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i

NASA/TM—2012–217462

Systematic Destruction of Electronic Parts

for Aid in Electronic Failure Analysis

S.E. Decker, T.D. Rolin, and P.D. McManus

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama

June 2012

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Marshall Space Flight Center • Huntsville, Alabama 35812
ii

Available from:

NASA Center for AeroSpace Information

7115 Standard Drive

Hanover, MD 21076 –1320

443–757–5802

This report is also available in electronic form at

<https://www2.sti.nasa.gov/login/wt/>
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 1

2. BACKGROUND ON EQUIPMENT.................................................................................. 3

3. PROCEDURE..................................................................................................................... 4

3.1 Operational Amplifiers.................................................................................................. 4

3.2 Transistors..................................................................................................................... 6

4. DATA .................................................................................................................................. 8

4.1 Operational Amplifiers.................................................................................................. 8

4.2 Transistors..................................................................................................................... 19

5. CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................... 31

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 33
iv
v

LIST OF FIGURES 

 1. Keyence VHX-600 3D optical microscope images: (a) A typical 

JM38510/13501BPA op amp and (b) a typical JANTXV2N2907A 

PNP transistor ......................................................................................................... 2

 2. Pulses were generated and recorded by (a) the Tektronix TDS 5054 Digital 

Phosphor Oscilloscope (top) and the AVTECH Model AVR-5B-B-RN-PN 

Pulse Generator (bottom), and they were assessed by (b) the Tektronix 370B 

Programmable Curve Tracer .................................................................................... 3

 3. Depiction of (a) a known good transistor at × 20 bright field objective 

magnification and (b) a known good op amp at × 10 dark field objective 

magnification ........................................................................................................... 4

 4. Pin out drawing of (a) the op amp, and pulses were applied between 

(b) leads 3 and 2. All damage observed was in this general location ......................... 5

 5. The curve trace between input pins 3 (+) and 2 (–) is shown for a good 

device. The forward and reverse breakdown voltages for the input pins are 

equivalent and are approximately 750 mV ................................................................ 5

 6. Examples of typical sets of (a) high-current and (b) low-current β characteristic 

curves for the transistors. ......................................................................................... 6

 7. Schematic drawings of (a) the op amp circuit and (b) the base-emitter 

junctions of four transistors used as the protective diodes. Locations of the 

leads, diffused resistors, and protected ‘diodes’ on a known good op amp die 

are shown in (c) ........................................................................................................ 9

 8. Op amp sample 33: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the 

damage site using a bright field objective with × 50 magnification ........................... 11

 9. Op amp sample 16: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the 

damage site using a bright field objective with × 50 magnification ........................... 12

10. Op amp sample 35: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the 

damage site using a bright field objective with × 50 magnification ........................... 13
vi

LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)

11. Op amp sample 36: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the 

damage site using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification ........................... 15

12. Op amp sample 13: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the 

damage site using a bright field objective with × 50 magnification ........................... 16

13. Op amp sample 23: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the

damage site using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification ........................... 17

14. Op amp sample 32: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the 

damage site using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification ........................... 18

15. An image of (a) transistor sample 5 using a bright field objective 

with × 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve trace 

that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted ...................................... 21

16. An image of (a) transistor sample 4 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, (b) the collector-base curve trace obtained after the 

pulse was applied, (c) a curve trace showing that the base-emitter junction 

is nominal, and (d) the collector emitter curve trace obtained confirming 

the resistive short through the collector-base junction. ............................................. 22

17. An image of (a) transistor sample 23 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve trace

that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted ...................................... 23

18. An image of (a) transistor sample 21 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve trace that 

resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted ............................................. 23

19. An image of (a) transistor sample 42 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and a plot of (b) the transistor β characteristic curve 

trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted ............................. 24

20. An image of (a) transistor sample 47 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve trace that 

resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted.............................................. 24
vii

LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)

21. An image of (a) transistor sample 54 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) a forward bias collector to base curve trace 

showing a 1,010-Ω resistive short with a diode breakdown at 

approximately 0.55 V ............................................................................................... 25

22. An image of (a) transistor sample 65 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, (b) the collector-base curve trace obtained after the 

pulse was applied, (c) a curve trace showing that the base-emitter junction 

is nominal, and (d) a collector-emitter curve trace that confirms the resistive 

short through the collector-base junction. ................................................................ 26

23. An image of (a) transistor sample 56 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, (b) the collector-base curve trace obtained after the 

pulse was applied, (c) a curve trace showing that the base-emitter junction 

is nominal, and (d) a collector-emitter curve trace that confirms the short 

through the collector-base junction. ......................................................................... 27

24. An image of (a) transistor sample 63 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve trace that 

resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted ............................................. 28

25. An image of (a) transistor sample 30 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) a characteristic set of curves that indicates

the gain was reduced from 185 to 144 ...................................................................... 29

26. An image of (a) transistor sample 27 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve trace that 

resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted ............................................. 29
viii

LIST OF TABLES

1. Reverse breakdown voltages of transistor samples ..................................................... 7

2. Pulses applied to op amps .......................................................................................... 10

3. Pulses applied to reverse bias transistors .................................................................... 19

4. Pulses applied to forward bias transistors ................................................................... 20
ix

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AUX auxiliary

DIV division

DPA destructive physical analysis

EEE electrical, electronic, and electromechanical

EOS electrical overstress

HORIZ horizontal

LDC lot date code

NPN Negative-Positive-Negative

op amp operational amplifier

PNP Positive-Negative-Positive

VERT vertical
x
1

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM

SYSTEMATIC DESTRUCTION OF ELECTRONIC PARTS 

FOR AID IN ELECTRONIC FAILURE ANALYSIS

1. INTRODUCTION

Electrical, electronic, and electromechanical (EEE) parts are critical to virtually all of 

NASA’s missions. When a critical part fails, it costs time and money, jeopardizes safety, and can 

even compromise the success of a mission. It is important to know why a certain part failed so the 

problem can be corrected and avoided in the future. Because there are numerous reasons that parts 

fail, failure analysts have to employ a variety of techniques to investigate the failures. A simple, cost 

effective method of performing failure analysis requires removing the lid of a part and examining 

it under a microscope to look for visible signs of damage;1 this technique is known as destructive 

physical analysis (DPA). To aid in this type of failure analysis, it is advantageous to become familiar with and to catalog the damage caused by a defined electrical pulse.

Research has shown that very few databases of this nature have been produced. In most 

cases, the effects of electrical overstresses are observed and noted as junction burnout, dielectric 

or oxide punch through, and metallization burnout but do not compile illustrations of the damage. 

For example, one report gives examples of curve trace data for failed parts but no conclusions were 

drawn concerning the cause of the damage.2 Given the limited amount of data available, the analyst has to estimate voltage and time intervals based on aluminum trace condition (melted versus 

splattered) and glassivation condition (discolored versus cracked). In many cases, the component 

design can vary from part to part causing these estimates to be errant.

This study is designed to provide a technique that will aid the analyst in avoiding the inherent error in estimating electrical overstress (EOS) conditions. This objective is accomplished by 

providing the analyst with a simple pictorial for comparison to field failures. Not all the available 

components in the industry can be part of this database; however, when looking at certain parts 

that have common design features, a good basic understanding of the EOS failure can be developed. As a preliminary area of investigation, two different types of bipolar devices were chosen.

Figure 1 depicts images of the devices as obtained by a Keyence VHX-600 3D optical 

microscope. One was an operational amplifier (op amp) with part number JM38510/13501BPA 

and lot date code (LDC) OD9104 (see fig. 1(a)). Op amps are used in an extremely broad range 

of applications including amplification, filtering, nonlinear wave shaping, wave generation, and 

switching.3 The other component chosen was a positive-negative-positive (PNP) transistor with 

part number JANTXV2N2907A and LDC 8710B (see fig. 1(b)). Transistors are commonly used 

to amplify signals in linear circuits, to amplify current in logic circuits, and to operate as switches.
2

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Keyence VHX-600 3D optical microscope images: (a) A typical JM38510/13501BPA 

op amp and (b) a typical JANTXV2N2907A PNP transistor.
3

2. BACKGROUND ON EQUIPMENT

To limit the number of variables, op amps and transistors were systematically pulsed using 

a known voltage over a known period of time. The pulses were generated using an AVTECH 

Model AVR-5B-B-RN-PN pulse generator and recorded using a Tektronix TDS 5054 Digital Phosphor Oscilloscope (see fig. 2(a)). The pulse generator is capable of generating 0–500 V into loads of 

50 Ω or higher and a variable pulse width from 100 ns to 100 μs. The maximum power output of 

this instrument is 50 W, which limits the voltage that can be applied to the samples when high currents (shorts) are involved. The damage was assessed using a Tektronix 370B Programmable Curve 

Tracer (see fig. 2(b)) that measures and displays the semiconductor characteristics of the damaged 

parts. The samples were then opened and the damage site was photographed using a metallograph. 

The metallograph produces high-resolution/high-magnification photographs that make it possible to view very small damage sites on the op amps and transistors. The damage was examined 

using bright field, dark field, and differential interference contrast techniques. Only the bright field 

images were used for this paper and for the op amp and transistor catalogs because it provided the 

most detailed and easily interpreted view of the damage sites.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Pulses were generated and recorded by (a) the Tektronix TDS 5054 Digital Phosphor 

Oscilloscope (top) and the AVTECH Model AVR-5B-B-RN-PN Pulse Generator 

(bottom), and they were assessed by (b) the Tektronix 370B Programmable 

Curve Tracer.
4

3. PROCEDURE

The first step in this analysis was to find op amps with acceptable breakdown voltages 

and transistors with comparable high-current and low-current gains (β). The minimum breakdown 

voltages for these parts were obtained from the military standard data sheets and were used to set 

the guidelines for what was considered a ‘good’ part. To obtain a set of testable op amps and transistors, many parts with the same part number and LDC were evaluated on the curve tracer. The 

op amps and transistors that met the required breakdown voltage or current gain were assigned 

a sample number and their initial curve traces were recorded. Additionally, a known good transistor (see fig. 3(a)) and a known good op amp (see fig. 3(b)) were opened and photographed for 

comparison to damaged samples.

(a) (b)

Emitter Pad Lead 3 Lead 2

Base Pad

Figure 3. Depiction of (a) a known good transistor at × 20 bright field objective magnification 

and (b) a known good op amp at × 10 dark field objective magnification.

3.1 Operational Amplifiers

The pin diagram, also known as the pin out, of an op amp is given in figure 4(a). The op 

amps were all pulsed with the positive lead on pin 3 and the negative lead on pin 2, and the polarity of the pulse was programmed into the pulse generator. The other leads were not connected to 

confine the damage location on the internal silicon die to the area shown in figure 4(b). The pulse 

width, voltage, and current supplied to the op amps were recorded using an oscilloscope. The oscilloscope software was used to generate a power trace and to calculate the pulse energy applied to 

each sample.
5

Lead 3 Lead 2

(a) (b)

1

2

3

4

8

7

6

5

VOS TRIM VOS TRIM

+VCC

OUTPUT

NC

IN–

IN+

–VCC

8 LEAD DIP

+

–

Figure 4. Pin out drawing of (a) the op amp, and pulses were applied between 

(b) leads 3 and 2. All damage observed was in this general location.

The op amp procedure consisted of first performing a curve trace to confirm that each 

sample met specifications. For these op amps, the breakdown voltage required for further testing 

was 750 mV (see fig. 5). The destruction of the op amps consisted of pulsing a device at a voltage and time interval that would not completely open the circuit and then adding 1 μs to the time 

interval for the next pulse on the next device. The time was reduced by 0.5 μs if the circuit opened 

on the second op amp and a third op amp was pulsed at the same voltage level. This was done for 

voltages between 60–100 V at 10-V intervals. A ‘test’ op amp was used to find a reasonable starting pulse width for each voltage change to conserve the in-family samples. Damage was initially 

indicated if an abrupt drop in the voltage waveform was observed on an oscilloscope. Damage was 

verified by evaluating the circuit using the curve tracer. The device lid was then removed and the 

silicon die was inspected using an optical microscope. The resulting damage was examined and 

photographed using a metallograph at × 20 and × 50 objective magnification.

Figure 5. The curve trace between input pins 3 (+) and 2 (–) is shown for a good 

device. The forward and reverse breakdown voltages for the input pins 

are equivalent and are approximately 750 mV.
6

3.2 Transistors

Six sets of transistors were tested to achieve a complete range of damage on the transistors. 

Three of the sets were pulsed in one of the forward bias conditions (emitter to base with positive 

on the emitter and negative on the base, collector to base with positive on the collector and negative 

on the base, or collector to emitter with positive on the collector and negative on the emitter). The 

remaining three sets were pulsed in one of the reverse bias conditions (emitter to base with negative 

on the emitter and positive on the base, collector to base with negative on the collector and positive on the base, or collector to emitter with negative on the collector and positive on the emitter). 

The PNP transistors to be tested were chosen based on their high-current and low-current β. To be 

considered testable samples, the transistors had to have a high-current β between 180 and 186 (see 

fig. 6(a)) and a low-current β between 116 and 124 (see fig. 6(b)). The curve traces of each transistor’s high-current and low-current β characteristic set of curves, along with the emitter to base and 

collector to base reverse breakdown voltages were recorded prior to damage.

(a) (b)

Figure 6. Examples of typical sets of (a) high-current and (b) low-current β characteristic 

curves for the transistors.

In figure 6, the high-current curves show a current β of 186 and the low-current curves 

show a current β of 120.The collector to emitter reverse breakdown voltage for each transistor 

sample was not recorded because the high current and high voltage required for the measurement 

could damage the sample. In addition, the length of time required for the curve tracer to save this 

data would only intensify the problem. Damage by the curve tracer is not desirable because it 

could compromise the pulse generator results. The military standard data sheet specification for 

each of the three reverse breakdown voltages and the averages of the measured values for the 

reverse emitter to base voltage and reverse collector to base voltage are given in table 1.
7

Table 1. Reverse breakdown voltages of transistor samples.

Parameter

Military Standard

(V)

Measured Average

(V)

Collector to emitter (VCEO) >60 Not measured

Emitter to base (VEBO) >5 6.5

Collector to base (VCBO) >60 105

Transistors that did not meet the required high-current and low-current β were used to find 

the optimal starting voltage and pulse width for each junction tested and then removed from the 

test lot. The pulse width, voltage, and current supplied to the transistors were recorded using an 

oscilloscope. Oscilloscope software was used to generate a power trace and to calculate the pulse 

energy applied to each sample. The intention was for each junction to be pulsed from a point where 

there was still a characteristic set of curves with readable β to a point where most of the junctions 

were either shorted or open. After being pulsed, the transistor sample was curve traced to evaluate each junction (reverse and forward bias emitter to base, reverse and forward bias collector to 

base, reverse and forward bias collector to emitter, and the high-current family set of curves). The 

high-current family set of curves was recorded for each transistor along with either the breakdown 

voltage or resistance of each junction. Finally, the transistors were opened and the damage was 

observed using a metallograph at × 20 and × 50 objective magnification.
8

4. DATA

4.1 Operational Amplifiers

Figure 7 depicts circuit schematics and the internal die area of the op amp where the pulses 

were applied. A schematic drawing of the op amp is shown in figure 7(a) and a normal curve trace 

is shown in figure 5. The slopes of the lines in figure 5 indicate a resistance of approximately 

1,000 Ω, confirming the value of 500 Ω for the series resistors shown in the circled area of figure 

7(a). The pulses were applied between leads 3 and 2 (circled in blue). The protective diodes shown 

in the circled area of figure 7(a) are actually the base-emitter junctions of negative-positive-negative 

(NPN) lateral processed transistors as shown in figure 7(b). The resulting damage was optically 

confirmed to be confined to the two 500-Ω resistors and the four NPN transistors that are located 

between the second and third leads (figure 7(c)). The relevant data, including the voltage, voltage 

polarity, pulse width, energy, and current applied to each sample, are given in table 2.

Three typical device failure characteristics were noted (see table 2). Two of these characteristics 

occur when the applied pulses have energies of approximately 400 μJ or less. The first characteristic 

was mostly minimal damage to the op amp. Slight charring is noted in the diffused resistors in 

which a small amount of metal flow is observed. Curve traces show no change in the forward or 

reverse breakdown voltages; however, the resistances of the diffused resistors were slightly reduced 

from the typical value of 500 Ω. 
9

4

2

3

7

7k 7k

75pF

60pF

40k 40k

Q9

Q2

Q28

Q13

Q14

Q4

V+

Q6

Q1

Q3

Q15

Q21

Q19 Q18

240

500

500

120

Q10

Q12

Q16

Q11

200μA

16μA

20k

20

20

OUTPUT

25pf

30pf

Q20

120μA

12μA

12μA

60μA

1 8

6

+

–

–

(c)

(a) (b)

Protected Diodes

(Four NPN Transistors) Lead 2

Diffused

Resistors

Lead 3

Q5

500

500

DF1

DR1

DR2

DF2

3 500

– 2

+

Figure 7. Schematic drawings of (a) the op amp circuit and (b) the base-emitter junctions of four 

transistors used as the protective diodes. Locations of the leads, diffused resistors, and 

protected ‘diodes’ on a known good op amp die are shown in (c).
10

Table 2. Pulses applied to op amps.

Sample 

Number

Pulse Properties

Voltage

(V)

Pulse Width

(μs) 

Energy

(μJ)

Current 

(A)

Damage caused change in resistance to diffused resistors

(refer to figure 8(a))

18 70 4.5 365.0 11.40

19 80 3.0 340.0 13.00

25 100 1.5 152.0 12.70

30 –100 1.0 96.3 5.85

33 –90 1.5 119.3 10.50

37 –70 4.0 117.0 5.18

38 –70 5.0 381.0 11.75

42 –60 10.0 340.0 9.54

44 –60 10.5 524.0 10.25

Damage caused change in breakdown voltages

(refer to figure 8(b))

9 60 6.0 118 3.98

12 60 6.5 317 9.90

15 60 7.0 392 9.85

13 60 7.5 401 9.90

16 70 4.0 272 10.00

18 70 4.5 364 11.40

22 90 2.0 212 12.80

35 –80 2.5 226 11.30

36* –80 2.8 313 13.47

Damage caused electrical open

(refer to figure 8(c))

14 60 8.0 924 5.05

17 70 5.0 619 11.30

21 80 3.5 599 13.00

20 80 4.0 790 6.30

24 90 2.5 522 13.90

23 90 3.0 889 14.20

26 100 1.8 373 15.10

7 100 2.0 650 15.10

29 –100 1.5 537 16.10

28 –100 1.8 705 11.60

32 –90 2.0 512 14.80

31 –90 3.0 1,140 9.60

34 –80 3.0 519 13.55

39 –70 5.5 548 11.80

45 –60 11.0 594 10.35

* Junctions were shorted, resulting in the resistive curve shown in figure 11(b).
11

Curve traces and an optical image of op amp sample 33 are shown figure 8, which is 

a typical sample exhibiting the first characteristic. The sample received a –90-V, 1.5-μs pulse and 

had a resulting energy of 119.3 μJ. Figures 8(a) and 8(b) show curve traces of the device before 

the pulse was applied and after the pulse was applied, respectively. Note the increased slopes of 

the lines, which indicate a decrease in resistance. Figure 8 (c) is an image of the damage site using 

a bright field objective with × 50 magnification. The yellow arrows mark the damaged resistors.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 8. Op amp sample 33: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was applied, 

(b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the damage site 

using a bright field objective with × 50 magnification.
12

The second characteristic noted was similar damage to the diffused resistors as in the first 

characteristic and an increase in the forward breakdown voltage from 750 mV to approximately 

1 V, regardless of the polarity of the pulse applied (see figs. 9 and 10).

(c)

(a) (b)

Figure 9. Op amp sample 16: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the 

damage site using a bright field objective with × 50 magnification.
13

Curve traces and an optical image of op amp sample 16 are shown in figure 9. The sample 

received a 70-V, 4-μs pulse and had a resulting energy of 272 μJ. Figures 9(a) and 9(b) depict curve 

traces of the device before the pulse was applied and after the pulse was applied, respectively. 

Figure 9(c) is an image of the damage site using a bright field objective with × 50 magnification. 

The damage sites (yellow arrows) are similar to those shown in figure 8(c). However, a few differences are noted. The forward breakdown voltage increased from 750 mV to approximately 1 V, the 

breakdowns have ‘soft knees,’ and the hysteresis at the negative breakdown is more pronounced.

(c)

(a) (b)

Figure 10. Op amp sample 35: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the 

damage site using a bright field objective with × 50 magnification.
14

Curve traces and an optical image of op amp sample 35 are shown in figure 10. The sample 

received a –80-V, 2.5-μs pulse and had a resulting energy of 226 μJ. Figures 10(a) and 10(b) depict 

curve traces of the device before the pulse was applied and after the pulse was applied, respectively. 

Figure 10(c) is an image of the damage site using a bright field objective with × 50 magnification. 

The damage sites (yellow arrows) are similar to those shown for sample 16 in figure 9(c). 

‘Soft-knee’ breakdowns and increased hysteresis were also found in other examples. In one 

case, the lateral transistors were shorted, resulting in a 1,000-Ω resistive curve trace. Curve traces 

and an optical image of op amp sample 36 are shown in figure 11. The sample received a –80-V, 

2.8-μs pulse and had a resulting energy of 313 μJ. Figures 11(a) and 11(b) show the curve trace of 

the device before the pulse was applied and after the pulse was applied, respectively. This indicates 

that some damage occurred in the lateral NPN transistor junctions; however, no physical damage 

was observed on the die in the transistor area using optical microscopy. Figure 11(c) is an image of 

the damage site using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification. The damage to the diffused 

resistors (yellow arrows) is similar to the resistor damage of sample 16 shown in figure 10(c). An 

area of heat damage and discoloration of an aluminum trace at one of the resistor contact vias was 

also noted (blue arrow), which is typical damage observed on samples subjected to energies greater 

than 300 μJ.

For the first two characteristics, pulses applied having energies between 300 and 400 μJ 

began to show heat damage and discoloration of aluminum traces in addition to the melt through 

at 401 μJ. Curve traces and an optical image of sample 13 are shown in figure 12. The sample 

received a 60-V, 7.5-μs pulse and had a resulting energy of 401 μJ. Figures 12 (a) and 12(b) show 

the curve traces of the device before the pulse was applied and after the pulse was applied, respectively. Note the increased slopes of the lines, which indicate a decrease in resistance. In addition, the 

forward breakdown voltage increased from 750 mV to approximately 1 V, and increase hysteresis 

is observed at the negative breakdown. Figure 12(c) is an image of the damage site using a bright 

field objective with × 50 magnification. Both resistors have been damaged. The yellow arrows mark 

areas suffering heat damage and discoloration.

The third characteristic of damage was an open circuit. Pulses having energies exceeding 

500 μJ showed splattering, metal flow, and significant damage to the glassivation, which is typical. Curve traces and an optical image of op amp sample 23 are shown in figure 13. The sample 

received a 90-V, 3-μs pulse and had a resulting energy of 889 μJ. The size of the damage area 

appeared to grow and sometimes included damage to the two forward bias protected diodes as the 

pulse width and voltage were increased. Figures 13(a) and 13(b) show curve traces of the device 

before the pulse was applied and after the pulse was applied, respectively. Figure 13(b) indicates the 

device is electrically open between pins 3 and 2. Figure 13(c) is an image of the damage site using 

a bright field objective with × 20 magnification. The yellow circle shows an area of heat damage 

where the metal is discolored. The yellow arrows mark where the aluminum traces were melted and 

splattered to the surrounding area. Significant damage to the glassivation also occurred.
15

(c)

(a) (b)

Figure 11. Op amp sample 36: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of 

the damage site using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification.
16

(c)

(a) (b)

Figure 12. Op amp sample 13: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was applied, 

(b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the damage site 

using a bright field objective with × 50 magnification.
17

(c)

(a) (b)

Figure 13. Op amp sample 23: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was 

applied, (b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of 

the damage site using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification.

Figure 14 demonstrates how damage caused by positive and negative pulses was very 

similar. Curve traces and an optical image of op amp sample 32 are shown. The sample received 

a –90-V, 2-μs pulse and had a resulting energy of 513 μJ. Figures 14(a) and 14(b) show curve traces 

of the device before the pulse was applied and after the pulse was applied, respectively. Figure 14(b) 

indicates the device is electrically open between pins 3 and 2. Figure 14(c) is an image of the damage site using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification. The damage observed is similar to 

the damage to sample 23 shown in figure 13.
18

(c)

(a) (b)

Figure 14. Op amp sample 32: Curve traces of (a) the device before the pulse was applied, 

(b) the device after the pulse was applied, and (c) an image of the damage site 

using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification.

In a few instances, there were overlaps in the exact amount of energy needed to severely, 

moderately, or slightly damage each part. Although parts were chosen to be as similar as possible, 

each part has a slightly different breakdown voltage, which contributes to its ability to withstand 

the pulse applied to it. Also, constant voltages could not be maintained over the duration of the 

pulse in some cases because of current limitations associated with the pulse generator. This caused 

unpredictable variations in the pulses applied to each part, which contributed to the deviations in 

damage observed.
19

4.2 Transistors

The pulse width, current, energy, and voltage supplied to the transistors were recorded using 

an oscilloscope. These values are listed in the Pulse Properties columns in table 3 for the reverse 

bias conditions and table 4 for the forward bias conditions.

Table 3. Pulses applied to reverse bias transistors.

Reverse Bias Emitter to Base

Sample

Number

Pulse Properties

Result of Damage

Voltage

(V) Pulse Width

Energy

(μJ)

Current

(A)

2 50 1μs 188.0 6.52 Reduced gain

1 55 1μs 205.0 7.20 β-characteristic reduced to diode curves

3 60 1μs 225.0 8.00 (No curve trace)

8 200 1μs 355.0 17.30 β-characteristic reduced to diode curve

7 250 1μs 165.0 18.60 Resistive short of 55 Ω

4 100 250ns 96.5 7.80 β-characteristic reduced to diode curves

5 200 250ns 174.0 19.60 Resistive short of 191 Ω

6 300 250ns 171.0 20.00 Resistive short of 422 Ω

Reverse Bias Collector to Base

Sample

Number

Pulse Properties

Result of Damage

Voltage

(V) Pulse Width

Energy

(μJ)

Current

(A)

23 80 8μs 2,990 17.70 Resistive short of 3.3 Ω

21 90 8μs 637 8.50 Resistive short of 5.7 Ω

20 85 5μs 2,220 18.20 Resistive short of 2.8 Ω

18 90 5μs 656 16.70 Resistive short of 9.6 Ω

13 150 1μs 426 15.50 Resistive short of 28.6 Ω

12 150 2μs 471 19.90 Resistive short of 16.5 Ω

10 200 200ns 207 8.60 β-characteristic reduced to diode curve

11 200 600ns 343 14.60 β-characteristic reduced to diode curves

16 300 100ns 160 17.00 β-characteristic reduced to diode curve

14 300 200ns 377 21.20 β-characteristic reduced to diode curves

Reverse Bias Collector to Emitter

Sample

Number

Pulse Properties

Result of Damage

Voltage

(V)

Pulse Width

(μs)

Energy

(μJ)

Current

(A)

37 100 1 56.2 19.00 No damage

39 110 1 230.0 9.60 Resistive short of 37.6 Ω

38 120 1 332.0 14.00 Resistive short of 8.2 Ω

40 130 1 245.0 10.56 Resistive short of 24.9 Ω

41 140 1 280.0 19.90 Resistive short of 15.8 Ω

42 150 1 243.0 11.52 Resistive short of 180.4 Ω

43 200 1 241.0 15.60 Resistive short of 118.6 Ω
20

Table 4. Pulses applied to forward bias transistors.

Forward Bias Emitter to Base

Sample 

Number

Pulse Properties

Result of Damage

Voltage

(V)

Pulse Width

(μs)

Energy

(mJ)

Current 

(A)

55 50 15 1.75 13.38 No damage

54 50 20 2.59 13.29 Resistive short of 1,010 Ω

53 50 25 3.15 13.32 Resistive short of 1,004 Ω

52 50 30 3.96 13.32 Resistive short of 82.4 Ω

51 50 35 4.51 12.66 Resistive short of 9.6 Ω

47 50 40 4.87 12.87 Resistive short of 2.8 Ω

50 45 40 4.25 12.57 β-characteristic reduced to diode curves

49 40 40 3.24 11.58 No damage

48 40 30 2.61 11.50 No damage

44 40 100 8.15 8.61 Resistive short of 6.8 Ω

Forward Bias Collector to Base

Sample 

Number

Pulse Properties

Result of Damage

Voltage

(V)

Pulse Width

(μs)

Energy

(mJ)

Current 

(A)

59 40 40 3.17 11.52 No damage

58 45 40 3.73 12.66 β-characteristic reduced to diode curves

56 50 40 4.78 13.44 Base-collector shorted

57 55 40 7.13 14.28 β-characteristic reduced to diode curve

60 60 40 7.98 15.00 β-characteristic reduced to diode curve

66 50 25 2.89 13.38 No damage

65 50 30 3.34 13.59 β-characteristic reduced to diode curves

64 50 35 4.06 13.56 β-characteristic reduced to diode curves

62 50 45 5.73 13.26 β-characteristic reduced to diode curve

63 50 50 6.49 13.26 Resistive short of 3.8 Ω

Forward Bias Collector to Emitter

Sample 

Number

Pulse Properties

Result of Damage

Voltage

(V)

Pulse Width

(μs)

Energy

(μJ)

Current 

(A)

32 40 1 114 8.40 Reduced β

33 50 1 162 10.95 Reduced β

34 60 1 215 13.44 Resistive short*

31 80 1 213 8.70 Resistive short of 360 Ω

36 100 1 132 14.72 No damage

24 30 8 665 6.08 Resistive short of 4.8 Ω

25 40 8 928 10.28 Resistive short of 6.3 Ω

26 50 8 1,180 12.70 Resistive short of 8.9 Ω

27 60 8 1,470 14.80 Resistive short of 4.3 Ω

28 70 8 1,730 16.50 Resistive short of 4.4 Ω

30 80 8 181 16.70 Reduced β

29 100 8 133 18.20 Reduced β

* Value of resistive short not measured.
21

4.2.1 Reverse Bias Emitter to Base

The damage observed in the samples that were pulsed reverse bias emitter to base (positive 

on the base and negative on the emitter) always originated on the smallest radius bends of the 

emitter-base junction nearest the emitter pad. This is expected because the first area to turn on in 

a transistor is usually the fingers nearest the emitter or base pads.4 In addition, the junction geometry in these areas creates the highest electric fields found on an active transistor. Energy pulses as 

low as 174 μJ were capable of causing a resistive short through the base-emitter-collector junctions 

(see fig. 15) or causing a resistive short through the collector-base junction (see fig. 16).

Figure 15(a) is an image of transistor sample 5 using a bright field objective with × 20 

magnification. The sample received a 200-V, 250-ns pulse that had a resultant energy of 174 μJ. 

The yellow arrow points to the damaged area. Figure 15(b) shows the transistor β characteristic 

curve trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted, which indicates an emitterbase-collector resistive short of 191 Ω. Figure 16(a) is an image of transistor sample 4 using a 

bright field objective with × 20 magnification. The sample received a 100-V, 250-ns pulse that had 

a resultant energy of 96.5 μJ. The yellow arrow points to the damaged area. Figure 16(b) shows 

the collector-base curve trace obtained after the pulse was applied, which indicates a resistive short 

through the junction. Figure 16(c) shows that the curve trace of the base-emitter junction is nominal. Figure 16(d) shows the collector-emitter confirming the resistive short through the collectorbase junction. The typical collector-emitter breakdown voltage of this device type is specified as 

a minimum of 60 V. The curve trace shows a breakdown voltage of 0.75 V.

(a) (b)

Figure 15. An image of (a) transistor sample 5 using a bright field objective 

with × 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve 

trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted.
22

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 16. An image of (a) transistor sample 4 using a bright field objective with × 20 

magnification, (b) the collector-base curve trace obtained after the pulse was 

applied, (c) a curve trace showing that the base-emitter junction is nominal, 

and (d) the collector emitter curve trace obtained confirming the resistive short 

through the collector-base junction.

4.2.2 Reverse Bias Collector to Base

 

The transistors that were pulsed reverse bias collector to base (positive on the base and 

negative on the collector) again showed damage in the small radius bends of the emitter-base junction, which resulted in low-resistive shorts; however, in this case the prominent damage occurs in 

the base region of the extended emitter fingers. The resultant visible damage is dependent on the 

amount of time it takes for the junction to break down. The longer it takes for the junction to 

break down, the more damage that will be accrued. The amount of time it takes for any particular 

junction to break down depends on the part’s original breakdown voltage and the amount of pulse 

energy applied to it. The two transistors in figures 17 and 18 demonstrate this point. The transistor 

that was pulsed with the lower voltage had more extensive damage due to the increased breakdown 

time. This is caused when the pulse generator stops the supply of voltage after junction breakdown.

An image of transistor sample 23 using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification is 

shown in figure 17(a). The sample received an 80-V, 8-μs pulse that had a resultant energy of 2,990 

μJ. Figure 17(b)shows the transistor β characteristic curve trace that resulted from the emitter-base-
23

collector being shorted, which indicates a 3.3-Ω resistive short. An image of transistor sample 

21 using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification is shown in figure 18(a). The sample 

received a 90-V, 8-μs pulse that had a resultant energy of 637 μJ. Figure 18(b) shows the transistor β characteristic curve trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted, which 

indicates a 5.7-Ω resistive short. Damage areas are marked with yellow arrows.

(a) (b)

Figure 17. An image of (a) transistor sample 23 using a bright field objective 

with × 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve 

trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted.

(a) (b)

Figure 18. An image of (a) transistor sample 21 using a bright field objective 

with × 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic 

curve trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being 

shorted.

4.2.3 Reverse Bias Collector to Emitter

For the samples pulsed in this orientation (positive on the emitter and negative on the 

collector), the metallograph showed no visible damage even though the curve tracer indicated that 

there was a resistive short in all samples except sample 37 (see table 3), which was not damaged. 

This is because the damage is most likely located under the emitter lead and extends straight 
24

down to contact with the collector. To verify this, cross sectioning would have to be performed. Crosssectional analysis is beyond the scope of this study but will be a focus of future work. Figure 19(a) 

is an image of transistor sample 42 using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification, and figure 

19(b) shows the transistor β characteristic curve trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector 

being shorted, which indicates a 180.4-Ω resistive short.

(a) (b)

Figure 19. An image of (a) transistor sample 42 using a bright field objective 

with × 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve 

trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted.

4.2.4 Forward Bias Emitter to Base

The damage that occurs in samples that were pulsed forward bias emitter to base (positive on 

the emitter and negative on the base) begins at the critical bends of the emitter-base junction closest 

to the base pad. The relatively long pulse widths applied to these parts (20– 40 μs in length) allowed 

melting of aluminum traces (see fig. 20). This type of damage is not possible with short pulses because 

it requires sufficient time to reach the temperatures needed to melt the aluminum (see fig. 21).

(a) (b)

Figure 20. An image of (a) transistor sample 47 using a bright field objective with × 

20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve trace that 

resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted.
25

An image of transistor sample 47 using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification is 

shown in figure 20(a). The sample received a 50-V, 40-μs pulse that had a resultant energy of 4.87 mJ. 

The yellow arrows mark the damaged areas. Figure 20(b) shows the transistor β characteristic curve 

trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted, which indicates a 3-Ω resistive short. 

An image of transistor sample 54 using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification is shown in 

figure 21(a). The sample received a 50-V, 20-μs pulse that had a resultant energy of 2.59 mJ. The damaged area is marked with a yellow arrow. Figure 21(b) is a forward bias collector to base curve trace 

showing a 1,010-Ω resistive short with a diode breakdown at approximately 0.55 V.

(a) (b)

Figure 21. An image of (a) transistor sample 54 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) a forward bias collector to base curve trace 

showing a 1,010-Ω resistive short with a diode breakdown at approximately 

0.55 V.

4.2.5 Forward Bias Collector to Base

The visible damage in the samples pulsed forward bias collector to base (positive on the 

collector and negative on the base) occurred in the base-collector junction region nearest the base 

pad. Samples subjected to pulses having energies <3.2 mJ were not damaged. Samples receiving 

pulse energies between 3.2 and 4.8 mJ suffered slight to moderate visual damage, which resulted 

in collector-base resistive shorts (see figs. 22 and 23).
26

An image of transistor sample 65 using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification 

is shown in figure 22(a). The sample received a 50-V, 30-μs pulse that had a resultant energy 

of 3.34 mJ. The collector-base curve trace obtained after the pulse was applied indicates a 

resistive short through the junction (see fig. 22(b)). Figure 22(c) shows that the curve trace of 

the base-emitter junction is nominal. The collector-emitter curve trace shown in figure 22(d) 

confirms the resistive short through the collector–base junction. The typical collector-emitter 

breakdown voltage of this device type is specified as a minimum of 60 V. The curve trace shows 

a breakdown voltage of 0.6 V.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 22. An image of (a) transistor sample 65 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, (b) the collector-base curve trace obtained after the 

pulse was applied, (c) a curve trace showing that the base-emitter 

junction is nominal, and (d) a collector-emitter curve trace that confirms the resistive short through the collector-base junction.
27

An image of transistor sample 56 using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification is 

shown in figure 23(a). The sample received a 50-V, 40-μs pulse that had a resultant energy of 4.78 

mJ. Greater damage has occurred at the same location as in sample 65 (see fig. 22(a)). Figure 23(b) 

shows that the collector-base curve trace obtained after the pulse was applied and indicates a short 

through the junction. Figure 23(c) shows that the curve trace of the base-emitter junction is nominal. The collector-emitter curve trace shown in figure 23(d) confirms the resistive short through 

the collector-base junction. The typical collector-emitter breakdown voltage of this device type 

is specified as a minimum of 60 V. The curve trace shows a breakdown voltage of 0.6 V.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 23. An image of (a) transistor sample 56 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, (b) the collector-base curve trace obtained after the 

pulse was applied, (c) a curve trace showing that the base-emitter junction 

is nominal, and (d) a collector-emitter curve trace that confirms the short 

through the collector-base junction.
28

Samples receiving pulses having energies >5.70 mJ sustained extensive melting of the aluminum and large amounts of damage to the base region. The base bond wire was actually fused in 

a couple of these samples, which sustained currents between 13 and 15 A for 25–30 μs (see fig. 24). 

An image of transistor sample 63 using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification is shown 

in figure 24(a). The sample received a 50-V, 50-μs pulse that had a resultant energy of 6.49 mJ. 

Major damage to the bond pad area has occurred and the base bond wire is fused open. The damaged area is marked by the yellow arrow. Figure 24(b) shows the transistor β characteristic curve 

trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted.

(a) (b)

Figure 24. An image of (a) transistor sample 63 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve trace 

that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted.

4.2.6 Forward Bias Collector to Emitter

No visible damage was observed on samples pulsed forward bias collector to emitter (positive on the collector and negative on the emitter); however, the curve traces of some of the samples 

indicated there was extensive damage. Samples receiving pulses with energies <185 μJ were either 

not damaged or had reduced β (see fig. 25). An image of transistor sample 30 using a bright field 

objective with × 20 magnification is shown in figure 25(a). The sample received an 80-V, 8-μs pulse 

that had a resultant energy of 181 μJ. No physical damage was observed. Figure 25(b) is a characteristic set of curves that indicates the β was reduced from 185 to 144.
29

(a) (b)

Figure 25. An image of (a) transistor sample 30 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) a characteristic set of curves that indicates 

the gain was reduced from 185 to 144.

Samples receiving pulses with energies from 185 μJ to 1.75 mJ resulted in resistive shorts (see 

fig. 26). The damage is probably located under the emitter pad. The resultant damage was an emitter-base-collector resistive short. These samples, along with the damaged samples that were pulsed 

reverse bias collector-emitter, will be investigated in future work. An image of transistor sample 27 

using a bright field objective with × 20 magnification is shown in figure 26(a). The sample received 

a 60-V, 8-μs pulse that had a resultant energy of 1.47 mJ; however, no visible damage was observed. 

Figure 26(b)the transistor β characteristic curve trace that resulted from the emitter-base-collector 

being shorted, which indicates a resistive short of 4.3 Ω.

(a) (b)

Figure 26. An image of (a) transistor sample 27 using a bright field objective with 

× 20 magnification, and (b) the transistor β characteristic curve trace 

that resulted from the emitter-base-collector being shorted.
30
31

5. CONCLUSION

The pulse width, voltage, and resultant energy all contribute to the damage inflicted to 

each part in a unique manner. However, it is difficult to differentiate exactly which combination of 

these parameters came together to create a damage site without a visual reference. After extensively 

examining the pictorial results from this study, there are several general trends to be noted. In 

a series of op amps that received a similar amount of energy as the voltage increased, the intensity of the heat damage also increased. In addition, for op amps pulsed with the same voltage and 

increasing pulse width, the initial splatter observed was the same, but the extent of burn-through 

increased with time. There is a range of energy for the op amps where the damage would randomly 

vary between change in resistance to diffused resistors and change in breakdown voltages. The data 

shows this energy range to be ≈115 to 400 μJ. Pulses having energies >500 μJ resulted in electrical 

opens.

The location of the transistor damage was dependent on the configuration of the pulse 

generator leads (whether forward or reverse bias emitter to base, collector to base, or collector to 

emitter) when each transistor was pulsed. Transistors do not turn on all at once. The first area to 

turn on is usually the fingers nearest the emitter or base pads, causing this to be the site for the 

majority of the damage. Another contributing factor is that the junction geometry in these areas 

creates high-electric fields. The damage remains in this area until these ‘hot spots’ start melting the 

components around them due to extensive pulse widths. In this study, some of the transistors’ testing results were inconclusive due to the differences in the original breakdown voltages of each part. 

This can be avoided in the future by a more exhaustive prescreening of the transistors to be tested 

where the breakdown voltage variations are more tightly controlled.

This study is the beginning of a project to catalog a series of common EEE parts tested in 

this same manner. It is the intent of the catalog to provide the failure analyst with an intelligent 

starting point to begin this same analysis on devices similar to a failed NASA flight hardware 

component. This is done in hopes of recreating a damage site identical to the failed flight hardware 

component and providing invaluable information as to the source of the damage.
32
33

REFERENCES

1. Pierce, D.G; and Durgin, D.L.: “An Overview of Electrical Overstress Effects on 

Semiconductor Devices,” Proceeds of the 1981 EOS/ESD Symposium, pp. 120–131, 1981.

2. Dicken, H.K.: How to Analyze Failures of Semiconductors, 2nd ed., pp. 130–151, DM Data 

Inc., Scottsdale, AZ, 1993.

3. Wait, J.V.; Huelsman, L.P.; and Korn, G.A.: Introduction to Operational Amplifier Theory 

and Applications, McGraw-Hill, NY, p. 2, 1975. 

4. May, J.T.: “Limiting Phenomena in Power Transistors and the Interpretation of EOS 

Damage,” Microelectronic Failure Analysis: Desk Reference, T.W. Lee and S.V. Pabbisetty 

(eds.), ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 3rd edition, pp. 169–175, 1993.
34

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Systematic Destruction of Electronic Parts 

for Aid in Electronic Failure Analysis

S.E. Decker, T.D. Rolin, and P.D. McManus

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

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electrical overstress; failure analysis; electrical, electronic, electromechanical parts; curve tracer; pulse 

generator

01–06–2012

UU 48

NASA

U U U

NASA analyzes electrical, electronic, and electromechanical (EEE) parts used in space vehicles to understand failure modes 

of these components. Operational amplifiers and transistors are two examples of EEE parts critical to NASA missions 

that can fail due to electrical overstress (EOS). EOS is the result of voltage or current over time conditions that exceeds 

a component’s specification limit. The objective of this study was to provide known voltage pulses over well-defined time 

intervals to determine the type and extent of damage imparted to the device. The amount of current was not controlled but 

measured so that pulse energy was determined. The damage was ascertained electrically using curve trace plots and optically 

using various metallographic techniques. The resulting data can be used to build a database of physical evidence to compare 

to damaged components removed from flight avionics. The comparison will provide the avionics failure analyst necessary 

information about voltage and times that caused flight or test failures when no other electrical data is available.

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