt) of TNT was performed, resulting in the release of

220 PBq (6 MCi) of radioactive material. The first U.S. testing of nuclear weapons after World War II

was performed in the Marshall Islands in the Pacific Ocean from 1946 to 1948. The Soviet Union

conducted its first weapons test in 1948. In the 1950s, as the frequency of weapons testing escalated, so

did public concerns over radioactive fallout. In the fall of 1958, the United States, Britain, and Russia,

declared a moratorium on weapons testing; however, Russia broke the agreement in 1961, and another

rapid escalation in testing ensued. In 1963, the United States, Britain, and Russia, signed the Limited

Test Ban Treaty, which prohibited atmospheric testing. Although these three countries have remained

faithful to the treaty, other countries such as France, China, India, and Pakistan have since conducted

weapons testing (Eisenbud 1987; PBS 1999; UNSCEAR 1993).

The energy from nuclear weapons devices is generated by one or both of the following reactions: (1) the

fission of 235U or 239Pu in a chain reaction and (2) the fusion of the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and

tritium. Fission-type weapons accounted for 217 Mt of the total test yield, while fusion-type weapons

accounted for 328 Mt. Many radionuclides are produced by U and Pu fission. Fusion reactions produce

helium and result in the neutron activation of the surrounding substance. The most notable neutron

activation product is 14C, which is formed from the neutron bombardment of atmospheric nitrogen. 

Unused weapons material is also liberated after detonation due to premature loss of critical mass (Radnet

1996; UNSCEAR 1993).

The most important radionuclides associated with nuclear weapons testing exposures are 14C; 137Cs;

zirconium-95 (95Zr); niobium-95 (95Nb); 90Sr; ruthenium-106 (106Ru); manganese-54 (54Mn); 144Ce; 131I;

and 3

H. This is in addition to the large amounts of 14C and 3H in the biosphere’s carbon and hydrogen

inventories which are produced by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric gases. 

The disposition of ingested strontium-90 (90Sr) has been studied extensively due to its abundance

(15 MCi of that introduced into the atmosphere as a result of nuclear weapons testing fell to the earth by

January 1970), its long half-life (28 years), and its tendency to localize in bones. Metabolically, Sr

follows the pathways of calcium (Ca); however, the body discriminates against Sr in favor of Ca. 
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

Because of this parallel mechanism, Sr concentrations are often expressed as activity of Sr per gram of

Ca. In 1965, bone levels of 90Sr in 1- to 4-year-old Norwegian children averaged 11.8 pCi/g Ca. In New

York City, bone levels of 90Sr in 1- to 2-year-olds varied from 7 pCi/g Ca in 1965 to 1.6 pCi/g Ca in

1975. In 5- to 19-year-olds, bone levels varied from 3 pCi/g Ca during 1956–1968 to 1.4 pCi/g Ca in

1975 (Shapiro 1990). In an effort to quantify exposure resulting from nuclear testing, 90Sr deposition has

been monitored worldwide at 50 to 200 stations in cooperation with the Environmental Measurements

Laboratory (EML), and by a network of 26 stations organized by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy

Authority. These data are compiled into a report called Environmental Radiation Data (ERD), which is

distributed quarterly by the Office of Radiation and Indoor Air’s National Air and Radiation

Environmental Laboratory (NAREL). The report contains data from the Environmental Radiation

Ambient Monitoring System (ERAMS). ERAMS was established in 1973 by the EPA to provide air,

surface and drinking water, and milk samples from which environmental radiation levels are derived. 

These samples are collected from locations that provide adequate population coverage and function to

monitor fallout from nuclear devices and other radioactive contamination from the environment. Samples

are subjected to analysis for gross alpha and beta emissions; gamma analyses for fission products; and

more specific analysis for uranium plutonium, strontium, iodine, radium, and tritium (EPA 1997). 

Zirconium-95 (95Zr) deposition has been monitored as an indicator of exposure to short-lived radionuclides. Monitoring levels of 3

H and 14C is more difficult due to the rapid recycling of these elements in

a biosphere that contains large cosmogenically produced amounts of these same radionuclides. 

Interhemispheric transfer is limited due to prevailing trade winds and the scavenging effect of

precipitation in the tropics. The best estimate of the average total per person dose, for persons in the

northern and southern hemispheres, for all 22 major radionuclides resulting from nuclear testing is 440

and 310 mrem (4.4 and 3.1 mSv), respectively. Worldwide, the average total cumulative dose is

370 mrem (3.7 mSv). However, as noted below, extreme variations in local exposures due to testing have

been noted (UNSCEAR 1993).

Approximately 23 billion Ci of 131I have been introduced into the atmosphere as a result of nuclear

weapons testing. In October 1961, the air concentration of 131I in the United States averaged 3.8 pCi/m3

. 

This was estimated to result in an annual dose of 24 mrad to a 1-year-old child. In 1962, the

concentration of 131I in milk in the United States averaged 32 pCi/L. Although about two-thirds of orally

administered 131I is excreted in the urine within the first 24 hours, the remainder concentrates in the

thyroid. It has been estimated that an infant receiving milk from cows that grazed on forage contaminated

with 1 μCi 131I/m2

 could receive a dose to the thyroid of 30 rad (Shapiro 1990; UNSCEAR 1993). In

addition, studies of pregnant women who died suddenly of non-radiation-induced causes (e.g., car
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

accidents) found that fetal tissue concentrations of 131I were 30% greater than those in maternal tissues

(Shapiro 1990). Due to the short 8-day half-life of 131I, there is no 131I remaining in the atmosphere or in

food from nuclear weapons testing.

Plutonium (Pu) has been introduced into the atmosphere from sources such as weapons testing (>5,000 kg

[>320 kCi]) and the vaporization of energy power packs from a Russian satellite (20 kg [0.27 TBq] of

239Pu) and U.S. satellites (1 kg [17 kCi] of 238Pu ) that burned up upon re-entry. Air activity of Pu,

monitored in New York, peaked in 1963 at a concentration of 1.7 fCi/m3

. The cumulative inhalation

intake from 1954 to 1975 averaged 43 pCi per person. For comparison, the EPA’s annual limit on intake

(ALI) for 239Pu for occupational exposure is 2,000 pCi. Cumulative individual tissue doses (through the

year 2000) due to inhalation are predicted to be: lungs, 1.6 mrad; liver, 1.7 mrad; and bone lining cells,

1.5 mrad (Shapiro 1990). 

Radioactive debris from nuclear explosions falls into three categories: large particles, which fall out close

to the explosion site within hours of the explosion; smaller particles, which penetrate the troposphere,

behave like aerosols, and may not fall out for days; and the smallest particles, which penetrate the

stratosphere, distribute worldwide, and fall out over many months or years. The greatest portion of

fallout from nuclear weapons testing was injected into the stratosphere (78%), while 10% and 12% were

injected into the troposphere and in the locality of the test, respectively. As of 1993, the total cumulative

worldwide collective dose due to fallout was estimated to be 7x106

 man•Sv. The collective dose will

continue to climb, mainly due to long-lived 14C (Eisenbud 1987; UNSCEAR 1993).

Airborne radioactive materials, both naturally occurring and fallout-derived, usually attach to dust

particles; the potential for inhalation of radionuclides bound to particles, and the respective threat this

poses to animal and human health, varies considerably. In regions downwind of nuclear weapons test

sites or nuclear weapons production facilities, or areas with abnormally high concentrations of naturally

occurring radionuclides (e.g., New York state or Denver, Colorado), the potential for inhalation of

particulate-bound radionuclides increases. Although most inhaled radioactive particles are eliminated

from the lungs by normal clearing mechanisms, some of the particles remain in the lungs for extended

periods. Others are carried to lymph nodes by scavenger cells (Eisenbud 1987; Shapiro 1990).

Radiation dose from atmospheric testing is attributed to external exposure to radionuclides on the earth's

surface, internal exposure from inhalation of gases or particulate matter, and ingestion of contaminated

foods and water. Approximately 80% of the radiation dose from nuclear testing is estimated to be 
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

delivered through ingestion, with 16% and 4% of the dose delivered through external exposure and

inhalation, respectively. Radioactive particles resulting from fallout can contaminate food supplies

directly by foliar deposition, or indirectly by entry into the soil and subsequent incorporation into plants,

although this delayed incorporation through root uptake accounts for a small portion of that ingested. 

Surface waters can be contaminated through soil runoff or direct contamination from the atmosphere. 

The degree of radionuclide incorporation into plants through root uptake varies considerably among

radionuclides. For example, 137Cs and radium bind tightly to clay or organic minerals upon entering the

soil and are not amenable to root uptake; thus, foliar deposition is the primary route for oral exposure to

137Cs. Likewise, 131I poses little threat through root uptake due to its short half-life (8 days). The

concentrations of radionuclides in food vary considerably across food types. The concentration of 226Ra

ranges from 0.15 pCi/kg in cow’s milk to 2,000 pCi/kg in Brazil nuts. Concentrations of 137Cs range from

20 pCi/kg in cow’s milk to 5,000 pCi/kg in beef. More important than concentrations in foods is the rate

of intake and absorption of a radionuclide. Individual intake varies considerably; for a given radionuclide

and locality, intake may vary as much as 500-fold. Likewise, the extent of absorption varies among the

various nuclides, from almost completely in the case of 40K, 137Cs, and 131I, to very poorly (0.003%) in the

case of Pu radionuclides. Many alpha emitters, such as 226Ra, are taken up and retained in the bone,

resulting in sustained alpha irradiation of the bone-forming cells and bone surface lining cells

(Eisenbud 1987; McClellan 1982; Shapiro 1990). 

The primary radionuclides of concern are 90Sr, 137Cs, and 131I. Within the first year, 45% of 137Cs is

transferred to the food chain (through milk, grain and meat). 90Sr enters the food chain primarily through

milk and grain products. Exposure to 14C and 3

H is through ingestion and inhalation; however, the

contribution of 14C and 3

H by ingestion is trivial. The dose rate from naturally occurring 14C is about 1

mrem per year. At its peak effect, the dose rate from 14C due to weapons testing also was about 1 mrem

per year, and is now decreasing. The dose from the tritium due to weapons is considered to be even less. 

At the peak, the additional 3

H contributed less than 0.1 mrem per year (UNSCEAR 1993). The radiation

dose from 131I occurs largely during the first 2 months following detonation, due to its short 8-day halflife, and the primary exposure route is via the pasture-cow’s milk ingestion pathway.

In addition to exposures from inhalation and ingestion, radiation exposure also occurs externally from

particles deposited on the ground. Since the debris spends more time on the ground than in the air, the

radiation dose from earthbound particles ranges from 100 to 1,000,000 times that from airborne particles

(UNSCEAR 1993).
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

6.7.3.1 Atmospheric Testing

Atmospheric testing refers to the detonation of nuclear bombs above the earth’s surface.

Nevada Test Site Fallout. A total of 100 surface or near-surface tests with a total explosive yield of

about 1 Mt were performed at the Nevada test site between 1951 and 1962. The population around the

site at this time was approximately 180,000 persons. Within this population, thyroid doses in children

may have been as high as 100 rad (1 Gy). The collective dose received by this population was

approximately 50,000 man•rem (500 man•Sv); 90% of this dose was delivered between 1953 and 1957. 

The dust from these tests also drifted over the United States, producing bands of exposure to radioactive

material. Deposition of fallout varied considerably because of meteorological conditions. For example,

the greatest (non-local) fallout levels from one of the Nevada test explosions occurred in New York State,

some 2,000 miles away, due to rainfall. The cumulative dose from gamma radiation in New York,

approximately 100 mrad (1 mGy), exceeded the doses received by any remote U.S. location for all of

1953 (Eisenbud 1987; UNSCEAR 1993).

Bikini Atoll Fallout. Operation Crossroads was a series of nuclear weapons tests that began in the

Marshall Islands, a group of atolls in the Pacific, on July 1, 1946. Prior to testing, the inhabitants of the

Bikini Island Atoll were evacuated. The second test in this series, designated “Baker,” was a 21-kiloton

bomb that was detonated underwater. This resulted in contamination of ships staged nearby and the atoll

itself. Local soil contamination prevented the return of the Bikini native population until 1969. Although

the island was still contaminated in 1969, it was thought that dietary restrictions and the importation of

foods would allow safe habitation. However, body burdens of plutonium began to increase in the natives,

resulting in their re-evacuation in 1978.

During Operation Castle, another series of nuclear tests, the second test, “Bravo,” resulted in significant

fallout and contamination of humans. Abrupt changes in wind direction after the 15-Mt detonation on

March 1, 1954, resulted in the inadvertent exposure of residents of the Rongelap and Utirik islands, which

lie 210 and 570 km to the east of Bikini, as well as exposure of a group of 23 Japanese fishermen whose

boat was caught in the fallout approximately 80 miles downwind. Since the device was mounted on a

barge situated in shallow water, a considerable amount of coral was incorporated into the fireball. The

fishermen reported that the fallout particles resembled snow and that deposits of fallout on the boat were

of sufficient depth to allow one to see footprints. Because they were unaware of the circumstances, the

fishermen took no precautionary measures to minimize exposure; they remained on the contaminated boat 
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until returning to port some 13 days later. Within 1–2 days after exposure to the fallout, the fishermen

began to experience itching and burning sensations on exposed skin. By the third day, skin lesions and

epilation began to develop; the skin lesions became ulcerous in about 70% of the fishermen. Lesions

were less severe in those who had worn protective clothing such as hats (ACHRE 1995; Eisenbud 1987). 

A more detailed description is available (Simon and Vetter 1997).

Within 78 hours of the explosion, 82 and 159 persons were evacuated from Rongelap and Utirik,

respectively. However, as with the fishermen, the island inhabitants took no precautionary measures to

minimize exposure to radioactive fallout. Within 1–2 days after exposure to fallout, itching and burning

sensations on exposed skin were experienced by the natives of Rongelap, but not those of Utirik. Skin

lesions and epilation occurred within 21 days of exposure, becoming ulcerous in about 25% of the

Rongelaps; lesions were less severe in those who had worn protective clothing or bathed during the

period prior to evacuation. The island of Utirik was not heavily contaminated, and its residents were

allowed to return within a few months; however, the Rongelap residents were not allowed to return to

their island until 1957, and they were monitored annually by U.S. medical teams thereafter. Despite the

monitoring, fears among the island residents that exposure-related health problems were occurring

prompted a second evacuation, initiated by the residents, in 1985. External doses, ranging from 10 to 190

rad (0.1 to 1.9 Sv), were mostly from short-lived radionuclides. Mean thyroid doses to adults, 9-yearolds, and 1-year-olds, were 1,300, 2,200, and 5,200 rad (13, 22, and 52 Gy), respectively. Maximum

thyroid doses to these groups were 4,200, 8,200, and 20,000 rad (42, 82, and 200 Gy), respectively

(ACHRE 1995; Eisenbud 1987; NAS 1994; UNSCEAR 1993). 

Average gamma dose rates 3 feet above ground level on Rongelap island, estimated from a survey

performed in July 1956, were 0.2–0.5 mR/hr (mean of 0.4 mR/hr) (DOE 1994b). Environmental samples

collected in 1964 showed 239Pu concentrations of 11 pCi/g (0.4 Bq/g) in a soil sample collected at a depth

of 0.5–1.0 inch. A more extensive survey that included 14 of the atoll islands was performed in April and

May of 1967. External radiation, as well as the radioactive content of food, vegetation, and soil, was

measured. On the islands closest to the detonations, the major contributor to the external gamma

radiation field was 60Co, which was associated with neutron activation of scrap metal; the major

contributor to the external gamma radiation field on distant islands was 137Cs. Additional samples were

collected during the U.S. cleanup operations in 1969. 239Pu concentrations on Bikini Island ranged from

1.3 to 190 pCi/g (0.1–7 Bq/g). 239Pu concentrations on Eneu Island ranged from 0.5 to <3 pCi/g

(0.02–<0.1 Bq/g) (DOE 1970). Measurements of gamma radiation exposure performed in June 1975

showed highly variable exposure rates on Bikini island (10–20 μR/hr at the shore versus 30–100 μR/hr in 
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6. SOURCES OF POPULATION EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION

the interior), while exposure rates on Eneu island were relatively constant (<10 μR/hr) over the entire

island. Thirty-year cumulative doses were estimated to be 0.057 and 0.027 Sv (5.7 and 2.7 rem) for those

living on Bikini Island (interior portions) and Eneu Island, respectively (USERD 1975). Water samples

collected from Eneu Island in 1975 showed 90Sr and 137Cs at concentrations that would lead to a combined

30-year whole-body and skeletal dose of 25 mrem (0.25 mSv). Sampling of cistern water on Bikini

Island during the same period revealed 90Sr concentrations, which would lead to a 30-year skeletal dose of

9.1 mrem (0.09 mSv), and 137Cs at concentrations that would lead to a 30-year whole-body dose of

1.9 mrem (0.02 mSv) (DOE 1975). Whole-body counting of Bikini Island residents in 1974, 1977, and

1978 showed that the major contributor to whole body doses was 137Cs. The average body burden for

137Cs increased 10-fold between 1974 and 1977 and by 72% between 1977 and 1978. Nine persons had

body burdens exceeding the federal standards for non-occupational dose in that year (0.5 rem/year [0.005

Sv/yr]); the highest body burdens were approximately twice the permissible levels (DOE 1978). 

Semipalatinsk Test Site Fallout (Russia). Approximately 10,000 people living near the

Semipalatinsk test site in the Kazakh region of Russia were exposed to radioactive materials from

atmospheric testing between the years of 1949 and 1962. Underground testing, which typically retains

the radioactive material underground, was conducted between 1964 and 1989. The collective doses to

this population from external and internal radiation were estimated to be 260,000 and 200,000 man•rem

(2,600 and 2,000 man•Sv), respectively (UNSCEAR 1993). 

Australian Test Site Fallout (United Kingdom). The United Kingdom performed a total of

12 nuclear tests at 3 sites in Australia with total explosive yields at each site of 100, 16, and 60 kilotons,

respectively. The collective dose delivered to the Australian population was estimated to be 70,000

man•rem (700 man•Sv). In addition, several hundred smaller experiments were performed, resulting in

the contamination of hundreds of square kilometers with a total of 24 kg of 239Pu. Potential annual

exposures to individuals in these areas, assuming continuous habitation, is estimated to range up to

several rem (several hundredths of a Sv) (UNSCEAR 1993).

Lop Nor Test Site Fallout (People’s Republic of China). China has performed more than 40

nuclear weapons tests. Approximately 23 tests were atmospheric; the last atmospheric test was performed

on October 16, 1980 and the fallout was measured worldwide. The remaining tests have been performed

underground; the most recent underground test occurred on August 17, 1995. All Chinese nuclear testing

occurs at the Lop Nor site, located in the Xinjian region in northwest China. China has not allowed

independent assessments of the ecological or health impacts of its testing program; however, increased 
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mortality rates due to fallout of radioactive materials have been reported by a political advocacy group in

neighboring eastern Turkestan (Eastern Turkestan Information Bulletin 1996). Both the data and the

claims are unsubstantiated.

6.7.3.2 Underground Testing

Underground testing refers to the detonation of nuclear bombs below the earth’s surface. About 1,400

underground nuclear tests have been performed worldwide, with a total explosive yield of 90 Mt. The

frequency of underground testing increased dramatically after the 1963 signing of the Limited Test Ban

Treaty, which banned atmospheric testing. The nature of underground tests typically causes all the

radioactive material produced to be retained underground. However, some radioactive material can be

released if the blast penetrates the surface or if inadvertent leaks occur due to ground structure damage or

the gradual diffusion of gases. Of the 500 underground tests performed at the Nevada test site, only 32

led to off-site contamination. The total activity of 131I inadvertently released was about 5 PBq (135 kCi),

which is about five orders of magnitude lower than that released during atmospheric testing. Based on

calculations of theoretical yields, it is estimated that the total release of noble gases from underground

testing resulted in a population dose of 500 man•rem (5 man•Sv). Of the noble gases, 133Xe is the

predominant radionuclide. It is estimated that the total dose from 3

H resulting from underground testing

is 0.1 man•rem (0.001 man•Sv) (UNSCEAR 1993).

In addition to military-sponsored nuclear explosions, a series of about 100 test detonations was carried

out during the 1960s for the purpose of developing peaceful applications for nuclear explosives, such as

building flood prevention reservoirs and interoceanic canals similar to the Panama canal (designated as

Project Plowshare). As the benefits were far outweighed by the issues of contamination, the project was

subsequently terminated. Of these tests, six were performed at the Nevada test site. The estimated

collective dose delivered to the surrounding population (180,000 persons) from one of these tests (Sedan;

104 kt explosion) was estimated to be 300 man•rem (3 man•Sv). As a result of the Schooner cratering

experiment carried out in the United States in 1968, tungsten-181 (181Tu) generated from the neutron

shield was detected as far away as Europe. The estimated collective dose from this explosion to the

population living in the 40o–50o latitude band of the northern hemisphere was estimated to be 2,000

man•rem (20 man•Sv) (UNSCEAR 1993). 
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6.7.4 Occupational Exposure

Occupational exposure to radiation occurs when workers handle radioactive materials or are exposed to

radiation sources (e.g., x rays and radioactive sources). The history of occupational exposure to

radioactivity is as old as its use. In the period between the discovery of x rays and the early 1930s, more

than 100 radiologists died of skin cancer, anemia, and leukemia, largely because they knew very little

about the hazards of radiation and how to protect themselves adequately from it. The frequencies of

anemia and noncancerous skin damage were also elevated. The concept of a “tolerance dose” was

developed early, based initially upon the levels of exposure that resulted in erythema. Originally, limits

of 5 R/month or 0.2 R/day were established, and these limits were successively lowered as the body of

knowledge concerning radiation health effects grew. The current limits are 5 rem/year (0.05 Sv/year)

total effective dose equivalent; 50 rem/year (0.5 Sv/year) for the sum of deep-dose equivalent (from

external radiation) and committed dose equivalent (from internal radionuclides) to any individual organ or

tissue other than the lens of the eye; 15 rem/year (0.15 Sv/year) shallow dose equivalent to the skin or to

any extremity. While most exposure is external, internal exposure occurrs in several occupations, such

as radium dial painters, powerplant workers, uranium miners, radiopharmaceutical manufacturers, and

nuclear medicine support staff. 

In the early 1900s, it was discovered that radium, when mixed with zinc sulfide causes the zinc sulfide to

glow. This discovery spurred the development of radioluminescent paints, which consists of a mixture of

finely powdered radium salt and zinc sulfide crystals in an appropriate volatile vehicle. This paint was

used in the manufacture of dial faces, wristwatches, static eliminators, emergency exit signs, electron

tubes, and educational products. In 1924, bone damage that looked like phosphorus poisoning was

observed in radium dial painters employed at a northern New Jersey plant, and later it was determined to

be bone cancer caused by radium. It was determined that the young women were inadvertently ingesting

radium due to the practice of lip-pointing the brush tips when painting fine numerals. A group of 24 dial

painters ingested approximately 900–1,300 μCi (33–48 MBq) radium during the course of their careers,

which resulted in the formation of bone cancers (see Chapter 3 of this toxicological profile) (Eisenbud

1987; Shapiro 1990; UNSCEAR 1993). 

Exposure to airborne uranium ore dust occurs in uranium miners and millers, while exposure to airborne

elemental uranium or uranium salts occurs in uranium processors. Uranium ore contains other radionuclides including 226Ra, 222Rn, 220Rn, 218Po, 214Po, and 210Po. Radon diffuses from the rock into the mine

air, where the radon progeny become attached to particles of dust or moisture and are inhaled into the 
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lungs. In the 1800s, silver and uranium miners in Europe were dying of a mysterious malady; the illness

was diagnosed as intrathoracic malignancy (lung cancer) in 1879. At that time, it was estimated that the

life expectancy of these miners was 20 years after entering the occupation. Death rates from lung cancer

in these miners were much higher than expected; as early as 1942, the deaths were attributed to radon

exposure. It has been estimated that as much as 40% of all lung cancers in miners may be due to

exposure to radon and its progeny (Archer et al. 1973a; Gottlieb and Husen 1982; Lubin et al. 1969,

1995; Samet et al. 1984, 1986). Although radon and its transformation products have been implicated as

causative agents in miners with lung cancer, it is difficult to isolate the cancer risk that may be specific to

the miners’ exposure because they were concurrently exposed to other suspected or known carcinogens

such as tobacco smoke, silica and other dusts, and diesel engine exhaust fumes (ACHRE 1995; Auerbach

et al. 1978; Band et al. 1980; Lundin et al. 1969; Saccomanno et al. 1971, 1976, 1986; Whittemore and

McMillan 1983). 

A study of 16 male Navajo uranium miners who developed lung cancer between February 1965 and May

1979 found that the mean cumulative radon exposure was 1,140 working level months (WLM) (Gottlieb

and Husen 1982). The working level is a measure of airborne concentration of radon progeny. The

WLM is a measure of total exposure. It is the product of the concentration, in WL’s and the exposure

time, in months (1 working month = 170 hrs). One WLM corresponds to an alpha dose to the

tracheobronchial epithelium of approximately 1 rad (0.01 Gy). An excess of lung cancer deaths was also

found in uranium miners who had worked underground for at least 1 year in the Grants mineral belt area

of New Mexico. Mean exposures in these studies ranged from 2.6 to 42 WLM from 1954 to 1966 and

from 0.3 to 21.8 WLM from 1967 to 1982 (Acquavella et al. 1985; Samet et al. 1986). A National

Institutes of Health study (NIH 1994) summarized cumulative WLM for several mining cohorts and

Colorado miners had the highest average WLM of 807 (follow-up period 1950–1987). Exposed New

Mexico miners had an average WLM estimate of 110 and non- U.S. miners ranged from an average WLM

of 7 to 370. It should be noted that, in several of these studies, exposure to dust and cigarette smoke was

also found to be related in varying degrees to the incidence of cancer.

With the discovery of fission and the development of particle accelerators (Cockcroft-Walton, Van de

Graaff generator, cyclotron), numerous new radionuclides and new elements could be readily produced. 

The number of users and frequency of radionuclide use are both steadily increasing. 

Other professions in which workers receive elevated radiation doses include: commercial airline

personnel (pilots and flight attendants), military pilots, astronauts, industrial and nuclear power plant

workers, radiographers, and dental and medical personnel. A person flying cross-country receives about
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5 mrem (0.05 mSv) per flight due to the increased levels of cosmic radiation associated with the increase

in elevation; it has been estimated that pilots and flight attendants receive an annual dose that is

approximately 160 mrem (1.6 mSv) higher than that of the average population. Astronauts are exposed to

intense radiation emanating from solar flares, the earth’s radiation belts, and ambient cosmic radiation. The

average radiation doses for crews of the Apollo missions (5–12 days/mission) were 0.16–1.14 rad

(0.0016–0.0114 Gy); the average doses for the Skylab missions, which lasted 20–90 days, were

1.6–7.7 rad (0.016–0.77 Gy). These high doses of radiation require attention if people begin living in the

environments of outer space (space stations, interplanetary travel, etc.). The processing and blending of

LPG tends to enhance radon concentrations, and the long-lived radon daughters (210Pb and 210Po) tend to

accumulate inside LPG processing machinery, resulting in a possible risk of exposure to maintenance

workers. A nuclear power plant worker averages 300 mrem (3 mSv) additional dose per year, resulting in

doses about 80% higher than the average population (DOE 1996; Eisenbud 1987).

6.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE

The database is considered to be adequate for use as the basis for radiation safety standards.

6.9 CONCLUSIONS

The issue of radiation exposure is a matter of interest to the general public; however, radiation exposure is

inevitable as it is a natural part of the environment. Indeed, radioactive materials have always existed

around and even within us. While the risk of exposure to radiation from man-made sources exists, with

the exception of locally high exposures, the average individual dose received from man-made radiation is

small compared to that received from natural sources. When assessing the risks associated with a

radiation exposure, one must weigh the potential benefits (e.g., gain in quality of life related to medical

diagnoses and treatments) against the potential detriments (acute radiation sickness, cancer risk )

associated with the exposure. Conversely, in situations presenting minimal risks of exposure to radiation

and radioactive materials, one may also compare the potential risks associated with the use of alternatives. 

For example, in the case of nuclear power versus power from fossil fuels, one may want to weigh the risk

of exposure to coal dust, radioactive materials, combustion products , and waste materials associated with

coal power versus the risk of radiation exposure from nuclear power production and waste disposal. The

regulations concerning radiation exposure limitations are based upon the studies and recommendations of

numerous scientific organizations to ensure the health of occupational workers and the public.
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7. REGULATIONS

Because of the potential for ionizing radiation to cause deterministic (acute radiation syndrome, cataracts)

and nondeterministic (cancer) health effects in exposed individuals, safe dose guidelines and regulations

have been established for both external radiation exposure and radionuclides in air and water by a number

of international and national agencies. International and national regulations and guidelines pertinent to

human exposure to ionizing radiation are summarized in Table 7-1. Those that protect against deterministic effects are based on identified acute thresholds doses for those effects, with a reduction to protect

sensitive populations and provide safety margins that account for uncertainties. Those that protect against

nondeterministic effects use the observed frequencies with which those effects occur at high doses,

account for uncertainties that may exist, and assume a linear dose-effect relationship to calculate the doses

at which the effects would be presumed to occur at some acceptable frequency, such as the range of 10-4

to 10-6 which EPA often considers. This proportionality assumes a linear no threshold (LNT) dose effect

curve. During the last decade, there have been reductions in LNT-based public radiation dose limits and

site cleanup levels that have increased the scope and cost of medical, occupational, and environmental

radiation protection efforts. Some recent studies found a reduction in health effects when the dose was

delivered at lower dose rates, indicating a potential application to future protection guidelines and

regulations.

An MRL of 0.004 mSv (0.4 rem) has been derived for acute-duration external exposure (14 days or less),

based on the developmental studies of Schull et al. (1988) and the IQ studies of Burt (1966).

An MRL of 0.001 Sv/yr (0.1 rem/yr) above background has been derived for chronic-duration external

exposure (365 days or more) to radiation based on information that identified radiation doses that have

not been reported to have detrimental effects on humans (BEIR V 1990).

The health effects of radiation have been recognized since early in the twentieth century, and by 1928 the

International X-Ray and Radium Protection Committee (now the International Commission on

Radiological Protection [ICRP]) was established. In the United States, a year later, the Advisory

Committee on X Ray and Radiation Protection, now called the National Council on Radiation Protection

and Measurements (NCRP), was formed. The NCRP was chartered in 1964 by the U.S. Congress to:

(1) disseminate information of public interest and recommend radiation levels to protect the public, (2)

support cooperation among organizations concerned with radiation protection, (3) develop basic concepts 
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7. REGULATIONS

about radiation protection, and (4) cooperate with the ICRP and the International Commission on

Radiation Units and Measurements. Even though the NCRP is a nongovernmental organization, it

provides recommendations that guide the establishment of federal radiation policies, agency

requirements, and statutory laws. Through the governmental agencies that rely on NCRP

recommendations, the work of this organization has a significant impact on the many activities in the

United States involving the use of radiation and radioactive materials. 

In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets radiation safety policy and basic

safety standard. The execution of this policy is assigned to the various regulatory agencies, including the

EPA itself, for application to the specific activities that they regulate. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory

Commission (USNRC), an independent government agency, regulates commercial nuclear power

reactors; research/test/training reactors; fuel cycle facilities; and the transport, storage and disposal of

nuclear materials and waste (USNRC 1997b). The EPA is responsible for protecting the public and the

environment and for clean up of radioactively contaminated sites (EPA 1997). The Mine Safety and

Health Administration (Department of Labor) is responsible for protecting miners from exposure to radon

and its daughters and gamma rays in underground or surface mines (MSHA 1997). The Food and Drug

Administration (FDA) develops standards for equipment that emits ionizing radiation, such as

radiographic and fluoroscopic equipment (FDA 1997), radioactive material concentrations in food (FDA

1998), and medical devices used in radiation therapy (FDA 1997). 

A mammogram device, for example, uses low-dose x rays to produce a radiographic image of breast

tissue. Unfortunately, mammograms are among the most difficult radiographic images to read. To

reduce the chance of false negative and false positive diagnoses, the image must be of high quality (FDA

1997). Senate hearings on breast cancer held in 1992 found a wide range of problems with

mammography practices in the United States. In response to these issues and to the growing incidence of

breast cancer and its associated mortality rate, the U.S. Congress enacted the Mammography Quality

Standards Act (MQSA). The enactment of the MQSA in 1992 was a statutory means of certifying and

inspecting mammography facilities. Regulations established by the FDA to implement the MQSA

ensured that only facilities accredited by an approved accreditation body and certified by the Secretary of

Health and Human Services would lawfully continue to operate after October 1, 1994. In order to meet

the October deadline, however, the MQSA needed to be amended and the process for issuing standards

for facilities and the standards to be met by the accrediting bodies needed to be shortened. The 
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7. REGULATIONS

amendments gave the FDA the authority to issue interim regulations, which were published on December

21, 1993 (FDA 1997, 1999a, 1999b). Final regulations for the MQSA, published on October 28, 1997,

mandated that facilities would incorporate new requirements into their programs by April 28, 1999, the

effective date for most of the regulations. Regulations concerning equipment will become effective on

October 28, 2002 (FDA 1999b). Except for the Department of Veterans Affairs, all mammography

facilities that produce, process, or interpret mammograms must meet the requirements of the MQSA. In

order to keep the basic safeguards in place beyond the year 2000, the Mammography Quality Standards

Reauthorization Act of 1998 was passed by Congress on October 9, 1998 (U.S. Congress 1998). The

FDA recently announced the availability of its guidance document, Compliance Guidance: The

Mammography Standards Act Final Regulations Document #1, which is intended to assist mammography

facilities in meeting the MQSA final regulations (FDA 1999a). 

The FDA recently updated its guidance document that presents recommended action levels for

radionuclides in foods, both domestic and imported (FDA 1998). These derived intervention levels

(DILs) are estimated levels in food that could lead to individuals receiving a radiation equivalent dose

equal to the FDA protection action guide (PAG) that is set as the more limiting of either 0.5 rem (5 mSv)

for committed effective dose or 5 rem (50 mSv) committed dose equivalent to any individual tissue or

organ. Table 7-4 presents the most restrictive food DILs.

 Transport of radioactive materials is regulated by the Department of Transportation (DOT) in

conjunction with the USNRC. Coordinating government emergency response to accidents involving

radioactive materials is the responsibility of the Federal Emergency Management Administration

(FEMA).

National regulations governing the occupational exposure to ionizing radiation include USNRC

regulations (10CFR20), EPA standards for uranium and thorium mills (40 CFR 192), Occupational Safety

and Health Administration (OSHA) standards for ionizing radiation (29 CFR 1910.1096), the Department

of Energy (DOE) standards for occupational radiation protection (10 CFR 835), and MSHA’s radon and

gamma ray standards (60 FR 33719). National regulations concerning general population exposure to

radiation have been developed by the EPA and USNRC based on the dose limit recommendations of the

ICRP (ICRP 1997) and the NCRP (NCRP 1993).
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7. REGULATIONS

Currently there are 29 "NRC Agreement States." An agreement state is any state that has entered into an

agreement with the USNRC under Section 274 of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended. The

USNRC relinquishes to these states the majority of its regulatory authority over source, by-product, and

special nuclear material in quantities not sufficient to form a critical mass. However, the regulation of

nuclear reactors is under USNRC jurisdiction. In the remaining states, USNRC still handles all of the

inspection, enforcement, and licensing responsibilities. States can regulate exposure to workers from

electronic sources, as well as from naturally occurring and accelerator-produced radioactive materials. 

State regulations for 226Ra and strontium isotopes are listed in Tables 7-2 and 7-3, respectively. 

The basic philosophy of radiation safety is to minimize unnecessary radiation exposure. The specific

objectives of radiation safety guidance as stated by NCRP are (1) to prevent the occurrence of severe

radiation-induced deterministic (nonstochastic) disease, and (2) to limit the risk of the nondeterministic

(stochastic) effects (fatal cancer, and genetic effects) to a reasonable level compared with nonradiation

risks and in relation to societal needs, benefits gained, and economic factors. In addition to regulations

that set upper limits on radiation dose, the concept of ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) was

introduced to ensure that work place endeavors resulting in exposures to radiation provide sufficient

benefits which offset any potential detriment they cause (ACGIH 1998). The goal is not to eliminate all

radiation exposure, which would not be possible, but instead to strive for an appropriate balance between

protection of public health and reasonable costs (economic, social, etc.) while maintaining desirable dose

limits. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has adopted the

occupational exposure guidance of the ICRP (ACGIH 1998). The values used by ACGIH as guidelines

for exposure to radiation are given in Table 7-1.

The USNRC has set dose limits for individual members of the public of 0.1 rem/year, 5 rem/year for

occupationally exposed workers, and 0.5 rem (0.005 Sv) during the gestation period to the fetus of a

pregnant worker (USNRC 1996). More specific information on regulations pertaining to ionizing

radiation exposure can be found in the references listed in Table 7-1 of this profile.
















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8. LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE TO RADIATION 

AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

To help public health professionals and others address the needs of those who are exposed to radiation

and radioactive material, the information in this section on ionizing radiation is organized first by route of

exposure—inhalation, oral, dermal and external; and then by health effect—death, systemic, immunological, neurological, reproductive, developmental, genotoxic, and carcinogenic effects. The systemic

effects are subdivided into respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, hematological, musculoskeletal,

hepatic, renal, dermal, ocular, and body weight effects. 

The data for the observed effects from radiation and radioactive material are presented in the following

tables. These tables are not meant to be exhaustive reviews of all of the literature that reports biological

effects resulting from exposure to ionizing radiation. It does, however, provide health care professionals,

persons exposed (or potentially exposed) to radiation in their occupations, and the general public an

overview of the types of effects observed in each category. The tables report no-observed-adverse-effect

levels (NOAELs) or lowest-observed-adverse-effect levels (LOAELs), which reflect the actual radiation

doses (or concentration of radioactive material) used in the studies. LOAELS have been further classified

into "less serious" or "serious" effects. "Serious" effects are those that evoke failure in a biological

system and can lead to morbidity or mortality (e.g., acute radiation sickness or death). "Less serious"

effects are those that are not expected to cause significant dysfunction or death, or those whose

significance to the organism is not entirely clear. ATSDR acknowledges that a considerable amount of

judgment may be required in establishing whether an end point should be classified as a NOAEL, "less

serious" LOAEL, or "serious" LOAEL, and that in some cases, there will be insufficient data to decide

whether the effect is indicative of significant dysfunction. However, the Agency has established

guidelines and policies that are used to classify these end points. ATSDR believes that there is sufficient

merit in this approach to warrant an attempt at distinguishing between "less serious" and "serious" effects. 

The distinction between "less serious" effects and "serious" effects is considered to be important because

it helps the users of the profiles to identify radiation doses at which major health effects may start to

appear. LOAELs or NOAELs should also help in determining whether or not the effects vary with dose

and/or duration, and place into perspective the possible significance of these effects to human health.

A range of radiological units were used in the studies and these are reported in Tables 8-1 to 8-4. In these

studies, some authors reported units of absorbed dose (rad, Gy) or dose equivalent (rem, Sv), while other

authors reported effects in terms of units of concentration, transformations (disintegrations) or activity
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8. LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE TO RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

(μCi/kg or Bq/kg, etc). Conversions between units is possible when given specific information about the

exposed animal, organ weights, and the nuclide; however, the specific information required to perform

those conversions was, in many cases, not complete or not reported at all. Many of the activities reported

in Ci or Bq could not be converted into absorbed dose (rad, Gy) or dose equivalent (rem, Sv) to determine

a dose-response relationship. Since these conversions were not practical, the unit information (rad, Gy,

rem, Si) with the corresponding NOAEL or LOAEL are listed first under each heading (death, respiratory,

gastrointestinal, etc). This information is then immediately followed by the studies that examined end

points in terms of concentration or activity (μCi/kg or Bq/kg) for each organ system route of exposure. 

This provides the reader an opportunity to more clearly observe any dose-response effects resulting from

exposure to ionizing radiation, both from an absorbed dose (rad, Gy) aspect as well as from a radionuclide

activity (Ci, Bq) perspective.

The significance of the exposure levels shown in Tables 8-1 to 8-4 may differ depending on the user's

perspective. Public health officials and others concerned with appropriate actions to take at hazardous

waste sites may want information on levels of exposure associated with more subtle effects in humans or

animals (LOAELs) or exposure levels below which no adverse effects (NOAELs) have been observed. 

Levels of exposure associated with carcinogenic effects (Cancer Effect Levels, CELs) of ionizing

radiation are also indicated in Tables 8-1 through 8-4.

Estimates of exposure levels posing minimal risk to humans may be of interest to health professionals and

citizens alike. Estimates of the acute radiation dose and chronic radiation dose rate that pose minimal risk

to humans (Minimal Risk Levels or MRLs) have been made for ionizing radiation. An MRL is defined as

an estimate of daily human exposure to a substance that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of

adverse effects (noncarcinogenic) over a specified duration of exposure. MRLs are derived when reliable

and sufficient data exist to identify the target organ(s) of effect or the most sensitive health effect(s) for a

specific duration within a given route of exposure. MRLs are based on noncancerous health effects only

and do not consider carcinogenic effects. MRLs can be derived for acute, intermediate, and chronic

duration exposures for inhalation and oral routes as well as for external exposure. Appropriate

methodology does not exist to develop chemical MRLs for dermal exposure.

Although methods have been established to derive these levels (Barnes and Dourson 1988; EPA 1990),

uncertainties are always associated with these techniques. ATSDR acknowledges additional uncertainties

inherent in the application of the procedures to derive less than lifetime MRLs. As an example, acute

inhalation MRLs may not be protective for health effects that are delayed in development or are acquired
IONIZING RADIATION 295

8. LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE TO RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

following repeated acute insults, such as hypersensitivity reactions, asthma, or chronic bronchitis. As

these kinds of health effects data become available and methods to assess levels of significant human

exposure improve, these MRLs will be revised. 

MRLs have been derived for radiation effects. During the evaluation process, ATSDR examined many

factors, including (1) which specific studies would lend themselves to be most suitable for deriving an

MRL, and (2) what health effect(s) an MRL should be based upon (cataract formation, reduction in IQ,

etc.). 

The tables showing Levels of Significant Exposure (LSE) to Radiation and Radioactive Material consist

of the following information:

(1) Route of Exposure One of the first considerations when reviewing the toxicity of ionizing radiation

using these tables and figures should be the relevant and appropriate route of exposure. When

sufficient data exist, four tables are presented in the document by the four principal routes of

exposure, i.e., inhalation, oral, dermal, and external (Levels of Significant Exposure to Radiation

and Radioactive Material tables 8-1, 8-2, 8-3 and 8-4, respectively). Not all studies will have data

on each route of exposure.

(2) Health Effect The major categories of health effects included in Levels of Significant Exposure to

Radiation and Radioactive Material tables are death, systemic, immunological, neurological,

developmental, reproductive, and cancer. NOAELs and LOAELs can be reported in the tables and

figures for all effects but cancer. Systemic effects are further defined in the "System" column of the

table.

(3) Species The test species, whether animal or human, are identified in this column. 

(4) Duration/ Frequency of Administration The duration of the study and the weekly and daily

exposure regimen are provided in this column. This permits comparison of NOAELs and LOAELs

from different studies.

(5) System This column further defines the systemic effects. These systems include: respiratory,

cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, hematological, musculoskeletal, hepatic, renal, and dermal/ocular.

Other systems considered separately in these tables are immunological/lymphoreticular,

neurological, reproductive, developmental, genotoxic, and cancer. "Other" refers to any systemic

effect (e.g., a decrease in body weight) not covered in these systems.

(6) NOAEL A No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (NOAEL) is the highest exposure level at which no

harmful effects were seen in the organ system studied.

(7) LOAEL A Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL) is the lowest dose used in the study

that caused a harmful health effect. LOAELs have been arbitrarily classified into "Less Serious"

and "Serious" effects. These distinctions help readers identify the levels of exposure at which

adverse health effects first appear and the gradation of effects with increasing dose. A brief

description of the specific endpoint used to quantify the adverse effect accompanies the LOAEL.
IONIZING RADIATION 296

8. LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE TO RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

(8) CEL A Cancer Effect Level (CEL) is the lowest exposure level associated with the onset of

carcinogenesis in experimental or epidemiologic studies. CELs are always considered serious

effects.

(9) Chemical Form The nuclide, the chemical form (chloride, oxide, etc.) and the type of emission

(alpha or beta particle and gamma ray) is indicated in this column.

(10) Reference The complete reference citation is given in chapter 10 of the profile.






































IONIZING RADIATION 335

9. GLOSSARY

Absorbed Dose—The energy imparted by ionizing radiation per unit mass of irradiated material. The

units of absorbed dose are the rad and the gray (Gy). (See also Rad, Gray, and Units, Radiological.)

Absorbed dose is defined per unit mass of absorbing material. 

Absorbed Fraction—A term used in internal dosimetry. It is that fraction of energy radiated by the

source organ that is absorbed by the target organ. For example, for 131I in the thyroid (source organ), the

absorbed fraction could be the fraction of gamma radiation absorbed in the liver (one of the target

organs).

Absorber—Any material that absorbs or lessens the intensity of ionizing radiation. Neutron absorbers

(boron, hafnium, and cadmium) are used as material in control rods for reactors. Concrete, steel, and lead

are typical absorbers for x rays and gamma rays. A thin sheet of paper or metal will absorb alpha

particles and all except the most energetic beta particles.

Absorption—The process by which radiation imparts some or all of its energy to any material through

which it passes.

Absorption Ratio, Differential—The ratio of concentration of a nuclide in a given organ or tissue to the

concentration that would be obtained if the same administered quantity of this nuclide were uniformly

distributed throughout the body.

Activation—The process of inducing radioactivity by neutron irradiation of a target material.

Activity—The number of nuclear transformations occurring in a given quantity of material per unit time. 

(See Curie, Becquerel, and Units, Radiological, for more information on activity.)

Activity Median Aerodynamic Diameter (AMAD)—The diameter of a unit density sphere with the

same terminal settling velocity in air as that of the aerosol particle whose activity is the median for the

entire aerosol.

Acute Exposure—An exposure to ionizing radiation for a duration of less than 15 days. Regarding acute

radiation syndrome, high radiation levels involve an exposure period up to 2 days.

Acute Radiation Syndrome—The signs and symptoms which, taken together, characterize a person

suffering from the effects of intense radiation. The effects occur within hours of exposure.

ALARA—The acronym for “As Low As is Reasonably Achievable.” This term refers to the practice of

making every reasonable effort to keep exposure to radiation as far below the dose limit as possible while

still achieving the purpose for which radiation is licensed to be used. The benefits of reducing dose must

be weighed against economic, engineering, and social costs of doing so.

Alpha Particle (symbolized by Greek letter α)—A charged particle emitted from the nucleus of certain

radioactive atoms. An alpha particle has a mass of 4 atomic mass units (amu) and is equal to a helium

nucleus (i.e., two protons and two neutrons, and a charge of +2).
IONIZING RADIATION 336

9. GLOSSARY

Annihilation Radiation—The photons produced when an electron and a positron unite and cease to

exist. The annihilation of a positron-electron pair results in the production of two photons, each of

0.51 MeV in energy (see pair production).

Annual Limit on Intake (ALI)—The derived limit for the amount of radioactive material taken into the

body of an adult worker by inhalation or ingestion in a year. For a given radionuclide, ALI is defined as

the smaller of the intakes that would result in a committed effective dose equivalent of 5 rem or a

committed dose equivalent of 50 rem to any individual organ or tissue (see also Committed Effective

Dose).

Antineutrino— A neutral particle of rest mass near zero that is emitted during beta transformation

(nucleus with a neutron excess) which occurs via the pathway by converting a neutron into a proton: 

n---> p + e-

 + anti-nu(e), where n means neutron, p means proton, e- means electron, and anti-nu(e) means

an antineutrino of the electron type.

Artificial Radioactivity—The radioactivity produced by particle bombardment or electromagnetic

irradiation in an accelerator or reactor and not existing in nature.

Atomic Mass—The mass of a neutral atom of a nuclide, usually expressed in terms of "atomic mass

units." The "atomic mass unit" is one-twelfth the mass of one neutral atom of carbon-12; equivalent to

1.6604x10-24 gm. (Symbol: u)

Atomic Mass Number—The total number of nucleons (neutron plus protons) in the nucleus of an atom.

Atomic Number—The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The "effective atomic number" is

calculated from the composition and atomic numbers of a compound or mixture. An element of this

atomic number would interact with photons in the same way as the compound or mixture. (Symbol: Z).

Atomic Weight—The weighted mean of the masses of the neutral atoms of an element expressed in

atomic mass units.

Background Radiation—Radiation resulting from cosmic rays and naturally occurring radioactive

material. Background radiation is always present and its level can change with altitude and the amount of

radioactive material present in soil and building materials.

Becquerel (Bq)—A unit of measure for the quantity of radioactive material; one becquerel is that

quantity of radioactive material in which one atom decays in one second. (See also Units, Radiological.)

Beta Particle (symbolized by Greek letter β) —A charged particle emitted from the nucleus of some

radioactive atoms. A beta particle has a mass and charge equal in magnitude to that of the electron. The

charge may be either +1 or -1, and may be shown with the respective symbol, β+

 or β-.

Bioassay—A determination of the kind, quantity, concentration, or location of radioactive material in the

body by either direct measurement or the analysis and evaluation of materials excreted or removed from

the body.

Bone Seeker—Any compound or ion in the body that preferentially migrates into actively forming bone

to become part of the hydroxyapatite mixture. 
IONIZING RADIATION 337

9. GLOSSARY

Branching—The occurrence of two modes by which a radionuclide can undergo radioactive

transformation. For example, 214Bi can undergo α or β-

 transformation, 64Cu can undergo β-, β+, or

electron capture transformation. An individual atom of a nuclide exhibiting branching disintegrates by

one mode only. The fraction disintegrating by a particular mode is the "branching fraction" for that

mode. The "branching ratio" is the ratio of two specified branching fractions (also called multiple

transformation or disintegration).

Bremsstrahlung—Electromagnetic radiation (photons) produced by the acceleration that a fast charged

particle (usually an electron) undergoes from the effect of an electric or magnetic field, for instance, from

the field of another charged particle (usually a nucleus). Bremsstrahlung is emitted when beta particles or

electrons are stopped by a shield.

Cancer Effect Level (CEL)—The lowest dose of chemical in a study, or group of studies, that produces

significant increases in the incidence of cancer (or tumors) between the exposed population and its

appropriate control.

Carcinogen—A chemical capable of inducing cancer.

Carcinoma—A malignant neoplasm composed of epithelial cells, regardless of their derivation.

Cataract—A clouding of the crystalline lens of the eye that obstructs the passage of light.

Chronic Exposure—An exposure to ionizing radiation for 365 days or more, as specified in the ATSDR

toxicological profiles.

Collective Dose—The sum of the individual doses received in a given period of time by a specified

population from exposure to a specified source of radiation, in units such as person @ rem or person @ Sv.

Committed Dose Equivalent (HT50)—The dose equivalent to organs or tissues of reference (T) that will

be received from an intake of radioactive material by an individual during the 50-year period following

the intake.

Committed Effective Dose—The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) term for

committed effective dose equivalent. (See Committed Effective Dose Equivalent.)

Committed Effective Dose Equivalent (HE50)—The sum of the products of the weighting factors

applicable to each of the body organs or tissues that are irradiated and the committed dose equivalent to

the organs or tissues (HE50 = 3WTHT50). The committed effective dose equivalent is used in radiation

safety because it implicitly includes the relative carcinogenic sensitivity of the various tissues.

Compton Scattering—An attenuation process observed for x or gamma radiation in which an incident

photon interacts with an orbital electron of an atom to produce a recoil electron and a scattered photon of

energy less than the incident photon.

Contamination, Radioactive—The deposition of radioactive material in any place where it is not

desired.

Cosmic Rays—High-energy particulate and electromagnetic radiations that originate outside the earth's

atmosphere.
IONIZING RADIATION 338

9. GLOSSARY

Count (Radiation Measurements)—The external indication of a radiation-measuring device designed to

enumerate ionizing events. It may refer to a single detected event or to the total number registered in a

given period of time. This term can be used with equipment and geometry efficiencies to quantify the

rate of transformation of ionizing events.

Counter—A general description applied to radiation detection instruments or survey meters that detect

and measure radiation. The signal that announces the detection of an ionization event is called a count. 

(See also Counter, Geiger-Mueller and Counter, Scintillation.)

Counter, Geiger-Mueller—A sensitive, gas-filled radiation-measuring device that responds to

individual ionizing particles.

Counter, Scintillation—The combination of phosphor, a photomultiplier tube, and associated

circuits for counting light emissions produced in the phosphors by ionizing radiation.

Cumulative Dose—The total dose resulting from continuous or intermittent exposures of radiation to the

same region of the body, or to the whole body, from internally deposited radioisotopes over a period of

time. (See Also Weighting Factor.)

Curie (Ci)— The quantity of radioactive material in which 37 billion radioactive atoms transform per

second, which is approximately the activity of 1 gram of radium. 

Decay Constant—See transformation constant.

Decay Product (Daughter Product, Progeny)—Isotopes that are formed by the radioactive

transformation of some other nuclide. In the case of 226Ra, for example, there are 10 successive daughter

products or progeny, ending in the stable isotope 206Pb.

Decay, Radioactive—Transformation of the nucleus of an unstable nuclide by spontaneous emission of

charged particles and/or photons.

Deep Dose Equivalent (Hd)—The dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 1 cm inside the body surface from

external whole-body radiation. 

Delayed Health Effects—The health effects that manifest themselves after an extended period.

Derived Air Concentration (DAC)—The concentration of a given radionuclide in the air which, if

breathed by the reference man for one working year (2,000 hours) under conditions of light work, results

in an intake of one ALI.

Detector—A material or device that is sensitive to radiation and can produce a response signal suitable

for measurement or analysis.

Deterministic Effects—Health effects for which there exists a definite threshold and which become more

severe as the dose is increased. The dose response curve is sigmoid-shaped. Examples of deterministic

effects are acute radiation syndrome and cataracts (previously referred to as non-stochastic effects)

Developmental Toxicity—The occurrence of adverse effects on a developing organism that may result

from exposure to a chemical or to ionizing radiation prior to conception (either parent), during prenatal

development, or postnatally to the time of sexual maturation. Adverse developmental effects may be

detected at any point in the life span of the organism.
IONIZING RADIATION 339

9. GLOSSARY

Disintegration, Nuclear—A spontaneous nuclear transformation (radioactivity) characterized by the

emission of energy and/or mass from the nucleus. When large numbers of nuclei are involved, the

process is characterized by a physical half-life. (See also Transformation, Nuclear.)

Dose (or Radiation Dose)—A general term denoting the amount of energy from radiation that is

absorbed per unit mass of absorber. A generic term meaning absorbed dose, dose equivalent, deep dose

equivalent, effective dose, effective dose equivalent, committed dose equivalent, committed effective

dose equivalent, equivalent dose, or total effective dose equivalent. For special purposes it must be

appropriately qualified. If unqualified, it refers to the absorbed dose.

Dose Assessment—An estimate of the radiation dose to an individual or a population group usually by

means of predictive modeling techniques, often supplemented by the results of measurement.

Dose Conversion Coefficient (or dose conversion factor)—A factor (Sv/Bq or rem/Ci) that is

multiplied by the intake quantity of a radionuclide (Bq or Ci) to estimate the committed dose equivalent

from radiation (Sv or rem). The dose conversion factor depends on the route of entry (inhalation or

ingestion), the lung clearance class (D, W, or Y) for inhalation, the fractional uptake from the small

intestine to blood (f1) for ingestion, and the organ of interest. EPA provides separate dose conversion

factor tables for inhalation and ingestion, and each provides factors for the gonads, breast, lung, red

marrow, bone surface, thyroid, remainder, and effective whole body.

Dose Equivalent (DE)—A quantity used in radiation protection. It expresses all radiations on a common

scale for calculating the dose for purposes of radiation safety. It is the product of the absorbed dose in rad

or gray and a quality factor, whose value depends on the radiation. (The unit of dose equivalent is the

rem. In SI units, the dose equivalent is the sievert, which equals 100 rem.)

Dose, Fractionation—The division of a therapeutic radiation dose into fractions that are administered

over a period of time. Dose is delivered during discrete time periods. Between fractions, there is no dose. 

Dose, Radiation—The amount of energy imparted to matter by ionizing radiation per the unit mass of

matter, usually expressed as the rad, or in SI units, the gray (Gy), 100 rad = 1 Gy (See also Absorbed

Dose.)

Dose Rate—The radiation dose delivered per unit time. The rate can be measured, for example, in gray

per hour, sievert per hour, rem per hour, or rad per hour.

Dosimetry—Quantification of radiation doses to individuals or populations resulting from specified

exposures.

Early Effects (of radiation exposure)—Effects which appear within 60 days of an acute exposure;

usually associated with acute radiation syndrome when whole body is exposed.

Effective Dose—The sum of the weighted equivalent doses in all the tissues and organs of the body.

Effective Dose Equivalent (HE)—The sum of the products of the dose equivalent to the organ or tissue

(HT) and the weighting factors (WT) applicable to each of the body organs or tissues that are irradiated

(HE = 3WTHT). The effective dose equivalent recognizes the carcinogenic radiosensitivity of the several

different tissues of the body.
IONIZING RADIATION 340

9. GLOSSARY

Effective Half-Life (also effective half-time)—The time required for a radioactive element in an animal

body to be diminished 50% as a result of the combined action of radioactive transformation and

biological elimination. It is described by the following equation:

Effective Half-Life = (Biological half-life x radioactive half-life) / (biological half-life + radioactive

half-life).

Electron—A stable elementary particle having an electric charge equal to ±1.60210 x 10-19 Coulombs

(C), and a rest mass equal to 9.1091 x 10-31 kg. A positron is a positively charged "electron" (see

Positron).

Electron Capture—A mode of radioactive transformation involving the capture of an orbital electron by

its nucleus. Capture from a particular electron shell is designated as "K-electron capture," "L-electron

capture," and so on. The atom then emits x rays.

Electron Volt—A unit of energy equivalent to the energy gained by an electron in passing through a

potential difference of one volt. It is the energy unit for an ionizing particle or photon often expressed as

keV for thousand or kilo electron volts or MeV for million or mega electron volts. (symbol: eV, as in

1eV'1.6x10-12 erg.)

Embryo/Fetus—The developing human (or animal) from the time of conception up to the time of birth.

Embryotoxicity and Fetal toxicity—Any toxic effect on the conceptus as a result of prenatal exposure to

ionizing radiation or a chemical; the distinguishing feature between the two terms is the stage of

development during which the insult occurred. The terms, as used here, include malformations and

variations, altered growth, and in utero death.

Enriched Material—(1) Any material in which the relative amount of one or more isotopes of a

constituent has been increased over its natural abundance. (2) Uranium in which the percentage of 235U

to total uranium of all isotopes is increased from its natural value of 0.72% to a higher value.

Equilibrium, Radioactive—In a radioactive series, the state that prevails when the ratios between the

activities of two or more successive members of the series remain constant, or when the activities are

equal.

Eventration—Disembowelment or protrusion of the bowels from the abdomen.

Excitation Energy—The energy required to change a system from its ground state to an excited state. 

Each different excited state has a different excitation energy.

Excitation—The addition of energy to a system, thereby transferring it from its ground state to an excited

state. Excitation of a nucleus, an atom, or a molecule can result from absorption or scattering of photons

or from inelastic collisions with particles. The excited state of an atom is an unstable state and will

return to the ground state by radiation of the excess energy.

Exposure—A measure of the intensity of an x ray or gamma ray field in air, whose value depends on the

ionization produced in air by x or gamma radiation. The traditional unit of exposure is the roentgen (R),

and the SI unit is the coulomb per kilogram.
IONIZING RADIATION 341

9. GLOSSARY

External Dose—The amount of energy, expressed per unit mass of matter, imparted to an organism by

ionizing radiation from a source outside the body.

External Radiation—Radiation exposure from a source outside the body.

Eye Dose Equivalent—The dose equivalent of radiation received by the lens of the eye which is at a

depth of 0.3 cm below the outside surface (cornea) of the eye, delivered by an external radiation source.

Fission, Nuclear—A nuclear transformation characterized by the splitting of a nucleus into two or three

other nuclei and two or three neutrons, and the release of a relatively large amount of energy.

Fundus—the bottom or base of anything. Pertaining to hollow organs, it is the portion farthest from its

mouth or opening. Pertaining to the eye, the fundus is the back portion of the interior of the eyeball.

Tapetal fundus—a highly reflective structure in the dorsal portion of the fundus of the eye.

Nontapetal fundus—the nonreflective ventral portion of the fundus of the eye.

Gamma Ray (synbolized by Greek letter γ)—A short wavelength electromagnetic radiation of nuclear

origin (range of energy from about 10 keV to about 9 MeV, which is sufficient to cause ionization).

Genetic Effect of Radiation—An inheritable change, chiefly mutations, produced by the absorption of

ionizing radiation by germ cells. 

Gray (Gy)—The SI unit of the absorbed dose. One Gy equals the absorption of 1 joule of energy (about

1/4 of a calorie) per kilogram of absorber. One gray equals 100 rad. (See also Units.)

Half-Life, Biological (or biological half-time)—The time required for the body to eliminate one-half of

any absorbed substance by regular physiological processes of elimination. It is the same for both stable

and radioactive isotopes of a particular element. 

Half-Life, Effective—The time required for a radioactive element in an animal body to be diminished

50% as a result of the combined action of radioactive transformation and biological elimination.

Half-Life, Physical (see Half-Life Radioactive)

Half-Life, Radioactive—The time required for a radioactive substance to lose 50% of its activity by

transformation. Each radionuclide has a unique half-life.

Half-Time (see Half-Life, Biological)

High-LET—The characteristic ionization patterns by alpha particles, protons, or fast neutrons having a

high relative specific ionization per unit path length.

Immunologic Toxicity—The occurrence of adverse effects on the immune system that may result from

exposure to agents such as radiation or chemicals.

In Vitro—The condition of being isolated from a living organism and artificially maintained, as in a test

tube.
IONIZING RADIATION 342

9. GLOSSARY

In Vivo—Any condition occurring within a living organism.

Induced Radioactivity—The radioactivity produced in a substance after bombardment with neutrons or

other particles. The resulting activity is “natural radioactivity” if formed by nuclear reactions occurring

in nature, and “artificial radioactivity” if the reactions are caused by humans.

Intensity—The amount of energy per unit time passing through a unit area perpendicular to the line of

propagation at the point in question.

Intermediate Exposure—An exposure to radiation for a duration of 15–364 days.

Internal Conversion—One of the possible mechanisms of transformation from the metastable state

(isomeric transition) in which the transition energy is transferred to an orbital electron, causing its

ejection from the atom. The ratio of the number of internal conversion electrons to the number of gamma

quanta emitted in the de-excitation of the nucleus is called the "conversion ratio."

Internal Radiation— Radiation from radionuclides inside the body.

Ion—An atomic particle, atom or chemical radical bearing a net electrical charge, either negative or

positive.

Ion Pair—Two particles of opposite charge, usually referring to the electron and positive atomic or

molecular residue resulting after the interaction of ionizing radiation with the orbital electrons of atoms.

Ionization— The process by which ionizing radiation (photons or particles) remove electrons from an

atom. The process in chemical reactions by which a neutral atom or molecule acquires a positive or

negative charge.

Ionizing Energy—The average energy lost by ionizing radiation in producing an ion pair. For air, the

ionizing energy is about 34eV per ion pair by beta particles.

Ionizing Density—The number of ion pairs per unit volume.

Ionization Path (Track)—The trail of ion pairs produced by ionizing radiation in its passage through

matter.

Ionization Potential —The energy, in electron-volts (eV), necessary to separate one electron from an

atom, resulting in the formation of an ion pair.

Ionizing Radiation—Any electromagnetic or particulate radiation capable of producing ions, directly or

indirectly, in its passage through matter.

Isotopes—Any nuclide of the same element having the same number of protons in their nuclei, and hence

the same atomic number, but differing in the number of neutrons and therefore in the mass number. 

Almost identical chemical properties exist between isotopes of a particular element, but physical

properties such as diffusion through a membrane may differ. This term should not be used as a synonym

for nuclide.

Joule—The unit for work and energy, equal to one newton expended along a distance of one meter 

(1 J =1 N x l m). There are 4.2 joules per calorie. In terms of radiological units, 1 J = 1 Gy-kg.
IONIZING RADIATION 343

9. GLOSSARY

Kerma (k)—The initial kinetic energy of the primary ionizing particles produced by the interaction of the

incident radiation per unit mass of interacting medium, expressed as J/kg or grays (rads).

Labeled Compound—A compound consisting, in part, of labeled molecules. These are molecules

including radionuclides in their structure. By observations of radioactivity or isotopic composition, this

compound or its fragments may be followed through physical, chemical, or biological processes.

Late Effects (of radiation exposure)—Any effects that appear 60 days or more following an acute

exposure.

Lethal Dose50 (LD50)—The dose of radiation or a chemical that has been found to cause death in 50% of

a defined population.

Lethal Dose50/30 (LD50/30)—The dose of radiation or a chemical which kills 50% of the population within

30 days. 

Linear Energy Transfer (LET)—The average amount of energy transferred locally to the medium per

unit of particle or electromagnetic radiation track length.

Linear Hypothesis or Linear No Threshold (LNT) Hypothesis—The assumption that a dose-response

curve derived from data in the high dose and high dose-rate ranges may be extrapolated linearly through

the low dose and low dose-rate ranges to zero, implying that, theoretically, any amount of radiation will

cause some damage.

Low-LET—The characteristic ionization patterns of electrons, x rays, and gamma rays having a low

relative specific ionization per unit path length compared to high LET radiation.

Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL)—The lowest dose of chemical in a study, or group

of studies, that produces statistically or biologically significant increases in the frequency or severity of

adverse effects between the exposed population and its appropriate control.

Malformations—Any permanent structural changes that may adversely affect survival, development, or

function as a result of in utero exposure.

Mass Absorption Coefficient—The linear absorption coefficient per centimeter divided by the density of

the absorber in grams per cubic centimeter. This is the fraction of incident radiation that is absorbed per

unit mass of the absorber.

Mass Number—The number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus of an atom. (Symbol: A)

Median Lethal Dose (MLD)—The dose of radiation required to kill 50% of the individuals in a large

group of animals or organisms within a specific period, usually 30 days. Also called LD30.

Megacurie—One million curies. (Symbol: MCi)

Microcurie—One-millionth of a curie. Amount of material in which 3.7 x 104

 radioactive atoms

transform per second. (Symbol: μCi)

Millicurie—One-thousandth of a curie. Amount of material in which 3.7 x 107

 radioactive atoms

transform per second. (Symbol: mCi)
IONIZING RADIATION 344

9. GLOSSARY

Minimal Risk Level (MRL)—An estimate of daily human exposure to a dose of radiation or a chemical

that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of adverse noncancerous effects over a specified duration

of exposure.

Monoenergetic Radiation—Radiation of a given type (alpha, neutron, gamma, etc.) in which all

particles or photons originate with the same energy.

Mutagen—A substance that causes mutations.

Mutation—A mutation is a change in the genetic material in a body cell. Mutations in germ cells can

lead to birth defects and miscarriages; mutations in somatic cells may lead to cancer.

Nanocurie—One-billionth of a curie. Amount of material in which 37 radioactive atoms transform per

second. (Symbol: nCi)

Natural Radioactivity—The property of radioactivity exhibited by more than 50 naturally occurring

radionuclides.

Neurotoxicity—The occurrence of adverse effects on the nervous system following exposure to radiation

or a chemical.

Neutrino—A neutral particle of very nearly zero rest mass emitted during the beta-decay process. It

plays no role in radiation bio-effects.

Non-deterministic Effects (stochastic effects) —Health effects which appear to be related to random

events. Dose-response is assumed to be linear without threshold in radiation protection.

No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (NOAEL)—The dose of radiation or a chemical that produces no

statistically or biologically significant increases in frequency or severity of adverse effects seen between

the exposed population and its appropriate control. Effects may be produced at this dose, but they are not

considered to be adverse.

Nucleon—Generic name for a constituent particle of the nucleus. Applied to a proton or neutron.

Nuclide—A species of atom characterized by the constitution of its nucleus. The nuclear constitution is

specified by the number of protons (Z), number of neutrons (N), and energy content; or, alternatively, by

the atomic number (Z), mass number A'(N+Z), and atomic mass. 

Pair Production—An absorption process for x ray and gamma radiation in which the incident photon is

annihilated in the vicinity of the nucleus of the absorbing atom, and its energy is converted into an

electron and positron pair. This reaction only occurs for incident photon energies exceeding 1.02 MeV,

which is the energy equivalence of the masses of the positron and electron.

Parent Radionuclide—A radionuclide which, upon transformation, yields a specified nuclide, either

directly or as a later member of a radioactive series. The radionuclide from which a new nuclide was

made as a result of radioactive transformation.

Photoelectric An interaction between an x ray or gamma ray (photon) and an atom in which an orbital

electron is knocked out. The photon disappears because it gives up all of its energy in the collision. 
IONIZING RADIATION 345

9. GLOSSARY

Photon—A quantity of electomagnetic radiation whose energy content depends on the frequency or

wavelength of the radiation. The equation is: E=hν. Photon energy for ionizing radiation purposes is

usually measured in eV, keV and MeV. 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19J.

Picocurie—One-trillionth of a curie (3.7x10-2 transformations per second or 2.22 transformations per

minute). (Symbol: pCi)

Positron—A particle equal in mass to the electron (9.1091x10-31 kg) and having an equal but positive

charge (+1.60210x10-19 Coulombs). (See also Electron).

Primary Ionization—(1) In collision theory, the ionization produced by the primary particles

(photoelectron, Compton electron, or positron-electron pair) as contrasted with the total ionization, which

includes the secondary ionization produced by delta rays; (2) In counter tubes, the total ionization

produced by incident radiation without gas amplification.

Progeny—The transformation products resulting after a series of radioactive decays. Progeny can also be

radioactive, and the chain continues until a stable nuclide is formed.

Proton—An elementary nuclear particle with a positive electric charge equal numerically to the charge of

the electron and a rest mass of 1.007277 atomic mass units.

Public Dose—The dose received by a member of the public from exposure to radiation caused by a

licensee or to any other source of radiation under the control of a licensee, excluding background and

occupational doses.

Quality—A term describing the distribution of the energy deposited by a particle along its tract;

radiations that produce different densities of ionization per unit track length are said to have different

qualities.

Quality Factor (Q)—The linear-energy-transfer-dependent factor by which absorbed doses are

multiplied to obtain (for radiation protection purposes) a quantity that expresses the biological

effectiveness of the absorbed dose on a common scale for all ionizing radiation.

Rad—The unit of absorbed dose equal to 0.01 J/kg in any medium. (See also Absorbed Dose.)

Radiant Energy—The energy of electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves, visible light, x and

gamma rays.

Radiation—(1) The emission and propagation of energy through space or through a material medium in

the form of waves: for instance, the emission and propagation of electromagnetic waves, or of sound and

elastic waves. (2) The energy propagated through space or through a material medium such as waves; for

example, energy in the form of electromagnetic waves or of elastic waves. The term radiation or radiant

energy, when unqualified, usually refers to electromagnetic radiation. Such radiation commonly is

classified, according to frequency, as with Hertzian, infrared, visible (light), ultraviolet, x ray and gamma

ray (see also Photon). (3) By extension, corpuscular emission, such as alpha and beta radiation, or rays of

mixed or unknown type, such as cosmic radiation.

Radioactivity—The property of certain nuclides to spontaneously transform into another element by

emitting alpha or beta particles, or undergoing electron capture. 
IONIZING RADIATION 346

9. GLOSSARY

Radioisotope—Radioactive atomic species of an element with the same atomic number and identical

chemical properties.

Radionuclide—A radioactive species of an atom characterized by the constitution of its nucleus.

Radiosensitivity—The relative susceptibility of cells, tissues, organs, organisms, or any living substance

to the injurious action of radiation. Radiosensitivity and its antonym, radioresistance, are currently used

in a comparative sense, rather than in an absolute one. Radiosensitivity depends upon the biological

response being measured.

Reaction (Nuclear)—An induced nuclear transformation (i.e., a process occurring when a nucleus comes

in contact with a photon, an elementary particle, or another nucleus). In many cases, the reaction can be

represented by the symbolic equation: X+a6Y+b or, in abbreviated form, X(a,b) Y, where X is the target

nucleus, a is the incident particle or photon, b is an emitted particle or photon, and Y is the product

nucleus.

Reference Man —A theoretical human male on which dosimetry calculations related to ionizing

radiation exposure are based. Reference man is 70 kg and consists of detailed organ mass data for all

major human body organs. Models, which can be other than 70 kg, are also available for different ages

and for females (pregnant and non-pregnant).

Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE)—The RBE is a factor used to compare the biological effectiveness of absorbed radiation doses due to different types of ionizing radiation. More specifically, it is the

experimentally determined ratio of an absorbed dose of a radiation in question to the absorbed dose of a

reference radiation required to produce an identical biological effect in a particular experimental organism

or tissue (see also Quality Factor). RBE depends on several experimental factors including dose, dose

rate, and biological end point. RBE is not used in radiation protection practice. Quality factor is used in

radiation protection but is derived from LET. RBE is an index of comparison of radiations of different

quality.

Rem—A unit of dose equivalent. The dose equivalent in rem is numerically equal to the absorbed dose

in rad multiplied by the quality factor. It is used only in the context of radiation safety, administrative,

and engineering design purposes.

Reproductive Toxicity—The occurrence of adverse effects on the reproductive system that may result

from exposure to radiation or a chemical. The toxicity may be directed to the reproductive organs and/or

the related endocrine system. The manifestation of such toxicity may be noted as alterations in sexual

behavior, fertility, pregnancy outcomes, or modifications in other functions that are dependent on the

integrity of this system.

Roentgen (R)—A unit of exposure to photon radiation whose energy #3 MeV. One roentgen generates 

2.58x10-4 Coulomb of charge of either sign per kilogram of air at standard temperature and pressure (0

EC, 1 atm). The roentgen is defined for x and gamma rays only.

Scattered Radiation—Radiation that, during its passage through a substance, has been deviated in

direction. It usually will have been modified by a decrease in energy.
IONIZING RADIATION 347

9. GLOSSARY

Scientific Units

Prefix (Symbol) Power of 10 Decimal Equivalent

atto (a) 10-18 0.000000000000000001

femto (f) 10-15 0.000000000000001

pico (p) 10-12 0.000000000001

nano (n) 10-9 0.000000001

micro (μ) 10-6 0.000001

milli (m) 10-3 0.001

centi (c) 10-2 0.01

deci (d) 10-1 0.1

kilo (k) 103 1,000.0

mega (M) 106 1,000,000.0

giga (G) 109 1,000,000,000.0

tera (T) 1012 1,000,000,000,000.0

peta (P) 1015 1,000,000,000,000,000.0

exa (E) 1018 1,000,000,000,000,000,000.0

Secondary Radiation—Radiation that results from the interaction of other radiation in matter. It may be

either electromagnetic or particulate.

Secular Equilibrium—If a parent element has a much longer half-life than its progeny (so that there is

no appreciable change in its amount in the time interval required for later products to attain equilibrium),

then after equilibrium is reached, equal numbers of atoms of all members of the series that are in equilibrium transform in unit time. This means that each has the same activity measured in curies or becquerels.

This condition is never exactly attained, but is essentially established after 6 or 7 daughter half-lives. For

example, the half-life of radium is about 1,600 years; of radon, approximately 3.82 days; and for each of

the subsequent members, a few minutes. After about a month, the equilibrium amount of radon is

present; then (and for a long time) all members of the series transform at the same number of atoms per

unit time. Thus contained radon gas is in secular equilibrium with its parent 226Ra after about 27 days.

Self-Absorption—The absorption of radiation (emitted by radioactive atoms) by the material in which

the atoms are located (in particular, the absorption of radiation within a sample being assayed).

Shallow Dose Equivalent (HS)—The dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 0.007 cm averaged over an area

of 1 cm2

 from external exposure of the skin or an extremity.

SI Units—The International System of Units as defined by the General Conference of Weights and

Measures in 1960. These units are generally based on the meter/kilogram/second units, with special

quantities for radiation including the becquerel, gray, and sievert.

Sickness, Radiation —(1) A syndrome characterized by nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and psychic

depression following exposure to appreciable doses of ionizing radiation within a short period of hours to

weeks. Its mechanism is known, and remedies include fluid replacement, antibiotics, electrolyte replacement, and in some cases, marrow stem cell support. It usually appears a few hours after irradiation and

may subside within a day. In nuclear medicine applications, it may be sufficiently severe to necessitate
IONIZING RADIATION 348

9. GLOSSARY

interrupting the treatment series or to incapacitate the patient. (2) The syndrome associated with intense

acute exposure to ionizing radiations. The rapidity with which symptoms develop is a rough measure of

the dose level. The syndrome also includes certain signs such as changes in peripheral blood cell counts.

Sievert—The SI unit of radiation dose equivalent. It is equal to dose in grays times a quality factor;

1 sievert equals 100 rem.

Somatic Effects—Effects of radiation limited to the exposed individual, as distinguished from genetic

effects, which may subsequently affect unexposed future generations.

Specific Activity—The total activity of a given nuclide per volume or mass. It is a concentration defined

as the ratio of the amount of radioactivity divided by the mass or volume of radioactive substance, e.g. the

specific activity of 238U metal is 0.33 μCi/g. 

Stable Isotope—A nonradioactive isotope of an element.

Standard Mortality Ratio (SMR)—The ratio of the disease or accident mortality rate in a certain

population compared with that in a standard population. The SMR is usually expressed in percent. Thus,

an SMR is the mortality rate for the standard population. 

Stopping Power—The average rate of energy loss of a charged particle per unit thickness or per unit

mass of a material traversed as a result of Coulomb interactions with electrons and with atomic nuclei. 

Stochastic effects—See Non-Deterministic Effects.

Surface-seeking Radionuclide—A bone-seeking radioactive material that is deposited and remains on

the surface for a long period of time. This contrasts with a volume seeker, which deposits more uniformly

throughout the bone volume.

Target Theory (Hit Theory)—A theory explaining some biological effects of radiation on the basis that

ionization, occurring in a discrete volume (the target) within the cell, directly causes a lesion that

subsequently results in a physiological response to the damage at that location. One, two, or more "hits"

(ionizing events within the target) may be necessary to elicit the response. When the target is “hit,” it is

inactivated. A specific biological response (e.g., cell death) may require the inactivation of more than one

target. A critical characteristic of target theory in the context of the linear no-threshold theory, is that

targets are not repairable once they are hit or inactivated. 

Teratogen—Radiation or a chemical that can lead to birth defects. 

Tissue Dose—The absorbed dose received by tissue in the region of interest, expressed in Gray or rad. 

(See also Dose and Rad.)

Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE)—The sum of the effective deep dose equivalent from external

exposures and the committed effective dose equivalent from internal exposures.

Total Ionization—The total electric charge of one sign on the ions produced by radiation in a material. It

is frequently used as a measure of radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of gas.
IONIZING RADIATION 349

9. GLOSSARY

Total Organ Dose Equivalent (TODE)—The sum of the dose equivalent to an organ or tissue from

external radiation and the committed dose equivalent to that organ or tissue from radioactive materials

deposited within the body.

Transformation Constant—The fraction of the number of atoms of a radioactive nuclide that transforms

in unit time. λ is the symbol for the transformation constant in the equation N'N0e-λt

, where N0 is the

initial number of atoms present, and N is the number of atoms present after some time, t.

Transformation, Nuclear—The process by which a nuclide is transformed into a different nuclide by

absorbing or emitting a particle.

Transient Equilibrium—If the half-life of the parent is short enough, so that the quantity present

decreases appreciably during the period under consideration, but is still longer than that of successive

members of the series, a stage of equilibrium will be reached after which all members of the series

decrease in activity exponentially with the period of the parent. An example of this is radon (half-life of

approximately 3.82 days), and successive members of the series to 210Pb.

Transition, Isomeric—The process by which an excited nuclide decays to the ground state to produce an

isomeric nuclide (i.e., one of the same mass number and atomic number) by emitting a gamma ray. 

Tritium—The hydrogen isotope with one proton and two neutrons in the nucleus (Symbol: 3

H or T). 

Tritium is radioactive, with a half-life of 12.3 years; it emits very low energy beta particles.

Unattached Fraction—That fraction of the radon daughters, usually 218Po (Radium A), that has not yet

electrostatically attached to an airborne dust particle. As a free atom, it has a high probability of being

retained within the lung and depositing alpha energy when it decays.

Units, Radiological

Units Equivalents

becquerel* 1 Bq = 1 transformation or disintegration per second = 2.7x10-11 Ci

curie 1 Ci = 3.7x1010 transformations or disintegrations per second = 3.7x1010 Bq

gray* 1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 100 rad

rad 1 rad = 100 erg/g = 0.01 Gy

sievert* 1 Sv = 100 rem

rem 1 rem = 0.01 sievert

Roentgen 1 R = 2.58x10-4 coulomb of charge of either sign produced in 1 kilogram of

air at STP 

 *International Units are designated as SI.

Weighting Factor (WT)—A dosimetric factor used in the practice of health physics (radiation safety) to

account for the relative carcinogenic susceptibility of the various tissues. 

Whole Body—For the purposes of radiation exposure, the part of the body composed of the head, trunk,

arms above the elbow, legs above the knee, and gonads.
IONIZING RADIATION 350

9. GLOSSARY

Working Level (WL)—A unit for measuring the atmospheric concentration of radon progeny. It

corresponds to the equilibrium concentration of radon progeny due to 100 pCi radon per liter of air, or

any combination of short-lived radon daughters in 1 liter of air that will result in the ultimate emission of

1.3x105

 MeV of potential alpha energy.

Working Level Month (WLM)—Inhalation of air with a concentration of 1 WL of radon daughters for

170 working hours results is an exposure of 1 WLM.

X rays—Penetrating electromagnetic radiations whose wave lengths are shorter than those of ultraviolet

light. X rays can be classified as characteristic x rays or bremsstrahlung. Characteristic x rays are

produced deliberately in x ray machines or directly when ionizing radiation passes through matter. These

x rays occur when electrons are ejected from an atom and electrons in higher energy orbitals cascade

down to fill in those vacancies, releasing the energy difference between those orbitals as electromagnetic

radiation (x rays). Bremsstrahlung is x rays that are radiated from a beta particle as it accelerates (changes

direction) in the strong electrostatic field of an atomic nucleus, as occurs when electrons are stopped in a

high atomic number element, such as lead. 
IONIZING RADIATION 351

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*Xiao S, Jacobson-Kram D, Piantadosi S, et al. 1989. Increased chromosomal radiosensitivity in patients

undergoing radioimmunoglobulin therapy. Mutat Res 227:39-45.
IONIZING RADIATION 395

10. REFERENCES

*Yang IC, Edwards KW. 1984. Releases of radium and uranium into Ralston Creek and Reservoir,

Colorado, USA, from uranium mining. In: Barney GS, Navratil JD, Schulz W, eds. 185th meeting:

American Chemical Society Symposium Series 246. Geochemical behavior of disposed radioactive

waste, Seattle WA. March 20-25, 1983. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 271-286.

*Yarilin AA, Sharova NI, Kuzmenok OI, et al. 1995. The role of the thymus in the appearance of

immunologic effects of low dose irradiation. Radiat Protect Dosimetry 62(1-2):77-79.

*Yashimoto Y, Schull WJ, Kato H, et al. 1991. Mortality among the offspring (F1) of the atomic bomb

survivors, 1946-1985 (REFR TR 1-91). Radiation Effects Research Foundation, Hiroshima, Japan.

*Zaman MS, Hipp EW, Lancaster FE. 1992. Brain myelination in rats treated with ionizing radiation in

utero. J Environ Sci Health 27(5):621-639.

*Zaman MS, Hupp EW, Lancaster FE. 1993. Locomotion and physical development in rats treated with

ionizing radiation in utero. J Environ Sci Health B28(1):105-125.

*Zhou XY, Dong JC, Geng XS, et al. 1986. Tritium beta-ray and cobalt-60 gamma-ray caused dominant

lethal mutation in mice. Chin Med J 99(5):420-423.

*Zucali JR, Moreb J, Gibbons W, et al. 1994. Radioprotection of hematopoietic stem cells by

interleukin-1. Exp Hematol 22(2):130-135.
IONIZING RADIATION A-1

APPENDIX A

ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVELS AND WORKSHEETS

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) [42 U.S.C.

9601 et seq.], as amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) [Pub. L.

99–499], requires that the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) develop jointly

with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in order of priority, a list of hazardous substances

most commonly found at facilities on the CERCLA National Priorities List (NPL); prepare toxicological

profiles for each substance included on the priority list of hazardous substances; and assure the initiation

of a research program to fill identified data needs associated with the substances.

The toxicological profiles include an examination, summary, and interpretation of available toxicological

information and epidemiologic evaluations of a hazardous substance. During the development of

toxicological profiles, Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) are derived when reliable and sufficient data exist to

identify the target organ(s) of effect or the most sensitive health effect(s) for a specific duration for a

given route of exposure. An MRL is an estimate of the daily human exposure to a hazardous substance

that is likely to be without appreciable risk of adverse noncancer health effects over a specified duration

of exposure. MRLs are based on noncancer health effects only and are not based on a consideration of

cancer effects. These substance-specific estimates, which are intended to serve as screening levels, are

used by ATSDR health assessors to identify contaminants and potential health effects that may be of

concern at hazardous waste sites. It is important to note that MRLs are not intended to define clean-up or

action levels.

MRLs are derived for hazardous substances using the no-observed-adverse-effect level/uncertainty factor

approach. They are below levels that might cause adverse health effects in the people most sensitive to

such effects. MRLs are derived for acute (1–14 days), intermediate (15–364 days), and chronic (365 days

and longer) durations and for the oral, inhalation, and external routes of exposure. Currently, MRLs for

the dermal route of exposure are not derived because ATSDR has not yet identified a method suitable for

this route of exposure. MRLs are generally based on the most sensitive end point considered to be of

relevance to humans. Serious health effects (such as irreparable damage to the liver or kidneys, or birth

defects) are not used as a basis for establishing MRLs. Exposure to a level above the MRL does not mean

that adverse health effects will occur.
IONIZING RADIATION A-2

APPENDIX A

MRLs are intended only to serve as a screening tool to help public health professionals decide where to

look more closely. They may also be viewed as a mechanism to identify those hazardous waste sites that

are not expected to cause adverse health effects. Most MRLs contain a degree of uncertainty because of

the lack of precise toxicological information on the people who might be most sensitive (e.g., infants,

elderly, nutritionally or immunologically compromised) to the effects of hazardous substances. ATSDR

uses a conservative (i.e., protective) approach to address this uncertainty consistent with the public health

principle of prevention. Although human data are preferred, MRLs often must be based on animal studies

because relevant human studies are lacking. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, ATSDR assumes

that humans are more sensitive to the effects of hazardous substance than animals and that certain persons

may be particularly sensitive. Thus, the resulting MRL may be as much as a hundredfold below levels

that have been shown to be nontoxic in laboratory animals.

Proposed MRLs undergo a rigorous review process: Health Effects/MRL Workgroup reviews within the

Division of Toxicology, expert panel peer reviews, and agencywide MRL Workgroup reviews, with

participation from other federal agencies and comments from the public. They are subject to change as

new information becomes available concomitant with updating the toxicological profiles. Thus, MRLs in

the most recent toxicological profiles supersede previously published levels. For additional information

regarding MRLs, please contact the Division of Toxicology, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease

Registry, 1600 Clifton Road, Mailstop E-29, Atlanta, Georgia 30333.
IONIZING RADIATION A-3

APPENDIX A

MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEET

Chemical name: Ionizing Radiation

CAS number: Multiple

Date: October 1, 1999

Profile status: Final

Route: [ ] Inhalation [ ] Oral [X] External

Duration: [X] Acute [ ] Intermediate [ ] Chronic

Species: Human

MRL: 4 [ ] mg/kg/day [ ] ppm [ ] mg/m3 [X] mSv (400mrem)

References:

Schull WJ, Otake M and Yoshimaru H (1988). Effect on intelligence test score of prenatal exposure to

ionizing radiation in Hiroshima and Nagasaki: A comparison of the T65DR and DS86 dosimetry systems.

Burt C. (1966). The genetic determination of differences in intelligence: A study of monozygotic twins

reared together and apart. Brit. J. Psychol. 57 (1& 2): pp. 137-153

Experimental design:

Schull et al. (1988) study: Schull et al. (1988) evaluated the quantitative effect of exposure to ionizing

radiation on the developing fetal and embryonic human brain. The end point measured was changes in

intelligence test scores. The effects on individuals exposed in utero to the atomic bombing of Hiroshima

and Nagasaki were based on the original PE86 samples (n=1759; data on available intelligence testing) and

a clinical sample (n=1598). The original PE86 sample included virtually all prenatally exposed individuals

who received tissue-absorbed doses of 0.50 Gy or more. There were many more individuals in the dose

range 0-0.49 Gy in the PE86 sample than in the clinical sample. The clinical sample does not include

children prenatally exposed at distances between 2,000-2,999 m in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Children

exposed at greater distances or not present in the city were selected as controls. In 1955-1956, Tanaka-B

(emphasis on word-sense, arithmetic abilities, and the like which were associated with the more subtle

processing of visual clues than their simple recognition and depended more on connectedness) and the Koga

(emphasis on perception of spatial relationships) intelligence tests were conducted in Nagasaki and the

Koga test in Hiroshima.

Burt (1966) study: This study determined differences in intelligence in monozygotic twins reared together

(n=95) and apart (n=53). All tests conducted in school consisted of (1) a group test of intelligence

containing both non-verbal and verbal items, (2) an individual test (the London Revision of the

Terman-Binet Scale) used primarily for standardization and for doubtful cases, and (3) a set of

performance tests, based on the Pitner-Paterson tests and standardization. The methods and standard

remained much the same throughout the study. Some of the reasons for separation of the twins were given

as follows: death of the mother (n=9), unable to bring them up properly, mother’s poor health (n=12),

unmarried (n=6), and economic difficulties. The children were brought up by parents or foster parents

(occupation ranged from unskilled to professional). IQ scores in the study group ranged from 66 to 137.

The standard deviation of the group of separated monozygotic twins was reported at 15.3 as compared to
IONIZING RADIATION A-4

APPENDIX A

15.0 of ordinary siblings. Twins brought up in different environments were compared with those brought

up in similar circumstances.

Effects noted in study and corresponding doses:

Schull et al. (1986) study: No evidence of radiation-related effect on intelligence was observed among

individuals exposed within 0-7 weeks after fertilization or in the 26th or subsequent weeks. The highest

risk of radiation damage to the embryonic and fetal brain occurs 8-15 weeks after fertilization under both

dosimetric systems. The regression of intelligence score on estimated DS86 uterine absorbed dose is linear

with dose, the diminution in intelligence score is 21-29 points per Gy for the 8-15 week group and 10-26

points per Gy for the 16-25 week group. The results for 8-15 weeks applies regardless whether the

mentally retarded individuals were included. The cumulative distribution of test scores suggested a

progressive shift downwards in individual scores with increasing exposure. The mean IQ scores decrease

significantly and systematically with uterine or fetal tissue dose within the 8-15 and 16-25 week groups.

In summary, analysis of intelligence test scores at 10-11 years of age of individuals exposed prenatally

showed that:

 There is no evidence of a radiation-related effect on intelligence scores among those individuals

exposed within 0-7 weeks of fertilization or in the 26th week of gestation and beyond;

 The cumulative distribution of test scores suggests a progressive shift downwards in intelligence

scores with increasing exposure to ionizing radiation (dose-response relationship).

 The most sensitive group was the 8-15 weeks exposure group. The regression in intelligence scores

was found to be linear, with 1 Gy dose resulting in a 21-29 point decline in intelligence scores.

 There was no indication of groups of individuals with differing sensitivities to radiation.

Burt (1966) study: The average intelligence of the twins measured on a conventional IQ scale (SD=15)

was 97.8 for the separated monozygotes, 98.1 for monozygotes brought up together, 99.3 for the dizygotes

as compared with 100.2 for the siblings, and 100.0 for the population as a whole. The difference of 0.3 IQ

point between the separated and unseparated identical twins is considered a no-observed-adverse-effect

level (NOAEL) for this study.

Dose endpoint used for MRL derivation:

[X] NOAEL [ ] LOAEL 0.3 IQ point reduction in twins, between those raised together and those

raised apart.

Uncertainty factors (UF) used in MRL derivation:

[X] 1 [ ] 3 [ ] 10 (for use of a NOAEL)

[X] 1 [ ] 3 [ ] 10 (for extrapolation from animals to humans)

[ ] 1 [X] 3 [ ] 10 (for human variability/sensitive population)
IONIZING RADIATION A-5

APPENDIX A

Was a conversion factor used from nnm in food or water to a me/body weight dose?

If so, explain:

No.

If an inhalation study in animals, list conversion factors used in determining human eauivalent dose:

Not applicable.

Was a conversion used from intermittent to continuous exposure?

No.

Other additional studies or pertinent information that lend sunport to this MRL:

Husen (1959) reported a study involving 269 pairs of Swedish monozygotic (identical) twins where the

intrapair IQ difference was 4 IQ points for a combination of twins raised together and apart. This is

somewhat lower than the value of 7 IQ points for identical twins raised apart, and just larger than the range

of IQ scores for Washington DC children repetitively tested (Jacobi and Glauberman 1995).

Supporting evidence for the acute MRL is provided by Jacobi and Glauberman (1995). Children in the Ist

,

3rd, and 5th grades born in Washington DC were tested, and average IQ levels of 94.2,97.6, and 94.6 were

reported. The range of 3.4 IQ points is considered to be a LOAEL for this study, which, if used for MRL

derivation, would yield an MRL of 0.004 Sv (3.4 IQ points x 1 Sv/25 IQ points ÷ 30 [10 for use of a

LOAEL and 3 for a sensitive population]).

Additional supporting evidence for the acute MRL is provided by Berger et al. 1997, in a case study of

accidental radiation injury to the hand. A Mexican engineer suffered an accidental injury to the hand while

repairing an x ray spectrometer. The day after the accident, his symptoms included a tingling sensation and

itching in the index and middle fingers. On days 4 and 7, a “pinching” sensation, swelling, and slight

erythema were observed. By day 7, the tip of his index fingers was erythematous and a large blister

developed with swelling on other fingers. On day 10, examination by a physician showed that the lesions

had worsened and the fingers and palms were discolored. On day 10, he was admitted to the hospital where

hyperbaric oxygen therapy was administered without success. One month after the accident, the patient

entered the hospital again with pain, discoloration, and desquamation of his hand. Clinical examination

showed decreased circulation in the entire hand, most notably in the index and middle finger. Total white

blood count decreased to 3,000/μL (normal range 4,300-10,800/μL). Cytogenic studies of peripheral

blood lymphocytes revealed four dicentrics, two rings, and eight chromosomal fragments in the 300

metaphases studied. The estimated whole body dose was reported to be 0.382 Gy (38.2 rad). This dose is

a potential LOAEL for acute ionizing radiation and would yield an MRL of 0.004 Sv (0.38 Sv ÷100

[10 for use of LOAEL and 10 for sensitive human population]).

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission set a radiation exposure limit of 0.5 rems (50 mSv) for pregnant

working women over the full gestational period (USNRC 1991). For the critical gestational period of 8 to

15 weeks ATSDR believes that the conservative acute MRL of 4 mSv is consistent with the NRC limit and

could be applied to either acute (0-14 day) or intermediate (15-365 day) exposure periods.
IONIZING RADIATION A-6

APPENDIX A

Calculations

Given: 0.3 IQ point is a NOAEL. A 1 Sv dose results in a 25 IQ point reduction (range = 21-29 pts;

mean = 25) and provides a conversion factor from IQ prediction to radiation dose. Assume that the

radiation dose and the subsequent reduction in IQ is a linear relationship.

MRL=NOAEZL x CF ÷ UF

MRL = 0.3 x 1/25 ÷ 3

MRL = 0.004 Sv = 4 mSv (400 mrem)

Agency Contact (Chemical Manager): Sam Keith.
IONIZING RADIATION A-7

APPENDIX A

MINIMAL RISK LEVEL (MRL) WORKSHEET

Chemical name: Ionizing Radiation

CAS number: Multiple

Date: October 1, 1999

Profile status: Final

Route: [ ] Inhalation [ ] Oral [X] External

Duration: [ ] Acute [ ] Intermediate [X] Chronic

Species: Human

MRL: 1 [] mg/kg/day [ ] ppm [ ] mg/m3

 [X] mSv/yr (100 mrem/yr)

Reference: BEIR V. 1990. Health effects of exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation. Committee on

the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, National Research Council. National Academy Press.

Washington, DC.

Experimental design: Not applicable

Effects noted in study and corresnonding doses:

No individual studies were identified that could be used to base a chronic-duration external exposure MRL

that did not result in a cancer-producing end point. However, two sources of information were identified

that did provide doses of ionizing radiation that have not been reported to be associated with detrimental

effects (NOAELs). These sources provide estimates of background levels of primarily natural sources of

ionizing radiation that have not been implicated in producing cancerous or non-cancerous toxicological

endpoints. BEIR V states that the average annual effective dose to the U.S. population is 3.6 mSv/yr. A

total annual effective dose equivalent of 3.6 mSv (360 mrem)/year to members of the U.S. population is

obtained mainly by naturally occuring radiation from external sources, medical uses of radiation, and

radiation from consumer products. The largest contribution (82%) is from natural sources, two-thirds of

which if from naturally occurring radon and its decay products. Specific sources’ of this radiation are

demonstrated in Table A- 1.

The annual dose of 3.6 mSv per year has not been associated with adverse health effects or increases in the

incidences of any type of cancers in humans or other animals.

Dose endpoint used for MRL derivation: 3.6 rnSv/yr

[X] NOAEL [ ] LOAEL 3.6 mSv/yr

Uncertainty factors (UF) used in MRL derivation:

[X] 1 [ ] 3 [ ] 10 (for use of a NOAEL)

[X] 1 1 ] 3 [ ] 10 (for extrapolation from animals to humans)

[ ] 1 [X] 3 [ ] 10 (for human variability)

Was a conversion factor used from ppm in food or water to a mg/bodv weight dose?

If so, explain: No.

IONIZING RADIATION A-9

APPENDIX A

Other additional studies or pertinent information that lend support to this MRL:

ICRP has developed recommended dose limits for occupational and public exposure to ionizing radiation

sources. The ICRP recommends limiting public exposure to 1 mSv/yr (100 mrem/yr), but does note that

values at high altititues above sea level and in some geological areas can sometimes be twice that value

(≥2 mSv). In Annex C of ICRP 60, the commission provides data that suggests increasing the dose from 1

mSv to 5 mSv results in a very small, but detectable, increase in age-specific human mortality rate. ICRP

states that the value of 1 mSv/yr was chosen over the 5 mSv value because 5 mSv/yr (500 mremlyr) causes

this increase in age specific mortality rate, and 1 mSv/yr (100 rnrem/yr) is typical of the annual effective

dose from background, less radon (ICRP 1991). The 1 mSv estimate may underestimate the annual

exposure to external sources of ionizing radiation to the U.S. population, as it does not include radiation

from radon. Conversely, the 5 mSv estimate may be high, in that increases in mortality rate been reported.

The most useful estimate appears to be the BEIR V estimate of 3.6 mSv, in that it accounts for an annual

exposure to radon, is specific to the U.S. population, has not been associated with increases mortality, and

it falls short of the 5 mSv value associated with small increases in human mortality.

Calculations

MRL = NOAEL(ADJ) ÷ Uf

MRL = 3.6 mSv/yr ÷ 3

MRL = 1.20 mSv/yr

MRL = 1.0 mSv/yr = 100 mrem/yr above background

Agency Contact (Chemical Manager): Sam Keith.

IONIZING RADIATION B-1

APPENDIX B

USER'S GUIDE

Chapter 1. Public Health Statement

This chapter of the profile is a health effects summary written in non-technical language. Its intended

audience is the general public, especially people living in the vicinity of a hazardous waste site or

chemical release. If the Public Health Statement were separate from the rest of the document, it would

still communicate to the lay public essential information about the chemical.

The major headings in the Public Health Statement are useful for finding specific topics of concern. The

topics are written in a question and answer format. The answer to each question includes a sentence that

direct the reader to chapters in the profile that provide more information on the given topic.

Chapter 2. Principles of Ionizing Radiation

This chapter is an introductory discussion of the principles of ionizing radiation. It addresses what

ionizing radiation is and provides a brief overview of the history of ionizing radiation as it pertains to

health effects and uses, both peaceful and military. The chapter goes on to discuss the concept of

radioactive transformation and the concept of half-life, characteristics of nuclear radiation, how radiation

interacts with matter, ionizing radiation and DNA interactions, energy deposition in biological tissues,

radiation dosimetry, and internal vs. external exposure. Chapter 2 also introduces the concept of doseresponse and the concept of acute and chronic (delayed) health effects, in addition to briefly summarizing

the major health effects caused by exposure to ionizing radiation. This chapter concludes with a thorough

discussion of how ionizing radiationis measured, internally, externally, and in media using a variety of

instruments.

Chapter 3. Summary of Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation

This chapter provides an overview of the health effects related to ionizing radiation exposure in humans

and laboratory animals. The top 25 radionuclides present currently or in the past at Department of Energy

(DOE) waste sites are identified and some information on their physical half-life and retention

characteristics in the body are summarized. The health effects associated with exposure to ionizing

radiation are summarized and divided into non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic responses for discussion

purposes. A discussion of the non-carcinogenic health effects by major organ system iss presented,

followed by a discussion of the carcinogenic responses using data from laboratory animals and the limited

amount of human data available. The effects of ionizing radiation on teratogenesis, reproduction,

genotoxicity, and ocular toxicities, including the available information on human risk assessments, are

also addressed. Readers are encouraged to use Chapter 8 as a supplement to the discussion of the health

effects presented in Chapter 3 of this profile.

Chapter 4. Radiation Accidents

This chapter discusses the major radiation accidents of this century, including health effects data, if such

data were reported.
IONIZING RADIATION B-2

APPENDIX B

Chapter 5. Mechanisms of Biological Effects

This chapter discusses the major mechanisms by which ionizing radiation exerts it toxic effects on

cellular activities and organ systems. This discussion addresses the major target molecules of ionizing

radiation, with emphasis on how ionizing radiation interacts with DNA. The concept of direct vs. indirect

damage to DNA and other macromolecules is also introduced, followed by a discussion of how these

mechanisms induce specific types of damage to macromolecules, cells, tissues, and organs to elicit a toxic

or adverse event. A brief discussion of the mechanisms by which ionizing radiation induces cancer in

laboratory animals and humans is presented, along with a number of models that reflect possible

mechanisms of cancer induction and a brief discussion of the three steps of cancer formation. 

Chapter 6. Sources of Population Exposure to Ionizing Radiation

There are many ways humans and animals can be exposed to ionizing radiation. This chapter addresses

the potential for exposure to sources of ionizing radiation to the human population. Exposure to ionizing

radiation is divided into natural external (cosmic rays, terrestrial, coal production, crude oil and natural

gas, hot springs and caves, etc.), anthropogenic external (nuclear weapons, fallout, nuclear fuel cycle,

medical, dental, and occupational) and internal exposure (inhalation, oral and dermal routes). Discussion

of the human health hazards associated with each type of exposure is also presented in this chapter.

Chapter 7. Regulations

This chapter provides summarizes the regulations pertaining to radionuclides.

Chapter 8. Levels of Significant Exposure to Radiation and Radioactive Material

Tables 8-1 (inhalation exposure), 8-2 (oral exposure), 8-3 (dermal exposure), and 8-4 (external exposure)

are used to summarize health effects associated with exposure to ionizing radiation. These tables cover

the health effects observed at increasing radiation doses and durations, the specific isotope and activity

used, and the differences in response by species. These tables provide a quick review of the health effects

and a convenient way to locate data for a specific exposure scenario. The tables should be used in

conjunction with the text in chapters 2, 3 and 4. All entries in these tables represent studies that provide

reliable, quantitative estimates of no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs),

lowest-observed-adverse-effect levels (LOAELs), or cancer effect levels (CELs). 

Chapter 9. Glossary

This chapter contains of definitions and terminology pertaining to ionizing radiation and should be

consulted when reviewing and interpreting the data present in chapters 2 through 8 of this toxicological

profile.

Chapter 10. References

This chapter lists the references used to construct this profile and references that the reader may use to

obtain more information on many of the topics discussed in this profile.
IONIZING RADIATION C-1

APPENDIX C

ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS

AMAD Activity Median Aerodynamic Diameter 

ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

Bq becquerel

C Centigrade

CDC Centers for Disease Control

CEL Cancer Effect Level

CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

Ci curie

cm centimeter

CNS central nervous system

d day

DHHS Department of Health and Human Services

DOD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

DOT Department of Transportation

ECG electrocardiogram

ED50 Effective Dose 50%

EEG electroencephalogram

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EKG see ECG

ERAMS Environmental Radiation Ambient Monitoring System

ERD Environmental Radiation Data

F Fahrenheit

F1 first filial generation

ft foot

g gram

Gy gray

HPS Health Physics Society

hr hour

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer

ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection

ILB Initial Lung Burden

IPB Initial Pulmonary Burden

in inch

J joule

kg kilogram

L liter

LC50 lethal concentration, 50% kill

LDLo lethal dose, low

LD50 lethal dose, 50% kill

LD50/30 Lethal Dose 50%/30 days

LOAEL lowest-observed-adverse-effect level

mg milligram
IONIZING RADIATION C-2

APPENDIX C

min minute

mL milliliter

mm millimeter

MRL Minimal Risk Level

NAREL National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory

NCRP National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission

ng nanogram

nm nanometer

NPL National Priorities List

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission

NTIS National Technical Information Service

NTP National Toxicology Program

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

PHS Public Health Service

ppm parts per million

R roentgen

sec second

SCE sister chromatid exchange

SMR standard mortality ratio

STEL short term exposure limit

STORET STORAGE and RETRIEVAL

STP standard temperature and pressure

Sv sievert

TWA time-weighted average

U.S. United States

yr year

wk week

> greater than

> greater than or equal to

= equal to

< less than

< less than or equal to

% percent

Greek letters

α alpha

β beta

γ gamma

μ micro
IONIZING RADIATION C-3

APPENDIX C

Prefixes for radiological and physical units 

a atto 10-18

c centi 10-2

d deci 10-1

E exa 1018

f femto 10

-15

G giga 10

9

k kilo 10

3

p pico 10

-12

m milli 10

-

3

M mega 10

6

n nano 10

-

9

P peta 1015

T tera 1012

μ micro 10

-

6

Radiation units

Bq becquerel

Ci Curie

Gy Gray

R roengten

Sv Seivert
.
IONIZING RADIATION D-1

APPENDIX D

INDEX

acute radiation sickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251, 276

Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 100, 101, 107, 108, 113, 132, 139

alpha spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68, 82

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) ................... 279, 280

Annual Limits on Intake (ALI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

atmospheric nuclear testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

atomic bomb survivors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 24, 61, 63

Bare Reactor Experiment Nevada (BREN) experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

beta rays (see Radiation-beta)

Bikini Atoll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254-256

boiling water reactor (BWR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

bomb

atomic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 31-34, 60, 61, 63, 85, 89, 117, 249-251, 254

fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

bomb, atomic

Alamogordo, NM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Bikini Atoll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 167

fetal exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Hiroshima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152, 167, 169

in utero exposure ......................................................... 117, 158

Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 160

Japanese survivors . . . . . . 88, 153-155, 159, 161, 164, 165, 167, 169-173, 180, 183, 193, 194, 197

Nagasaki ........................................ 117, 134, 152, 154, 158, 167, 169, 170

testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118, 158, 169

cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 28, 29, 33, 51, 61, 62, 64, 87, 88, 92, 87, 88, 92, 95, 97, 98, 104, 142,

149-151, 159-163, 168, 169, 171, 172, 180-184, 186-188, 191-197, 219,

222, 224, 225, 229-234, 236, 240, 243, 251, 260, 262, 275, 276, 279

cancer-specific

adenocarcinoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

adenoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

bladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97, 166, 171

bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 61, 85, 127, 163, 167, 178, 184-187, 190-192, 196, 274

bone sarcoma ........................................................ 176, 177, 179

brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 171, 182

brain/CNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 167, 182

breast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 126, 159, 162, 166, 171, 172, 183, 191, 193, 194, 278

carcinoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

cervix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63, 180

CNS except brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
APPENDIX D

IONIZING RADIATION D-2

cancer-specific (continued)

colon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171, 172

colon/rectum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 166

digestive organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

esophagus ........................................................... 162, 166, 171

fibrosarcoma(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184, 188, 191

gallbladder/bile ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166, 171

head carcinomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175, 177

hemangiosarcoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 184, 187

hemangiosarcoma (lung) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

hemopoietic ......................................................... 610, 181, 182

in chimney sweeps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

large intestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

leukemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33, 61-63, 159, 166, 171, 172, 181, 193, 232, 274

liver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 166, 186, 192, 197

lung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 61, 162, 166, 171, 172, 181-183, 186-189, 192, 196, 233, 244, 274, 275

lymphatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181, 182

lymphoma ............................................................... 183, 232

malignant lymphoma ...................................................... 166, 171

melanoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

mesentery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

multiple myeloma(s) .................................................. 166, 171, 172

myeloid leukemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

myeloma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

myxosarcoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

nasal tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

nose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

osteosarcoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85, 160, 174-180, 184-186, 190, 192

osteosarcoma (skin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

ovary/ovarian/uterus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 166, 171, 172

pancreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165, 166, 171, 183

pharynx, hypopharynx, and larynx ........................................ 165, 166, 183

pituitary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

pleural mesotheliomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

prostate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 163, 166, 171

pulmonary fibrosarcoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

pulmonary fibrosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

pulmonary hemangiosarcomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

radiation-induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159, 160, 162, 171, 172, 177, 178, 193, 194, 196

rectum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

respiratory tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

reticuloendothelial system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

salivary glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

sarcoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175, 176, 180, 186

scrotum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
APPENDIX D

IONIZING RADIATION D-3

cancer-specific (continued)

secondary metastatic ....................................................... 169-171

skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 61, 190, 191, 274

skin (except melanoma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

small intestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

squamous cell carcinoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190, 232

stomach/digestive system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162, 166, 171, 172, 183

testicles/testis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 163

therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

thyroid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 35, 61, 160, 162, 183, 194

tongue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

urinary tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163, 166, 172

uterus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61, 171

Cancer Effect Levels (CELs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191, 195, 298, 300

cancer risk coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

carcinogenicity/carcinogenic/carcinogen . . . . . . . 87, 88, 150, 159, 161, 163, 165, 186, 188, 190, 196-198

218, 219, 229, 231-234

cataracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134, 135, 198

cathode ray tube(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

ceramic glazes ................................................................ 264, 273

chemical hazard ..................................................................... 3

coal-fired power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239, 240, 245, 276

Consumer Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

liquid propane gas (LPG) appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

smoke detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

television sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

cosmic ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 236, 238, 247

crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

crude oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

damage

cellular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94, 104, 107, 149

cellular function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94, 107, 142, 149

eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

fetal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100, 116, 118, 124, 156-158, 160, 188, 195, 197

genetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149, 150, 155

intestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

lung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 107, 130, 131

radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

skeletal muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

spermatocyte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

stem cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

stomach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

vascular ............................................................ 127, 130, 133
APPENDIX D

IONIZING RADIATION D-4

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85, 94, 107, 142, 149, 150, 165, 217-231

derived air concentrations (DAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

drinking water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 16, 20, 236, 242, 252, 253, 256

fallout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 93, 98, 193

low-level radionuclide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 33, 76, 80, 98, 192

radioactive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

“Black Rain” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Federal Emergency Management Administration (FEMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

fertilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 13, 16, 236, 241, 246, 247, 253-255

fuel cycle facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

gamma ray (see Radiation-gamma)

genetic damage, radiation-induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

half-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 10, 13, 15, 31, 38, 40, 41, 44, 46, 50, 65, 85, 86, 176, 178, 187, 192

half-time (t1/2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86, 185

hazard

chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, 156

radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

hazardous waste site(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 23, 24

hereditary disease ...................................................... 150, 153, 155, 195

hereditary effects, radiation-induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153, 155

hereditary risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 198

Hiroshima . . . . . . . 26, 32, 33, 60, 89, 93, 117, 118, 134, 152, 154, 155, 158, 167, 169, 170, 172, 191-194

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52, 277, 279, 280

leukemia, radiation-induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159, 172

Linear Energy Transfer (LET) ................................................ 221, 222, 225

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240, 264, 275, 276

LOAEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297, 299, 300

Lop Nor Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Los Alamos National Laboratories, NM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

luminous paint/painters ......................................................... 264, 274

macrophage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

mammography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Mammography Quality Standards Reauthorization Act of 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

mill/miller/milling ............................................................. 257, 258

uranium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67, 259, 274

Mine Safety and Health Administration (Department of Labor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

mine/miner/mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 12, 242, 278

coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239, 240

mineral sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239, 242

natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

radium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

uranium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 61, 67, 180, 183, 196, 257-259, 274, 275
APPENDIX D

IONIZING RADIATION D-5

Minimal Risk Level (MRL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 28, 29, 88, 89, 91, 92, 117, 118, 159, 277, 298, 299

Nagasaki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 33, 34, 60, 61, 89, 203

National Cancer Institute (NCI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

National Priorities List (NPL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 86, 93, 100

natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240, 264

nuclear reprocessing

Cap de la Hage, France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Sellafield, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Tokai-Mura, Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

NOAEL ...................................................................... 297-300

noble gases, Krypton-85 (85Kr) and xenon-133 (133Xe) ........................... 245, 257, 264

nuclear accidents .............................................................. 167, 203

Chernoble, Ukraine ................................ 112, 124, 138, 140, 208-211, 215, 216

Goiania, Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201-203

Kyshtym . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Palomares, Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167, 199-201

Rocky Flats, CO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167, 204-206

survivors of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

thermonuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Three Mile Island, PA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206, 204

Thule, Greenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167, 204

Tomsk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Windscale, U.K. .......................................................... 212, 213

nuclear fuel cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 257, 258

nuclear fuel production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

nuclear medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 157, 262, 264, 274

anticancer drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

computed x ray tomography (CAT scans) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

positron emission tomography (PET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

radiopharmaceuticals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

nuclear power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 11, 20, 100, 195

Chernobyl ................................................ 113, 125, 139, 141, 208-211

nuclear reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 3, 246, 278

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) see USNRC

nuclear spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

nuclear weapon(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-34, 37, 59, 76, 83

nuclear weapons production facility ............................................... 246, 260

Chelyabinsk-40 center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Hanford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Kyshtym . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
APPENDIX D

IONIZING RADIATION D-6

nuclear weapons testing ...................................... 245-249, 251-254, 256, 258-260

Australian Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Bikini Atoll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

Semipalatinsk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

underground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

nuclear-powered warships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

alpha (α) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6, 12, 13, 31, 39-44, 50, 53, 67, 69-71, 73, 77, 80, 82, 136,

142, 175, 178, 184, 197, 219, 220

aluminosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187-189

AMAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

beta (β) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6, 12, 13, 42-45, 50, 69, 71, 74, 80, 82, 83,138-140, 142, 184, 190, 222

fallout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 98

plutonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

phosphate ............................................................ 239, 241, 265, 266

phosphate fertilizer ............................................................. 241, 246

phosphate processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

phosphogypsum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

pitchblende . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

plutonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200, 201, 203-206, 212, 213

potassium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5, 8, 13, 157

power plant

coal-fired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 243

gas-fired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240, 243

nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249, 259

oil-fired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

pressurized water reactor (PWR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

radiation

alpha (α) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 5, 6, 10, 12, 18, 24, 25, 31, 39, 41-43, 46, 57, 60, 71, 77, 78,

86, 87, 116, 128, 129, 141, 157, 159, 160, 164, 174, 175, 182, 186,

187, 189, 191, 197, 219, 221

beta (β) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 5, 6, 10, 18, 24, 86, 87, 98, 107, 110, 113, 116, 136, 138, 139, 141,

157, 159, 187, 189-191, 193, 221, 265, 268, 270

cosmic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238, 275

gamma (γ) . . . . . . . . . 2, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 18, 24, 25, 31, 33, 35, 42, 45, 47, 48, 50, 60, 67, 69, 71,

73-75, 77-80, 86, 87, 98, 106-108, 110, 113-116, 118-125, 130, 132, 134, 136,139, 141, 142,

152, 157, 159, 169, 170, 182, 184, 190, 191, 193, 221, 222, 236, 237, 254, 255, 265, 266, 268

radiation accidents survivors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

radiation damage, fetal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 26, 89

Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

radiation-induced illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

radioactive waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
APPENDIX D

IONIZING RADIATION D-7

radionuclide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 4, 6, 20, 24, 25, 31, 35-41, 43-51, 62-31, 73, 74, 76, 78, 81-83,

85-87, 93-99, 102, 105, 106, 110, 112, 116, 126-129, 133, 138,

157, 158, 160, 167, 176, 177, 180, 184, 187-190, 192,

218, 237-244, 246-249, 252, 253, 255, 257-275

radiopharmaceuticals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

radiosensitivity ......................................................... 219-221, 223-226

radium dial paint/painter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 61, 66, 93, 174, 175, 178, 174, 175, 178, 274

radon . . . . . . . . . 9, 13, 23, 30, 43, 48, 61, 98, 157, 182, 184, 196, 235, 236, 240-245, 259, 264, 274, 275

progeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 47, 98, 176, 196, 278

relative biological effectiveness (RBE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Savannah Naval Storage Facility, Aiken, SC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

thermoluminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67, 68, 74, 75, 81

thermonuclear weapon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

thorium (Th) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 36, 43, 61, 76, 86, 165, 197, 239, 243

thoron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196, 243

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 24, 71, 81, 82, 85, 86, 279

U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC or USNRC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 21, 136, 277, 279, 280

uranium hexafluoride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245, 259

waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

medical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

medical gaseous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

nuclear reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

radioactive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257, 261

radiopharmaceutical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

storage/disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257, 261

waste sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86, 100

chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

radioactive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 248, 257

weapons

nuclear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 10, 13, 93, 118, 199, 200, 245, 246,250

thermonuclear ............................................................ 128, 199

x rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 23, 30, 37, 40, 93, 95, 96, 98, 99, 105, 116, 126, 134, 136, 157, 165,

236, 237, 261, 262, 264, 273, 274, 278