www.cops.usdoj.gov

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police

Response Guides Series

No. 8

Improving Street Lighting 

to Reduce Crime in 

Residential Areas

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community Oriented Policing Services

Ronald V. Clarke

Ronald V. Clarke

This project was supported by Cooperative Agreement Number 

2006-CK-WX-K003 by the Office of Community Oriented 

Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions 

contained herein are those of the author and do not necessarily 

represent the official position of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

References to specific agencies, companies, products, or services 

should not be considered an endorsement by the author or the U.S. 

Department of Justice. Rather, the references are illustrations to 

supplement discussion of the issues.

The Internet references cited in this publication were valid as of 

December 2008. Given that URLs and web sites are in constant 

flux, neither the author nor the COPS Office can vouch for their 

current validity.

©2008 Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, Inc. The U.S. 

Department of Justice reserves a royalty-free, nonexclusive, and 

irrevocable license to reproduce, publish, or otherwise use, and 

authorize others to use, this publication for federal government 

purposes. This publication may be freely distributed and used for 

noncommercial and educational purposes.

www.cops.usdoj.gov

ISBN: 1-932582-91-6 

December 2008

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police

Response Guides Series

Guide No. 8

Improving Street Lighting 

to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

About the Response Guides Series i

About the Response Guide Series

The Response Guides are one of three in the series of ProblemOriented Guides for Police. The other two are the Problem-Specific 

Guides and Problem-Solving Tools. 

Problem-Oriented Guides for Police summarize knowledge about 

how police can reduce the harm caused by specific crime and 

disorder problems by preventing problems and improving overall 

incident response. They are not guides to investigating offenses or 

handling specific incidents. Neither do they cover the technical 

details about how to implement specific responses. The guides are 

written for police—of whatever rank or assignment—who must 

address the specific problems the guides cover. The guides will be 

most useful to officers who are capable of the following:

•	 They understand basic problem-oriented policing principles and 

methods.

•	 They can look at problems in-depth.

•	 They are willing to consider new ways of doing police business.

•	 They understand the value and the limits of research knowledge.

•	 They are willing to work with other community agencies to find 

effective solutions to problems.

Publications in the Response Guide Series summarize knowledge 

about whether police should use certain responses to address 

various crime and disorder problems, and about what effects they 

might expect. Each guide offers the following:

•	 Describes the response 

•	 Discusses the various ways police might apply the response 

•	 Explains how the response is designed to reduce crime and 

disorder 

•	 Examines the research knowledge about the response 

•	 Addresses potential criticisms and negative consequences that 

might flow from use of the response 

•	 Describes how police have applied the response to specific crime 

and disorder problems, and with what effect.
ii Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

The Response Guides are used differently than the Problem-Specific 

Guides. Ideally, police should begin all strategic decision-making 

by first analyzing the specific crime and disorder problems they 

are confronting, then using the analysis results to devise particular 

responses. Certain responses are so commonly considered and have 

such potential to help address a range of specific crime and disorder 

problems that it makes sense for police to learn more about what 

results they might expect from them. 

Readers are cautioned that the Response Guides are designed to 

supplement problem analysis, not to replace it. Police should analyze 

all crime and disorder problems in their local context before 

implementing responses. Even if research knowledge suggests that 

a particular response has proved effective elsewhere, that does not 

mean the response will be effective everywhere. Local factors matter 

in choosing which responses to use.

Research and practice have further demonstrated that, in most 

cases, the most effective overall approach to a problem is one that 

incorporates several different responses. A single response guide 

is unlikely to provide sufficient information on which to base a 

coherent plan for addressing crime and disorder problems. Some 

combinations of responses work better than others. How effective a 

particular response is depends partly on what other responses police 

use to address the problem. 

The Response Guides emphasize effectiveness and fairness as the 

main considerations police should take into account when choosing 

responses, but recognize that they are not the only considerations. 

Police use particular responses for reasons other than, or in addition 

to, whether they will work or will not work, and whether they 

are deemed fair or not fair. Community attitudes and values, 

and the personalities of key decision-makers, sometimes mandate 

different approaches to addressing crime and disorder problems. 

Some communities and individuals prefer enforcement-oriented 

responses, whereas others prefer collaborative, community-oriented, 

or harm-reduction approaches. These guides will not necessarily 

alter those preferences, but are intended to better inform them.
About the Response Guides Series iii

The COPS Office defines community policing as “a philosophy that 

promotes organizational strategies, which support the systematic 

use of partnerships and problem-solving techniques, to proactively 

address the immediate conditions that give rise to public safety 

issues such as crime, social disorder, and fear of crime.” These guides 

emphasize problem-solving and police-community partnerships in 

the context of addressing specific public safety problems. For the 

most part, the organizational strategies that can facilitate problemsolving and police-community partnerships vary considerably and 

discussion of them is beyond the scope of these guides.

The guides in the Response Guides Series have drawn on research 

findings and police practices in the United States, the United 

Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and 

Scandinavia. Even though laws, customs and police practices vary 

from country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere 

experience common problems. In a world that is becoming 

increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be aware of 

research and successful practices beyond the borders of their own 

countries.

Each guide is informed by a thorough review of the research 

literature and reported police practice, and each guide is peerreviewed anonymously by a line police officer, a police executive, 

and a researcher before publication. The review process is managed 

independently by the COPS Office, which solicits the reviews. 

The COPS Office and the authors encourage you to provide feedback 

on this guide and to report on your own agency’s experiences dealing 

with a similar problem. Your agency may have addressed a problem 

effectively using responses not considered in these guides and your 

experiences and knowledge could benefit others. This information 

will be used to update the guides. If you wish to provide feedback 

and share your experiences, e-mail the information to askCOPSRC@

usdoj.gov.
iv Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

For more information about problem-oriented policing, visit the 

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing online at www.popcenter.org. 

The web site offers free online access to the following:

•	 The Response Guides Series

•	 The companion Problem-Specific Guides and Problem-Solving 

Tools Series 

•	 Special publications on crime analysis and on policing terrorism

•	 Instructional information about problem-oriented policing and 

related topics 

•	 An interactive problem-oriented policing training exercise

•	 An interactive Problem Analysis Module

•	 Online access to important police research and practices

•	 Information about problem-oriented policing conferences and 

award programs. 
Acknowledgments

The Response Guides for Police are produced by the Center for 

Problem-Oriented Policing, whose officers are Michael S. Scott 

(Director), Ronald V. Clarke (Associate Director), and Graeme 

R. Newman (Associate Director). While each guide has a primary 

author, other project team members, COPS Office staff, and 

anonymous peer reviewers contributed to each guide by proposing 

text, recommending research, and offering suggestions on matters 

of format and style. 

The project team that developed the guide series comprised 

Herman Goldstein (University of Wisconsin Law School), 

Ronald V. Clarke (Rutgers University), John E. Eck (University 

of Cincinnati), Michael S. Scott (University of Wisconsin Law 

School), Rana Sampson (Police Consultant), and Deborah Lamm 

Weisel (North Carolina State University). 

Members of the San Diego; National City, California; and 

Savannah, Georgia police departments provided feedback on the 

guides' format and style in the early stages of the project.

Debra Cohen, Ph.D. and Cynthia Pappas oversaw the project for 

the COPS Office and research for the guides was conducted at the 

Criminal Justice Library at Rutgers University by Phyllis Schultze. 

Stephen Lynch edited this guide.

The author also wishes to thank Patrick Baldrey for help with 

technical lighting terms. 

Acknowledgments v

Contents

About the Response Guides Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Scope of the Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

How Might Improved Lighting Affect Crime? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Will Improved Lighting Displace Crime to Nearby Areas? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

What Do Scientific Evaluations Show? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

What Use Have Police Made of Improved Street Lighting? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Projects Focused on Crime and Disorder in Deprived, 

 Rundown Neighborhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Projects Whose Main Objective Was to Improve Street Lighting . . . . . . 18

Summing Up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

What Are the Practicalities of Improving Lighting? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

How Much Will It Cost and Who Will Pay? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Selecting Appropriate Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Dealing with Objections Raised by Residents and Others . . . . . . . . 28

Your Checklist of Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Analyzing the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Formulating a Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Getting Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Implementing the Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Assessing Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Contents vii

Introduction 1

Introduction

Improved street lighting is widely thought to be an effective means 

of preventing crime, second in importance only to increased police 

presence. Indeed, residents in crime-ridden neighborhoods often 

demand that the lighting be improved, and recent research generally 

bears out their expectation that improved lighting does reduce 

crime. 

This guide is written to help community policing officers decide 

whether improved lighting is an appropriate response to a crime 

or disorder problem that might be confronting a particular 

neighborhood or community. It assumes that a detailed problem 

analysis has been conducted and that police, community and 

business leaders, and other stakeholders are exploring ameliorative 

responses, particularly improved street lighting. It explains why 

better street lighting can help reduce fear, crime, and disorder, and 

summarizes the literature on the effectiveness of better lighting. It 

discusses the considerations that should be weighed in pursuing 

this approach, suggests questions that should be asked, and lists 

the steps that should be followed in improving lighting. Finally, it 

suggests measures that can be used to assess the effectiveness of the 

lighting solutions that have been implemented. 

Improved street lighting is much less controversial than some 

other responses to street crime discussed in this series of problemoriented policing guides, including street closures§ and video 

surveillance.§§ Even so, it does have some potential costs (apart from 

monetary costs) and, as will be discussed elsewhere in the guide, its 

relationship to crime is not as straightforward as is usually assumed. 

§Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, 

Response Guides Series No. 2, Closing 

Streets and Alleys to Reduce Crime

§§Problem-Oriented Guides for 

Police, Response Guides Series No. 4, 

Video Surveillance of Public Places
2 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

Scope of the guide

This guide deals with lighting improvements intended to reduce 

crime in public streets and alleys in residential neighborhoods. It 

does not discuss the following: 

1. The lighting of new residential neighborhoods, subdivisions, or 

gated communities. 

2. Improved lighting of parking lots, shopping malls, campuses, 

hospitals, or other public and private facilities.

3. Security lighting for private residences. 

4. Lighting and road safety. 

As explained below, problem-oriented policing projects to reduce 

crime in residential neighborhoods have usually made other 

environmental changes in conjunction with improvements in street 

lighting. In some of these projects extensive use has been made of 

the principles of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design 

(CPTED). These principles have been explained in another guide 

in this series§ and will not be repeated here. This guide focuses 

solely on street lighting improvements, whether or not made in the 

context of broader environmental changes. 

Although led by police, all successful problem-oriented policing 

projects in crime-ridden neighborhoods depend upon a partnership 

among police, local residents, community leaders, elected officials, 

and municipal officers. Police leading the project must invest a 

considerable amount of time in making these partnerships work. 

This guide does not attempt to discuss the nuances of managing 

these partnerships, but it does discuss ways of dealing with 

concerns that might be expressed about proposed street lighting 

improvements. 

§Problem-Oriented Guides 

for Police, Tools Guides Series 

No. 8 Using Crime Prevention 

Through Environmental 

Design in Problem Solving.
Introduction 3

Because of the lack of relevant research, this guide says little about 

the effects of improved lighting on fear. Although there is little 

doubt that improved lighting reduces fear, in most cases this is 

merely an added benefit from the reduction in crime. Reducing 

unwarranted fear is a legitimate objective of lighting improvements 

in settings such as college campuses or municipal parking lots. 

However, it would be difficult to persuade public officials to spend 

taxpayer money to improve lighting without the expectation 

that both the fear and incidence of crime would be reduced. In 

fact, according to research quoted in the New York State Energy 

Research and Development Authority How-to Guide to Effective 

Energy-Efficient Street Lighting for Municipal Elected/Appointed 

Officials,1 simply increasing light levels beyond a certain point will 

neither make an area seem safer nor increase perceptions of safety. 

That is, glare and high light levels that make it harder for people to 

see can increase fear, whereas uniform lighting that eliminates both 

glare and dark shadows can lead to increased feelings of security.

Again, because of the lack of relevant research, this guide says little 

about the cost benefits of improved lighting. It is relatively easy to 

estimate the costs of relighting projects, but calculating the benefits 

is much more difficult. This involves estimating the numbers of 

different types of crime prevented by the improved lighting and 

putting a cost to these crimes—not just cost to the victim but also 

to the police, the municipality, and the criminal justice system. 

It also involves calculating the benefits of reduced fear, increased 

freedom of movement, and related factors. Unsurprisingly, no 

existing research has undertaken these calculations. 
4 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

Finally, this guide provides only a brief introduction to the 

practicalities of selecting and installing improved lighting. Street 

lighting improvements entail many considerations, both in the level 

and quality of lighting desired and how these are to be achieved. 

You can expect the local utility company or municipal officials 

to make many of these decisions, but if you have a basic logistical 

understanding of the issues you will be able to provide useful input 

regarding the needs of your particular neighborhood. And although 

experts will commission and supervise the work, you can help by 

acting as a liaison between the municipality, the local community, 

and contractors. You might also find it necessary to “progress-chase” 

the work to ensure that installation does not lag.
How Might Improved Lighting Affect Crime? 5

How Might Improved Lighting 

Affect Crime?

In most people’s minds, there is a simple and direct relationship 

between lighting and crime: better lighting will deter offenders 

who benefit from the cover of darkness. Improved lighting means 

that offenders are more likely to be seen by someone who might 

intervene, call the police, or recognize the offender. Even if this 

does not happen, some offenders who fear that it might would be 

deterred from crime. 

Things are rarely as simple as they first appear. Professor Ken 

Pease,2 a crime-prevention expert, has explained how improved 

lighting can have a variety of different effects on crime. In 

particular, not only can it sometimes increase crime, but it can 

also affect not just nighttime crime, but daylight crime as well. 

Familiarize yourself with all the possible effects he discusses, which 

are summarized in Box 1 and Box 2. 
6 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

Box 1: How Improved Lighting Could 

REDUCE Crime (adapted from Pease 1999).

In Darkness

1. Improved lighting deters potential offenders by increasing the risk that 

they will be seen or recognized when committing crimes.

2. Police become more visible, thus leading to a decision to desist from 

crime.

3. If improved lighting leads to the arrest and imprisonment of repeat 

offenders they can no longer commit crimes in the area. 

4. New lighting can encourage residents to spend more time on their 

stoops or in their front yards in the evenings and thus increase 

informal surveillance. 

5. Improved lighting can encourage more people to walk at night, which 

would increase informal surveillance. 

In Daylight

1. New lighting shows that city government and the police are 

determined to control crime. As a result, potential offenders might 

no longer see the neighborhood as affording easy pickings. In 

addition, citizens might be motivated to pass on information about 

offenders. 

2. Better lighting can increase community pride and cohesiveness, leading 

to a greater willingness to intervene in crime and to report it. 

3. If offenders commit crime in both light and darkness, nighttime 

arrests and subsequent imprisonment would reduce both daytime and 

nighttime crime. 
How Might Improved Lighting Affect Crime? 7

Two theories underlie Professor Pease’s ideas about the crimeprevention effects of improved street lighting.§

1. Street lighting is a situational crime-prevention measure that 

focuses on reducing opportunity and increasing risk through 

modification of the physical environment.

2. Street lighting strengthens informal social control and 

community cohesion through the promotion of social 

interaction and investment in neighborhood infrastructure. 

Box 2: How Improved Lighting Could 

INCREASE Crime (adapted from Pease 1999).

In Darkness

1. Increased social activity outside the home in the evenings can 

increase the number of unoccupied homes available for burglary. 

2. Increased visibility of potential victims allows better assessment of 

their vulnerability and the value of what they carry. Offenders might 

more easily be able to see if parked cars contain valuable items. 

3. Increased visibility allows better judgment of the proximity of 

“capable guardians” who might intervene in crime. 

4. Better lighting might facilitate activities like drug dealing and 

prostitution.

5. Better lit streets might attract disorderly youths from nearby areas. 

6. Improved lighting of rarely used footpaths might facilitate 

undesirable behavior.

In Daylight

1. Disorderly activities focused upon a newly illuminated area can spill 

over into the use of that place as a daylight meeting point.

§Described by Welsh and 

Farrington (2007) in a 

systematic review of the crimeprevention effects of improved 

lighting undertaken for the 

Swedish National Council for 

Crime Prevention. 
8 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

Some of the effects identified by Pease are more plausible than 

others, but his lists can help you in two main ways: (1) they alert 

you to the fact that improved lighting might not always lead just to 

reductions in nighttime crime, but can sometimes have other results 

as well and (2) they alert you to possible arguments that might be 

used by the supporters and opponents of improved lighting.

Will Improved Lighting Displace Crime 

to Nearby Areas? 

Pease’s hypotheses concern the different ways in which improved 

street lighting might affect the neighborhood where it is installed. 

But what about nearby neighborhoods? Might not criminals 

simply commit their crimes where the lighting is still poor? This 

phenomenon, known as spatial or geographical displacement, might 

seem an obvious result of improved lighting, but again, matters are 

not so simple, as is shown by the following.

1. Research studies show that displacement occurs much less 

often than most people, police included, assume. For example, 

a review of 55 studies of displacement undertaken for the 

Dutch Ministry of Justice found that displacement occurred in 

only 22 instances. When it did occur, it was never complete, 

so that there was always a net benefit of the crime-prevention 

measure.3

2. A recent U.S. study concluded that street offenders are much 

more likely to adapt their methods to the new conditions or 

to displace their activities to a different time of the day, rather 

than to offend elsewhere.4
How Might Improved Lighting Affect Crime? 9

3. Rather than displacement, many recent studies have found 

that there is diffusion of benefits to nearby areas. This means 

that the crime-prevention measures have a beneficial influence 

beyond the places that they target, perhaps because offenders 

are not exactly sure where the crime-prevention measures 

have been introduced. Obviously, this is much more likely if 

offenders are not local residents. 

For police officers, the main implication of this research is that 

although improved street lighting might displace crime into 

nearby neighborhoods, it is just as likely to reduce crime in these 

neighborhoods because of a diffusion of benefits. 

What Do Scientific Evaluations Show? 11

What Do Scientific Evaluations Show?

The discussion above shows just how complicated it can be to 

evaluate the effects of improved street lighting. The evaluation 

must consider the effects of improved lighting on crimes in daylight 

hours as well as in darkness. It must look for both increases and 

reductions in crime; and not just for the relit area, but also for a 

comparable control area where the lighting has not been improved. 

It must examine the effect of better lighting on different kinds of 

crime, because its effect is not consistent for all types of crime. And 

it must examine not just the displacement of crime to nearby areas 

but also the possible diffusion of benefits. Finally, the evaluation 

should consider other possible benefits of improved lighting, such 

as reduced fear. 

If this were not enough, the most recent review of lighting studies5 

has also noted the following: 

The effects of improved street lighting are likely to vary 

in different conditions. In particular, they are likely 

to be greater if the existing lighting is poor and if the 

improvement in lighting is considerable. They may vary 

according to characteristics of the area or the residents, 

the design of the area, the design of the lighting, and the 

places that are illuminated. For example, improved lighting 

may increase community confidence only in relatively 

stable homogeneous communities, not in areas with a 

heterogeneous population mix and high residential mobility. 

The effects of improved lighting may also interact with 

other environmental improvements, such as closed circuit 

television (CCTV) cameras or security patrols. 
12 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

This means that studies should clearly describe the nature and 

intensity of the improvements in lighting, the general neighborhood 

conditions, and any other contemporaneous crime-prevention 

measures. Indeed, a consistent finding of problem-oriented policing 

projects is that a smart mix of responses, tailored to the situation, 

produces the best results. 

Few if any published studies meet all these evaluation requirements; 

indeed, it would be very difficult to do so. The principal question 

examined in most published evaluations is whether street lighting 

reduces crime at night. This was the focus of eight studies 

undertaken in the United States, seven of them during the 1970s 

(see Table 1). 

Study City Intervention 

Area 

Increase in

Lighting

Other

Intervention

Outcome

Measure

Follow-up

(months)

Effect

 Atlanta 

Regional 

Com. (1974) 

Atlanta, Georgia City center 4 times None Crime (robbery, 

assault, and burglary) 

12 Desirable effect; 

no displacement 

DIFL* (1974) Milwaukee, 

Wisconsin

Residential and 

commercial 

area 

7 times None Crime (property and 

person categories) 

12 Desirable effect; 

some displacement 

Inskeep and 

Goff (1974) 

Portland, 

Oregon

Residential 

neighborhood 

(high crime) 

2 times None Crime (robbery, 

assault, and burglary) 

6 or 11 Null effect; no 

displacement or 

diffusion 

Wright et al. 

(1974)

Kansas City, 

Missouri 

Residential and 

commercial 

areas 

No 

information

None Crime (violent and 

property offenses) 

12 Desirable effect (for

violence); 

some displacement 

Harrisburg 

P.D. (1976) 

Harrisburg, 

Pennsylvania

Residential 

neighborhood 

No 

information

None Crime (violent and 

property offenses) 

12 Null effect; no 

displacement 

Sternhell 

(1977) 

New Orleans, 

Louisiana

Residential and 

commercial 

areas 

No 

information

None Crime (burglary, 

vehicle theft, and 

assault) 

29 Null effect; no 

displacement 

Lewis and 

Sullivan 

(1979) 

Fort Worth, 

Texas

Residential 

neighborhood

3 times None Crime (total) 12 Desirable 

effect; possible 

displacement

Ouinet and 

Nunn (1998) 

Indianapolis, 

Indiana

Residential 

neighborhood 

No 

information

Police 

initiatives 

Calls for service 

(violent and property 

crime) 

7 to 10 Null effect; no 

displacement 

Table 1: Eight Street Lighting Evaluations in the United States.§

§Table adapted from Welsh 

and Farrington (2007).

* Department. of Intergovernmental Fiscal Liaison
What Do Scientific Evaluations Show? 13

Study City Place Increase in 

lighting

Other 

Intervention 

Outcome 

Measure 

Follow-up 

(months) 

Effect 

Shaftoe 

(1994) 

Bristol Residential 

neighborhood 

2 times None Crime (total) 12 Desirable effect; 

diffusion and 

displacement 

not measured 

Painter and 

Farrington 

(1997) 

Dudley Local authority 

housing estate

2 times None Crime (total and 

types of offenses) 

12 Desirable effect; 

no displacement 

Painter and 

Farrington 

(1999) 

Stoke-onTrentLocal authority 

housing estate

5 times None Crime (total and 

types of offenses) 

12 Desirable effect; 

diffusion, no 

displacement 

Although four of these studies found desirable effects from 

improved lighting, the others did not; a review published by 

the U.S. Department of Justice of the seven studies undertaken 

in the 1970s concluded that improved lighting was not an 

effective means of preventing crime.§ However, three more 

recent studies published in the United Kingdom (see Table 2) 

found significant reductions in crime both in daylight and at 

nighttime, with no apparent displacement and in one case, some 

diffusion of benefits. 

Table 2: Street Lighting Evaluations in the United Kingdom.§§ 

§The report is titled Street Lighting 

Projects: National Evaluation Program. 

Phase 1 Report (Tien et al. 1979). 

§§Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department 

of Justice, National Institute of 

Justice. Table adapted from Welsh and 

Farrington (2007).
14 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

A recent authoritative review, which used a well-established 

methodology to combine the results of all the studies from the 

United States and the United Kingdom, concluded that improved 

street lighting led to a “21 percent decrease in crime compared with 

comparable control areas.”§ Reductions in crime of this amount are 

worthwhile but, of course, there is no guarantee that better lighting 

will reduce crime in your neighborhood. 

The review could not determine whether these improvements were 

the result of situational deterrence or improved community pride 

and cohesion. The review concluded that improved street lighting 

had a larger effect on property crimes than on violent crimes, 

but offered no explanation for this result. More detailed research 

showing the effect on specific types of property crime and violent 

offenses is needed. 

§Welsh and Farrington (2007, 

page 8). This percentage 

improvement might overstate the 

effect of improved street lighting 

because their meta-analysis 

included two studies undertaken 

in the United Kingdom (not 

reported in Table 2) that 

examined the effect of improved 

lighting in a parking lot and a 

center city market. 
What Use Have Police Made of Improved Street Lighting? 15

What Use Have Police Made of Improved 

Street Lighting?

The best source of information on the use of improved street 

lighting by law enforcement is the collection of project reports 

submitted for the Goldstein and the Tilley Awards.§ Although 

few of these projects focused specifically on improved street 

lighting, many projects that have attacked disorder in deprived or 

rundown neighborhoods have included improved street lighting in 

a broad package of crime-prevention measures. The packages often 

included both environmental improvements such as neighborhood 

cleanups (vandalism repair, graffiti removal, tree trimming), and 

efforts to improve community cohesion and function. The lighting 

improvements generally involved the upgrade or repair of existing 

lighting in particular street segments or crime hot spots. 

Projects Focused on Crime and Disorder in 

Deprived, Rundown Neighborhoods 

Two good examples of these types of projects are the Hopwood 

Triangle, a finalist for the Goldstein Award in 2004,6 and the New 

Helvetia and River Oaks Project, a 1996 Goldstein Award winner.7

The Hopwood Triangle is a development of 91 dwellings owned by 

the City of Preston, in Lancashire, United Kingdom. Located close 

to the city center and two main arterial routes, the development had 

seen no recent investment and had slipped into a spiral of decline, 

with an increase in damaged properties, burglary, prostitution, and 

antisocial behavior. It was proving impossible to rent the vacated 

dwellings. Remaining tenants were increasingly apathetic about 

criminal and antisocial behavior. 

§See www.popcenter.org for these 

submissions.
16 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

The Goldstein Award submission describes a multiagency project 

led by the police that was designed to deliver sustainable changes 

and improvements. In partnership with Preston City Council 

Central Housing Department, the Parks Department, the Millbank 

Court, and the local community, a range of responses were 

developed over a 2-year period, including the following:

•	 A Crime Prevention through Environmental Design survey 

that led to a plan for physical improvements throughout the 

development that included improved lighting

•	 Identification and eviction of problem tenants 

•	 Targeted enforcement of offenders 

•	 Formation of a Residents’ Association and 

a Neighborhood Forum 

•	 Establishment of a “local lettings policy” 

•	 Formation of Neighborhood Watch 

•	 Operation Curb/Safer Sex Works, targeting prostitution. 

The project produced an overall decline in crime of 52 percent; in 

property damage and vandalism of 73 percent; in burglary of 28 

percent; and in vehicle theft and vandalism of 80 percent. Calls 

to police declined by 38 percent, with a resultant cost saving to 

police of £82 ($150) per dwelling. In addition, many physical 

improvements were made to the development. 

The New Helvetia and River Oaks Project, undertaken in 

Sacramento, California, sought to rehabilitate a downtown 

neighborhood consisting of two adjacent public housing projects 

decimated by gang and narcotics problems. The population was 

estimated to be 40 percent juveniles, with most heads of households 

being single women. In 1991, there were more than 1,900 calls 

for service—about 2.5 calls per household—and more than 470 

reported crimes, of which 57 were assaults. Sting operations, 

together with intensive police presence every night, produced more 

than 140 drug arrests in a 6-month period, but failed to have any 
What Use Have Police Made of Improved Street Lighting? 17

significant effect on the problem. In 1992, calls for service increased 

again, peaking at more than 2,350 for the project area. Despite these 

numbers, it was clear that many crimes related to drugs were never 

reported. 

Two Neighborhood Police Officers were assigned to the project 

and given an office in the housing complex. They undertook an 

extraordinarily intensive and prolonged effort to bring about a 

reduction in the crime problem. They emphasized community 

involvement, heavy enforcement, reaching at-risk children, and 

forming the many partnerships necessary to gain access to both 

short-term and long-term resources. Two of the more significant 

accomplishments were the formation of the V Team, a program 

designed to strengthen the minds and bodies of community youth, 

and the elimination of the open-air narcotics market. During the 

first 40 days of the project, 70 arrests were made for major narcotics 

violations; by 1994 police had made more than 500 arrests. Officers 

seized several cars, thousands of dollars, electronic equipment, and 

jewelry as proceeds of drug transactions. 

The improved lighting component included removing heavy growth 

from existing lighting and poles, repairing all broken lights, and 

installing additional sodium lights and light poles. A resident was 

then employed to report burned out lights because the housing 

authority employees were usually gone before dark. 

By the end of 1995, robberies were down 73 percent, felony assaults 

were down 74 percent, and narcotic calls were down 94 percent. 

During the 4 years, all calls for service were down 64 percent—a 

reduction translating into 1,499 fewer calls for service in 1995 than 

in 1992. Also reduced were fire department calls (down 36 percent) 

and suspensions from the elementary school adjacent to the area 

(down 85 percent). By April 1994, a Sacramento Magazine survey of 

1,000 members of the Sacramento Association of Realtors resulted 

in the area being voted “Most Improved Neighborhood.” A 1995 

survey of residents found improved resident satisfaction, with 80 

percent no longer wishing to move from the area. 
18 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

Projects Whose Main Objective Was to 

Improve Street Lighting

Isolated examples exist of problem-oriented policing projects 

more centrally focused on improved street lighting. One project of 

this kind, called Crime Watch Light Partners, was submitted for 

the Goldstein Award in 2001 by the Henrico County, Virginia, 

Division of Police. Involving only one street in Lakeside, populated 

by 142 homes, it was undertaken in response to resident requests 

for improved street lighting to deal with larcenies involving 

automobiles. The project was led by a community officer who spent 

much of his time (141 hours) working out the details of paying for 

the street lighting. Streetlights in Henrico County are not installed 

by the county authorities, but by the local power company, which 

at the time charged homeowners $96 or $144 a year per light 

installed (depending on lumens). Because this charge was too high 

for most residents, the community officer devised a plan whereby 

four neighbors would share the cost of one new light. He succeeded 

in getting 112 residents to sign up for 30 new streetlights, which 

were installed at a substantial saving. Before and after measurements 

taken with a light meter showed that street illumination was 

substantially improved, but no data were presented concerning the 

impact of the improved lighting on crime. 

A second project, Gray Street Lights, was submitted for the 

Tilley Award in the United Kingdom in 2005. This project 

was undertaken in Workington, West Cumbria, and again was 

mounted to deal with nighttime thefts from parked cars. Analysis 

showed that Gray Street was the primary hot spot for thefts from 

cars in West Cumbria. The street is approximately 300 yards in 

length, with 90 small row houses on either side of the road and 

several small businesses at one end. During 2002, 27 thefts from 

vehicles parked in the street were reported with an estimated 

total loss of £5,000 (a little under $9,000). Most of these thefts 

occurred on weekend nights. Analysis of the problem identified 

poor street lighting as an important contributory cause of the 
What Use Have Police Made of Improved Street Lighting? 19

thefts. Other presumed causes were the lack of private garages and 

off-street parking and the fact that the street was a busy pedestrian 

route after pub closing time. 

The police established that a significant upgrading of the lights in 

the street would cost £14,000 (about $24,500) and coordinated 

a successful bid for government funds to pay for the lights. These 

were installed in December 2003; in 2004, only six thefts from 

cars were reported in the street, at an estimated cost of £833 

(about $1,500). Clearly, this was a significant improvement from 

the situation in 2002, before the lights were upgraded. A survey 

established that residents believed the new lights had reduced crime 

and that they felt safer in the street.

Summing Up

Improved street lighting has rarely been the main objective of a 

problem-oriented policing project, but where it has, it seems to 

have been effective. In fact, most improvements in lighting have 

been made in the course of projects that aimed to rehabilitate 

deprived and rundown neighborhoods with serious crime and 

disorder problems. Because the lighting improvements were usually 

a relatively minor part of the project, it is impossible to know 

what part, if any, they played in the claimed reductions in crime or 

improvements in community satisfaction—which were often quite 

spectacular. 

What Are the Practicalities of Improving Lighting? 21

What Are the Practicalities 

of Improving Lighting?

You will face a number of difficulties in trying to improve street 

lighting; the more ambitious your project, the greater these 

difficulties will be. Trimming bushes so that lights are more 

efficient and replacing damaged or dysfunctional lamps will 

usually be straightforward, but upgrading the lighting for an entire 

neighborhood will entail much more difficulty. You will have to 

grapple with cost issues, technical issues relating to different kinds 

of lighting, municipal regulatory and zoning projects, and various 

objections raised by residents. 

How Much Will It Cost and Who Will Pay?

Cost issues will depend upon who has the responsibility for 

installing, maintaining, and paying for lighting in the area. Many 

or most municipalities are responsible for street lighting, which is 

expected to meet citywide standards in different neighborhoods 

or districts. In these cases, you will be relieved of the need to 

understand most of the complex technical, financial, and logistical 

issues of upgrading the lighting. The same is likely to be true if your 

area is a public housing project, because physical conditions for U.S. 

Housing and Urban Development properties must comply with 

state and local codes. 

Whatever the regulations governing street lighting, you will still 

need to work closely with city officials and engineers to persuade 

them of the need to upgrade the lighting in your neighborhood, 

or at least to accord priority to the neighborhood. You will need 

to advise the engineers of the particular places that need special 

lighting or lighting of a particular kind, although you will need to 

recognize that—even with the best will in the world—engineers will 

be limited by lighting standards and budgets§ in what they can do: 

they have a delicate balancing act to perform in providing adequate 

lighting at minimum financial and social cost. Financial decisions 

must weigh the costs of installation, maintenance, and electricity. 

§A variety of state and federal 

programs exist that provide funds 

for qualifying street lighting projects 

within cities and municipalities, 

especially for projects that improve 

energy efficiency (see NYSERDA, 

2002). Your help in identifying these 

sources might be needed. 
22 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

The long-term costs of electricity are especially important at a time 

when some smaller towns are reportedly dimming sections of their 

streetlights in the face of rising costs and the pressure to be energy 

efficient.8 Social costs include the unwelcome effects of glare, light 

trespass, and light pollution, which vary with different kinds of 

lighting (see below). 

You will also have to play a part in keeping the project on track. 

You should monitor progress closely during the approval and 

implementation stages, remembering that you can play an important 

role as liaison between the municipality and the utility company 

to ensure that unnecessary delays are avoided. However hard you 

work, you should be prepared for many months to elapse before the 

project is complete. 

The problems might be different, but equally difficult, if your area 

is located in a suburban or predominantly rural area. In these areas, 

utility companies sometimes own and maintain the street lighting 

and under certain budgetary conditions might pay the initial cost 

of renewal or improvement of the street lighting. In some cases, 

they might be able to recover the cost from the municipality, but in 

others they might have to charge residents. This was the case in the 

Crime Light Partners project described earlier. As in that project, 

the main difficulty lies in obtaining the agreement of residents to 

pay for the improved lighting—a difficulty that can be particularly 

acute in deprived and rundown neighborhoods where lighting has 

never been adequate or where it has severely deteriorated. 
What Are the Practicalities of Improving Lighting? 23

Selecting Appropriate Lighting 

As a police officer, you cannot be expected to know what 

specific type of lighting improvements are needed, nor can you 

be expected to know all the various standards and requirements 

of street lighting. But you will be able to communicate better 

with utility companies and the local engineering department if 

you have some basic understanding of lighting types and their 

properties. These are described here. 

1. Lamp types or bulbs: There are six main kinds of lamps 

(see Table 3), which vary in their initial costs, how long they 

last, how energy efficient they are, and how well they render 

color (i.e., the effect of the light produced by the lamp on the 

perceived color of objects being viewed).§ Your local utility 

companies might not supply all these types of bulbs. 

§For fuller information on lamp types, 

see NYSERDA (2002b). 

Lamp type Properties

Incandescent (bulbs) Very energy inefficient, short life 

Mercury Vapor (MV) Energy inefficient, longer life

High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) Energy efficient but virtually no color rendering (orange glow)

Low-Pressure Sodium (LPS) Very energy efficient, but only limited color rendering

Metal Halide Energy efficient and good color rendering, especially pulse start or 

ceramic metal types

Fluorescent Energy efficient and good color quality, but poor optical control

Table 3: Common Street Lighting Lamp Types.

Source: Adapted from NYSERDA (2002a)
24 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

2. Color rendering: Color rendering refers to the effect of light 

on the perceived color of objects. Good color rendering means 

that most colors are easily distinguishable and is particularly 

important when color video cameras are in use. Color 

rendering should be distinguished from color appearance, 

which refers to the color of the lamp itself.

3. Optical control or lighting cut-offs: Optical control refers to 

the light distribution of different lighting fixtures, of which 

there are four main types.

•	 Noncutoff optics, typically globes, allow light to be emitted 

in all directions. Many decorative fixtures are of this type. 

They are effective at throwing light up into trees, not onto 

the ground, and they create a large amount of light pollution 

and glare. 

•	 Semicutoff optics are commonly used in cobra-head style 

street lighting. They allow most of the light to shine on 

the ground, but some light is thrown upwards. There is 

significant glare from these fixtures, but they are often 

mounted on taller poles to reduce the ill effects of glare.

•	 Cutoff optics are typically rectangular in shape and produce 

more controlled lighting than semicutoff: less than 2.5 

percent of the light is allowed to escape upwards. They offer 

a wider spread of light than a fullcutoff and are commonly 

used in parking lots where greater spacing between poles is 

desirable. 

•	 Full cutoff optics put light on the ground in a defined, tight 

pattern; they do not emit any light upwards. To achieve 

uniformity of lighting, more of these fixtures must be used, 

or they must be mounted higher off the ground. 
What Are the Practicalities of Improving Lighting? 25

4. Brightness of lighting: Lighting engineers measure either the 

brightness (luminance) or quantity (illuminance) of light at the 

illuminated object (e.g., the ground) and also the light emitted 

from the source (i.e., the lamp).

•	 Candlepower is the luminous intensity of a source of light 

in a given direction. Now expressed in candelas, it was 

formerly measured in terms of the international candle.

•	 Lumens are the metric unit of luminous flux, i.e., the time 

rate of flow of light from a lamp.

•	 Foot-candles are a measurement of the light falling on a 

specified surface (e.g., the ground). This is illuminance in 

lumens per square foot.

•	 Lux is the metric equivalent of foot-candles: lumens per 

square meter.

•	 Candelas (per square foot or per square meter) is a 

measurement of brightness or luminance.

5. Pole spacing and height of lights: It should be clear from the 

above that the cutoff properties of different light fixtures will 

partly determine the number and height of street lighting 

poles that are needed to illuminate a given area. This in turn 

has implications for costs and for glare, light trespass, and light 

pollution (see below). 

6. Vertical illumination: Vertical illumination is the measure of 

light delivered at a sufficient height from the ground so that 

people can see the faces of other pedestrians. Areas suffering 

from high levels of street crime and robbery benefit from high 

values of vertical illuminance. 
26 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

7. Glare, light trespass, and light pollution: Glare, trespass, and 

pollution are potential dangers from increased lighting. Careful 

selection and design of street lighting can minimize their 

effects.

•	 Glare: A well-designed street lighting system directs light to 

the road surface and pedestrian areas, but not into the eyes of 

motorists and pedestrians. Glare can be minimized through 

proper fixture selection, pole placement, and light source 

selection. 

•	 Light trespass: Unwanted trespass of light falling onto 

adjacent properties can lead to complaints from residents. An 

effective system limits streetlights from shining light where it 

is unwanted, such as into windows on private property.

•	 Light pollution: Light pollution is defined as unwanted 

light in the atmosphere that contributes to sky glow. Many 

localities and states have passed laws to minimize light 

pollution, and many more laws are pending. Full cutoff 

fixtures that only direct light downwards to the ground 

have become popular, although careful design is required to 

minimize the amount of light reflected off the ground and 

into the sky (see box).
What Are the Practicalities of Improving Lighting? 27

Source: International Dark-Sky Association (IDA Inc.), www.darksky.org.

Reproduced with the permission of IDA Inch. and Bob Crelin.
28 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

Dealing with Objections Raised 

by Residents and Others

Improvements in street lighting are much less controversial than 

some other crime-prevention measures covered in the Response 

Guides series, such as street closures9 or the installation of video 

surveillance cameras or CCTV.10 It is a fact of human nature that 

we resist change, and thus even improvements in street lighting—

which carry many benefits—will be resisted by some community 

members and public officials. 

Residents in your neighborhood. You should expect some 

neighborhood residents to oppose proposed improvements to 

street lighting, especially if they are expected to contribute to the 

cost. But you can also expect a variety of other objections. Some 

residents might be concerned about glare, light trespass, and 

light pollution, particularly if a streetlight is to be installed close 

to their homes. Some might be concerned about the disruption, 

dirt, and inconvenience that will result from the installation. 

Others might complain that improvements in lighting are being 

used as an unsatisfactory alternative to increased police patrols. 

Yet others might see the improved lighting as a stigmatization 

of their neighborhood. Finally, some residents involved in street 

drug dealing might regard the lighting improvements as an effort 

by officials to disrupt their livelihood.§ For obvious reasons, this 

concern will not be voiced, but it might underlie opposition based 

on other grounds. 

Dealing with these and other resident concerns is an essential part 

of consensus building and an essential aspect of your community 

policing role. You can try to do this through town meetings, oneon-one discussions with residents, meetings with local elected 

officials, and interviews with the media. Even if the worries seem 

exaggerated, you must take them seriously and address them directly. 

You can be helped in this by the neighborhood residents’ association 

§In some instances, new lights are shot 

out by drug dealers or vandals. Shields 

to guard lights from gunshots can be 

purchased. 
What Are the Practicalities of Improving Lighting? 29

(if one exists), but expect the process to be time-consuming. You 

might need to meet many times with the association leaders and 

other community leaders. These and other meetings should be open 

to all residents. 

Without a residents’ association, obtaining a general agreement 

can be even more difficult, as there is likely to be no one group or 

person who is empowered to make community decisions. You might 

find local elected politicians helpful, but beware of self-appointed 

community leaders who might simply be pursuing their own 

agendas. 

It is essential that you are well-prepared for meetings. You should 

present data showing the proportions of crimes of different types 

committed by day and by night and be prepared to discuss the 

limitations of alternative ways (such as increased patrols) of dealing 

with these problems. You will need large maps showing where new 

lights are needed and where lighting upgrades are required. You 

should bring pictures of the types of lights you are planning to 

install. Finally, you will need to be familiar with the research studies 

on the effectiveness of improved street lighting and the findings on 

displacement and diffusion. 

Each meeting should have a written agenda and should conclude 

with a review of the proceedings, including what actions have 

been agreed on and who is responsible for implementing them. If 

possible, you should set the time and place for the next meeting 

while everyone is still present. Communicating a sense of urgency to 

all the participants is critical to keeping up project momentum. 
30 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

You must be very open and clear in your approach. At all costs, 

avoid giving the impression that all the important decisions have 

already been made and that consultation is merely a formality. 

Be open to alternative ideas about the placement of new lights 

or the type of lights to be installed. Engage stakeholders who are 

reluctant to participate in the discussions and consider the needs of 

resident groups such as children and teenagers, who might not be 

adequately represented at the meetings. Finally, it is very important 

that you persuade your superiors to let you remain at your post until 

negotiations are concluded and an agreement has been reached. The 

success of such a process depends on the trust developed between 

you and the other stakeholders. Nothing is more fatal to a problemoriented project than a change of police leadership at a crucial point. 

Nearby neighborhoods. Complaints from residents of nearby 

neighborhoods are like to be of two main types. First, residents 

will wonder why the lighting in their neighborhoods is not being 

improved. Second, residents will express concern that crime and 

hooliganism will be displaced into their neighborhoods. These 

concerns might be publicized by the local media and echoed by local 

elected officials. Again, you should meet with residents and local 

elected officials to find ways of allaying these concerns. In dealing 

with the media, try to involve local elected officials, provided that 

they support your proposals. You can be sure that they will welcome 

the chance to appear on television or in the newspaper. 

City officials. Local officials will need to be satisfied that your 

proposals to improve street lighting are grounded in data showing 

that the neighborhood has unusually high rates of crime that can be 

reduced by improved lighting. Your task will be much more difficult 

if you do not have the support of local elected officials; thus, you 

will need to plan carefully to engage their interest and assistance. 
Your Checklist of Tasks 31

Your Checklist of Tasks

There is no published step-by-step guide on how to improve street 

lighting to reduce crime and, in any case, every problem-oriented 

project is unique. You will have to tailor general guidelines to your 

own situation to produce an action plan. Answering the questions 

below will help you do this. 

The amount of work you will need to do to personally to ensure 

the project’s completion will depend crucially on whether the local 

government supplies a project coordinator: you should do your 

best to persuade the responsible officials that a project coordinator 

is vital. Impress upon them the need for government oversight 

and accountability. You can then work with whoever is appointed, 

knowing that the responsibility does not rest entirely on your 

shoulders.

Analyzing the Problem

•	 Have you clearly defined the neighborhood boundaries?

•	 Have you collected reliable data about the types of crime and 

disorder that are the focus of concern?

•	 Do you know the proportion of crimes committed by day and by 

night?

•	 Do you know whether these crimes are committed by local 

residents or outsiders? 

•	 If outsiders, do you know whether they go to the neighborhood 

specifically to commit crimes, or whether they do so when 

visiting or passing through?

•	 Can you document that the lighting in the neighborhood is 

seriously deficient? 

•	 Have you estimated how much crime improved lighting will 

prevent?
32 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

•	 Have you clear expectations about how improved lighting can 

reduce crime? For example, by enabling witnesses to see offenders 

and report incidents to the police? Or by raising the fear in the 

minds of offenders that this will happen? 

•	 Have you explored alternatives to improved lighting, e.g., video 

surveillance, neighborhood watch, crackdowns, crime-prevention 

advice?

•	 Can you explain why these alternatives cannot adequately 

substitute for improved lighting?

Formulating a Plan

•	 How many new lights are needed?

•	 How many existing lights must be upgraded? 

•	 What type of lights will be installed?

•	 Where will the lights be located?

•	 If video cameras are in use in the neighborhood, will the 

improved lighting affect the quality of their operation? 

•	 Might improved lighting in some places encourage undesirable 

behavior? For example, might lighting a rarely used footpath 

increase opportunities for victimization?

•	 Will the lighting selected produce adequate levels of vertical 

illumination so that people can see the faces of others clearly?

•	 How much will the new lighting cost?

•	 Have you obtained the agreement of any residents who will be 

required to pay for the improvements? 

•	 How long will it take to install the new lighting once agreement 

has been reached?

•	 Who will install the new lighting?

•	 Is there a detailed plan showing which trees and bushes need to 

be trimmed?

•	 Who is responsible for trimming the shrubbery?
Your Checklist of Tasks 33

Getting Support 

•	 Do you have support from police district commanders, the chief, 

and other key city officials, such as the lighting engineer?

•	 Do you have a clear mandate from residents and elected 

representatives?

•	 Are residents content with the appearance and location of the 

new lights?

•	 Have you dealt adequately with individual concerns about light 

trespass?

•	 Can you answer any worries about light pollution?

•	 Have you allayed resident concerns about neighborhood 

stigmatization?

•	 Have you dealt with the worries of nearby communities about 

displaced crime? 

•	 Have you briefed the local media about the need for improved 

lighting?

•	 Have you dealt satisfactorily with public opposition?

Implementing the Plan

•	 Has a municipal project coordinator been appointed?

•	 Have you constructed a detailed timeline showing when each 

element of the improved lighting program will be started and 

completed?

•	 Does this plan include both approvals and actions?

•	 Are all parties informed about and in agreement with this 

timetable? 
34 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

Assessing Effectiveness§

•	 Are you prepared—do you have the necessary data—to be able 

to compare neighborhood crime or disorder before and after the 

lighting has been improved? 

•	 Will the before and after periods be directly comparable? For 

example, will you be able to control for time of year? 

•	 Will you be able to compare the proportions of crime committed 

by day and by night?

•	 Will you be able to compare before and after crime trends in 

your neighborhood with those in nearby neighborhoods?

•	 Will you examine possible displacement and diffusion?

•	 Will you try to estimate if improved street lighting is cost 

effective? 

§See Eck (2002) for help with 

assessing effectiveness.
Conclusion 35

Conclusions

It is clear that reductions in crime can be achieved by improvements 

in street lighting and that these reductions will be most worthwhile 

in high-crime neighborhoods. It is also clear that improved lighting 

can reduce crime during the day and at night. This suggests that 

improvements to lighting not only act as a situational deterrent to 

crime, but can also improve local community cohesion and pride, 

which in turn increases the willingness of residents to intervene in 

crime or cooperate with the police. Improved lighting will also send 

a message to potential offenders that the neighborhood no longer 

offers easy opportunities for crime. 

Unfortunately, the available research does not answer every question 

a police officer will confront in a project designed to improve 

lighting. There is still a considerable need for the exercise of 

professional judgment at all stages of such a project, but submissions 

for the Goldstein and Tilley awards include many success stories 

where police have worked with communities and local officials to 

improve lighting.11 Altogether, it can be concluded that when used 

judiciously “improved street lighting has few negative effects and 

clear benefits for law-abiding citizens.”12

Endnotes 37

Endnotes

1NYSERDA (2002a).

2Pease (1999).

3Hesseling (1994).

4Weisburd et al. (2006).

5Welsh and Farrington (2007, page 11).

6Lancashire Constabulary, United Kingdom (2004). 

7Sacramento Police Department, California. (1996). 

8www.boston.com/news/local/breaking_news/2008/07/nh_town_

may_dim.html

9Clarke (2004).

10Ratcliffe (2007).

11www.popcenter.org

12Welsh and Farrington (2007, page 28).

References 39

References

Clarke, R. V. Closing Streets and Alleys to Reduce Crime, Response 

Guides Series No 2. Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series. 

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2004.

Eck, J. Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for 

Police Problem-Solvers. Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

Series. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2002.

Felson, M., and R. Clarke. Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical 

Theory for Crime Prevention. Police Research Series, Paper 98. 

London: Home Office, 1998.

Hesseling, R. “Displacement: A Review of the Empirical Literature.” 

Crime Prevention Studies, Volume 3. Monsey, New York: Criminal 

Justice Press, 1994. www.popcenter.org

Lancashire Constabulary, United Kingdom. “The Hopwood 

Triangle: Revitalizing a Depressed Neighborhood in Lancashire.” 

Submission for the Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in 

Problem-Oriented Policing, 2004. www.popcenter.org

NYSERDA. How-to Guide to Effective Energy-Efficient Street 

Lighting for Municipal Elected/Appointed Officials. Albany, 

New York: New York State Energy Research and Development 

Authority, 2002a.

NYSERDA. How-to Guide to Effective Energy-Efficient Street 

Lighting for Municipal Planners and Engineers. Albany, New 

York: New York State Energy Research and Development 

Authority, 2002b.

Pease, K. “A Review of Street Lighting Evaluations,” in Surveillance 

of Public Space: CCTV, Street Lighting and Crime Prevention. 

Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 10, ed. Kate Painter and Nick 

Tilley. Monsey, New York: Criminal Justice Press, 1999. 

www.popcenter.org
40 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

Ratcliffe, J. Video Surveillance of Public Places, Response Guides 

Series No. 4. Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series. 

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice Office of 

Community Oriented Policing Services, 2007.

Sacramento Police Department. “New Helvetia and River Oaks 

Project: Combating Gangs and Drugs with Partnerships in 

Housing Projects.” Submission for the Herman Goldstein 

Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing, 1996. 

www.popcenter.org

Tien, J., V. O’Donnell, A. Barnett, and P. Mirchandani. Street 

Lighting Projects: National Evaluation Program. Phase 1 Report.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National 

Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, 1979.

Weisburd, D., L. Wyckoff, J. Ready, J. Eck, J. Hinkle, and F. 

Gajewski. “Does Crime Just Move Around the Corner? A 

Controlled Study of the Spatial Displacement and Diffusion of 

Crime Control Benefits.” Criminology 44(3) (2006): 549-591 

Welsh, B. and D. Farrington. Improved Street Lighting and Crime 

Prevention. Stockholm: Swedish National Council for Crime 

Prevention, 2007. 
About the Author 41

About the Author

Ronald V. Clarke

Ronald Clarke is University Professor at Rutgers University and 

Associate Director of the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing. 

He was previously head of the British Government’s Criminological 

Research Department, where he had a significant role in the 

development of situational crime prevention and the British Crime 

Survey. Dr. Clarke is the founding editor of Crime Prevention 

Studies, and his publications include Designing out Crime (HMSO, 

1980), The Reasoning Criminal (Springer-Verlag, 1986), Situational 

Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (Harrow and Heston, 

1997), Superhighway Robbery: Preventing E-Commerce Crime

(Willan Publishing, 2003), Become a Problem Solving Crime 

Analyst (U.S. Department of Justice, 2005) and Outsmarting the 

Terrorists (Praeger, 2006). He was formerly chair of the selection 

committee for the annual Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence 

in Problem-Oriented Policing.

Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 43

Other Problem-Oriented Guides 

for Police

Problem-Specific Guides series:

1. Assaults in and Around Bars. Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

ISBN: 1-932582-00-2

2. Street Prostitution. Michael S. Scott. 2001. 

ISBN: 1-932582-01-0

3. Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

ISBN: 1-932582-02-9

4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes. Rana 

Sampson. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-03-7

5. False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001. 

ISBN: 1-932582-04-5

6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

ISBN: 1-932582-05-3

7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-06-1

8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001.

ISBN: 1-932582-07-X

9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-08-8

10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V. Clarke. 

2002. ISBN: 1-932582-09-6

11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-10-X

12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002. 

ISBN: 1-932582-11-8

13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-12-6

14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-13-4

15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. 

ISBN: 1-932582-14-2

16. Clandestine Drug Labs. Michael S. Scott. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-15-0

17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-16-9

18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-17-7

19. Misuse and Abuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002.

ISBN: 1-932582-18-5
44 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

20. Financial Crimes Against the Elderly.

Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-22-3

21. Check and Card Fraud. Graeme R. Newman. 2003. 

ISBN: 1-932582-27-4

22. Stalking. The National Center for Victims of Crime. 2004.

ISBN: 1-932582-30-4

23. Gun Violence Among Serious Young Offenders. Anthony A. 

Braga. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-31-2

24. Prescription Fraud. Julie Wartell and Nancy G. La Vigne. 

2004. ISBN: 1-932582-33-9

25. Identity Theft. Graeme R. Newman. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-35-3

26. Crimes Against Tourists. Ronald W. Glesnor and Kenneth J. 

Peak. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-36-3

27. Underage Drinking. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-39-8

28. Street Racing. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-42-8

29. Cruising. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-43-6

30. Disorder at Budget Motels. Karin Schmerler. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-41-X

31. Drug Dealing in Open-Air Markets. Alex Harocopos and 

Mike Hough. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-45-2

32. Bomb Threats in Schools. Graeme R. Newman. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-46-0

33. Illicit Sexual Activity in Public Places. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 

2005. ISBN: 1-932582-47-9

34. Robbery of Taxi Drivers. Martha J. Smith. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-932582-50-9

35. School Vandalism and Break-Ins. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2005. 

ISBN: 1-9325802-51-7

36. Drunk Driving. Michael S. Scott, Nina J. Emerson, Louis B. 

Antonacci, and Joel B. Plant. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-57-6

37. Juvenile Runaways. Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1932582-56-8
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 45

38. The Exploitation of Trafficked Women. Graeme R. Newman. 

2006. ISBN: 1-932582-59-2

39. Student Party Riots. Tamara D. Madensen and John E. Eck. 

2006. ISBN: 1-932582-60-6

40. People with Mental Illness. Gary Cordner. 2006. 

ISBN: 1-932582-63-0

41. Child Pornography on the Internet. Richard Wortley and 

Stephen Smallbone. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-65-7

42. Witness Intimidation. Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-67-3

43. Burglary at Single-Family House Construction Sites. Rachel 

Boba and Roberto Santos. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-00-2

44. Disorder at Day Laborer Sites. Rob Guerette. 2007. 

ISBN: 1-932582-72-X

45. Domestic Violence. Rana Sampson. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-74-6

46. Thefts of and from Cars on Residential Streets and 

Driveways. Todd Keister. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-76-2

47. Drive-By Shootings. Kelly Dedel. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-77-0

48. Bank Robbery. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2007.

ISBN: 1-932582-78-9

49. Robbery of Convenience Stores. Alicia Altizio and

Diana York. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-79-7

50. Traffic Congestion Around Schools. 

Nancy G. La Vigne. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-82-7

51. Pedestrian Injuries and Fatalities. Justin A. Heinonen and 

John E. Eck. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-83-5

52. Bicycle Theft. Shane D. Johnson, Aiden Sidebottom, 

and Adam Thorpe. 2008. ISBN: 1-932582-87-8

53. Abandoned Vehicles. Michael G. Maxfield. 2008.

ISBN: 1-932582-88-6

54. Spectator Violence in Stadiums. Tamara D. Madensen and 

John E. Eck. 2008. ISBN: 1-932582-89-4
46 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

Response Guides series:

1. The Benefits and Consequences of Police Crackdowns. 

Michael S. Scott. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-24-X

2. Closing Streets and Alleys to Reduce Crime: Should 

You Go Down This Road? Ronald V. Clarke. 2004. 

ISBN: 1-932582-41-X

3. Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety 

Problems. Michael S. Scott and Herman Goldstein. 2005.

ISBN: 1-932582-55-X

4. Video Surveillance of Public Places. Jerry Ratcliffe. 2006 

ISBN: 1-932582-58-4

5. Crime Prevention Publicity Campaigns.

Emmanuel Barthe. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-66-5

6. Sting Operations. Graeme R. Newman with assistance of 

Kelly Socia. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-84-3

7. Asset Forfeiture. John L. Worall. 2008

ISBN: 1-932582-90-8 

8. Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in 

Residential Areas. Ronald V. Clarke. 2008. ISBN: 1-932582-

91-6

9. Dealing With Crime and Disorder in Urban Parks. 

Jim Hilborn. 2009. ISBN: 1-932582-92-4

Problem-Solving Tools series: 

1. Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory 

Guide for Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002. 

ISBN: 1-932582-19-3

2. Researching a Problem. Ronald V. Clarke and Phyllis A. 

Schultz. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-48-7

3. Using Offender Interviews to Inform Police ProblemSolving. Scott H. Decker. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-49-5

4. Analyzing Repeat Victimization. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 

2005. ISBN: 1-932582-54-1

5. Partnering with Businesses to Address Public Safety 

Problems. Sharon Chamard. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-62-2
Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 47

6. Understanding Risky Facilities. Ronald V. Clarke and John 

E. Eck. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-75-4

7. Implementing Responses to Problems. Rick Brown and 

Michael S. Scott. 2007. ISBN: 1-932582-80-0

8. Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design 

in Problem-Solving. Diane Zahm. 2007. 

ISBN: 1-932582-81-9

9. Enhancing the Problem-Solving Capacity of Crime 

Analysis Units. Matthew B. White. 2008. 

ISBN: 1-932582-85-1

Special Publications:

Crime Analysis for Problem Solvers in 60 Small Steps,

Ronald V. Clarke and John Eck, 2005. 

ISBN:1-932582-52-5

Policing Terrorism: An Executive's Guide, 

Graeme R. Newman and Ronald V. Clarke, 2008

Upcoming Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

Problem-Specific Guides

Child Abuse and Neglect in the Home

Transient Encampments

Street Robbery

Stolen Goods Markets

Thefts from Cafés and Bars

Aggressive Driving

Theft of Scrap Metal

Problem-Solving Tools

Displacement

Response Guides

Assigning Police Officers to Schools

Special Publications

Effective Policing and Crime Prevention: A Problem-Oriented 

 Guide for Mayors, City Managers, and County Exectives

Intelligence Analysis and Problem-Solving
48 Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas

For more information about the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 

series and other COPS Office publications, call the COPS Office 

Response Center at 800.421.6770, via e-mail at askCOPSRC@

usdoj.gov, or visit COPS Online at www.cops.usdoj.gov. 
Got a Problem? We’ve got answers!

Log onto the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing web site at 

www.popcenter.org for a wealth of information to help you deal 

more effectively with crime and disorder in your community, 

including:

•	 Recommended readings in problem-oriented policing 

and situational crime prevention

•	 A complete listing of other POP Guides

•	 A listing of forthcoming POP Guides.

Designed for police and those who work with them to address 

community problems, www.popcenter.org is a great resource for 

problem-oriented policing.

Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Justice Office of Community 

Oriented Policing Services (the COPS Office).

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing
For More Information:

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Community 

Oriented Policing Services

1100 Vermont Avenue, N.W.

Washington, DC 20530

To obtain details on COPS Office programs, call the

COPS Office Response Center at 800.421.6770

Visit COPS Online at www.cops.usdoj.gov

December 2008

e120816179

ISBN:1-932582-91-6

Improving Street Lighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas 

reviews the use of street lighting to help reduce crime in residential 

areas, discusses the factors to examine when considering upgrading 

or improving street lighting, and recommends steps to take when 

implementing a street lighting improvement plan.