The Container Tree 

Nursery Manual

Volume Seven

Chapter 5

Handling and Shipping
132
133

7.5.1 Introduction

Nursery plants are in a period of high risk from when they

leave the protected environment of the nursery to when

they are outplanted. Good guidelines for proper care during this critical time have been published for bareroot nursery stock (DeYoe 1986, USDA 1989), and the same guidelines apply to container plants. During handling and shipping, nursery stock may be exposed to many damaging

stresses including extreme temperatures, desiccation,

mechanical injuries, and storage molds (Table 7.5.1). This is

also the period of greatest financial risk because nursery

plants have reached their maximum value right before shipping (Paterson and others 2001). Adams and Patterson

(2004) concluded that improper handling of nursery stock

was a more important factor than the type of outplanting

tool.

One reason for the increasing preference of container

stock is that they tolerate the abuses of storage, shipping,

and handling better than bareroot plants. This is particularly true with many broadleaved trees and other native

plants; for example, oak (Quercus spp.) and beech (Fagus

spp.)seedlings grown in a variety of containers tolerated

rough handling better than bareroot stock (Figure 7.5.1).

7.5.1.1 Minimizing stresses during handling

It is important to emphasize that nursery plants are alive

and perishable, and so should be treated with utmost care

Figure 7.5.1—Oak and beech container plants tolerated

rough handling much better than bareroot stock (Ker

1994).

Table 7.5.1—Nursery plants are subjected to a series of potential stresses from harvest through outplanting.

at all times. Stressful injuries incurred between lifting

from the nursery and outplanting, however, are often not

evident until several weeks after planting. Symptoms

include browning, chlorosis, poor survival, or decreased

growth, and are commonly known as “transplant shock”

or “check”. It can be extremely difficult to pinpoint the

exact stress that leads to these symptoms (Figure 7.5.2A).

It is a waste of time and money to produce or purchase

high-quality plants only to have them die or grow poorly
134

Figure 7.5.3—When bareroot conifer nursery stock was

exposed for 5 minutes, plant moisture loss increased with

higher temperatures and wind until plant survival and

growth were adversely affected (modified from Fancher

and others 1986).

after outplanting as a result of these unnecessary stresses. 

As emphasized in Chapter 7.2, plants are best able to tolerate stress when they are not actively growing. Nonhardened, succulent plant tissue is much more vulnerable

to stresses (Figure 7.5.2B). Regular monitoring of plant

condition, close supervision of nursery and field personnel, periodic testing of plant quality, and maintenance of

detailed records are essential to document conditions during shipping and handling. 

Three stresses are most common after stock leaves the

nursery: moisture, temperature, and physical.

7.5.1.2 Moisture stress

Desiccation is the most common stress encountered during handling, shipping, and storage at the field site (onsite storage), and can have a profound effect on survival

and growth. Plant water potential influences every physiological process and at stressful levels can greatly reduce

growth even if survival is unaffected. These damaging

effects can persist for several seasons after outplanting.

Roots are the most vulnerable to desiccation because,

unlike leaves and needles, they have no waxy coating or

stomata to protect them from water loss. Fine root tips

have a greater moisture content than woody roots and are

most susceptible to desiccation. If fine roots appear dry,

then they are probably already damaged although it is difficult to quantify the amount of injury in the field. When

exposed for just 5 minutes, bareroot conifer seedlings

exhibited increasing moisture loss with increasing air temperature and wind speed (Figure 7.5.3). This shows the

critical importance of keeping nursery plants cool, out of

direct sunlight, and protected from drying winds. 

Fortunately, roots of container plants are protected somewhat by the growing medium, which serves as a reservoir of

water and nutrients. If the plug is allowed to get too dry,

however, desiccation damage can be severe. Once roots

have dried, subsequent growth reductions are inevitable,

even when shoot water potential recovers (Balneaves and

Menzies 1988). Dormant conifer plants are more vulnerable

to damage from root exposure than dormant hardwood

plants.

Figure 7.5.2—It is often difficult to determine exactly

which stresses lead to “transplant shock” or “check” (A).

Non-hardy and non-dormant

nursery stock (B) is much

more susceptible to all types of

stresses during handling and

shipping. A

B
135

Moisture stress can be avoided by making sure plugs are

kept moist (but not saturated) throughout their journey

from nursery to outplanting. Container stock should be

irrigated 1 to 2 days before harvesting depending on

weather conditions (Fancher and others 1986). This allows

the plugs to drain to field capacity; saturated media is

unhealthy for roots, increases shipping and handling

weight, and increases the potential for storage molds.

7.5.1.3 Temperature stress

Either hot or cold temperature extremes can quickly

reduce the quality of nursery plants during handling and

shipping. 

Exposure to warm temperatures can damage stock in several ways: 

Increased hazard from storage molds. Pathogenic fungi,

such as Botrytis mold, can survive in all types of storage and

may grow rapidly during shipping in the humid environment of a storage bag or box if the temperatures are too

warm. Increased carbon dioxide from plant respiration in

storage and shipping containers is also thought to stimulate

fungal development. There have been anecdotal reports of

storage mold “blowups” in boxes of freezer stored nursery

stock after only a few days exposure to ambient conditions.

Storage molds are discussed in detail in Volume Five.

Accelerated resumption of growth. Nursery plants that

are stored overwinter are harvested at peak hardiness,

which is ideal for storage, shipping, and handling. When

ready for outplanting, properly stored plants have had

their chilling requirements fully satisfied, however, and

cold temperature is the only environmental factor that

prevents resumption of growth. Once their chilling

requirement has been met, exposing stored nursery stock

to even a short period of warm temperatures will rapidly

break dormancy (Figure 7.5.4). 

Moisture stress. Stagnant air within the storage or shipping bag or box is a poor heat conductor, but direct sunlight and wind can rapidly increase plant temperatures

and cause serious moisture stress (Figure 7.5.3). 

Heat stress. Remember that stored nursery plants are alive

and respiring. This means, when plants are exposed to

Figure 7.5.4—Cold-stored Norway spruce (Picea abies)

seedlings exposed to short periods of warm temperatures

(17 °C [63 °F]), rapidly broke dormancy once the chilling

requirement had been met (modified from Hanninen and

Pelkonen 1989).

warm temperatures, their respiration adds heat to their

environment and this is particularly serious in closed

environments such as storage or shipping bags or boxes.

Maintaining good air circulation in storage areas, especially non-refrigerated storage, will minimize heat buildup due to plant respiration. 

Freezing damage. Freezing temperatures can also damage

nursery stock. Because they are much less cold-hardy,

roots are much more susceptible than shoots to freeze

damage. Ambient and in-box temperatures should be

monitored regularly; temperature monitoring equipment is

now inexpensive and readily available (see section 7.4.6).

Freezing damage has even occurred in cooler storage during shipping because of equipment failure. This is common because refrigeration units on shipping vans are

notoriously fickle and air circulation is restricted. Boxes in

the front of the van near the refrigeration units will necessarily be colder than those in the back. Resist the tempta-
136

Figure 7.5.5—When bags of conifer seedlings were dropped

from different heights, their ability to produce new roots

(root growth capacity) was significantly reduced (A). This

mechanical injury still affected plant growth two years after

outplanting (B) (modified from Stjernberg 1996).

tion to overpack trucks and leave adequate space for

good air circulation (Rose and Haase 2006). Stock that

has been cooler stored should be shipped at these same

temperatures (0.5 to 1 °C [33 to 34 °F]), whereas frozen

stock can be shipped under warmer temperatures to begin

the thawing process.

When nursery stock reaches the outplanting site, the

plants should be kept as cool as possible. On-site storage

is discussed in Chapter 7.6.

7.5.1.4 Physical stresses.

Boxes of nursery plants are handled many times from when

they leave the nursery until the plants are finally outplanted. Rough handling can result in reduced plant performance after outplanting. Each person involved in the handling and shipping of nursery stock should receive training

on how to minimize physical stresses.

The potential for physical damage to nursery stock can

come from dropping, crushing, vibrating, or just rough

handling. It’s easy to forget that nursery plants are alive

when they are in boxes. Studies have shown that the

stress of dropping boxes of seedlings reduced root growth

potential, decreased height growth, increased mortality,

and increased fine-root electrolyte leakage (Tabbush

1986; Sharpe and others 1990; McKay and others 1993).

Stjernberg (1996) did a comprehensive evaluation of the

physical stresses that nursery stock is subjected to during

transport from the nursery to the outplanting site. Root

growth capacity tests on boxes of cooler stored white

spruce seedlings showed fewer new roots were produced

as the distance the box was dropped increased (Figure

7.5.5A). Interestingly enough, volume growth of these

seedlings still showed growth depression 2 years after outplanting (Figure 7.5.5B).

7.5.1.5 Accumulated stresses

Nursery plants are at their maximum quality immediately

before they are harvested at the nursery, but they then

must pass through many hands before being outplanted.

Outplanting success is dependent on maintaining plant

quality by minimizing stress at each phase of the operation. It is useful to think of plant quality as a chain in

which each link represents one of the sequences of events

A

B
137

from harvesting and storage at the nursery until planting

at the outplanting site (Figure 7.5.6). The cumulative

effect of the various stresses can be much greater than the

sum of separate effects.

As stress increases, the plant shifts energy from growth to

damage repair. Physiological functions are damaged and

survival and growth are reduced. These effects are exacerbated further when plants are outplanted on harsh sites.

Extreme careless handling of planting stock usually manifests itself immediately after outplanting—plants die within days or weeks. Unfortunately, the ramifications of careless handling are usually more insidious, not immediately

apparent because it causes a degree of sublethal injury

that only will be reflected in decreased survival and

growth weeks or months after outplanting. A good example is root injury. Roots that have been damaged by exposure or freezing may not look any different but they have

lost the ability to function properly. This condition is particularly serious with container stock because these

injuries primarily affect roots on the outside of the root

plug. Because the roots on the inside still function, damaged plants are able to remain turgid and so appear normal. After outplanting, however, the damaged roots cannot grow out into the surrounding soil and so plants struggle for a while and may eventually die. On moist sites

with low evaporative demand, this can take weeks or

months. 

Because all types of abuse or exposure are cumulative, it

is helpful to think of nursery plant quality as a checking

account. Immediately before harvesting, plants should be

at 100% quality, but all subsequent stresses are withdrawals from the account (Figure 7.5.7). It is impossible to

make a deposit—nothing can be done to increase plant

quality after leaving the nursery.

Figure 7.5.6—Nursery plants are subjected to a series of stresses from the time they are harvested to when they are outplanted. Each stage in the process represents a link in a chain, and overall plant quality is only as good as the weakest link.

Figure 7.5.7—It is useful to think of nursery plant quality as

a checking account in which all types of abuse or stress are

withdrawals. Note that all stresses are cumulative and no

deposits can be made—it is impossible to increase plant

quality after nursery harvest.
138

When nursery stock is ready to outplant, it must be

moved from nursery storage to the outplanting site.

Nursery employees usually use the same handling system

to move plants in and out of storage, and the equipment

is generally conveyors, hand carts, forklifts, and other

motorized handling equipment that was discussed in

Volume One. Shipment to the customer or outplanting

site, however, often requires specialized handling and

equipment. The best handling system for shipment will

depend on plant physiological condition, container type

and size, and whether or not the plants will be shipped in

their containers.

7.5.2.1 Shipping in the growth container

When container nursery stock was first produced back in

the 1970s, most nurseries shipped plants to their customers in the growth container. Some nurseries still use

this practice and usually stack containers on metal or

wooden racks inside the delivery van (Figure 7.5.8A) This

method works best when shipping distances are relatively

short and the roads are not overly rough. Some nurseries

place their containers inside cardboard boxes for shipping. Unfortunately, used containers need to be returned

to the nursery, requiring a second trip, and often the containers are damaged during transit (Figure 7.5.8B).

Shipping in containers has worked well for forest industry

nurseries that grow stock for their own lands. For example,

JD Irving Ltd., a reforestation company in New Brunswick,

Canada, has developed a sophisticated pallet handling system for moving containers about the nursery and to the

outplanting site (Figures 7.5.8 C&D). Their system allows

efficient handling of container plants while providing

excellent protection against mishandling. After the stock is

outplanted, the same pallets are used to transport empty

containers back to the nursery without damage (Brown

2007).

One primary advantage of this system is that plant roots

are protected by the container and, if plants must be held

in temporary storage before planting, they can be irrigated (Figure 7.5.8E). Nursery stock that will be hot-planted

is not fully hardy and endures less stress when left in the

growth container. The major disadvantage of shipping in

containers is that a given number of plants occupies considerably more volume and weight compared to stock

7.5.2 Handling and Shipping Systems

that has been extracted for storage. In addition, stock

shipped in the containers, especially those that cannot be

consolidated, is not necessarily graded and so cull plants

may also be handled and shipped.

Large container stock (> 500 ml [> 1 qt]) are always

shipped in their growth containers because they are too

large and heavy to be handled any other way. The USDA

Forest Service JH Stone nursery in Central Point, Oregon,

grows native plants in containers up to 55 L (15 gal) in

volume (Figure 7.5.9A). These plants are grown in special

racks at the nursery and these same racks are used to

transport the plants to the outplanting site (Figure 7.5.9B). 

7.5.2.2 Shipping in boxes or bags

Nursery stock extracted from growth containers and

stored in cardboard boxes requires much less storage

space and weighs less when shipped as compared to

stock shipped in their containers. In addition, the box

provides physical protection during storage, shipping, and

handling (Figure 7.5 10A). Boxes stack efficiently (Figure

7.5.10B) and pallets of boxes can be easily moved by

hand, pallet jack, or forklift and loaded quickly and easily

into delivery vans (Figure 7.5.10C). Delivery vans should

be equipped with racks; otherwise, the weight of boxes

stacked too high could mechanically damage the stock

(Figure 7.5.10D).
139

Figure 7.5.8—Shipping plants in their growth containers

requires a rack system to support and protect the stock (A).

One drawback of this system is that containers must be

returned to the nursery and can be damaged in transit (B).

Some large forest nurseries have developed sophisticated

rack handling systems for shipping plants to the outplanting site and returning the used containers to the nursery

(C&D). One advantage of shipping in the growth container is that plants can be irrigated prior to outplanting (E).

Photos C&D courtesy of J.D. Irving, Limited.

A

B

C

D

E
140

Figure 7.5.10—Cardboard boxes provide protection to

plants during storage, shipping, and handling (A). Because

they can be stacked, boxes make efficient use of space in

storage units and delivery vans (B). Pallets of boxes can be

easily moved by hand or forklift (C). Delivery vans should

use racks to prevent shipping boxes from being crushed (D).

Figure 7.5.9—Large container stock is always shipped in

the growth container and transported to the field in the

same nursery racks (A&B).

A

B

D

C

A B
141

7.5.3 Nursery Stock Delivery

Many different methods have been used to deliver plants

from the nursery to the outplanting site. The most appropriate method will depend on the distance involved, the

number of plants, and the dormancy and hardiness of the

stock. While rail and even commercial airlines have been

used, most nursery stock is delivered by truck because

most outplanting sites are in remote locations. Nursery

plants can be subjected to severe mechanical shocks during transport, especially on gravel or dirt roads, and

reducing speed will minimize potential injury (Stjernberg

1997). 

7.5.3.1 Delivery in refrigerated trailers

Nursery stock, whether shipped in the container or

extracted and packed into boxes or bags is typically

shipped by truck. For large quantities of plants, typical of

forest companies, and when the trip will take more than a

few hours, shipping is usually done by trucks with refrigerated trailers (“reefers”) (Figure 7.5.11A). Because high

temperature is the major risk factor during nursery stock

transport, the use of refrigerated vans has had a significant

effect on enhanced plant quality and outplanting success.

In a review of the success of southern pine plantations,

the use of refrigerated vans was named as the single most

important factor in making sure that plants arrived at the

outplanting site in good condition (Fox and others 2007).

The risk of injury to nursery stock increases with the shipping distance. This is most critical for hot-planted stock

for summer or fall outplanting because the plants are not

fully dormant or at their peak of hardiness. When the outplanting performance of hot-planted silver birch seedlings

was monitored, height growth measured after the first

year was not affected by transportation distance

(Luoranen and others 2004). When the same plants were

measured after 3 years, however, shoot height decreased

with shipping distance (Figure 7.5.11B).

The temperature inside the trailer should be monitored

during transit because truck refrigeration units are prone

to failure. Both high and low temperature injury has

occurred when refrigerated units have malfunctioned. The

ideal temperature in a delivery truck depends on whether

the plants are going to be hot-planted or are from cooler

or freezer storage, especially if frozen stock needs to

thaw. In an operational trial, temperatures in boxes of

Figure 7.5.11—Refrigerated vans (“reefers”) are used to

ship nursery stock for long distances (A). The risk of injury

to nursery stock increases with the shipping distance (B).

Drop-off reefer units can provide ideal long-term on-site

storage (C). (B, modified from Luoranen and others 2004).

A

B

C
142

Figure 7.5.12—Non-refrigerated nursery delivery vehicles

should be painted white and insulated to keep inside temperatures low (A). In open pickups, nursery stock should be covered with tarps (B); special reflective tarps (C) are commercially available. Research has shown that reflective Mylar®

tarps provide much better insulation that standard green canvas ones (D). D-modified from DeYoe and others 1986).

refrigerated nursery stock ranged from 2 to 10 °C (36 to

50 °F) in refrigerated vehicles compared to 10 to 22 °C

(50 to 72 °F) in non-refrigerated vehicles (Stjernberg

1996). If boxes are loaded by hand, place spacers (such

as wooden boards or foam blocks) between boxes or bags

to allow air circulation and prevent the load from shifting.

The Mt. Sopris Nursery in Colorado had speciallydesigned reefer units developed that could be dropped-off

on the outplanting site to provide longer-term, on-site

storage (Figure 7.5.11C).

7.5.3.2 Delivery in non-refrigerated trucks

For shorter trips, non-refrigerated trucks are often used.

Delivery vans should be aluminum or painted white to

reflect sunlight and parked in the shade during stops and

when they reach the outplanting site (Figure 7.5.12A).

Plant ProTek is a new insulated truck liner that has been

successfully tested with ornamental stock shipments, and

should have application for native plant nursery stock

(Anonymous 2006). Adding “blue ice” in the boxes of

small shipments would help keep temperatures down

although it could increase delivery costs. 

Small pickup trucks. If open pickups must be used, then

boxes of plants should be covered with a reflective tarp

(Figure 7.5.12B). Specially-constructed Mylar® tarps with

white outer and silver inner surfaces are available from

reforestation supply companies (Figure 7.5.12C). In operational trials, plants under such tarps were as cool as those

stored in the shade (Figure 7.5.12D). Dark colored tarps,

A B

C

D
143

Figure 7.5.13—Bundles of plants are taken from bulk bins

in cooler storage (A), individual orders are assembled in

cardboard shipping boxes (B), boxes are weighed (C), and

shipping labels with bar codes are printed (D). Boxes are

shipped to customers by package delivery early each week

to ensure delivery before the weekend (E). The value of

proper packaging becomes especially apparent with nursery stock delivered by commercial parcel services (F).

such as army green canvas tarps, laid directly on boxes,

however, allow plants to heat to damaging levels and

should never be used (DeYoe and others 1986). 

7.5.3.3 Commercial parcel trucks

Many state and private nurseries often ship small quantities of an assortment of native plants to a variety of customers. For example, the University of Idaho Frank Pitkin

Nursery, which serves as the state nursery for Idaho, routinely ships an average of 120 seedlings at a time to each

of its 1,500 customers throughout the state. To facilitate

this, plants are extracted from containers and placed into

plastic bags. Bags of plants are then bulked into stackable

plastic tubs for cooler storage (Figure 7.5.13A). These tubs

provide maximum flexibility in the cooler, allowing the

configuration of the storage facility to be adjusted from

year to year as production numbers vacillate. As the shipping season progresses, empty tubs can be removed from

the cooler, thus creating additional work space to process

orders. As orders need to be shipped, employees move

from tub to tub, gathering the appropriate species and

quantities (Figure 7.5.13B). Completed orders are placed

into cardboard boxes, weighed (Figure 7.5.13C), labeled

(Figure 7.5.13D), and prepared for shipping by commercial delivery companies, such as United Parcel Service

(UPS) or FedEx (Figure 7.5.13E). Because these packages

will not be handled by knowledgeable personnel, boxes

must be heavy duty to protect nursery stock (Figure

7.5.13F). Within Idaho, all orders are usually delivered

within 2 days. Customers are advised automatically by email when their order leaves the nursery and receive

tracking numbers to monitor the delivery process.

AC

BD

EF
144

7.5.4 Summary and Recommendations

Once a crop begins the process of leaving the growing or

storage area for the outplanting site, the financial and

plant quality risks peak—plants have reached their full

financial value and should be at their highest quality

level. Plants are living, perishable organisms and it is

paramount to minimize stresses that can reduce their

quality. The three primary types of stresses that seedlings

may encounter are moisture loss (desiccation), temperature extremes, and physical damage. Stock should be regularly monitored and handled gently to avoid exposure to

stress. The effects of stress are cumulative—plants

exposed to excessive stress may be dead at the time of

outplanting or die shortly afterward. Unfortunately, the

more common scenario is that the accumulation of stress

causes a gradual and cumulative reduction in survival and

growth that may or may not become apparent until weeks

or months after outplanting.

The key to successful handling and shipping is to minimize stresses. Special equipment is often used to move

plants that remain in their original containers for storage

and shipping, thus reducing physical stresses. Many nurseries, however, extract stock from containers and store

and ship them in boxes or bags to reduce storage volume

and shipping weight and avoid the logistics of having

containers returned to the nursery. Generally, large numbers of plants, such as those shipped by reforestation, forest product, or federal nurseries, are routinely shipped in

large refrigerated trailers to reduce temperature stresses

and maintain stock quality. For smaller nurseries, such as

private native plant operations and state facilities, and for

small quantities of stock that are being sent to locations

near the nursery, stock is often shipped without refrigeration—such shipments are successful if care is taken to

minimize extremes of temperature and physical stress. 

Adams, JC, Patterson WB. 2004. Comparison of planting
bar and hoedad planted seedlings for survival and

growth in a controlled environment. Connor KF. ed.

Proceedings of the 12th Biennianl Southern

Silvicultural Research Conference. GTR SRS-71.

Asheville, NC: USDA-Forest Service, Southern

Research Station:423-424.

Anonymous. 2006. Greenhouse on wheels: new shipping

technology converts dry vans into nursery stock

haulers. Digger 50(1)46-47.

Balneaves JM, Menzies MI. 1988. Lifting and handling

procedures at Edendale Nursery-effects on survival and

growth of 1/0 Pinus radiata seedlings. New Zealand

Journal of Forestry Science. 18:132-134. 

DeYoe D.1986. Guidelines for handling seeds and

seedlings to ensure vigorous stock. Oregon State

University, Forest Research Lab, Special Publication 13.

24 p.

DeYoe D, Holbo HR, Waddell K. 1986. Seedling protection from heat stress between lifting and planting.

Western Journal of Applied Forestry 1(4): 124-126.

Fancher, G.A., J.G. Mexal and J.T. Fisher. 1986. Planting

and handling conifer seedlings in New Mexico. NMSU

CES Circ. 526. l0p.

Fisher JT, Fancher GA, Neumann RW. 1986. Survival and

growth of containerized native juniper (Juniperus

monosperma) on surface-mined lands in New Mexico.

Forest Ecology and Management 16(1-4): 291-299.

Fox TR, Jokela EJ, Allen HL. 2007. The development of

pine plantation silviculture in the Southern United

States. Journal of Forestry 105(7): 337-347.

Hanninen H, Pelkonen P. 1989. Dormancy release in

Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea abies (L.) Karst. seedlings:

effects of intermittent warm periods during chilling.

Trees 3(3) 179-184.

Hitch KL, Shiver BD, Borders BE. 1996 Mortality models

for newly regenerated loblolly pine plantatioins in the

Georgia Piedmont. Southern Journal of Applied

Forestry 20: 197-202.

Luoranen, J., Rikala, R., and Smolander, H. 2004.

Summer planting of hot-lifted silver birch container

seedlings. IN: Nursery production and stand establishment of broadleaves to promote sustainable forest

management, L. Cicarese, Ed. APAT, 2004. IUFRO

S3.02.00. Held May 7-10, 2001, Rome, Italy: 207-218.

Kerr G. 1994. A comparison of cell grown and bare-rooted oak and beech seedlings one season after outplanting. Forestry 67(4): 297-312.

McKay HM. 1997. A review of the effect of stresses

between lifting and planting on nursery stock quality

and performance. New Forests 13:369-399.

McKay, H. M., Gardiner, B. A., Mason, W. L., Nelson, D.

G and Hollingsworth, M. K. 1993. The gravitational

forces generated by dropping plants and the response

of Sitka spruce seedlings to dropping. Can. J. For. Res.

23: 2443–2451.

Paterson J. DeYoe D, Millson S, Galloway R. 2001. IN:

Wagner RG, Colombo SJ, eds. Regenerating the

Canadian forestprinciples and practice for Ontario.

Markham, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Natural

Resources and Fitzhenry & Whiteside Ltd:325-341.

Rose R and Haase DL. 2006. Guide to reforestation in

Oregon. College of Forestry, Oregon State University,

Corvallis. 48p. 

Sharpe AL, Mason WL, Howes REJ. 1990. Early forest performance of roughly handled Sitka spruce and Douglas

fir of different plant types. Scot. For. 44: 257–265

Stjernberg, EI. 1997. Mechanical shock during transportation: effects on seedling performance. New Forests

13(103): 401-420. 

Stjernberg, EI. 1996. Seedling transportation: effect of

mechanical shocks on seedling performance. Technical

Report TR-114. Pointe-claire, Quebec: Forest

Engineering Research Institute of Canada.16 p. 

Stjernberg EI. 1989. A review of containerized seedling

transportation methods. Forest Engineering Research

Institute of Canada, Technical Report TR-95. 23 p. 

Tabbush PM. 1986. Rough handling, soil temperature, and

root development in outplanted Sitka spruce and

Douglas-fir. Can. J. For. Res. 16: 1385–1388.

USDA. 1989. A guide to the care and planting of southern

pine seedlings. USDA Forest Service, Southern Region,

Management Bulletin R8-MB39. 44 p.

145

7.5.5 Literature Cited
146