TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR

USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

September 1997
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL ii

DISCLAIMER

The use of company or product name(s) is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by

the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL iii

UPDATE STATEMENT

Toxicological profiles are revised and republished as necessary, but no less than once every three

years. For information regarding the update status of previously released profiles, contact ATSDR at:

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

Division of Toxicology/Toxicology Information Branch

1600 Clifton Road NE, E-29

Atlanta, Georgia 30333


USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL vi

*Legislative Background

The toxicological profiles are developed in response to the Superfund Amendments and

Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986 (Public Law 99-499) which amended the Comprehensive

Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA or Superfund). Section

211 of SARA also amended Title 10 of the U. S. Code, creating the Defense Environmental

Restoration Program. Section 2704(a) of Title 10 of the U. S. Code directs the Secretary of Defense

to notify the Secretary of Health and Human Services of not less than 25 of the most commonly found

unregulated hazardous substances at defense facilities. Section 2704(b) of Title 10 of the U. S. Code

directs the Administrator of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) to

prepare a toxicological profile for each substance on the list provided by the Secretary of Defense

under subsection (b).
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL vii

 CONTRIBUTORS

CHEMICAL MANAGER(S)/AUTHOR(S):

Alfred S. Dorsey Jr., D.V.M.

ATSDR, Division of Toxicology, Atlanta, GA

Carolyn Rabe, Ph.D.

Clement International Corporation, Fairfax, VA

Sujatha Thampi, Ph.D.

Sciences International, Inc., Alexandria, VA

THE PROFILE HAS UNDERGONE THE FOLLOWING ATSDR INTERNAL REVIEWS:

1. Green Border Review. Green Border review assures the consistency with ATSDR policy.

2 . Health Effects Review. The Health Effects Review Committee examines the health effects

chapter of each profile for consistency and accuracy in interpreting health effects and

classifying end points.

3 . Minimal Risk Level Review. The Minimal Risk Level Workgroup considers issues relevant to

substance-specific minimal risk levels (MRLs), reviews the health effects database of each

profile, and makes recommendations for derivation of MRLs.

USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL ix

PEER REVIEW

A peer review panel was assembled for Used Mineral-Based Crankcase Oil. The panel consisted of

the following members:

1. Dr. Carson Conaway, Research Scientist, Mahopac, NY

2 . Dr. Walter Decker, Private Consultant, El Paso, TX

3 . Dr. David Warshawsky, Professor, Department of Environmental Health, University of

Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH

These experts collectively have knowledge of Used Mineral-Based Crankcase Oil’s physical and

chemical properties, toxicokinetics, key health end points, mechanisms of action, human and animal

exposure, and quantification of risk to humans. All reviewers were selected in conformity with the

conditions for peer review specified in Section 104(i)(13) of the Comprehensive Environmental

Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, as amended.

Scientists from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) have reviewed the

peer reviewers’ comments and determined which comments will be included in the profile. A listing

of the peer reviewers’ comments not incorporated in the profile, with a brief explanation of the

rationale for their exclusion, exists as part of the administrative record for this compound. A list of

databases reviewed and a list of unpublished documents cited are also included in the administrative

record.

The citation of the peer review panel should not be understood to imply its approval of the profile’s

final content. The responsibility for the content of this profile lies with the ATSDR.









USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 1

 1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

This Statement was prepared to give you information about used mineral-based crankcase oil

and to emphasize the human health effects that may result from exposure to it. The Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) identifies the most serious waste sites in the nation. sites

make up the National Priorities List (NPL) and are the sites targeted for long-term federal

cleanup activities. Used mineral-based crankcase oil has been found in at least 85 of

1,430 current or former NPL sites. However, the total number of NPL sites evaluated is not

known. As more sites are evaluated, the number of sites at which used mineral-based

crankcase oil is found may increase. This information is important because exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil may cause harmful health effects and because these sites are

potential or actual sources of human exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

When a substance is released from a large area, such as an industrial plant, or from a

container, such as a drum or bottle, it enters the environment. This release does not always

lead to exposure. You can be exposed to a substance only when you come in contact with it.

You may be exposed by breathing, eating, or drinking substances containing the substance or

by skin contact with it.

If you are exposed to a substance such as used mineral-based crankcase oil, many factors will

determine whether harmful health effects will occur and what the type and severity of those

health effects will be. These factors include the dose (how much), the duration (how long),

the route or pathway by which you are exposed (breathing, eating, drinking, or skin contact),

the other chemicals to which you are exposed, and your individual characteristics such as age,

gender, nutritional status, family traits, life-style, and state of health.

1.1 WHAT IS USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL?

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is another name for used motor oil or used engine oil. It is

the brown-to-black, oily liquid removed from the engine of a motor vehicle when the oil is
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 2

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

changed. Used mineral-based crankcase oil is similar to unused oil except that it contains

additional chemicals that are produced or that build up in the oil when it is used as an engine

lubricant. Used mineral-based crankcase oil has many of the characteristics of unused oil. It

smells like unused oil and contains the chemicals found in unused oil. These include straight

chain (aliphatic) hydrocarbons and aromatic or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),

which are distilled from crude oil, and various additives that improve the performance of the

oil in the engine. Aliphatic hydrocarbons are defined as molecules with carbon atoms in

simple or branched chains. Aromatic hydrocarbons are compounds with unsaturated carbons

in six-membered rings and with properties similar to benzene. PAHs are complex organic

compounds containing three or more aromatic rings. In addition to the chemicals found in

unused oil, used mineral-based crankcase oil contains chemicals that are formed when the oil

is exposed to the high temperatures and pressures inside an engine as it runs. It also contains

metals such as aluminum, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, silicon, and tin,

that come from engine parts as they wear down. In addition, used mineral-based crankcase

oil contains small amounts of water, gasoline, antifreeze, and chemicals that come from

gasoline when it burns inside the engine. The chemicals found in used mineral-based

crankcase oil vary depending on the brand(s) and type of engine oil used, whether gasoline or

diesel fuel was used, the mechanical condition of the engine that the oil came from, the

various sources of used mineral-based crankcase oil (e.g., automobiles, airplanes, trains, ships,

tractors, lawn mowers), and the number of miles driven between oil changes. Used mineralbased

crankcase oil is not naturally found in the environment, but most of the chemicals

found in the oil do occur naturally.

A large amount of used mineral-based crankcase oil is generated each year when motor oil is

changed. It is usually discarded into the environment or recycled, but some other uses for it

exist. Some industries mix used mineral-based crankcase oil with other oils to produce

cutting oils or other lubricating oils. Used mineral-based crankcase oil can also be burned. It

burns at about 300-400°C, depending on the mixture of chemicals in the used mineral-based

crankcase oil. It has been used as a fuel in oil burners in homes, as well as in industrial

steam boilers, municipal incinerators, and rotary cement kilns. It is also used in producing
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 3

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

asphalt. In the past, used mineral-based crankcase oil was also used on dirt roads to control

dust. However, most states currently restrict this use.

Please refer to Chapters 3 and 4 for more information on used mineral-based crankcase oil.

1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL WHEN IT

ENTERS THE ENVIRONMENT?

Some used mineral-based crankcase oil enters the air through the exhaust system during

engine use. Used mineral-based crankcase oil may also enter the water or soil when it is

disposed of improperly, for example, when it is poured into sewers or directly onto the

ground. It may also enter the environment as a result of disposal in landfills, engine oil

leaks, automobile or truck exhaust, and application onto rural roads for dust control. Some

chemicals found in used mineral-based crankcase oil may be released into the air when it is

used as a fuel in boilers, incinerators, and cement kilns. The movement in the environment

of the chemicals found in used mineral-based crankcase oil depends on their individual

properties. The hydrocarbon components of the oil generally stick to the soil surface and do

not move through the soil. If oil is spilled, some hydrocarbons evaporate into the air very

quickly, and others evaporate more slowly. Hydrocarbons that do not evaporate may stay in

the soil for a long time because they do not dissolve in water and do not generally break

down. Hydrocarbon components of the oil that enter surface water bind to small particles in

the water. They eventually settle to the bottom where they can stay for many years. These

hydrocarbons may build up in shellfish or other organisms. Some metals in used mineralbased

crankcase oil dissolve in water and move through the soil easily and may be found in

surface water and groundwater. Groundwater flows slowly underground and then drains into

surface waters such as marshes and lakes. Most metals found in used mineral-based

crankcase oil stay in the environment for a long time. Thus, metals from used oils can build

up in plants, animals, soil, sediments, and non-flowing surface water.

Please refer to Chapter 5 for more information on what happens to used mineral-based

crankcase oil when it enters the environment.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 4

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL?

You are most likely to be exposed to used mineral-based crankcase oil when you change the

engine oil in your car. A small amount of the chemicals in exhaust fumes comes from used

mineral-based crankcase oil. Therefore, you may be exposed to used mineral-based crankcase

oil when you breathe in exhaust fumes. You may also be exposed to used mineral-based

crankcase oil when it is used to control dust on rural roads. The waste crankcase oil used for

road oiling comes from service stations or fleet shops. It is mixed with industrial oils which

contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), chlorodibenzo dioxins (CDDs), and chlorodibenzo

furans (CDFs) which are bad for your health. You may be exposed to these compounds when

you breathe in these compounds as wind-blown dust. However, most states currently either

prohibit or restrict its use for that purpose. Most people are exposed to very low levels of

used mineral-based crankcase oil. People who live or work in the vicinity of an active or

inactive recycling facility that recycles used mineral-based crankcase oil may either breathe

fumes found near the facility or come in contact with contaminated soil, sludge, or sediment.

People who work or live in or near buildings where used mineral-based crankcase oil is

burned for heating fuel may breathe high levels of metal particles and PAHs.

People who live near landfills can also be exposed to used mineral-based crankcase oil. A

common practice of people who change the oil in their own vehicles (or do-it-yourselfers) is

to dump it together with other household wastes, which usually end up in landfills. The

waste oil can then enter the environment and may contaminate crops, farm animals, or fish

and shellfish. If you eat the contaminated food, you may be exposed to the hydrocarbons and

heavy metals present in the waste oil. You may also be exposed to used mineral-based

crankcase oil by accidental spills during transport. However, since very small amounts are

transported, the environmental impact of spilled used oil is limited.

There is very little information on the levels of chemicals in the environment resulting from

releases of used mineral-based crankcase oil. Used mineral-based crankcase oil is a source of

hydrocarbons in storm runoff from bridges, rivers, streams, and deep as well as surface
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 5

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

sediments. However, in several studies, used mineral-based crankcase oil may be only one of

many sources of the environmental contamination. Such studies have shown increased levels

of various components of used mineral-based crankcase oil in dust, surface water, storm

runoff, and roadside soil in industrial, commercial, and residential areas and near highways.

Heavy metals, possibly from used crankcase oil sources and from motor vehicle exhausts,

have been found in the soil near extensively traveled roads and highways. Surface water

samples taken from ponds at an NPL site that was a recycling facility for used mineral-based

crankcase oil and other used petroleum products were found to contain chromium, lead, and

xylene, respectively.

Please refer to Chapter 5 for more information.

1.4 HOW CAN USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL ENTER AND LEAVE

MY BODY?

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is a mixture of several different chemicals. Whether the

chemicals in used mineral-based crankcase oil are taken up, stored in, or excreted by the body

after exposure depends on the individual properties of the chemicals in the oil. Studies of

cattle that swallowed used mineral-based crankcase oil showed that lead and other metals in

the oil are absorbed and distributed to various tissues, such as the liver and kidneys. Studies

in mice showed that the PAHs that build up in used mineral-based crankcase oil are absorbed

when used mineral-based crankcase oil is applied to the skin. A study in rats showed that

used mineral-based crankcase oil that is swallowed is eliminated in the feces. Medicinalgrade

mineral oil is also eliminated rapidly from the body in the feces. Thus, it is likely that

the chemicals that are in both medicinal-grade mineral oil and used mineral-based crankcase

oil are eliminated rapidly in the feces, but we do not know the timeframe for elimination

from the body of other chemicals found in used mineral-based crankcase oil. We also do not

know whether other routes of elimination exist. Additional information on the movement of

the Individual chemicals into, through, and from the body can be found in the toxicological

profiles for those chemicals.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 6

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

Please refer to Chapter 2 for more information.

1.5 HOW CAN USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL AFFECT MY HEALTH?

The health effects of exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil vary depending on the

properties of the chemicals found in the oil. Each brand of oil contains slightly different

mixtures of oils and additives. Also, the characteristics of the engine in which the oil is used

affect its final composition. Thus, effects experienced after exposure to one batch of used

mineral-based crankcase oil may not be the same after exposure to another batch. Mechanics

and other auto workers who are exposed to used mineral-based crankcase oil from a large

number of motor vehicles have experienced effects on the skin (rashes), blood (anemia), and

nervous system (headaches and tremors). However, these workers are also exposed to a large

number of other chemicals in the workplace. Exposures to some of these other substances are

known to cause rashes, anemia, headaches, and tremors. Therefore, it is possible that the

effects the workers experienced may have been caused by chemicals from sources other than

used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Volunteers who breathed mists of used mineral-based crankcase oil for a few minutes had

slightly irritated noses and throats, and the mists were irritating to the eyes of some people.

Animals that ate large amounts of used mineral-based crankcase oil developed diarrhea.

Thus, people who swallow used mineral-based crankcase oil may also have diarrhea. Some

cows that ate used oil containing metals such as molybdenum and lead in contaminated

pastures experienced harmful effects on the blood, such as anemia, and on the nervous

system, such as tremors. Some of the cows died. There is a possibility that anemia and

tremors may occur in people exposed to used mineral-based crankcase oil. Used mineralbased crankcase oil was only slightly irritating to the skin of rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice.

We do not know if exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil affects the reproductive

ability of men or women or whether it causes birth defects.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 7

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

Long-term exposure of the skin to used mineral-based crankcase oil causes skin cancer in

mice. PAHs in the oil have been identified as the cancer-causing agents because some PAHs

are known to cause cancer and because the carcinogenicity of various batches of the used oil

increased with increasing amounts of PAHs in the oil. The Department of Health and Human

Services, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), and EPA have not

classified used mineral-based crankcase oil with regard to its carcinogenicity in people.

The health effects of many of the individual chemicals found in used mineral-based crankcase

oil (PAHs, lead, zinc, cadmium, copper, chromium, nickel, barium, boron, manganese, tin,

and aluminum) are discussed in the toxicological profiles for those chemicals. Please refer to

Chapter 2 for more information on the health effects associated with exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil.

1.6 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN

EXPOSED TO USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL?

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is a mixture of a large number of chemicals. Its

composition depends on the brand of oil and the characteristics of the engine in which it was

used. Therefore, no one medical test will show if you have been exposed to used mineralbased

crankcase oil. However, there are methods for determining if you have been exposed

to some of the chemicals in used mineral-based crankcase oil. These include testing for the

presence of metals such as lead or molybdenum in your blood, or testing for deoxyribonucleic

acid (DNA) adducts (chemical addition products) with PAHs in your skin cells. These tests

are not part of routine medical examinations. However, your doctor can collect blood or

tissue samples and send them to most university medical centers or medical laboratories for

analysis. It should be noted that molybdenum and PAHs are common environmental

contaminants and elevated levels of these materials may be the result of exposures to

materials not associated with used mineral-based crankcase oil. Also, testing for exposure to

specific chemicals in the oil cannot be used to find out exactly how much used mineral-based

crankcase oil you have been exposed to. However, the testing is very useful because the

amounts of individual chemicals identified can be used to determine the health effects that
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 8

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

you may experience. Health professionals with expertise in occupational medicine or

industrial hygiene should be able to identify chemicals that may have been in the oil and

recommend tests for those chemicals. Some of the tests for specific chemicals provide

information about previous exposure levels and about whether harmful health effects may

occur. For more information on the tests available for specific chemical components of used

mineral-based crankcase oil, please refer to the toxicological profiles for those chemicals.

1.7 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO

PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?

Regulations for used mineral-based crankcase oil are still being created and revised. Thus,

federal guidelines or standards for inhalation, drinking water, food, or dermal exposure to

used mineral-based crankcase oil are not yet available. However, the EPA and most states

have developed regulations regarding disposal of used oil, its recycling, spraying used oil onto

road surfaces for dust control, or burning it as a fuel. See Chapter 7 for further information.

1.8 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION?

If you have any more questions or concerns, please contact your community or state health or

environmental quality department or:

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

Division of Toxicology

1600 Clifton Road NE, E-29

Atlanta, Georgia 30333

(404) 639-6000

This agency can also provide you with inforrnation on the location of occupational and

environmental health clinics. These clinics specialize in the recognition, evaluation, and

treatment of illness resulting from exposure to hazardous substances.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 9

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The primary purpose of this chapter is to provide public health officials, physicians, toxicologists, and

other interested individuals and groups with an overall perspective on the toxicology of used mineralbased crankcase oil. It contains descriptions and evaluations of toxicological studies and

epidemiological investigations and provides conclusions, where possible, on the relevance of toxicity

and toxicokinetic data to public health.

A glossary and list of acronyms, abbreviations, and symbols can be found at the end of this profile.

This profile will focus on the properties of used mineral-based crankcase oil because most of the

mineral-based crankcase oil at hazardous waste sites is expected to be previously used oil. It is

important to make the distinction between new and used mineral-based crankcase oil because the

characteristics of mineral-based crankcase oil change with use (Vazquez-Duhalt 1989). An important

difference between new and used motor oil is the heavy metal content. This difference is extremely

important because many of the metals are harmful to human health and living organisms. These

metals originate from the fuel and from motor wear. Used oil contains high concentrations of lead,

zinc, calcium, barium, and magnesium along with lower concentrations of iron, sodium, copper,

aluminium, chromium, manganese, potassium, nickel, tin, silicon, boron, and molybdenum (VasquezDuhalt 1989). Concentrations of lead in used mineral-based crankcase oil were likely higher when

leaded gasoline was used.

Mineral-based crankcase oils are manufactured using highly refined base oils and contain up to 20% of

a variety of additives such as viscosity index improvers, detergents/dispersants, antiwear additives,

pour-point depressants, and antioxidants (IARC 1984; Kirk-Othmer 1981). During use, the high

temperatures and friction cause changes such as oxidation, nitration, and cracking of polymers in the

component chemicals (Vazquez-Duhalt 1989). In addition, a variety of substances such as fuel, water,

antifreeze, dust, and various combustion products such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),

metals, and metallic oxides accumulate in the oil. The degree of chemical change and accumulation of
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 10

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

contaminants in the oil increases with use and varies depending on the type of fuel used and the

mechanical properties of the engine.

In an engine lubricating system, the required quantity of lubricant is transported where it is needed in

the engine. The lubricant protects against wear, reduces friction, cleans the engine of dirt and residue

(detergent), protects against corrosion, cools the engine, and seals the pistons (Van Donkelaar 1990).

Additives are added to lubricating oils to improve its physical and chemical properties. Consequently,

lubricating oils have high additive contents (up to 20%), especially detergents and dispersants which

constitute 2-15% of oil weight (Vasquez-Duhalt 1989). However, several of the oil additives are toxic

environmental contaminants, e.g., zinc dithiophosphate and zinc diary1 or dialkyl dithiophosphates

(ZDTPs); calcium alkyl phenates; magnesium, sodium, and calcium sulphonates; tricresyl phosphates;

molybdenum disulfide; heavy metal soaps; and other organometallic compounds that contain heavy

metals. Hence, very high levels of zinc and cadmium are found in new motor oil-approximately

1,500 μg/g of zinc and 87 μg/kg of cadmium (Hewstone 1994a; Vasquez-Duhalt 1989). Although

ZDTPs have a low acute systemic toxicity, they can cause eye damage and skin irritation (Hewstone

1994a). Prolonged exposure to high concentrations of ZDTPs, calcium alkyl phenates, and

magnesium, sodium, and calcium sulphonates had significant effects on the reproductive organs of

male rabbits (testicular atrophy and reduction or absence of spermatozoa) which appeared to be species

specific. The absorption of tricresyl phosphates caused peripheral nervous system damage, leading to

neuromuscular problems (Hewstone 1994a).

In a crankcase-lubricated engine, the oil compartment acts as a sink for heavy molecular incomplete

combustion products such as PAHs and their analogs (Scheepers and Bos 1992). Thus, contaminants

such as PAHs, which are formed via combustion, can accumulate in the oil by a factor of up to 1,000.

PAHs are known to be highly toxic environmental contaminants with carcinogenic and mutagenic

properties. They leave the engine in various ways, such as via particulates, oil leaks, and uncontrolled

oil changes, which then accumulates in the environment. One hundred and forty different PAHs have

been found in the used oil of crankcase-lubricated engines. These PAHs are also preseni’in much

lower quantities in new or fresh oil (Van Donkelaar 1990).

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is a complex mixture of metals and PAHs. When motor oils

undergo thermal decomposition, gasoline combustion products are formed, significantly increasing the

levels of PAHs which contribute to the carcinogenic and mutagenic properties of the oils (Bingham
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 11

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

1988; Ingram et al. 1994). Hence, it is difficult to define the precise composition of used mineralbased

crankcase oil because of the variety of chemical additives that may be present and the varying

degrees of chemical decomposition and contaminant accumulation. Therefore, rather than describing

toxicities associated with individual components, the following discussion focuses on information

obtained in studies that have examined the effects of exposure to samples of used mineral-based

crankcase oil. In several studies, composite samples of used mineral-based crankcase oil have been

employed; these studies may therefore provide a more generalized picture of toxicities associated with

exposure. However, it should be noted that the results of any one study may not be representative of

effects occurring with similar exposures to other samples of used mineral-based crankcase oil.

2.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE

To help public health professionals and others address the needs of persons living or working near

hazardous waste sites, the information in this section is organized first by route of exposure -

inhalation, oral, and dermal; and then by health effect - death, systemic, immunological, neurological,

reproductive, developmental, genotoxic, and carcinogenic effects. These data are discussed in terms of

three exposure periods - acute (14 days or less), intermediate (15-364 days), and chronic (365 days

or more).

Levels of significant exposure for each route and duration are presented in tables and illustrated in

figures. The points in the figures showing no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) or lowestobserved-adverse-effect levels (LOAELs) reflect the actual doses (levels of exposure) used in the

studies. LOAELs have been classified into “less serious” or “serious” effects. “Serious” effects are

those that evoke failure in a biological system and can lead to morbidity or mortality (e.g., acute

respiratory distress or death). “Less serious” effects are those that are not expected to cause significant

dysfunction or death, or those whose significance to the organism is not entirely clear. ATSDR

acknowledges that a considerable amount of judgment may be required in establishing whether an end

point should be classified as a NOAEL, “less serious” LOAEL, or “serious” LOAEL, and’that in some

cases, there will be insufficient data to decide whether the effect is indicative of significant

dysfunction. However, the Agency has established guidelines and policies that are used to classify

these end points. ATSDR believes that there is sufficient merit in this approach to warrant an attempt

at distinguishing between “less serious” and “serious” effects. The distinction between “less serious”

effects and “serious” effects is considered to be important because it helps the users of the profiles to
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 12

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

identify levels of exposure at which major health effects start to appear. LOAELs or NOAELs should

also help in determining whether or not the effects vary with dose and/or duration, and place into

perspective the possible significance of these effects to human health.

The significance of the exposure levels shown in the Levels of Significant Exposure (LSE) tables and

figures may differ depending on the user’s perspective. Public health officials and others concerned

with appropriate actions to take at hazardous waste sites may want information on levels of exposure

associated with more subtle effects in humans or animals or exposure levels below which no adverse

effects have been observed. Estimates of levels posing minimal risk to humans (Minimal Risk Levels

or MRLs) may be of interest to health professionals and citizens alike.

Levels of exposure associated with carcinogenic effects (Cancer Effect Levels, CELs) of used mineralbased crankcase oil are indicated in Table 2-3.

A User’s Guide has been provided at the end of this profile (see Appendix B). This guide should aid

in the interpretation of the tables and figures for Levels of Significant Exposure and the MRLs.

2.2.1 Inhalation Exposure

2.2.1.1 Death

No studies were located regarding death in humans or animals after inhalation exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil.

2.2.1.2 Systemic Effects

No studies were located regarding musculoskeletal or renal effects in humans or animals after

inhalation exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

The systemic effects observed after inhalation exposure are discussed below. Although some

qualitative information was located for cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, hematological, hepatic, dermal

and ocular effects, NOAELs and/or LOAELs for these effects were not identified. The highest
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 13

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

NOAEL value for respiratory effects in guinea pigs after an acute-duration inhalation exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil is recorded in Table 2-1 and plotted in Figure 2-1.

Respiratory Effects. Ten-minute exposures of volunteers to aerosols of used mineral-based

crankcase oils resulted in mild-to-moderate nose and throat irritation (Dautrebande and Capps 1950).

If a respiratory filter mask was worn, the degree of irritation was decreased to none-to-mild even at

twofold higher concentrations. Insufficient information was provided in the report to convert the

exposure levels used in this study, expressed as ppm by weight, to mg/m3

. In another study in which

inhalation exposures occurred as the result of leakage of the aerosol from inside goggles designed to

assess ocular exposures, chest tightness (but no nose irritation) was reported (Dautrebande et al. 1951).

Concentrations of the used mineral-based crankcase oil in ambient air were not measured in this study;

however effects were observed in one of three volunteers exposed within the goggles to 42 mg/m3

 and

in another to 84 mg/m3

. Both of these studies are limited in that they were conducted over 40 years ago

and are of limited value in predicting effects of current formulations that have been used in present-day

engines. No studies were located regarding the respiratory effects in humans after longer term exposure

to aerosols of used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Guinea pigs exposed for 1 hour to an aerosol of used mineral-based crankcase oil at concentrations as

high as 222 mg/m3

 showed no adverse effects on pulmonary function (Costa and Amdur 1979a).

Studies in animals on the respiratory effects of longer-term exposures were not found.

Cardiovascular Effects. Blood pressure was elevated in 37% of the mechanics, 7% of the

apprentice mechanics, and 18% of the miscellaneous workers from 10 auto shops in Denmark (Clausen

and Rastogi 1977). However, interpretation of these results is severely limited because of the absence of

comparison with a control population, the likelihood of dermal as well as inhalation exposures, the

high probability of exposure to other causative substances, and the failure to consider other

confounding factors.

No studies were located regarding cardiovascular effects in animals after inhalation exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil.


USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 16

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

Gastrointestinal Effects. The incidence of gastrointestinal effects (stomach pain, constipation,

anorexia) did not appear to be increased in an epidemiologic study of mechanics and apprentice

mechanics from auto shops in Denmark (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). As indicated above under

Cardiovascular Effects, interpretation of these results is severely limited because of the absence of a

comparison with a control population, the likelihood of dermal as well as inhalation exposures, the

high probability of exposure to other causative substances, and the failure to consider other

confounding factors.

No studies were located regarding gastrointestinal effects in animals after inhalation exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil.

Hematological Effects. Lower than normal hematocrit and mean corpuscular hemoglobin were

observed in several mechanics and apprentice mechanics in an epidemiologic study examining health

effects among auto shop workers (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). A significant correlation was seen

between the lead level and delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) activity in the blood of

both normal subjects and autoworkers (Spear-man’s rank analysis, p < 0.001). In the blood of

autoworkers, the δ-ALAD activity was depressed because of the higher blood lead levels. The lead

levels in whole blood of all autoworkers was significantly higher than that of control subjects

(Wilcoxon’s test, p < 0.002) (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). Elevated blood lead levels were observed in

52% of the mechanics when compared to levels in controls not employed in the auto industry

(Wilcoxon’s test, p < 0.002). In several cases, the elevated lead levels correlated with decreases in

hematocrit and mean corpuscular hemoglobin, suggesting that the effects may have been related to

blood lead levels (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). Eastin et al. (1983) demonstrated that in ducks and

pheasants fed diets containing up to 4.5% of used mineral-based crankcase oil, δ-ALAD was

significantly decreased (ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test, p <0.05). No effects on hematocrit or

hemoglobin concentration were seen. δ-ALAD is one of the most sensitive and one of the first

enzymes in the pathway for heme synthesis which is inhibited by lead. In the absence of effects on

hemoglobin and hematocrit, it is an early biological indicator of subclinical lead poisoning in humans

and birds (Goyer 1996).

The study by Eastin et al. (1983) suggests that used oil is a source of lead exposure and hematoxicity

in mechanics (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). Other studies by Blakley and Brockman (1976), Osweiler
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 17

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

et al. (1973), and Sas (1989) also support the conclusion that lead poisoning is a probable hazard from

exposure to used crankcase oils. High blood lead levels have been associated with anemia (see the

ATSDR profile on lead [ATSDR 1993b]). Although used mineral-based crankcase oil was determined

to be one source of lead exposure, other sources of lead exposure (exhaust gas, gasoline, gear oil) may

also have contributed to the effects observed.

No studies were located regarding the hematological effects of used mineral-based crankcase oil in

animals after inhalation exposure.

Hepatic Effects. Increased serum bilirubin and thymol reaction (indicative of increased serum

alkaline phosphatase) were observed in 14% of the mechanics examined in a study of auto shops in

Denmark (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). In addition, 11% of the mechanics had elevated serum alanine

and aspartate aminotransferase and lactate dehydrogenase activities, suggesting hepatic damage.

However, it is unclear whether dermal exposures, substances other than used mineral-based crankcase

oil, or diseases unrelated to employment may have contributed to the effects observed. Also, it is

unknown whether these effects were significantly increased relative to a control population.

No studies were located regarding hepatic effects in animals after inhalation exposure to used mineralbased crankcase oil.

Dermal Effects. Skin irritation has been reported in epidemiological and experimental studies of

humans after exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil (Clausen and Rastogi 1977; Dautrebande

and Capps 1950). However, these effects were probably due to direct contact of aerosols or volatile

components with these tissues and will be discussed under the section dealing with effects of dermal

exposures.

No studies were located regarding dermal effects in animals after inhalation exposure to used mineralbased crankcase oil.

Ocular Effects. Eye irritation has been reported in epidemiological and experimental studies of

humans after exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil (Clausen and Rastogi 1977; Dautrebande

and Capps 1950). However, these effects were probably due to direct contact of aerosols or volatile
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 18

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

components with these tissues and will be discussed under the section dealing with effects of dermal

exposures.

No studies were located regarding ocular effects in animals after inhalation exposure to used mineralbased crankcase oil.

2.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects

No studies were located regarding immunological and lymphoreticular effects in humans or animals

after inhalation exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

2.2.1.4 Neurological Effects

Examination of workers from 10 auto shops in Denmark revealed headaches in the morning among

14% and headaches in the evening among 20% of the mechanics (Clausen and Rastogi 1977).

Tremors in the hands were reported by 11% of the mechanics. However, as indicated above under

Cardiovascular Effects, interpretation of these results is severely limited because of the absence of a

comparison with a control population, the likelihood of dermal as well as inhalation exposures, the

high probability of exposure to other causative substances, and the failure to consider other

confounding factors.

Exposure of rats (head-only) to an aerosol of filtered used mineral-based crankcase oil (concentration

not specified) for 7 hours resulted in no adverse effects on behavior during a 40-day postexposure

observation period (DOT 1983). Similarly, no adverse effects were observed in chickens during or

following a 7-hour exposure to an aerosol of used mineral-based crankcase oil (concentration not

specified). The chickens were placed in either head-only exposure chambers or given whole body

exposures. The motor oil tested was obtained from a turboprop aircraft (used for 165 hours). The

study was limited as the actual dose in the breathing space and particle size was not measured, and

only a small number of animals were tested. No control group was used. (DOT 1983).

No studies were located regarding the following health effects in humans or animals after inhalation

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 19

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

2.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects

2.2.1.6 Developmental Effects

2.2.1.7 Genotoxic Effects

Genotoxicity studies are discussed in Section 2.5.

2.2.1.8 Cancer

An epidemiological study of the incidence of renal pelvic and bladder cancer among workers in

Sweden between 1961 and 1979 showed no significant increases in relative risk among workers

exposed to motor oil or oil mists (excluding mists from cutting oils or fluids) (Steineck et al. 1989).

This study was limited as the time, dose, and route of exposure were not provided. Also confounding

factors were not separated out, the substances that subjects were exposed to were not clearly defined,

and the job descriptions of the workers may have been erroneous. No studies were located regarding

the incidence of other cancer types among humans exposed by inhalation to used mineral-based

crankcase oil.

No studies were located regarding cancer in animals after inhalation exposure to used mineral-based

crankcase oil.

2.2.2 Oral Exposure

2.2.2.1 Death

No studies were located regarding death in humans after oral exposure to used mineral-based

crankcase oil.

No deaths were observed in rats for up to 14 days after ingestion of 22,500 mg/kg of used mineralbased crankcase oil (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vernot et al. 1990). However, increased mortality

was observed among cattle believed to have ingested discarded used mineral-based crankcase oil

(Osweiler et al. 1973). Tissue lead levels were elevated in the cattle, and toxic symptoms observed in

the affected cattle were attributed to ingestion of lead contained in the used oil. Fatalities among
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 20

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

cattle ingesting used mineral-based crankcase oil have also been attributed to molybdenum contained

in the used oil (Sas 1989). It was suggested that the ingested molybdenum caused death as a result of

central nervous system hypoxia.

2.2.2.2 Systemic Effects

No studies were located regarding respiratory, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, renal, or ocular effects

in humans or animals after oral exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil. The systemic effects

observed after oral exposure are discussed below. The highest NOAEL and LOAEL values for

systemic effects in rats after an acute-duration oral exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil are

recorded in Table 2-2 and plotted in Figure 2-2.

Gastrointestinal Effects. No studies were located regarding gastrointestinal effects in humans after

oral exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

No effects were observed in rats for up to 14 days after ingestion of 22,500 mg/kg of used mineralbased crankcase oil, while a single oral dose of 9,000 mg/kg of used mineral-based crankcase oil

resulted in oily diarrhea in exposed rats (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990). Diarrhea

was also observed in some cattle that grazed for at least 2 weeks in a pasture contaminated with used

mineral-based crankcase oil (Sas 1989). This effect is not unexpected because medicinal-grade mineral

oil is used as a cathartic (Fingl 1980); however, other chemicals present in used mineral-based

crankcase oil may have contributed to the laxative effect.

Hematological Effects. No studies were located regarding hematological effects in humans after

oral exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Anemia was observed in cattle that had ingested an unknown amount of used mineral-based crankcase

oil while grazing in a pasture (Sas 1989). The used oil had molybdenum bisulfide present as an

additive. The anemia was attributed to increased molybdenum intake and molybdenum-induced copper

deficiency. No effects on hematocrit or hemoglobin concentration were observed in ducks and

pheasants given diets containing up to 4.5% used mineral-based crankcase oil (Eastin et al. 1983).

However, δ-ALAD activity was significantly decreased in the ducks and pheasants in a dose-related

manner at all dietary concentrations (0.5%, 1.5%, and 4.5%) (ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test,


USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 23

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

p <0.05). The decrease in δ-ALAD activity suggests an effect on heme synthesis, but in the absence

of effects on hemoglobin concentration or hematocrit, the toxicological significance of this change is

unclear. δ-ALAD is one of the most sensitive and one of the first enzymes in the pathway for heme

synthesis which is inhibited by lead. In the absence of effects on hemoglobin and hematocrit, it serves

as an early biological indicator of subclinical lead poisoning in humans and birds (Goyer 1996).

Hepatic Effects. No studies were located regarding hepatic effects in humans after oral exposure to

used mineral-based crankcase oil.

The only information located regarding hepatic effects after oral exposure to used mineral-based

crankcase oil was a study that showed a significant increase in serum aspartate aminotransferase

activity in ducks after 3 weeks of dietary exposure at a dietary concentration of 4.5% (Eastin et al.

1983) (ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test, p <0.05). No effects were observed on the serum levels of

alanine aminotransferase, uric acid, glucose, triglycerides, total protein, and cholesterol after l-3 weeks

of dietary exposure of ducks and pheasants to dietary concentrations of used mineral-based crankcase

oil as high as 4.5%.

Dermal Effects. No studies were located regarding dermal effects in humans after oral exposure to

used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Cattle that ingested used mineral-based crankcase oil in a pasture for at least 2 weeks had decreased

pigmentation in the hair around the eyes (Sas 1989). This effect may have been the result of a

molybdenum-induced copper deficiency. No other information was located regarding dermal effects in

animals after oral exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Body Weight Effects. No studies were located regarding body weight effects in humans after oral

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

No effects on body weight gain or growth were observed in rats that received single doses of used

mineral-based crankcase oil as high as 22,500 mg/kg (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vernot et al.

1990) or in ducks or pheasants that ingested an unspecified amount of used mineral-based crankcase

oil in their diets for up to 3 weeks (Eastin et al. 1983). The lack of effects on body weight gain or
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 24

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

growth probably indicates that higher doses of used crankcase oil in the diet would have been

tolerated.

2.2.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects

No studies were located regarding immunological or lymphoreticular effects in humans or animals

after oral exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

2.2.2.4 Neurological Effects

No studies were located regarding neurological effects in humans after oral exposure to used mineralbased crankcase oil.

Cattle that ingested an unspecified amount of used mineral-based crankcase oil as a result of grazing in

contaminated pastures for approximately one year have shown a number of neurological disorders

(Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas 1989). Blindness, muscle twitching, hyperirritability, depression, and

convulsions were observed and attributed to lead poisoning (Osweiler et al. 1973). Muscle tremors

and weakness were observed in another study (Sas 1989). These effects may be associated with

molybdenum-induced copper deficiency.

No studies were located regarding the following health effects in humans or animals after oral

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

2.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects

2.2.2.6 Developmental Effects

2.2.2.7 Genotoxic Effects

Genotoxicity studies are discussed in Section 2.5.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 25

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

2.2.2.8 Cancer

No studies were located regarding cancer in humans or animals after oral exposure to used mineralbased crankcase oil.

2.2.3 Dermal Exposure

2.2.3.1 Death

No studies were located regarding death in humans after dermal exposure to used mineral-based

crankcase oil.

Contact of 5 mL/kg (4,500 mg/kg) of used mineral-based crankcase oil with either abraded or intact

sites on the backs of rabbits (approximately 30% of the total surface area of the rabbits) for 24 hours

resulted in no mortality (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990). No increase in death rate

was reported in a skin-painting study in mice in which 1,667 mg/kg was applied to the backs of male

C3WHeJ mice (precise area of application was not specified) twice per week for 2 years (API 1983).

Negative controls included a group of mice that were untreated and one group that was treated with

toluene. Positive controls included a group that was treated with 0.05% or 0.15% benzo(a)pyrene (a

known carcinogen) in toluene. Survival was slightly decreased in mice treated with used motor oil at

weeks 91 (22% survival versus 36% in controls) and 104 (10% versus 22% in controls). The study is

limited as only one dose was studied and only males were used (API 1983).

2.2.3.2 Systemic Effects

No studies were located regarding musculoskeletal effects in humans or animals after dermal exposure

to used mineral-based crankcase oil. The systemic effects observed after dermal exposure are

discussed below: The highest NOAEL and LOAEL values for each end point in each species and

duration category after dermal exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil are recorded in Table 2-3.



USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 29

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

Respiratory Effects. Volunteers, whose eyes were exposed to aerosols of used mineral-based

crankcase oil at concentrations ranging from 42 to 84 mg/m3 in specially designed goggles, reported

chest tightness (Dautrebande et al. 1951). The method of exposure used in this study was designed to

limit inhalation exposures, but it is unlikely that inhalation exposure was completely prevented. Thus,

it is unclear whether the chest tightness represented an effect stemming directly from the ocular

exposure or whether inhalation of the test material contributed to the feeling of chest tightness.

Furthermore, the data were collected over 40 years ago, and formulations have changed considerably

since that time.

No increase in the incidence of pneumonia was noted in mice that received dermal doses of

1,667 mg/kg/day, applied to their backs twice a week, for 2 years. However, this study is limited in

that only half of the animals treated (n=50) were examined histologically (API 1983).

Cardiovascular Effects. High blood pressure was noted in 37% of the mechanics, 7% of the

apprentice mechanics, and 18% of the miscellaneous workers examined in a study of workers from

10 auto shops in Denmark (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). However, interpretation of these results is

severely limited because of the absence of comparison with a control population, the likelihood of

inhalation as well as dermal exposures, the high probability of exposure to other causative substances,

and the failure to consider other confounding factors such as diseases unrelated to exposure.

No studies were located regarding cardiovascular effects in animals after derrnal exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil.

Gastrointestinal Effects. The incidence of gastrointestinal effects such as stomach pain,

constipation, or anorexia was not increased in a group of mechanics and apprentice mechanics from

auto shops in Denmark (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). However, interpretation of these results is

severely limited-because of the absence of comparison with a control population, the likelihood of

inhalation as well as dermal exposures, the high probability of exposure to other causative substances,

and the failure to consider confounding factors.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 30

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

No studies were located regarding gastrointestinal effects in animals after dermal exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil.

Hematological Effects. Lower than normal hematocrit and mean corpuscular hemoglobin were

observed in a number of mechanics and apprentice mechanics in a study of workers from 10 auto

shops in Denmark (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). Elevated blood lead levels were observed in 52% of

the mechanics when compared to controls. In several cases, the elevated lead levels were correlated

with the decreases in hematocrit and mean corpuscular hemoglobin, suggesting that the effects may

have been related to blood lead levels. High blood lead levels have been associated with anemia (see

the ATSDR profile on lead [ATSDR 1993b]). Used mineral-based crankcase oil was determined to be

one source of lead exposure, but other sources of lead exposure (exhaust gas, gasoline, gear oil) may

have been contributors.

No studies were located regarding hematological effects in animals after dermal exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil.

Hepatic Effects. Increased serum levels of bilirubin and thymol reaction (indicative of increased

serum alkaline phosphatase) were observed in 14% of the mechanics examined in a study of workers

from 10 auto shops in Denmark (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). Elevated serum alanine and aspartate

aminotransferase and lactate dehydrogenase were also found in 11% of the mechanics. However,

interpretation of these results is limited because of the absence of comparison with a control

population, the likelihood of inhalation as well as dermal exposures, the high probability of exposure

to other causative substances, and the failure to consider other confounding factors (such as diseases

unrelated to employment).

Histopathological analysis of livers of rabbits dermally exposed to 8 mL/kg of used mineral-based

crankcase oil on a 4-inch-square area of their backs for 5 days/week for 2 weeks showed no marked

increase in adverse effects on the liver (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990). No studies

regarding the hepatic effects of longer-term dermal exposure of animals to used mineral-based

crankcase oil were located.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 31

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

Renal Effects. No studies were located regarding renal effects in humans after dermal exposure to

used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Histopathological analyses of kidneys and urinary bladders from rabbits given dermal applications of

8 mL/kg of used mineral-based crankcase oil on a 4-inch-square area of their backs 5 days/week for

2 weeks showed no adverse effects (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vernot et al. 1990). No increase in

the incidence of renal necrosis or chronic interstitial nephritis was observed in mice receiving dermal

doses of 1,667 mg/kg/day on their backs, twice a week, for 2 years (API 1983). However, this study

is limited in that only half of the animals treated were examined histologically.

Dermal Effects. Rashes on the hands or arms were reported by 29% of the mechanics in a study of

workers from 10 auto shops in Denmark (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). However, interpretation of this

result is difficult because other chemical exposures may have contributed to the effects observed.

A single 5-mL dose of used mineral-based crankcase oil maintained in contact with abraded and intact

skin on the backs of rabbits (approximately 30% of the total surface area) for 24 hours caused slight

erythema (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990). At 0.5 mL, the amount of erythema

noted in the l-inch-square area of application after a 24-hour exposure was very slight, and no redness

was observed on either intact or abraded sites on rabbits by 72 hours postexposure. Daily application

of 8 mL/kg of used mineral-based crankcase oil to a 4-inch-square area on the backs of rabbits for

24 hours/day, 5 days/week, for 2 weeks resulted in irritation at the application site and hair loss on

adjacent tissues. Histopathological examination of the skin showed acanthosis, chronic inflammation,

dermal congestion, edema, and hyperkeratosis (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984). In contrast, daily

application of 0.5 mL of used mineral-based crankcase oil to a l-inch-square area on the back of

guinea pigs for 6 hours/day, 3 days/week, for 3.5 weeks resulted in only none-to-slight erythema (API

1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990). Dermal application of 1,667 mg/kg (50 mg applied to

an unspecified area on the backs of each animal) two times a week for 104 weeks resulted in a slightly

increased incidence of acanthosis and hyperkeratosis and slightly increased severity of fibrosis in

C3H/HeJ mice (API 1983).

Dermal exposure of rats to 125-167 mg/kg/day of used mineral-based crankcase oil for 3 days resulted

in increased activity of microsomal enzyme activity of the skin (Rahimtula et al. 1982). Similar
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 32

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

effects were observed following a single dose of an unspecified amount of used mineral-based

crankcase oil (Rahimtula et al. 1984). This is considered to be an adaptive effect.

Ocular Effects. Mild-to-moderate eye irritation was reported by volunteers exposed to aerosols of

used mineral-based crankcase oil (Dautrebande and Capps 1950; Dautrebande et al. 1951). Although

considerable variability in individual sensitivities was observed, mild eye irritation was observed in at

least one of the subjects at exposure levels as low as 18.9 mg/m3

. It is likely that the eye irritation

was due to direct contact of the aerosol with the eye.

Instillation of 0.1 mL of used mineral-based crankcase oil into the eyes of rabbits resulted in slight

swelling and conjunctival redness in the eye of only one of the six rabbits tested (API 1980b; Beck et

al. 1984; Vernot et al. 1990). Thus, the oil was classified as nonirritating.

Body Weight Effects. No studies were located regarding body weight effects in humans after

dermal exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Exposure of a 4-inch-square area on the backs of rabbits to 8 mL/kg of used mineral-based crankcase

oil for 24 hours/day, 5 days/week, for 2 weeks resulted in marked decrease in food consumption and

weight loss (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vernot et al. 1990). The biological basis for the decreased

food consumption was not identified. In contrast, application of a somewhat lower dose

(1,667 mg/kg/day) to an unspecified area on the backs of mice 2 days/week for 2 years resulted in no

effect on body weight gain (API 1983).

2.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects

No studies were located regarding immunological or lymphoreticular effects in humans after dermal

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

No sensitization was observed in guinea pigs when challenged 2 weeks after a 3 day/week, 3.5-week

exposure to 0.5 mL/day (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vernot et al. 1990). However, the positive

control group also did not exhibit sensitization. Other studies examining the immunological effects of

used mineral-based crankcase oil after dermal exposure were not located. The NOAEL for
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 33

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

sensitization after acute-duration dermal exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil is recorded in

Table 2-3.

2.2.3.4 Neurological Effects

Examination of workers from 10 auto shops in Denmark revealed headaches in the morning among

14% and headaches in the evening among 20% of the mechanics (Clausen and Rastogi 1977).

Tremors of the hands were reported by 11% of the mechanics. It is unclear whether the incidence of

these findings are elevated relative to those in a control population. Also, exposures to substances

other than used mineral-based crankcase oil, as well as other confounding factors (such as lifestyle or

preexisting diseases) may have contributed to the effects observed.

No studies were located regarding neurological effects in animals after dermal exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil.

2.2.3.5 Reproductive Effects

No studies were located regarding reproductive effects in humans or animals after dermal exposure to

used mineral-based crankcase oil.

2.2.3.6 Developmental Effects

No studies were located regarding developmental effects in humans or animals after dermal exposure

to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

2.2.3.7 Genotoxic Effects

Genotoxic carcinogens exert their carcinogenic effects by damaging DNA. There are two types of

genotoxic carcinogens: (1) direct acting carcinogens (or ultimate carcinogens), which bind directly to

DNA and other cellular macromolecules, and (2) precarcinogens (or procarcinogens), which have to be

bioactivated either directly or indirectly to ultimate carcinogens. These ultimate carcinogens, which

are electrophilic in nature, are highly reactive. They bind directly to DNA to form DNA adducts,

producing tumors. Polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs), for example, benzo[a]pyrene, are among
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 34

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

the various chemical carcinogens found in this second category. Bioactivation occurs mainly in the

liver but also in the lung and skin. Most of the reactions in this process, which converts certain

chemically stable compounds to chemically reactive metabolites, are catalyzed by the cytochrome

P450 (CYP450)-dependent monooxygenase systems. Most aromatic compounds like the PAHs are

converted to epoxides, which are extremely reactive metabolites, by the CYP450 system. These

epoxides bind to DNA to form DNA adducts, resulting in necrosis and/or cancer (Lu 1991).

In humans, absorption of PAHs after therapeutic or occupational exposure occurs mainly through the

skin. Inhalation exposure is less likely. No studies were located regarding mutagenic or clastogenic

effects in humans following dermal exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil. However, dermal

application of used mineral-based crankcase oil to the shaved backs of mice produced DNA adducts in

the skin and the lungs, indicating that used mineral-based crankcase oil was genotoxic (Carmichael et

al. 1990; Schoket et al. 1989). A single application of about 50 mg of used gasoline or diesel engine

crankcase oil to the shaved backs of male Parkes mice produced adducts in DNA isolated from the

skin 24 hours after treatment. Analysis of the adducts by thin-layer chromatography showed that the

number and variety of adducts found in the skin with oil from gasoline-powered engines was greater

than that observed with either unused oil or oil from diesel engines. No adducts were observed in the

lung following a single application, but lung adducts were observed after treatment on 4 consecutive

days (Schoket et al. 1989). Similar to the effects in the skin, oil from gasoline-powered engines

produced a response in the lungs, but the number and variety of adducts found in the lung were less

than in the skin. The levels of skin (p <0.05) and lung DNA (p <0.01) adducts produced by gasoline

engine oil correlated with an index of oil use (calculated as the product of miles since the last oil

change and total engine mileage). The total PAH concentration in gasoline engine oil proved to be a

good predictor of adduct levels. When adduct levels were compared with the concentrations of

individual PAHs in the oil, the best correlation was with benz(a)anthracene; skin DNA, δ = 0.91

(p <0.0l) and lung DNA, δ = 0.96 (p <0.01). The correlation with benzo(a)pyrene was poor, and was

not statistically significant (Carmichael et al. 1990).

To identify further the PAHs responsible for the major adducts, Carmichael et al. (1992) fractionated

one of the samples of used gasoline engine oil studied by Carmichael et al. (1990). They then painted

the fractions on the shaved backs of male Parkes mice (four/group), and identified the adducts formed

in skin DNA. In addition, individual PAHs dissolved in unused motor oil at concentrations similar to

those detected in the unfractionated used oil were evaluated in this assay. Based on this analysis, the
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 35

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

major adducts produced in mouse skin by used gasoline engine oil were attributed to reactive

metabolites of the PAHs benzo(b)naphtho(1,2-d)thiophene, benzo(c)phenanthrene, benzo(g,h,i)-

fluoranthene, chrysene, benzo(a)pyrene, and benzo(g,h,i)perylene, several of which are known

genotoxins and carcinogens (ATSDR 1990c). The study authors did not provide any explanation for

the different PAHs implicated in the two studies. However, the concentrations of

benzo(c)phenanthrene, benzo(g,h,i)fluoranthene and chrysene were significantly correlated with adduct

levels in the study by Carmichael et al. (1990).

Other genotoxicity studies are discussed in Section 2.5.

2.2.3.8 Cancer

An epidemiological study of the incidence of renal pelvic and bladder cancer among workers in

Sweden between 1961 and 1979 showed no significant increases in relative risk among workers

exposed to motor oil or oil mists other than mists from cutting oils or fluids (Steineck et al. 1989).

This study was limited as the time, dose, and route of exposure were not provided. Also, confounding

factors were not separated out, the substances subjects were exposed to were not clearly defined, and

the job descriptions of the workers may have been erroneous. No studies were located regarding the

incidence of other types of cancer among humans dermally exposed to used mineral-based crankcase

oil.

Several studies have examined the dermal carcinogenicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil in mice

(API 1983; Grimmer et al. 1982a, 1982b, 1983; McKee and Plutnick 1989). These studies have

shown that the incidence of dermal papillomas and carcinomas among male C3H/HEJ mice (API 1983;

McKee and Plutnick 1989) and female CFLP mice (Grimmer et al. 1982a, 1982b, 1983) are increased

after chronic-duration dermal exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil from gasoline-powered cars.

The greatest tumor incidence was observed in mice exposed to oil from cars driven the longest distances

prior to removing the oil (McKee and Plutnick 1989), and no tumors were observed in mice exposed to

unused motor oil (API 1983; McKee and Plutnick 1989), indicating that carcinogens accumulated in the

oil during its use. The increase in carcinogenicity was attributed to accumulation of PAHs in the oils

because the tumor incidence correlated with PAH content of the oil (McKee and Plutnick 1989).

Fractionation of the oil showed tumor induction only with the fraction containing PAHs with more than

three rings (Grimmer et al. 1982a, 1982b, 1983). In contrast, a study by Ingram
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 36

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

et al. (1994) of the main mutagenic components of a carcinogenic oil by fractionation and testing in

the modified Ames assay showed that the mutagenicity of PAHs with l-3 rings was greater than that

of PAHs with 4-6 rings. The authors concluded that the 4-6 ring PAHs were not the main mutagenic

components of the oil examined, and therefore the mutagenic components may be different from the

carcinogenic components. In contrast to used mineral-based crankcase oil from gasoline-powered

automobiles, used mineral-based crankcase oil from diesel-powered automobiles showed no increase in

tumor incidence, even when the diesel-powered automobiles were driven extremely long distances

prior to removal of the oil (McKee and Plutnick 1989). The CELs for dermal tumors observed in

mice after chronic-duration exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil are recorded in Table 2-3.

In the past, increased mutagenicity and cancer mortality have been associated with exposure to the

PAHs present in complex mixtures such as skin oils of roofing workers (Wolff et al. 1982), used

metalworking cutting oils or mineral oils (Apostoli et al. 1993; Bingham 1988; Cruickshank and

Squire 1950; Eyres 1981; Roy et al. 1988), diesel soot particles (Vogl and Elstner 1989), coal tar

(Clonfero et al. 1986; Jongeneelen et al. 1988c; Wheeler et al. 1981), petroleum products (Witschi et

al. 1987), cigarette smoke, diesel exhausts, and air pollution (Bond et al. 1988; Gallagher et al 1990;

Iyer et al. 1990; Schenker et al. 1984; Siemiatycki et al. 1988; Woskie et al. 1988). The carcinogenic

potential of these complex mixtures is related to their PAH content. Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a PAH, is

mainly associated with the carcinogenicity of complex mixtures. However, a study by Warshawsky et

al. (1993) showed that BaP alone was not responsible for the observed potency of these mixtures. The

presence of other low carcinogenic compounds, e.g., methylbenz[a]anthracenes and straight chain

aliphatics, can also contribute to carcinogenicity. It is possible that these compounds may play a role

in the formation of tumors following exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oils.

2.3 TOXICOKINETICS

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is a complex mixture of PAHs and metals. Consequently, it is

difficult to determine its toxicokinetics because of the extensive variability in its composition and also

because of a lack of definitive data for either humans or animals. However, a brief discussion of the

toxicokinetics of the toxic components of used crankcase oil e.g., heavy metals such as lead, cadmium,

chromium amongst others, and PAHs is provided. Additional information regarding the toxicokinetics

of individual components of used mineral-based crankcase oil can be found in ATSDR profiles for the

components.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 37

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

No human studies were located regarding the toxicokinetics of used mineral-based crankcase oil. Only

a very limited number of animal studies were located. Data based on studies of poisoning in cattle

indicate that lead and other metals in used mineral-based crankcase oil may be absorbed and

distributed to various tissues following oral exposure and that the feces is a significant path of

excretion (Blakely and Brockman 1976; Osweiler et al. 1973). Limited rodent data indicate that,

following oral exposure, used mineral-based crankcase oil is absorbed and excreted in the feces.

PAHs found in used mineral-based crankcase oil are absorbed and distributed to various tissues as

indicated by the presence of PAH-DNA adducts in the skin and lungs of male mice that were dermally

exposed to used mineral-based crankcase oil. As PAHs are lipophilic compounds, they are mainly

stored in adipose tissue and secreted in milk (Lu 1991). In both humans and animals, lead is stored in

the skeletal and soft tissue pool, cadmium is accumulated in the kidneys, while molybdenum is stored

somewhat in the liver and rapidly excreted in the urine and in the bile. The half-life of cadmium is

30 years, and hence, is excreted very slowly. The kidney is the primary target organ of cadmium. It

damages the renal proximal tubules, forming lesions and causing urinary excretion of small-molecule

proteins, amino acids and glucose. Chromium also damages the proximal tubules (Lu 1991). No

other information regarding the toxicokinetics of used mineral-based crankcase oil was located.

2.3.1 Absorption

2.3.1.1 Inhalation Exposure

No studies were located regarding the absorption of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans or

animals after inhalation. Insufficient information was available from inhalation toxicity studies to

determine whether absorption through the respiratory tract may have occurred.

2.3.1.2 Oral Exposure

No studies were located regarding the absorption of used mineral-based crankcase oil in-humans after

oral exposure.

The few animal studies available indicate that lead and other metals in used mineral-based crankcase

oil may be absorbed following ingestion (Blakley and Brockman 1976; Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas

1989). Ingestion of used mineral-based crankcase oil was determined to be the source of elevated
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 38

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

tissue lead levels in 22 cases of lead toxicosis in cattle (Blakley and Brockman 1976). Blood lead

levels (0.98 ppm) from cattle with lead poisoning from all sources (oil, batteries, paint, chemical, and

unknown) averaged 13-fold higher than in controls. A mean blood lead level of 0.78 ppm was

measured in another study of cattle (80 cases) with lead poisoning (Osweiler et al. 1973). The source

of the lead was determined to be ingestion of used mineral-based crankcase oil in 29% of the cases.

In neither study was information provided on the dose, duration of exposure, or absorption rates.

Molybdenum levels were elevated by two orders of magnitude in the livers and kidneys of cattle that

ingested used mineral-based crankcase oil known to contain molybdenum bisulfide as an additive (Sas

1989).

2.3.1.3 Dermal Exposure

No studies were located regarding the absorption of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans after

dermal exposure.

The few studies available indicate that PAHs found in used mineral-based crankcase oil can penetrate

the outer layer of skin as shown by the finding of PAH-DNA adducts in the skin of male mice

receiving a single dermal application or four daily applications of used mineral-based crankcase oil

(≈40-50 mg) (Carmichael et al. 1990; Schoket et al. 1989). PAH-DNA adducts were also found in the

lungs, suggesting that PAHs found in used mineral-based crankcase oil or metabolites may be

systemically available following dermal application (Carmichael et al. 1990; Schoket et al. 1989).

2.3.2 Distribution

Petroleum hydrocarbons are lipophilic. Therefore, they would tend to distribute in fatty tissue

(Rozman and Klaassen 1996). Among the metals found in used mineral-based crankcase oil, lead is

stored in skeletal tissue, cadmium accumulates in the kidneys, and molybdenum tends to accumulate in

the liver (Goyer-1996). Specific data regarding the distribution of components of used mineral-based

crankcase oil following different routes of exposure can be found in compound specific ATSDR

Profiles.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 39

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

2.3.2.1 Inhalation Exposure

No studies were located regarding the distribution of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans or

animals after inhalation exposure.

2.3.2.2 Oral Exposure

No studies were located regarding the distribution of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans after

oral exposure.

Studies of poisoning in cattle indicate that metals found in used mineral-based crankcase oil are

distributed to various tissues (Blakley and Brockman 1976; Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas 1989). In studies

examining the distribution of lead, the kidneys appear to be the major site of lead accumulation

(Blakley and Brockman 1976; Osweiler et al. 1973). Lead levels were elevated ≈100-fold, 24-fold,

4-fold, and 460-fold in the kidney, liver, brain, and rumen contents, respectively. The respective

values were statistically different (p<0.05) for all tissues except the brain. The rumen contents

exhibited a high degree of variability. The source of the lead was determined to be ingestion of used

mineral-based crankcase oil in 22 cases (Blakley and Brockman 1976). In another study of cattle (80

cases) with lead poisoning, mean tissue levels of lead were 29.7 and 57.7 ppm in the liver and kidney,

respectively (Osweiler et al. 1973). The source of the lead was determined to be ingestion of used

mineral-based crankcase oil in 29% of the cases. Molybdenum concentrations in the livers and

kidneys of cows that ingested used mineral-based crankcase oil known to contain molybdenum

bisulfide as an additive were found to exceed normal physiological concentrations by two orders of

magnitude (Sas 1989). Very limited information on the dose and duration of exposure was provided

in these studies.

2.3.2.3 Dermal Exposure

No data were located regarding the distribution of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans after

dermal exposure.

Animal data indicate that PAHs found in used mineral-based crankcase oil are found in tissues other

than the skin of dermally exposed mice (Carmichael et al. 1990; Schoket et al. 1989). PAH-DNA
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 40

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

adducts were found in both the skin and lungs of male mice receiving either one or four daily

applications of used mineral-based crankcase oil (≈1,333-1,780 mg/kg) (Carmichael et al. 1990;

Schoket et al. 1989).

2.3.3 Metabolism

No studies were located regarding the metabolism of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans or

animals.

2.3.4 Excretion

2.3.4.1 Inhalation Exposure

No studies were located regarding the excretion of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans or

animals after inhalation exposure.

2.3.4.2 Oral Exposure

No studies were located regarding the excretion of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans after

oral exposure.

Very limited animal data, based on a study of lead poisoning in cattle (90 cases), indicate that the

feces is a significant path of excretion (Blakley and Brockman 1976). Lead levels in the feces were

>160-fold the normal level. The source of the lead was determined to be ingestion of used mineralbased crankcase oil in 22 cases (Blakley and Brockman 1976). No data on dose, duration of exposure,

or excretion rates were provided. Rats given a single oral dose (9,000 or 22,500 mg/kg) of used

mineral-based crankcase oil excreted the oil in the feces as evidenced by dose-related increases in oily

diarrhea (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vernot et al. 1990). However, it is unclear whether the oil

excreted in the feces represented mainly unabsorbed oil.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 41

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

2.3.4.3 Dermal Exposure

No studies were located regarding the excretion of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans or

animals after dermal exposure.

2.4 MECHANISMS OF ACTION

Although the toxicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil has not been fully investigated, the toxicity

of used oil is attributed to additives and contaminants in the oil such as PAHs, lead, molybdenum,

chromium, zinc, cadmium, copper, and silicon. New (unused) mineral-based crankcase oil and

refinery streams are, by comparison, relatively nontoxic (API 1979, 1980a, 1983; Beck et al. 1984).

In contrast, systemic toxicity and death in cattle that ingested used mineral-based crankcase oil had

been attributed in one instance to lead accumulation in the oil (Osweiler et al. 1973), and in another to

molybdenum present as an additive in the oil that was ingested (Sas 1989). The toxicity in the report

by Sas (1989) was attributed to molybdenum present in the used oil. The molybdenum was suggested

to cause hypochromic microcytic anemia and death as a result of molybdenum-induced copper

deficiency. The molybdenum was suggested to have caused the formation of copper-thiomolybdate

complexes in both the rumen and in the blood, thereby decreasing the copper available for absorption

or for use by copper-requiring enzymes. The mechanism of the lead-induced toxicity was not

specified in the report by Osweiler et al. (1973), but detailed information describing the fundamental

mechanisms for lead-mediated effects may be found in the ATSDR profile on lead (ATSDR 1993b).

One of the target organs of lead is the hematopoietic system. It inhibits δ-ALAD, a zinc-dependent

enzyme, by displacing zinc and hence, the synthesis of heme. Heme is the main component of

hemoglobin (Lu 1991). The nervous system is also a target of lead. Young, developing children and

unborn fetuses are extremely susceptible to lead toxicity. High blood levels of lead results in

encephalopathy, ataxia, stupor, coma and convulsions, peripheral neuropathy, decreased attention span

and mental retardation. Chronic lead exposure induces inclusion bodies in the nuclei ofrenal proximal

tubular cells. Lead also results in renal adenocarcinoma in animals (Lu 1991). However, it should be

noted that current lead levels in fuels, oils and additives are considerably lower due to stringent rules

and regulations. Hence, the risk of toxic effects from lead exposure has been reduced.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 42

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

Acute exposure to cadmium results in local irritation. Exposure via inhalation to cadmium results in

pulmonary edema and chemical pneumonitis. Oral exposure results in nausea, vomiting and

abdominal pain (Lu 1991). Cadmium is a probable human carcinogen. Like lead, cadmium also

accumulates in the lysosomes of the renal proximal tubular cells as cadmium-metallothionein complex,

where the cadmium complex degrades and releases Cd2+. The cadmium ion (Cd2+) inhibits the

proteolytic enzymes in the lysosomes and damages the cell (Lu 1991). Chromium is a known human

carcinogen. Occupational exposure to chromium induces lung cancer, which is thought to be caused

by hexavalent chromium. Hexavalent chromium is rapidly taken up by cells and converted to trivalent

chromium intracellularly. The trivalent chromium ion is extremely reactive and binds to nucleic acid,

initiating the carcinogenic process. Hexavalent chromium is extremely corrosive and causes nasal and

skin ulcers (Lu 1991).

PAHs are potent inducers of microsomal enzymes. Hence, they can enhance the metabolism of

steroids such as estradiol and androsterone which affect the reproductive system (Lu 1991). Because

of their effects on enzymes, PAHs can affect the toxicity of other chemicals and promote

carcinogenesis in the liver, induce immunosuppression (depressed immune system) and adversely

affect reproductive functions (Lu 1991).

The carcinogenicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil has been attributed to accumulations of PAHs,

lead, molybdenum, chromium, zinc, cadmium, copper, and silicon in the oil (Grimmer et al. 1982a,

1982b, 1983; McKee and Plutnick 1989) based on the correlation of tumor incidence with the PAH

content of the oil and the isolation and testing of PAH-containing fractions of the oil for

carcinogenicity. The concentration of PAHs was increased in used oil, and PAHs containing more

than three rings contributed to 70% of the total carcinogenicity in used oil. In several studies,

benzolalpyrene present in automobile exhaust condensate, crankcase oil (used oil), and smoke

condensate contributed to 10, 18, and 5-8% respectively of the total carcinogenicity observed

(Grimmer et al. 1982a, 1982b, 1983; McKee and Plutnick 1989).

In contrast, a study by Ingram et al. (1994) of the main mutagenic components of a carcinogenic oil

by fractionation and testing in the modified Ames assay showed that the mutagenicity of PAHs with

l-3 rings was greater than that of PAHs with 4-6 rings. The authors concluded that the 4-6 ring

PAHs were not the main mutagenic components of the oil examined, and therefore the mutagenic

components may be different from the carcinogenic components. However, the information on the
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 43

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

carcinogenicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans is very limited. Genotoxicity studies

with used mineral-based crankcase oil support the conclusion that PAHs contained in the used oil may

be responsible for the carcinogenicity that has been observed (Carmichael et al. 1990, 1991, 1992;

Hermann et al. 1980b; Peake and Parker 1980; Schoket et al. 1989; Schreiner and Mackerer 1982).

Further information on the mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of PAHs may be found in the ATSDR

profile on PAHs (ATSDR 1990c).

2.5 RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH

Persons in the vicinity of hazardous waste sites are likely to be exposed to used mineral-based

crankcase oil primarily via skin contact or ingestion of contaminated soil. Used mineral-based

crankcase oil may also be found in surface water as a result of runoff. Because of its poor volatility,

inhalation exposure is unlikely unless the oil is aerosolized. Its poor solubility suggests that drinking

water exposures are also unlikely. However, chemical constituents (especially metals) of used mineralbased crankcase oil may be released from the oil into the environment, and significant exposure to

toxic constituents may occur in the drinking water or as the result of bioaccumulation in foods.

Relatively little is known about the toxicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil. Few studies have

been reported which examined the toxicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil. Studies examining the

toxicity of the naphthenic and paraffinic base stocks used to formulate mineral-based crankcase oil

indicate that these base stocks are relatively nontoxic (API 1983; Beck et al. 1984). Thus, the toxicity

associated with exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil does not appear to be due to the oil

present in used mineral-based crankcase oil. Rather, the toxicity that has been observed has been

attributed to additives present in the oil (up to 25% of mineral-based crankcase oil formulations) or to

decomposition products or contaminants that build up in the oil with use. Thus, results of studies are

likely to be specific for the particular additive composition or use characteristics of oil that was used

and may not be able to be generalized to all exposures to used mineral-based crankcase oil. For

example, lead contamination of oil is expected to be substantially greater in oil from engines using

leaded gasolines than from engines powered with unleaded gasolines.

Few well-conducted studies exist that have examined the toxicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Furthermore, correlations between exposure and effects in humans are extremely tenuous. For

example, a study of mechanics and other auto workers occupationally exposed to used mineral-based
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 44

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

crankcase oil (as well as a variety of other potentially causative substances) suggests that the skin,

blood, liver, nervous system, and cardiovascular system may be target organs. However, strong

correlations between effects in these organs and exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil were not

established. Inhalation studies in humans suggest that used mineral-based crankcase oil is minimally

irritating to the tissues of the respiratory tract, but exposure levels were not well described. Animal

data are somewhat more reliable. However, some of the information comes from case reports in

species, such as cattle, in which extrapolation to human effects is more difficult. Acute inhalation

studies in guinea pigs support the human data indicating that used mineral-based crankcase oil is only

minimally irritating to the tissues of the respiratory tract.

Reports of toxicity associated with ingestion of used mineral-based crankcase oil have shown that large

oral doses with low levels of metal contamination are tolerated by rats without death or overt toxic

signs other than diarrhea. However, cattle ingesting used oil in contaminated pastures have died and

shown marked hematological toxicity and neurotoxicity. Cows that ingested used mineral-based

crankcase oil during grazing developed clinical lead toxicosis from used crankcase oil or lead

containing paint from paint buckets or from sides of buildings or fences with flaking or peeling paint

(Osweiler et al. 1973). Oil, paint, grease, trash piles, and lead storage batteries were frequent sources

of lead poisoning in 67% of the cases. Of the 67%, oil accounted for 29% of all bovine lead

poisoning cases. The source of oil was primarily used crankcase oil (Osweiler et al. 1973). The death

of cows in central Hungary was due to molybdenum-induced secondary copper deficiency. The origin

of environmental molybdenum was used motor oil containing molybdenum bisulfide as an additive,

which had polluted the cows’ pasture. The animals had been grazing on the contaminated area for

2 weeks before their illnesses and deaths (Sas 1989). Acute-duration dermal and ocular exposures in

rodents have generally resulted in negligible eye irritation and only low-grade dermal irritation.

Repeated dermal applications in rabbits have resulted in weight loss of an unknown etiology,

suggesting that toxicity may not be limited to the skin.

Carcinogenicity and genotoxicity studies have shown that used mineral-based crankcase oil is

carcinogenic to the skin after long-term dermal exposures. The carcinogenicity is most likely due to

PAHs found in the oil. Although neoplasia and skin cancer are a possible hazard from repeated

dermal exposure to used crankcase oil, this has not been conclusively established, even though used

motor oil is genotoxic using the Ames test. Respiratory and ocular discomfort and irritation are

possible from short-term exposure to high concentrations of oil mist, aerosol, or exhaust from autos
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 45

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

with inadequate piston rings. At hazardous waste sites, respiratory, cardiovascular, or gastrointestinal

effects are unlikely. Hematological effects appear possible with repeated inhalation or dermal contact

with oil contaminated with lead, but would probably not occur at hazardous waste sites.

The potential toxicity of lead and other heavy metals in the oil, such as copper, molybdenum, and

cadmium, etc. has been noted and would occur upon sufficient exposure to oil or by ingestion of

contaminated groundwater. Hepatic, renal, immunological, or neurological effects on fetal

development also appear likely. The dose, route, and frequency of exposure are very important in

predicting systemic effects from used motor oil. The amount of potential exposure to used motor oil

at hazardous waste sites appears to be minimal. The hazard associated with such exposures is

anticipated to be low, but adequate data for a comprehensive risk assessment are not available.

Acute effects associated with ingestion of used motor oil are unlikely for humans, but not impossible.

Children could accidentally ingest used motor oil. Used crankcase oil stored in homes of do-it-yourself

mechanics would be the source of such oil.

Repeated dermal exposure by mechanics and others, respiratory and ocular exposure in closed spaces

by mechanics working with motorized vehicles, and oral exposure of children is likely. Exposure to

water soluble components, e.g., metals, in contaminated drinking water is also possible.

As noted above, most of the toxicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil has been attributed to

additives present in the oil or contaminants that have accumulated in the oil with use. Elements

commonly found as additives or contaminants in used mineral-based crankcase oil include lead, zinc,

calcium, barium, magnesium, iron, sodium, cadmium, copper, aluminum, chromium, manganese,

potassium, nickel, tin, silicon, boron, and molybdenum (Vazquez-Duhalt 1989). In addition, PAHs

increase in oil with use (Vazquez-Duhalt 1989). In some cases, observed toxicity has been correlated

with individual constituents of the used oil, but this aspect of toxicity with used mineral-based

crankcase oil has not been extensively studied. For information on the toxicities associated with

exposures to specific contaminants or additives in used mineral-based crankcase oil, see the ATSDR

profiles on PAHs (ATSDR 1990c), lead (ATSDR 1993b), zinc (ATSDR 1989b), cadmium (ATSDR

1992d), copper (ATSDR 1990b), chromium (ATSDR 1993a), nickel (ATSDR 1992f), barium (ATSDR

1992b), boron (ATSDR 1992c), manganese (ATSDR 1992e), tin (ATSDR 1992g), and aluminum

(ATSDR 1992a).
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 46

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

Minimal Risk Levels for Used Mineral-based Crankcase Oil

As indicated in the introduction to Chapter 2, the composition of used mineral-based crankcase oil is

expected to vary depending on the specific additives present in the oil, the type of fuel used, the

mechanical condition of the engine, and how long the oil was used. Thus, the NOAEL and LOAEL

values presented in Section 2.2 must be considered only as extremely rough estimates of exposure

levels associated with the effects observed. Because of the substantial amount of uncertainty regarding

these values, no meaningful MRL values could be derived.

Death. No studies were located that reported deaths in humans attributable to exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil. Studies in rats have shown that ingestion of large doses of used mineralbased crankcase oil over a short period may be well tolerated (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et

al. 1990), but ingestion by cattle while grazing in contaminated pastures resulted in the deaths of

several animals (Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas 1989). The deaths of the cattle were attributed to lead and

molybdenum in the oil. It is unknown whether the rats and cattle ingested used mineral-based

crankcase oils with similar metal contamination. Acute-duration dermal exposures of rabbits (API

1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vernot et al. 1990) and chronic-duration dermal exposures of mice to used

mineral-based crankcase oil (API 1983) did not result in increased mortality. Thus, it is unlikely that

persons exposed through skin contact with used mineral-based crankcase oil are at risk of death.

However, it is possible that ingestion of sufficient amounts of oil may result in death among

susceptible groups in the population depending on the specific contaminant content of the oil. For

additional information on death associated with known contaminants of used mineral-based crankcase

oil, see the other ATSDR profiles noted above in the introduction to Section 2.5.

Systemic Effects

Respiratory Effects. Inhalation exposure of volunteers to aerosols of used mineral-based crankcase oil

for a few minutes has resulted in nose and throat irritation (Dautrebande and Capps 1956) and a

feeling of chest tightness (Dautrebande et al. 1951). Animal studies have not, however, shown effects

of acute-duration exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil on pulmonary function. Guinea pigs

exposed for up to 1 hour at concentrations as high as 222 mg/m3

 showed no evidence of pulmonary

irritation (Costa and Amdur 1979b). Animal studies examining the effects of unused mineral-based

crankcase oil have shown infectious focal pneumonia and interstitial inflammation in monkeys after
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 47

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

chronic-duration inhalation exposure (Lushbaugh et al. 1950). Thus, the possibility exists that chronicduration exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil may also result in similar effects. In addition,

exposure to minerals oils present in laxatives and various aerolized industrial materials by inhalation or

aspiration causes exogenous lipoid or lipid pneumonia (oil droplets in the lungs) and proliferative

fibrosis of the lung (Fan and Graham 1994; Spickard and Hirschmann 1994). However, lipid

pneumonia has not been widely observed after inhalation of unused mineral-based crankcase oil

(Lushbaugh et al. 1950; Shoshkes et al. 1950) except when aspiration of the material was induced

(Gerarde 1963). Because it is unlikely that persons at hazardous waste sites would be exposed to

aerosols of used mineral-based crankcase oil, and inhalation is an unlikely route of exposure,

respiratory effects from exposures at hazardous waste sites are also highly unlikely to occur.

Cardiovascular Effects. Elevated blood pressure has been reported in a number of workers with

occupational exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). However, it is

unclear whether other environmental, genetic, pathophysiological, or behavioral factors may have

caused the increase in blood pressure. Systematic studies of whether a significant correlation exists

between elevated blood pressure and exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil have not been

performed. Thus, insufficient information exists to determine whether persons exposed to used

mineral-based crankcase oil at hazardous waste sites may be at an increased risk of elevated blood

pressure.

Gastrointestinal Effects. No increase in clinical signs of gastrointestinal toxicity (stomach pain,

constipation, anorexia) was found in workers occupationally exposed to used mineral-based crankcase

oil (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). However, diarrhea has been observed in rats (API 1980b; Beck et al.

1984; Vernot et al. 1990) and cattle (Osweiler et al. 1973) that ingested used mineral-based crankcase

oil. Medicinal-grade mineral oil is used therapeutically as an emollient laxative acting to soften the

stool by retarding reabsorption of water from the gastrointestinal tract (Fingl 1980). Thus, it is likely

that used mineral-based crankcase oil is acting at least in part by the same mechanism. A slight

irritant effect on-the-gastrointestinal tract by additives or contaminants cannot be eliminated based on

the stomach irritation observed in monkeys. Hyperplastic gastritis has been observed in monkeys that

were believed to have swallowed significant amounts of inhaled aerosols of unused mineral-based

crankcase oil (Lushbaugh et al. 1950). While the component of unused oil responsible for the gastritis

was not identified, it is possible that such a component is also present in used mineral-based crankcase
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 48

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

oil. Thus, the possibility exists that ingestion of large amounts of used mineral-based crankcase oil

may result in diarrhea or stomach damage.

Hematological Effects. Lower than normal hematocrit and mean corpuscular hemoglobin have been

observed in several workers with occupational exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil (Clausen

and Rastogi 1977). In several cases, the hematological effects correlated with elevated blood lead

levels suggesting a role of lead in the effects observed. However, sources of lead exposure other than

from used mineral-based crankcase oil and other causes for the blood effects were not eliminated.

Ingestion of used mineral-based crankcase oil by ducks and pheasants resulted in dose-related

decreases in δ-ALAD activity (Eastin et al. 1983). Since δ-ALAD is involved in heme synthesis and

is sensitive to inhibition by lead, this study supports the possibility that lead in used mineral-based

crankcase oil may have contributed to the anemia observed in the auto workers. Ingestion of used

mineral-based crankcase oil containing high levels of molybdenum resulted in anemia in cattle (Sas

1989). Thus, the possibility exists that anemia may occur in persons exposed to lead or molybdenum

in used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Hepatic Effects. Limited epidemiological data show that a small percentage of workers with

occupational exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil had elevated clinical chemistry values

indicative of liver damage (increased serum bilirubin, alanine and aspartate aminotransferases, lactate

dehydrogenase, and thymol reaction) (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). However, other environmental or

behavioral factors were not eliminated as potential causes. Animal data have not shown biochemical

evidence after intermediate-duration oral exposure (Eastin et al. 1983) or histopathological evidence of

hepatic toxicity after acute-duration dermal exposure (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al.

1990). Insufficient information exists to predict whether persons exposed to used mineral-based

crankcase oil at hazardous waste sites will exhibit hepatotoxicity.

Renal Effects. No studies were located that reported renal effects in humans attributable to exposure

to used mineral-based crankcase oil. The only information regarding renal effects in animals after

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil came from a 2-week dermal study in rabbits that

indicated no histopathological evidence of toxicity of the kidneys and urinary bladder (API 1980b;

Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990). Insufficient information was located to determine whether renal

toxicity may result from exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil at hazardous waste sites.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 49

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

Dermal Effects. Skin rashes on the hands and arms were reported by a number of workers exposed to

used mineral-based crankcase oil (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). However, it was not established

whether used mineral-based crankcase oil was the causative agent. Studies in rabbits (API 1980b;

Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990) and mice (API 1983) have shown that dermal exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil results in mild-to-moderate skin irritation. In rabbits, multiple exposures

also resulted in hair loss adjacent to the application site (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al.

1990). Monkeys chronically exposed (whole-body) to aerosols of unused mineral-based crankcase oil

also experienced extensive hair loss (Lushbaugh et al. 1950). It is unknown whether the underlying

cause for the hair loss is similar in these two studies, but the data suggest that components present in

both unused and used mineral-based crankcase oil may result in some degree of hair loss.

Ocular Effects. Volunteers exposed to aerosols of used mineral-based crankcase oil have reported eye

irritation (Dautrebande and Capps 1950; Dautrebande et al. 1951). In contrast, negligible irritation was

noted in rabbits when 0.1 mL was directly instilled into the eye (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vernot

et al. 1990). This apparent discrepancy may be due to the differing compositions of the samples of

the used mineral-based crankcase oil that were tested. It is unlikely that persons at hazardous waste

sites would be exposed to aerosols of used mineral-based crankcase oil. However, dermal exposure is

possible and eye irritation from used mineral-based crankcase oils may occur.

Body Weight Effects. No studies were located regarding body weight effects in humans after

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil. No effects on body weight gain or growth were

observed in rats that received single doses or used mineral-based crankcase as high as 22,500 mg/kg

(API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990) nor in mice (API 1983).

In contrast, 8 mL/kg of used mineral-based crankcase applied on the backs of rabbits 24 hours/day,

5 days/week, for 2 weeks resulted in a marked decrease in food consumption and weight loss (API

1980a; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990). The biological basis for the decreased food consumption

was not identified.

Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects. Extremely little information was located

regarding immunological effects of used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans or animals. A dermal

sensitization study conducted with guinea pigs showed no sensitization potential (API 1980b; Beck et

al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990), but the positive control also failed to show sensitization. Other aspects
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 50

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

of immune function were not assessed. Thus, some uncertainty exists regarding the likelihood of

contact dermatitis following exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil near hazardous waste sites.

Neurological Effects. Limited information was located regarding neurological effects in humans or

animals after exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil. A study of a group of auto workers

showed headaches and/or tremors of the hands in a small number of the exposed workers (Clausen and

Rastogi 1977). However, it was not established whether the used mineral-based crankcase oil was the

causative agent. Studies in rodents have not reported overt neurotoxicity following inhalation, oral, or

dermal exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil, but cattle that have ingested used mineral-based

crankcase oil have shown muscle tremors, weakness, blindness, muscle twitching, hyperirritability,

depression, and convulsions (Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas 1989). The neurological effects in the study by

Osweiler et al. (1973) were attributed to lead poisoning, and those in the study by Sas (1989) were

attributed to molybdenum poisoning. Insufficient information exists to determine whether persons

exposed to used mineral-based crankcase oil at hazardous waste sites may experience adverse

neurological effects.

Reproductive Effects. No information was located regarding reproductive effects in humans or

animals after exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Developmental Effects. No information was located regarding developmental effects in humans or

animals after inhalation, oral, or dermal exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil. However, a

study by Hoffmann and Albers (1984) investigated the potential embryotoxicity and teratogenicity of

automotive virgin crankcase oil and waste crankcase oil in mallard (Anus platyrhynchos) eggs. The oil

was applied to upright fertile eggs with a microliter pipet by streaking the surface just below the air

space and allowing the oil to spread freely (Hoffmann and Albers 1984). Application of waste

crankcase oil significantly affected embryonic survival. It had an LD50 of 5.3 μL/egg (=90 μg/g egg)

compared to that of virgin crankcase oil, which was 23.5 μL/egg. At doses below the LD50, waste

crankcase oil also resulted in more survivors with severe abnormalities, including defects of the brain

(anencephaly and exencephaly) and of the eye (microphthalmia), than with virgin crankcase oil

(Hoffmann and Albers 1984).

An egg-painting study using quail and ducks showed decreased growth and survival in both quail and

duck fetuses, edema, incomplete ossification, and exencephaly in quail; and hemorrhages, edema,
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 51

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

incomplete ossification, anencephaly, and microphthalmia in ducks (Hoffman et al. 1982a). In

addition, quail and duck embryos and/or hatchlings showed low hemoglobin and decreased blood and

liver δ-ALAD. The toxicity was attributed to the lead and aromatic hydrocarbon content of the used

oil rather than to asphyxiation since higher volumes of other oils were not toxic. The presence of

heavy metals in the oil may be a significant factor in its toxicity. Automotive waste oil contained

4,600 ppm lead, which caused a significant depression of red blood cell δ-ALAD activity and

decreased hemoglobin concentration in mallard and bobwhite embryos (Hoffmann and Albers 1984;

Hoffman et al. 1982a). It is unknown whether comparable developmental toxicity would be observed

in persons exposed to used mineral-based crankcase oil. It should be noted here that painting or

injecting bird eggs with used crankcase oil is very different from performing reproductive toxicity tests

using mammalian species. In the mammalian situation, the pregnant animal is treated or administered

the substance. In addition, there are fundamental maternal, circulatory, excretory, and metabolic

influences which determine exposure to the fetus, qualitatively and quantitatively. Hence, the

relevance to humans of bird egg toxicity after exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil is remote.

Genotoxic Effects. No standard in vivo or in vitro genotoxicity studies of used crankcase oil in

mammalian test systems were located, but several studies (Carmichael et al. 1990, 1991, 1992; Schoket

et al. 1989) identified DNA adducts formed by acute-duration dermal application of used mineralbased crankcase oils and suggested that specific DNA adducts may be attributed to the reaction of

specific PAHs with DNA. PAHs, like benzo[a]pyrene, induce certain drug-metabolizing enzymes,

mainly the cytochrome P4501A subfamily (CYPIA), which is also known as CYP448 and aryl

hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH). The CYPIA enzymes metabolize PAHs into epoxides, which are

then hydroxylated to dihydrodiols and are noncarcinogenic. However, further epoxidation of the

dihydrodiols by the CYPIA enzymes generates reactive “electrophilic” species which are capable of

binding and damaging DNA by forming DNA adducts, resulting in necrosis and/or cancer. However,

while these experiments clearly show that PAHs in used motor oil interacted with DNA, most adducts

would be repaired, and few would result in genetic lesions. Thus, the rate of repair and the final

outcome of the DNA damage is of considerable interest.

Similarly, DNA adducts were formed when human skin cultures were exposed to used oils

(Carmichael et al. 1991). Application of diesel engine oil resulted in fewer adducts than did gasoline

engine oil in both in vivo and in vitro test systems. Qualitative differences in the adducts formed in

the human and mouse skin culture systems were consistent with the metabolism of certain PAHs by
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 52

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

species-specific pathways. Based on the comparison of DNA-adducts formed by fractionated oils with

those formed by individual PAHs, Carmichael et al. (1992) attributed the major adducts produced in

mouse skin by used gasoline engine oil to reactive metabolites of benzo(b)naphtho(l,2-d)thiophene,

benzo(c)phenanthrene, benzo(g,h,i)fluoranthene, chrysene, benzo(a)pyrene, and benzo(g,h,i)perylene.

Used mineral-based crankcase oil also contains compounds that induce aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylases

(AHHs) (Rahimtula et al. 1982). As with the adducts observed in the dermal studies, only unrepaired

adducts would result in genetic lesions. Furthermore, it is not known how well the skin cell culture

system simulates dermal exposure in vivo.

Used mineral-based crankcase oil from gasoline-powered automobiles is consistently positive in

Salmonella typhimurium/mammalian microsome mutagenicity assays in the presence or absence of S9

activation, but the revertant yield is higher with the S9-activated material (Blackbum et al. 1983;

Granella and Clonfero 1991; Pasquini and Monarca 1983; Payne et al. 1978; Peake and Parker 1980;

Rahimtula et al. 1984; Schreiner and Mackerer 1982). The strongest mutagenic responses are

generally observed in strains TA98 and TA100. Unused mineral-based crankcase oil is generally

negative in this assay in both the presence and absence of S9 activation (Granella and Clonfero 1991;

Pasquini and Monarca 1983; Schreiner and Mackerer 1982). Key genotoxicity studies using S.

typhimurium are presented in Table 2-4.

The mutagenicity of oil appears to increase as a function of the mileage since the last oil change. An

increase in the number of revertants/mg oil, induced with or without S9, was observed in repeated

sampling of the motor oil in one car (EPA 1980d). The level of skin and lung adducts produced by

dermal application of used engine oil to male mice correlated with an index of oil use calculated as the

product of the number of miles since the last oil change and the total engine mileage (Carmichael et

al. 1990). Not all studies have shown similar results, but possible methodological differences may

have accounted for the differing results. In a comparison of used oils from eight different cars, no

correlation was observed between mutagenicity and engine age or miles since the last oil change

(Dutcher et al. l-986), but no analysis was conducted to determine whether there was a correlation with

engine age and miles since the last oil change. Such a correlation could have been missed because the

newer cars tended to have higher mileage since the last oil change. The water-soluble fraction of used

mineral-based crankcase oil was not mutagenic with or without S9 activation, but this fraction was

obtained in a highly diluted form, and toxic levels were not tested (Vandermeulen et al. 1985).

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2. HEALTH EFFECTS

Data regarding the mutagenicity of used oil from diesel engines are much more limited than those

regarding used gasoline engine oil. However, there is evidence that nonactivated and S9-activated

diesel engine oil is mutagenic in S. typhimurium strain TA98 (Dutcher and Clark 1981; Dutcher et al.

1986). In another study, extracts of diesel engine oils were reported to cause a small increase in TA98

mutants (EPA 1980d). Diesel engine oil was less potent than gasoline engine crankcase oil in the

induction of DNA adducts following dermal application to mice in vivo (Carmichael et al. 1990, 1991;

Schoket et al. 1989) and application to mouse or human skin cultures in vitro (Carmichael et al. 1991).

The lower mutagenicity of diesel engine oils may be attributable to the lower mileage since the last oil

change, compared to oil from gasoline-powered engines. However, this would not be expected to

affect the human health risk since diesel engine oil is changed more frequently than oil in gasolinepowered engines.

The Salmonella assay has also been used by several investigators to compare the mutagenicity of

different samples of used mineral-based crankcase oil and to identify the mutagenic components in the

complex chemical mixture found in used mineral-based crankcase oil. The data regarding the specific

PAHs that account for the mutagenicity of used crankcase oil are contradictory. As discussed above,

some inconsistencies may arise from variations in the oil used. In an early experiment, the mutagenic

activity of used oil largely did not migrate together with benzopyrene or benzanthracene (isomers not

reported) on thin-layer chromatography plates (Payne et al. 1978). Most of the mutagenicity of

another oil sample was attributed to PAHs containing four, five, or six fused aromatic rings (Hermann

et al. 1980b). The PAH with the largest contribution to the mutagenicity was benzo(a)pyrene. Most

of the adducts found following dermal treatment of mice with used mineral-based crankcase oil were

attributed to metabolites of PAHs with four or fewer aromatic rings. These data are too limited and

contradictory to determine which compounds are responsible for much of the mutagenic activity of

used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Results from the controlled “aging” of new oil under defined conditions suggest that nitrated PAHs or

other compounds generated by reaction of the oil with nitrogen dioxide account for much of the directacting mutagenic activity of used oil. Exposure to nitrogen dioxide markedly increased the yield of

revertants induced by fresh crankcase oil in S. typhimurium strain TA98 with or without S9 activation.

By contrast, heating the oil to 100°C for 100 hours, or exposing it to air, sulfur dioxide, or hydrogen

sulfide did not result in the production of mutagenic material (Abdelnasser et al. 1986). Thin-layer

chromatographic fractionation revealed that the composition of mutagenic compounds in used oil was
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 55

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

similar to that in fresh oil treated with heat and nitrogen dioxide. The study authors suggested that

these mutagenic species are nitrated PAHs. Other authors have also implicated reaction with nitrogen

dioxide in the production of mutagenic compounds (Naughton and Jespersen 1991).

Genetic analysis has also indicated that a major portion of the mutagenic activity of used mineralbased

crankcase oil in the absence of S9 activation is due to nitroaromatic compounds (nitroPAHs).

The yield of revertants induced in TA98 by a dimethyl sulfoxide extract of used mineral-based

crankcase oil in the absence of S9 was reduced by about 65% in the nitroreductase-deficient strain

TA98NR (Blackburn et al. 1983), a finding confirmed by Manabe et al. (1984). 1-Nitropyrene (1-NP)

and 1,6-dinitropyrene (diNP) were tentatively identified as direct-acting mutagenic compounds in used

mineral-based crankcase oil. Thus, the direct-acting mutagenic activity of used mineral-based

crankcase oil is largely attributed to nitroaromatic compounds, while the mutagenic activity that

requires S9 activation is attributed largely to PAH metabolites. Nitro-PAHs can be metabolized to

aromatic amine derivatives, some of which are capable of inducing urinary bladder cancer in humans

(Iyer et al. 1990). 1-NP is also capable of generating oxidants or reactive oxygen species such as the

superoxide radical (Nachtman 1986), which can react with and damage cellular molecules (DNA,

lipids, proteins) or activate genotoxic substances such as PAHs, which can eventually lead to cancer

(Sun 1990). These oxidants are also generated in the body by white blood cells as a defense

mechanism during inflammation (Sun 1990). Reactive oxygen species are thought to play a role in the

toxicity and mutagenicity of diesel soot (Vogl and Elstner 1989) and in the metabolic activation of

PAHs in mouse skin (Kensler et al. 1987). 1-NP, diNP, and trinitropyrene were shown to be potent

lung DNA binding agents in the absence of the inducing agent, BaP, but were extremely potent after

pretreatment with BaP (Howard et al 1986). Hence, it is possible that 1-NP and diNP may play a role

in the toxicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil by generating superoxide radicals which can

damage cells and lead to the development of cancer.

Although no genotoxicity data were located regarding used mineral-based crankcase oil in mammalian

systems, the evidence suggests that it can be mutagenic to humans. Crankcase oil accumulates PAHs,

many of which are known genotoxins and fractionate together with mutagenic activity in the oil. Oil

from gasoline engines would presumably be more mutagenic than oil from diesel engines. No possible

explanations were located for the higher mutagenic potency of oil from gasoline engines. Used oil is

mutagenic in the Salmonella mutation assay, the mutagenic activity is stronger in the presence of S9

activation, and DNA adducts are found in cutaneous DNA following application of used oil to mice in
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 56

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

vivo or to samples of human or mouse skin in vitro. Thus, the genotoxicity data support the data from

animal studies indicating that dermal exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil can cause cancer.

The genotoxicity data also suggest that used mineral-based crankcase oil may be a developmental

toxicant. Therefore, dermal exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil may pose a human health

hazard.

Cancer. Limited information was located regarding the carcinogenicity of used mineral-based

crankcase oil in humans. An epidemiological study of workers in Sweden indicated that the risk of

developing renal pelvic and bladder cancer was not increased in workers exposed to motor oil

(Steineck et al. 1989), but no information was located regarding the development of other types of

cancer. Studies in mice demonstrate that chronic-duration dermal exposure to used mineral-based

crankcase oil results in an increased incidence of dermal papillomas and carcinomas (API 1983;

Grimmer et al. 1982a, 1982b, 1983; McKee and Plutnick 1989). The tumor incidence correlated with

the PAH content of the oil (Grimmer et al. 1982a, 1982b, 1983; McKee and Plutnick 1989). DNA

adducts were identified in both the skin and lungs of mice that had received dermal treatments for

l-4 days (Carmichael et al. 1990; Schoket et al. 1989), suggesting that tumor development in organs

other than the skin may be possible.

Based on the information from the mouse studies, IARC has determined that one sample of used

mineral-based crankcase oil showed sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in animals; however, data

are inadequate to evaluate used mineral-based crankcase oil as a class “since the possible carcinogenic

activity of individual products is dependent upon the quality of the base oils used, the nature and

concentration of additives and contaminants, and the conditions of use” (IARC 1984). EPA and the

Department of Health and Human Services have not classified used mineral-based crankcase oil as to

its carcinogenicity. The IARC cancer classification reflects the uncertainty regarding the composition

of different batches of used mineral-based crankcase oil.

2.6 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT

Biomarkers are broadly defined as indicators signaling events in biologic systems or samples. They

have been classified as markers of exposure, markers of effect, and markers of susceptibility

(NAS/NRC 1989).
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2. HEALTH EFFECTS

Due to a nascent understanding of the use and interpretation of biomarkers, implementation of

biomarkers as tools of exposure in the general population is very limited. A biomarker of exposure is

a xenobiotic substance or its metabolite(s), or the product of an interaction between a xenobiotic agent

and some target molecule(s) or cell(s) that is measured within a compartment of an organism

(NAS/NRC 1989). The preferred biomarkers of exposure are generally the substance itself or

substance-specific metabolites in readily obtainable body fluid(s) or excreta. However, several factors

can confound the use and interpretation of biomarkers of exposure. The body burden of a substance

may be the result of exposures from more than one source. The substance being measured may be a

metabolite of another xenobiotic substance (e.g., high urinary levels of phenol can result from

exposure to several different aromatic compounds). Depending on the properties of the substance

(e.g., biologic half-life) and environmental conditions (e.g., duration and route of exposure), the

substance and all of its metabolites may have left the body by the time samples can be taken. It may

be difficult to identify individuals exposed to hazardous substances that are commonly found in body

tissues and fluids (e.g., essential mineral nutrients such as copper, zinc, and selenium). Biomarkers of

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil are discussed in Section 2.6.1.

Biomarkers of effect are defined as any measurable biochemical, physiologic, or other alteration within

an organism that, depending on magnitude, can be recognized as an established or potential health

impairment or disease (NAS/NRC 1989). This definition encompasses biochemical or cellular signals

of tissue dysfunction (e.g., increased liver enzyme activity or pathologic changes in female genital

epithelial cells), as well as physiologic signs of dysfunction such as increased blood pressure or

decreased lung capacity. Note that these markers are not often substance specific. They also may not

be directly adverse, but can indicate potential health impairment (e.g., DNA adducts). Biomarkers of

effects caused by used mineral-based crankcase oil are discussed in Section 2.6.2.

A biomarker of susceptibility is an indicator of an inherent or acquired limitation of an organism’s

ability to respond to the challenge of exposure to a specific xenobiotic substance. It can be an

intrinsic genetic-or other characteristic or a preexisting disease that results in an increasein absorbed

dose, a decrease in the biologically effective dose, or a target tissue response. If biomarkers of

susceptibility exist, they are discussed in Section 2.8, Populations That Are Unusually Susceptible.
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2. HEALTH EFFECTS

2.6.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Used Mineral-based

Crankcase Oil

No information was located regarding biomarkers that could be used to identify exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil. However, biomarkers for PAHs such as DNA adduct formation

(Carmichael et al. 1990; Schoket et al. 1989) or biomarkers for metals such as metal content of the

blood (Clausen and Rastogi 1977; Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas 1989) or decreased δ-aminolevulinic acid

dehydratase in blood (Clausen and Rastogi 1977; Eastin et al. 1983; Hoffman et al. 1982a) have been

identified as possible indicators of exposure to chemicals found in used mineral-based crankcase oil.

It should be noted that these biomarkers are not specific for exposure to used mineral-based crankcase

oil itself but may be specific for toxic chemicals found in the oil. Any substance containing PAHs

and/or heavy metals could be the source of exposure. Although there are valid tests to measure

biomarkers of exposure, high blood lead for instance, the presence of a biomarker does not necessarily

imply exposure to used motor oil. Hence, evidence of exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil

must first be determined before biomarkers of exposure to metals or PAHs are used to help confirm

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil. Biomarkers for exposure to metals and aromatic

hydrocarbons are discussed in more detail in ATSDR profiles on the following substances: PAHs

(ATSDR 1990c), lead (ATSDR 1993b), zinc (ATSDR 1989b), cadmium (ATSDR 1992d), copper

(ATSDR 1990b), chromium (ATSDR 1993a), nickel (ATSDR 1992f), barium (ATSDR 1992b), boron

(ATSDR 1992c), manganese (ATSDR 1992e), tin (ATSDR 1992g), and aluminum (ATSDR 1992a).

2.6.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Used Mineral-based

Crankcase Oil

While the health effects of exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil have not been fully described,

some indicators of toxicity have been identified that may be useful in characterizing potential effects.

Hematological analyses for hemoglobin or hematocrit could be useful for predicting anemia (Clausen

and Rastogi 1977). Analyses for serum copper and ceruloplasmin levels may be useful in detecting

copper deficiency (Sas 1989), and examination of skin for the formation of elevated levels of DNA

adducts (Carmichael et al. 1990, 1991, 1992; Schoket et al. 1989) may be indicative of potentially

genotoxic exposures. The biomarkers mentioned are specific for toxic materials which may be

components of used motor oil, but are not specific for used motor oil itself. For further descriptions

of the utility of these biomarkers in characterizing effects of individual chemicals potentially found in

used mineral-based crankcase oil, see the ATSDR profiles on PAHs (ATSDR 1990c), lead (ATSDR
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 59

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

1993b), zinc (ATSDR 1989b), cadmium (ATSDR 1992d), copper (ATSDR 1990b), chromium

(ATSDR 1993a), nickel (ATSDR 1992f), barium (ATSDR 1992b), boron (ATSDR 1992c), manganese

(ATSDR 1992e), tin (ATSDR 1992g), and aluminum (ATSDR 1992a).

2.7 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER SUBSTANCES

Extremely limited and conflicting information was located regarding interactions of used mineralbased crankcase oil with other chemicals. As very little is known about this subject, the discussion is

necessarily quite limited. While a decrease in the pulmonary irritancy of sulfur dioxide in guinea pigs

was reported by Costa and Amdur (1979a) when aerosols of used mineral-based crankcase oil were

administered simultaneously with sulfur dioxide, human subjects experienced an increase in eye, nose,

and throat irritation when exposed to aerosols containing both used mineral-based crankcase oil and

sulfur dioxide (Dautrebande and Capps 1950). The differences in the results may be due to

differences in the end points examined or in the amount or composition of the samples of used

mineral-based crankcase oil that were employed, but they do not appear to be attributable to

differences in the concentration of sulfur dioxide. Other interactions reported included less-thanadditive eye, nose, and throat irritation reported by human subjects exposed to aerosols of

combinations of used mineral-based crankcase oil with either carbon black, a combination of sulfur

dioxide and carbon black, or a combination of sulfur trioxide and carbon black (Dautrebande and

Capps 1950).

2.8 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE

A susceptible population will exhibit a different or enhanced response to used mineral-based crankcase

oil than will most persons exposed to the same level of used mineral-based crankcase oil in the

environment. Reasons include genetic make-up, developmental stage, age, health and nutritional status

(including dietary habits that may increase susceptibility, such as inconsistent diets or nutritional

deficiencies), and substance exposure history (including smoking). These parameters may result in

decreased function of the detoxification and excretory processes (mainly hepatic, renal, and respiratory)

or the pre-existing compromised function of target organs (including effects or clearance rates and any

resulting end-product metabolites). For these reasons we expect the elderly with declining organ

function and the youngest of the population with immature and developing organs will generally be

more vulnerable to toxic substances than healthy adults. Populations who are at greater risk due to
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2. HEALTH EFFECTS

their unusually high exposure are discussed in Section 5.6, Populations With Potentially High

Exposure.

Review of the literature on toxic effects of used mineral-based crankcase oil did not identify specific

populations that are known to be unusually susceptible to its effects. Depending on the additive and

contaminant composition of individual oils, various populations may be expected to be particularly

susceptible. The groups with high susceptibility would be expected to vary with the constituents of

the oil. It is beyond the scope of this profile to detail all possible exposure scenarios and the

respective sensitive groups. However, certain populations with high susceptibility to PAH or lead

toxicity will be summarized below. For additional information on the populations that may be

expected to be susceptible to the toxicities of PAHs, lead, and other potential constituents, see the

ATSDR profiles on PAHs (ATSDR 1990c), lead (ATSDR 1993b), zinc (ATSDR 1989b), cadmium

(ATSDR 1992d), copper (ATSDR 1990b), chromium (ATSDR 1993a), nickel (ATSDR 1992f), barium

(ATSDR 1992b), boron (ATSDR 1992c), manganese (ATSDR 1992e), tin (ATSDR 1992g), and

aluminum (ATSDR 1992a).

Persons repeatedly exposed to used motor oil would potentially be a very susceptible group (see

Section 5.6). Populations expected to show an increased susceptibility to toxic effects of PAHs

include persons with induced aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase activity (the enzyme responsible for

transformation of PAHs to reactive intermediates), those with nutritional deficiencies in vitamins A, C,

and D, iron, and riboflavin (an increased cancer incidence has been seen under these conditions), and

persons with genetic diseases affecting DNA repair capabilities (ATSDR 1990c). Assuming used

mineral-based crankcase oil has carcinogenic components, persons who smoke and those with

excessive sun exposure may show increased carcinogenicity because particulates in cigarette smoke

and ultraviolet radiation potentiate the carcinogenic response to PAH exposure. Also, the very young

and persons without fully functional immune systems may be impaired in their ability to resist PAHinduced toxicity (ATSDR 1990c). The very young and the very old, for reasons of physiology and

metabolism, would also be expected to be more susceptible than the “normal” adult population to any

adverse effect of exposure to used motor oil, as would be persons with a Vitamin A, C, or D

deficiency. Deficiencies in Vitamins C and D enhances lead and cadmium toxicity.

Populations that may be more susceptible to the toxic effects of lead exposure include young children

(<5 years old), pregnant women, the elderly, smokers, alcoholics, and people with genetic diseases
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 61

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

affecting heme synthesis, and nutritional deficiencies (ATSDR 1993b). Children have a greater

gastrointestinal absorption of lead and lower blood thresholds for hematological and neurological

effects induced by lead exposure. Dietary deficiencies in calcium and iron potentiate the toxicity of

lead. Pregnant women and the elderly may have increased blood lead levels because of greater

mobilization from bone. Persons who consume large amounts of alcohol may be at increased risk of

hematological, neurological, and hepatotoxic effects of lead because of alcohol’s synergistic effects on

these tissues (ATSDR 1993b).

2.9 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS

This section describes clinical practice and research concerning methods for reducing toxic effects of

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil. However, because some of the treatments discussed

may be experimental and unproven, this section should not be used as a guide for treatment of

exposures to used mineral-based crankcase oil. When specific exposures have occurred, poison control

centers and medical toxicologists should be consulted for medical advice.

2.9.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure

Treatment recommendations are sufficiently general for virtually any mineral oil exposure. There are

no specific methods for used mineral-based crankcase oil. Because the volatility of used mineralbased

crankcase oil is expected to be negligible and inhalation exposure is a concern only in situations

where aerosols may be generated, exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil is expected to occur

mainly via the oral and dermal routes. Effects of dermal exposures may be limited by washing

exposed skin with mild green (lipophilic) soap (Ellenhorn and Barceloux 1988). Care should be taken

not to abrade the skin, since dermal abrasions may facilitate the absorption of toxic chemicals found in

the oil. Virtually nothing is known about the absorption of used mineral-based crankcase oil from the

gastrointestinal tract, but toxicity studies suggest that absorption of chemicals (contaminants or

additives) found in the oil may be toxicologically significant (Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas 1989).

Therefore, it may be desirable to take steps to reduce absorption of chemicals found in the oil. This is

especially true for those chemicals whose absorption is augmented in the presence of oil. In general,

steps taken to reduce the gastrointestinal absorption of chemicals found in the oil should be tailored to

practices known to be effective for the constituents of concern (Ellenhorn and Barceloux 1988;

Goldfrank et al. 1990; Haddad and Winchester 1990). Since the risk of aspiration of used mineral-
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 62

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

based crankcase oil is not as great as with many hydrocarbons (Gerarde 1963; Goldfrank et al. 1990),

induction of emesis may be a viable means of removing the oil from the gastrointestinal tract. Gastric

lavage has been recommended only in unconscious patients with the use of a cuffed endotracheal tube

to limit aspiration that could result in induction of lipid pneumonia (Gerarde 1963; Goldfrank et al.

1990). Activated charcoal has not been shown to be effective in adsorbing petroleum distillates

(Goldfrank et al. 1990) but may be effective in limiting the absorption of other chemicals found in the

oil. Cathartics may help speed removal from the gastrointestinal tract; however, the used mineralbased

crankcase oil may itself act as a cathartic if sufficiently large amounts are ingested. If additional

cathartics are required, osmotic cathartics such as sorbitol are preferable to mineral oil cathartics

because of the possibility of aspiration of the oil (Ellenhorn and Barceloux 1988; Haddad and

Winchester 1990).

2.9.2 Reducing Body Burden

Available information indicates that the toxicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil is primarily a

function of the toxicities of additives or contaminants found in the oil. Therefore, steps used to reduce

the body burden should be tailored to the specific additives or contaminants of concern. It is beyond

the scope of this profile to present the methods associated with decreasing body levels of all of the

potential chemicals of concern. However, a brief discussion of lead and PAHs is provided as they are

the primary hazardous constituents associated with used motor oil. In adults and children,

approximately 94% and 73% of the total body burden of lead is found in bones, respectively (ATSDR

1993b). Currently, chelating agents are used to reduce the body burden of lead and hence, its toxicity.

All of the chelating agents bind inorganic lead and facilitate the transfer of lead from soft tissues to

the circulation where it can be excreted. Since excretion of chelated lead is via the kidney, caution

should be used in patients with renal failure. The standard chelating agents currently used are

dimercaprol (British Anti-Lewisite or BAL) and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). Both these

agents are administered parenterally (ATSDR 1993b).

Currently, there are no known methods available for reducing the body burden of PAHs. PAHs are

rapidly metabolized and conjugated to form water-soluble metabolites that are completely eliminated in

the urine and feces within a matter of days (ATSDR 1990c). No data are available on the kinetics of

PAHs following chronic exposure, so it is not known if PAHs or their metabolites bioaccumulate in

these exposure situations. Given the relatively rapid and complete excretion following short-term
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 63

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

exposures, it is unlikely that PAHs will bioaccumulate to a large extent. However, since PAHs are

lipophilic, it is possible that the unmetabolized parent compound could accumulate in fat tissue

(ATSDR 1990c). It is possible that high-fat diets may favor accumulation of parent PAHs in lipids so

that they are not metabolized to reactive intermediates or water-soluble conjugates. Therefore,

modulating body fat content may reduce the body burden of PAHs by hastening their metabolism to

water-soluble conjugates. However, this may result in increased toxicity due to the increased

metabolism to reactive metabolites (ATSDR 1990c).

For substance-specific information on methods that may be effective in reducing levels of other

individual chemicals potentially found in used mineral-based crankcase oil, see the ATSDR profiles on

PAHs (ATSDR 1990c), lead (ATSDR 1993b), zinc (ATSDR 1989b), cadmium (ATSDR 1992d),

copper (ATSDR 1990b), chromium (ATSDR 1993a), nickel (ATSDR 1992f), barium (ATSDR 1992b),

boron (ATSDR 1992c), manganese (ATSDR 1992e), tin (ATSDR 1992g), and aluminum (ATSDR

1992a).

2.9.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects

As indicated above in the section on mechanisms of action, the toxicity of used mineral-based

crankcase oil has been attributed primarily to additives or contaminants found in the oil. As both the

additive composition and contaminants are likely to vary depending on the brand of oil used and its

use characteristics, steps taken to interfere with mechanisms underlying toxic responses should be

tailored to the individual chemicals of concern. It is beyond the scope of this profile to address

actions that may be taken to interfere with the mechanisms of action of all potential toxic additives or

contaminants. However, a brief discussion of lead and PAHs is provided as they are the primary

hazardous constituents associated with used motor oil. Chelating agents are used to prevent the

toxicity of lead by reducing the body burden. All of the chelating agents bind inorganic lead and

facilitate the transfer of lead from soft tissues to the circulation where it can be excreted. BAL

chelates both intracellular and extracellular stores of lead. BAL-lead chelates are excreted mainly in

the bile and some in the urine. BAL is used in individuals with renal impairment (ATSDR 1993b).

For adults that are symptomatic or have blood lead levels >70 μg/dL and for children (symptomatic or

asymptomatic) with blood lead levels >70 μg/dL, therapy with BAL is followed by EDTA. For

asymptomatic children with blood lead levels >45-69 μg/dL, EDTA chelation therapy is used.

2,3-Dimercaptoseccinia acid (DSMA) is an orally administered chelating agent approved by the FDA
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 64

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

for treating children with blood levels >45 μg/dL. DSMA is also being used to treat lead poisoning in

adults (ATSDR 1993b).

The toxic and carcinogenic effects of PAHs are thought to be mediated by reactive diol-epoxide

intermediates that interact directly with DNA and RNA, producing adducts. These adducts result in

neoplastic transformation and interfere with the normal functioning of rapidly proliferating tissues.

The reactive intermediates are formed when PAHs are biotransformed by the cytochrome P450

enzymes (ATSDR 1990c). Interference with these metabolic pathways, by inactivation of the activated

diol epoxides, or a reduction in tissue levels of cytochrome P450 enzymes responsible for forming the

reactive intermediates, could reduce the toxic and carcinogenic effects of PAHs. Various drugs, such

as cobaltous chloride, SKF-535A and 6-nitro-1,2,3-benzothiadiazole can inhibit the cytochrome P450

enzymes. Because PAHs are detoxified by conjugation with substances such as glutathione, sufficient

glutathione stores in the body may reduce the chances of toxic effects following acute exposure to

PAHs.

For additional chemical-specific information see the ATSDR profiles on PAHs (ATSDR 1990c), lead

(ATSDR 1993b), zinc (ATSDR 1989b), cadmium (ATSDR 1992d), copper (ATSDR 1990b),

chromium (ATSDR 1993a), nickel (ATSDR 1992f), barium (ATSDR 1992b), boron (ATSDR 1992c),

manganese (ATSDR 1992e), tin (ATSDR 1992g), and aluminum (ATSDR 1992a).

2.10 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE

Section 104(i)(5) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR (in consultation with

the Administrator of EPA and agencies and programs of the Public Health Service) to assess whether

adequate information on the health effects of used mineral-based crankcase oil is available. Where

adequate information is not available, ATSDR, in conjunction with the National Toxicology Program

(NTP), is required to assure the initiation of a program of research designed to determine the health

effects (and techniques for developing methods to determine such health effects) of usedmineral-based

crankcase oil.

The following categories of possible data needs have been identified by a joint team of scientists from

ATSDR, NTP, and EPA. They are defined as substance-specific informational needs that if met would

reduce the uncertainties of human health assessment. This definition should not be interpreted to mean
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 65

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

that all data needs discussed in this section must be filled. In the future, the identified data needs will

be evaluated and prioritized, and a substance-specific research agenda will be proposed.

2.10.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Used Mineral-based Crankcase Oil

The existing data on health effects of inhalation, oral, and dermal exposure of humans and animals to

used mineral-based crankcase oil are summarized in Figure 2-3. The purpose of this figure is to

illustrate the existing information concerning the health effects of used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Each dot in the figure indicates that one or more studies provide information associated with that

particular effect. The dot does not necessarily imply anything about the quality of the study or

studies, nor should missing information in this figure be interpreted as a “data need.” A data need, as

defined in ATSDR’s Decision Guide for Identifying Substance-Specific Data Needs Related to

Toxicological Profiles (ATSDR 1989a), is substance-specific information necessary to conduct

comprehensive public health assessments. Generally, ATSDR defines a data gap more broadly as any

substance-specific information missing from the scientific literature.

As seen in Figure 2-3, a large number of gaps exist in current knowledge of the health effects of used

mineral-based crankcase oil in humans and animals. Data from humans are limited to two studies in

which volunteers were exposed briefly to aerosols of used mineral-based crankcase oil (Dautrebande

and Capps 1950; Dautrebande et al. 1951) and two epidemiology studies of persons exposed

occupationally to used mineral-based crankcase oil (Clausen and Rastogi 1977; Steineck et al. 1989).

Animal data are also limited, consisting of a series of acute oral and dermal toxicity and irritation tests

in rodents (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990), two acute-duration inhalation toxicity

studies in rodents (Costa and Amdur 1979b; DOT 1983), an acute-to-intermediate-duration dietary

study in ducks and pheasants (Eastin et al. 1983), two case reports of poisonings in cattle that grazed

in contaminated pastures (Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas 1989), and a number of skin-painting oncogenicity

studies in mice (API 1983; Grimmer et al. 1982a, 1982b, 1983; McKee and Plutnick 1989).

USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 67

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

2.10.2 Identification of Data Needs

Acute-Duration Exposure. Studies exist that have examined the effects of acute-duration

inhalation, oral, and dermal exposures to used mineral-based crankcase oil in humans and/or animals

(API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Costa and Amdur 1979b; Dautrebande and Capps 1950; Dautrebande et

al. 1951; DOT 1983; Eastin et al. 1983; Vemot et al. 1990). However, no MRLs were derived for

acute-duration inhalation or oral exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil. This was due in part to

the lack of reliable dose-response data and in part to the variability in the composition of batches of

used mineral-based crankcase oil. Inhalation studies in humans identified mild eye, nose, and throat

irritation as toxic end points (Dautrebande and Capps 1950; Dautrebande et al. 1951), but a study with

guinea pigs showed no effect on pulmonary function (Costa and Amdur 1979a). In addition, an acuteduration inhalation study in rats showed no overt effects on either behavior or on pathology at

necropsy (DOT 1983). An acute oral LD50 study in rats showed no lethality, but oily diarrhea was

observed following administration of large oral doses (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al.

1990). Acute-duration dermal studies in rabbits identified slight-to-moderate skin irritation, but only

negligible eye irritation was reported (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990). Repeated

dermal doses in rabbits resulted in emaciation, but no specific systemic cause for the weight loss was

identified (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al. 1990). This suggests that toxicity other than

mild eye and skin irritation is possible with acute-duration exposures. The emaciation is probably due

to reduced food intake, effects on intestinal absorption, general systemic toxicity or stress which alters

metabolism, or a combination of these factors. What is required is a study in which food intake is

carefully measured, histopathology and clinical chemistry is performed, and metal content of major

organs is determined. Additional acute-duration inhalation studies are not warranted at this time since

inhalation exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil is unlikely.

Intermediate-Duration Exposure. No intermediate-duration inhalation or oral MRLs were derived

for used mineral-based crankcase oil because of the absence of reliable dose-response data and

variability in the composition of different batches of used mineral-based crankcase oil. No

intermediate-duration inhalation studies were located, but such studies do not appear necessary at this

time since inhalation exposures are not expected to occur unless the oil becomes aerosolized. Case

reports of intermediate-duration oral exposures in cattle suggest that effects associated with metal

toxicity may occur (Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas 1989). In addition, a study examining the health effects
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 68

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

associated with intermediate-duration exposure of monkeys to unused mineral-based crankcase oil

indicated that severe gastrointestinal damage may occur with ingestion (Lushbaugh et al. 1950). Since

used mineral-based crankcase oil may contain the same chemical that was responsible for the effects of

exposure to the unused oil, similar effects may occur with intermediate-duration ingestion of used oil.

These effects have not been thoroughly studied, and a well-conducted 90-day oral study in animals

could provide valuable information about target organs in humans and exposure levels associated with

toxicity. The only intermediate-duration dermal study that was located was a dermal sensitization

study in guinea pigs that reported only effects on the skin (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vemot et al.

1990). As indicated in the repeated-dose, acute-duration study described above, target organs other

than the skin are possible. Therefore, a 21- or 90-day dermal toxicity study in animals could provide

valuable information regarding effects likely to occur in persons with intermediate-duration dermal

exposures. The variations in used oil composition must be adequately dealt with for such studies to be

meaningful. Pooled composite samples or possibly several pooled samples from vehicles driven a

range of mileages would be required. A dermal study could provide information on potential systemic

effects of used oil applied to the skin. Four consecutive daily applications of used motor oil to the

skin of mice produced adducts in the DNA of the lung (Schoket et al. 1989). Evaluation of DNA

adducts in the major organs, assays for red blood cell δ-ALAD to detect lead poisoning, measurement

of concentrations of specific metals in serum and selected organs, and histopathologic examination of

major organs should be performed in such a study.

Chronic-Duration Exposure and Cancer. No chronic-duration inhalation or oral MRLs were

derived for used mineral-based crankcase oil because of the absence of reliable dose-response data and

variability in the composition of different batches of used mineral-based crankcase oil. The only

information located regarding the effects of chronic-duration exposure to used mineral-based crankcase

oil in humans was a report of health effects experienced by a number of mechanics and other auto

workers from 10 auto shops in Denmark (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). Additional studies examining

health effects of chronic oral and dermal exposures among exposed populations would provide

valuable information regarding the potential for such effects in similarly exposed populations.

Chronic-duration animal studies with used mineral-based crankcase oil are limited to studies whose

intent was to identify dermal carcinogenicity, and therefore other types of toxicity were not examined

(Grimmer et al. 1982a, 1982b, 1983; McKee and Plutnick 1989) or were examined incompletely (API

1983). Additional animal studies examining the health effects of chronic-duration oral and dermal

exposures to used mineral-based crankcase oil, as well as water-soluble constituents of the used oil are
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 69

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

necessary to identify health effects that may be associated with such exposures. For the chronic oral

study, daily administration of the water soluble components of used motor oil may be most useful for

assessing risk around hazardous waste sites, as these components may leach into drinking water.

The only information located regarding carcinogenicity in humans after exposure to used mineralbased crankcase oil was a study that showed that persons with occupational exposure are not at an

increased risk of renal pelvic or bladder cancer (Steineck et al. 1989). No information was located

regarding the occurrence of other types of cancer in humans exposed to used mineral-based crankcase

oil. Studies in mice have demonstrated that chronic-duration cutaneous exposure to used mineralbased

crankcase oil increases the incidence of skin tumors (API 1983; Grimmer et al. 1982a, 1982b,

1983; McKee and Plutnick 1989). Thus, similar tumors may occur in exposed human populations.

Additional studies directed at determining the cancer incidence in persons with chronic-duration dermal

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil (occupational studies) could provide information on

whether similar effects may occur in chronically exposed populations. However, epidemiology studies

in which the effects of chronic dermal exposure to used motor oil are evaluated are often not very

practical. The individuals who have repeated contact with used oil in service stations and garages do

not, as a group, remain on the job for extended periods of time; hence a suitable population is almost

impossible to find. A study examining the carcinogenicity of chronic-duration oral exposures to used

mineral-based crankcase oil in rodents may provide information on whether persons exposed similarly

might expect an increased risk of cancer.

Genotoxicity. No genotoxicity data were located regarding used mineral-based crankcase oil in

mammalian systems. However, results from Salmonella mutation assays (Dutcher et al. 1986; Granella

and Clonfero 1991; EPA 1980d; Manabe et al. 1984; Pasquini and Monarca 1983; Payne et al. 1978;

Peake and Parker 1980; Schreiner and Mackerer 1982) and the formation of DNA adducts in the skin

following cutaneous application of used mineral-based crankcase oil (Carmichael et al. 1990, 1992;

Schoket et al. 1989) suggest that this substance may be mutagenic in humans. Additional in vitro

mutagenicity tests in mammalian cells and in vivo analyses such as tests for chromosomal aberrations

or micronucleus tests could provide more conclusive evidence for the genotoxicity of used mineralbased crankcase oil in humans. In addition, tests assessing DNA adducts in tissues of animals exposed

experimentally could provide useful information about the distribution of such changes in the body.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 70

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

Reproductive Toxicity. No information was located regarding the reproductive toxicity of used

mineral-based crankcase oil in humans or animals. As the oral and dermal routes are the most likely

routes of exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil, intermediate-duration studies in animals using

these routes of exposure and examining the effects on reproductive organs would be a useful first step

in assessing the reproductive toxicity of this substance.

Developmental Toxicity. The only information located regarding developmental toxicity came

from an egg-painting study using ducks and quail (Hoffman et al. 1982a) and another study in which

used and virgin crankcase oil was injected into mallard eggs (Hoffmann and Albers 1984). These

studies suggest that the developing bird fetus may be at risk when exposed to chemicals found in used

mineral-based crankcase oil. Studies in mammals designed to assess the toxicity of used mineralbased

crankcase oil following oral or dermal exposure during gestation could provide valuable

information regarding the likelihood of developmental toxicity with maternal exposure. Toxicokinetic

studies of known contaminants such as lead or PAHs in pregnant animals when administered in a

mineral oil carrier could also provide information on the likelihood of fetal exposure.

Immunotoxicity. The only information located regarding immunological effects of used mineralbased

crankcase oil came from a dermal sensitization study using guinea pigs that showed no

sensitization after intermediate-duration exposure (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Vernot et al. 1990).

However, the positive control group also failed to show a potentiation of the dermal response in this

study. Thus, the results are inconclusive. Since workers with exposure to used mineral-based

crankcase oil report a moderate incidence of skin rashes on the hands and arms (not specified whether

the rashes were allergic in nature) (Clausen and Rastogi 1977), an additional skin sensitization study

could provide valuable information. In addition, if a subchronic oral or dermal exposure study in

animals were conducted, examination of effects on lymphoid tissue and leukocyte content could also

provide information indicating whether the immune system may be adversely affected. A test of

bacterial infectivity could also provide information regarding immune function. Also, measurement of

blood levels of immunoglobulins may provide subtle, but useful, information.

Neurotoxicity. Information regarding the neurotoxic potential of used mineral-based crankcase oil is

largely anecdotal in nature. Limited information from a report of health effects in mechanics and

other auto workers suggests that neurotoxic effects may be associated with occupational exposure to

used mineral-based crankcase oil (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). In addition, cattle that ingested used
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 71

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

mineral-based crankcase oil showed marked neurotoxicity (Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas 1989). Additional

experimental studies in animals examining the potential for neurotoxicity after oral and dermal

exposures under controlled conditions could provide valuable information as to whether persons

exposed to used mineral-based crankcase oil under such conditions may be expected to experience

adverse neurological effects. Neurotoxicity of crankcase oils can be evaluated as part of the

subchronic oral or dermal studies.

Epidemiological and Human Dosimetry Studies. Limited information was located regarding

epidemiological analyses of exposed populations. Renal, pelvic, and bladder cancers among workers

exposed to motor oil was examined in a study assessing the incidence of these tumor types among

different occupational groups (Steineck et al. 1989), and health effects and blood lead levels were

examined among workers in a small number of auto shops in Denmark (Clausen and Rastogi 1977).

Assessing the health effects among various groups of workers occupationally exposed to used mineralbased crankcase oil could be valuable in establishing cause/effect relationships that would be helpful in

monitoring populations living near hazardous waste sites.

Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect

Exposure. No information was located regarding biomarkers that are specific for exposure to used

mineral-based crankcase oil. The available literature on health effects of used mineral-based crankcase

oil indicates a few biomarkers of exposure for specific chemicals found in used mineral-based

crankcase oil such as metal content of the blood (Clausen and Rastogi 1977; Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas

1989) or DNA-adduct formation with PAHs (Carmichael et al. 1990; Schoket et al. 1989) . However,

since the toxicity of used mineral-based crankcase oil is expected to vary with chemical content,

effective biomarkers for exposure would also be expected to vary with chemical content of the oil.

Thus, additional research regarding biomarkers of exposure should be addressed on a chemical-specific

basis.

Effect. As discussed above for biomarkers of exposure, no information was located regarding

biomarkers that were specific for effects of used mineral-based crankcase oil. Examination of the

literature on health effects of used mineral-based crankcase oil indicated that DNA-adduct formation

by PAHs may be an indicator of the genotoxic potential of used mineral-based crankcase oil.

However, the chemical content of used mineral-based crankcase oil is expected to vary greatly, and
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 72

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

additional research regarding other biomarkers of effect should be addressed on a chemical-specific

basis.

Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion. No information was located regarding

the metabolism of used mineral-based crankcase oil, and only very limited animal data were located

regarding absorption, distribution, and excretion following oral and dermal exposures to used

mineral-based crankcase oil (API 1980b; Beck et al. 1984; Blakley and Brockman 1976; Carmichael et

al. 1990; Osweiler et al. 1973; Sas 1989; Schoket et al. 1989; Vemot et al. 1990). No other

quantitative data were located regarding the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of used

mineral-based crankcase oil following inhalation, oral, or dermal exposure in humans or animals.

Therefore, acute, intermediate, and chronic exposure data are needed in order to assess the relative

rates and extent of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion with respect to all three routes

of exposure, as well as with respect to time and dose for the primary chemical constituents of concern.

A definitive pharmacokinetics study of absorption of PAHs, lead, and other potentially toxic materials

administered in mineral oil through the intact skin of animals would be useful. Once that information

is available, the actual hazard associated with dermal exposure can be estimated. In addition, animal

and human data are needed to identify target organs among multiple species.

Comparative Toxicokinetics. No studies were located regarding comparative toxicokinetics of

used mineral-based crankcase oil. Human and animal data are needed in order to examine

toxicokinetics across species, i.e., in humans and animals of multiple species. This information is

needed in order to identify similar target organs and to adequately assess which animals can serve as

the best models for humans.

Methods for Reducing Toxic Effects. Although the mechanisms of absorption of used mineralbased

crankcase oil from the gastrointestinal tract and skin have not been studied, methods have been

identified that may be useful for reducing absorption of used mineral-based crankcase oil from these

areas. For example, washing with mild lipophilic soap has been recommended for removal from

exposed skin (Ellenhorn and Barceloux 1988), and induction of emesis, gastric lavage, and

administration of activated charcoal and/or osmotic cathartics have been suggested for decreasing

gastrointestinal absorption (Ellenhom and Barceloux 1988; Goldfrank et al. 1990; Haddad and

Winchester 1990). Additional research into the mechanisms of absorption of used mineral-based

crankcase oil and/or chemicals contained in the oil through the skin or the gastrointestinal tract could
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 73

2. HEALTH EFFECTS

provide a basis for developing more specific methods for reducing absorption. No specific methods

were identified for reducing the body burden or for interfering with the mechanisms of action of used

mineral-based crankcase oil. Such mitigation strategies would best be approached on a substancespecific basis depending on the additives or contaminants in the oil that are believed to be of

toxicological significance. Until specific toxic effects are clearly defined, methods for reducing toxic

effects must remain generalized.

2.10.3 On-going Studies

No information was located regarding on-going studies evaluating either the health effects or

toxicokinetics of used mineral-based crankcase oil.

USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 75

3. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION

3.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is a complex mixture of low and high (C15-C50) molecular weight

aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, lubrication additives, metals, and various organic and inorganic

compounds. The chemical composition of used mineral-based crankcase oil varies widely and depends

on the original crude oil, the processes used during refining, the efficiency and type of engine the oil

is lubricating, the gasoline combustion products, the additives added to the fuel and to the original oil,

and the length of time that the oil remains in the engine. The oil is typically 73-80% weight/weight

aliphatic hydrocarbons (primarily alkanes and cycloalkanes with l-6 rings); 11-15% monoaromatic

hydrocarbons; 2-5% diaromatic hydrocarbons; and 4-8% polyaromatic hydrocarbons (Vasquez-Duhalt

1989). The lubrication additives, which are approximately 20% of the oil, consist primarily of zinc

diaryl, molybdenum disulfide, zinc dithiophosphate, metal soaps, and other organometallic compounds.

Detergents and dispersants constitute 2-15% of the additives (Vasquez-Duhalt 1989).

Other compounds found in used mineral-based crankcase oil as a result of oil additives include barium,

phosphorus, zinc, and some chlorine and bromine compounds (Vermont Agency of Natural Resources

1994). Additional organic and inorganic compounds found in used mineral-based crankcase oil are

sulfur, aluminum, arsenic, calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium,

silicon, sodium, tin, toluene, benzene, xylene, ethylbenzene, and nitrogen, although most organic

compounds are destroyed during combustion of used mineral-based crankcase oil as fuel (Canadian

Environmental Protection Agency 1994; Vermont Agency of Natural Resources 1994).

Small amounts of PCBs were in the past incorporated into transmission fluids to control swelling of

rubber seals (Mueller Associates 1987). PCBs were also detected in 4 of 24 used oil samples at

concentrations of 7, 13, 18, and 65 ppm (Suprenant 1983). It should be noted that PCBs have never

been used in lubricant additives or in the creation of new motor oils. Because dioxins can form from

PCBs, which has severe health implications, production of PCBs for commercial purposes has almost

ceased (Hewstone 1994b).
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 76

3. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION

Information regarding the chemical identity of used mineral-based crankcase oil is located in

Table 3-l.

3.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Information regarding the physical and chemical properties of used mineral-based crankcase oil is

located in Table 3-2.


USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 79

4. PRODUCTION, IMPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL

4.1 PRODUCTION

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is a complex mixture of low and high molecular weight (C15-C50)

aliphatic (paraffins, olefins, and acetylene hydrocarbons and their derivatives), aromatic, and

naphthenic hydrocarbons, lubrication additives, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen compounds, and metals.

Aliphatic hydrocarbons contain a molecule with carbon atoms in simple or branched chains. Aromatic

hydrocarbons are compounds with unsaturated carbons in six-membered rings and properties similar to

benzene. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are complex organic compounds containing 3 or

more aromatic rings. The chemical composition of new or used mineral-based crankcase oil varies

widely and depends on the original crude oil and the processes used during refining.

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is produced when new mineral-based crankcase oil is subjected to

high temperatures and high mechanical strains. The lubricating oil is altered by nitration, cracking of

polymers, oxidation, and decomposition of organometallic compounds. Therefore, fuel (gasoline or

diesel), water, metals, metal oxides, and other combustion products accumulate in the oil, resulting in

used mineral-based crankcase oil (Vasquez-Duhalt 1989). Used mineral-based crankcase oil has been

determined to be a source of lead exposure, but other sources like exhaust gas, gasoline, and gear oil

can also contribute to lead exposure. Lead emissions are a direct result of lead added to fuel as an

antiknock agent in order to increase fuel efficiency. However, because of stringent emissions controls

in the late 1980s, atmospheric and human lead levels have dropped drastically with the introduction of

unleaded gasoline and the reduction of lead levels in leaded gasoline (Sawyer 1993). Other factors

such as the efficiency and type of engine the oil is lubricating, the gasoline combustion products, and

the interval between oil changes and mileage driven also alter the chemical composition of used

mineral-based crankcase oil.

The production of used mineral-based crankcase oil is expected to be equivalent to the sales of new

mineral-based crankcase oil. An estimated 65-68% of the oil is recovered when engine oil is changed;

the remaining motor oil is released into the environment while the engine is operating (Tanacredi

1977).
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 80

4. PRODUCTION, IMPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL

In 1972, EPA estimated that 500 million gallons of used mineral-based crankcase oil was produced in

the United States. The American Petroleum Institute (API) estimated that 616 million gallons of used

mineral-based crankcase oil were generated in 1974; 81% was collected by automotive shops, and the

remaining oil was obtained when automobile owners changed their own oil at home. Production

increased to 720 million gallons in 1975, and in 1980, more than 9 million tons were produced. In

1982, 1,350 million gallons of used mineral-based crankcase oil were produced in the United States

(API 1974; Brinkman et al. 1982; Maugh 1976; Vasquez-Duhalt 1989; Weinstein 1974).

4.2 IMPORT/EXPORT

No information on the import or export of used mineral-based crankcase oil was located.

4.3 USE

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is burned as a supplemental fuel in industrial steam boilers, domestic

oil burners, utility steam boilers, waste disposal incinerators, and rotary cement kilns. It is also used

as a component in asphalt and as a dust suppressant on rural roads. Used mineral-based crankcase oil

is also re-refined to make lubricating oils (EPA 1974b; NATO 1981; Tanacredi 1977; Weinstein

1974).

In 1974, 31.6-50% of used mineral-based crankcase oil (195-308 million gallons) was utilized as

supplemental fuel; 11-16.7% (67-103 million gallons) was incorporated into asphalt for roads; 23.2%

(143 million gallons) was used for road oiling; 3.3-9.2% (20-57 million gallons) was re-refined; and

23.0-30.0% (142-185 million gallons) was released into the environment (API 1974; EPA 1972;

NATO 1981; Stehouwer 1980; Tanacredi 1977). In 1989, a total of 750 million liters (198 million

gallons) of used mineral-based crankcase oil was used as road oil or incorporated into asphalt for roads

(DOE 1989).

4.4 DISPOSAL

In 1974, automobile owners who changed their own oil disposed of 69 million gallons of used

mineral-based crankcase oil directly onto the ground or into landfills, storm sewers, toilets, and sinks;

37 million gallons were returned to service stations for disposal. A national telephone survey of 4,805
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 81

4. PRODUCTION, IMPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL

U.S. households found that the disposal methods for the automobile owners who changed their own oil

were as follows: oil poured onto the ground-40%; oil placed in trash to be collected-21%; oil

taken to gas station or recycled-14%; miscellaneous uses-25% (i.e., used as a lubricant on

machinery, stored, used as an insecticide). In rural areas, the most common way to dispose of oil was

pouring onto gravel roads and driveways. A Wisconsin survey of automobile owners who changed

their own oil found the following breakdown of disposal methods: oil dumped on property-33%; oil

taken to service station-15%; oil taken to public dump-11%; oil dumped in storm sewer-11%; oil

dumped in garbage can-10%; oil dumped in empty lot-3%; and other-17% (API 1974; Brinkman

et al. 1982).

In a Wisconsin survey of service stations, the used mineral-based crankcase oil was disposed of in the

following manner: re-refined to lubricating oil-33.8%; re-used as fuel oil-37.2%; re-used for road

application-7.4%; reused on a farm-19.3%; dumped on the ground-2.1%; and not known-0.3%

(API 1974).

The two main methods for recycling used mineral-based crankcase oil are burning as fuel and

rerefining. Used mineral-based crankcase oil can easily be re-processed by settling and filtration to

remove water and solids followed by blending with diesel fuel, coal, or residual oil; it can then be

burned as a supplemental fuel. Used mineral-based crankcase oil may also be re-refined into a

lubricant blending stock. In 1980, 11.4% of used mineral-based crankcase oil was re-refined. Both

recycling methods have problems: high levels of metals are released into the atmosphere when used

mineral-based crankcase oil is burned, and re-refining processes produce wastes that cause disposal

problems. Additionally, the quality of re-refined motor oil is inferior to that of new motor oil because

there is no way to assure batch-batch quality of the re-refined base stocks (Stehouwer 1980).

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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

5.1 OVERVIEW

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is a complex mixture of low and high (C15-C50) molecular weight

aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, lubrication additives, metals, and various organic and inorganic

compounds. The chemical composition of used mineral-based crankcase oil varies widely and depends

on the original crude oil, the processes used during refining, the efficiency and type of engine the oil

is lubricating, the gasoline combustion products, the additives added to the fuel and to the original oil,

and the length of time that the oil remains in the engine. The oil is typically 73-80% weight/weight

aliphatic hydrocarbons (primarily alkanes and cycloalkanes with l-6 rings); 11-15% monoaromatic

hydrocarbons; 2-5% diaromatic hydrocarbons; and 4-8% polyaromatic hydrocarbons (Vasquez-Duhalt

1989). The lubrication additives, which are approximately 20% of the oil, consist primarily of zinc

diaryl, molybdenum disulfide, zinc dithiophosphate, metal soaps, and other organometallic compounds.

Detergents and dispersants constitute 2-15% of the additives (Vasquez-Duhalt 1989).

Other compounds found in used mineral-based crankcase oil as a result of oil additives include barium,

phosphorus, zinc, and some chlorine and bromine compounds (Vermont Agency of Natural Resources

1994). Average metal concentrations found in used gasoline engine oil in a 1994 study are barium at

2.73 ppm, beryllium at <0.02 ppm, cadmium at <1.51 ppm, chromium at 3.19 ppm, lead at 47.23 ppm,

nickel at <1.40 ppm, and zinc at 1,161 ppm (Vermont Agency of Natural Resources 1994). Levels of

barium have decreased dramatically in recent years because barium is no longer is a component in

lubricant dispersants. However, zinc concentrations have remained steady because of its use in

lubricant detergents (Entropy 1994). Generally, metal levels in automotive-generated oils are higher

than the levels found in industrial-generated oils (Mueller Associates 1987). The highest

concentrations of metal levels are found in the combustion effluents of automotive-generated used oils

rather than in truck-generated oils (Hall et al. 1983a). Prior to the introduction of unleaded gasoline,

lead levels in used mineral-based crankcase oil were approximately 13,000 μg/g (Vasquez-Duhalt

1989). In 1983, used oil lead levels had dropped to an average of 1,100 ppm for the 24 samples of

used oil tested (Suprenant et al. 1983). In a 1994 study, a lead level of 47.23 ppm was found in used

gasoline engine oil (Vermont Agency of Natural Resources 1994). Lead content in used mineral-based
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 84

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

crankcase oil is predominantly a result of piston blow-by of the combustion products of leaded

gasoline (Mueller Associates 1987; Vermont Agency of Natural Resources 1994).

Additional organic and inorganic compounds found in used mineral-based crankcase oil are sulfur,

aluminum, arsenic, calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, silicon,

sodium, tin, toluene, benzene, xylene, ethylbenzene, and nitrogen, although most organic compounds

are destroyed during combustion of used mineral-based crankcase oil as fuel (Canadian Environmental

Protection Agency 1994; Vermont Agency of Natural Resources 1994). The toxicity of chromium is

dependent upon its structural form, as it exists in eight different oxidation states. The most stable

forms are the trivalent and hexavalent forms, with the hexavalent form being the most toxic of the

various states (Vermont Agency of Natural Resources 1994).

Small amounts of PCBs were in the past incorporated into transmission fluids to control swelling of

rubber seals (Mueller Associates 1987). PCBs were also detected in 4 of 24 used oil samples at

concentrations of 7, 13, 18, and 65 ppm (Suprenant 1983). It should be noted that PCBs have never

been used in lubricant additives or in the creation of new motor oils. Because dioxins can form from

PCBs, which has severe health implications, production of PCBs for commercial purposes has almost

ceased (Hewstone 1994b). The 24 samples in the Suprenant et al. (1983) study also contained an

average concentration of 20 ppm of benz(a)anthracene with benzo(a)pyrene below the detection limit

of 5 ppm. Both of these polynuclear aromatics (PNAs) are considered hazardous and carcinogenic to

humans (Suprenant 1983).

Used mineral-based crankcase oil may be released directly into the air, water, or soil through fuel

burning, re-refining, engine oil leaks, automobile or truck exhaust, uncontrolled disposal into sewers or

landfills, and to a lesser extent via environmental spills. Used mineral-based crankcase oil can also be

released into the environment as a dust suppressant on rural roads (Canadian Environmental Protection

Act 1994). However, in most states strict regulations now prohibit or limit the use of used oil as a

dust suppressanf (Mueller Associates 1987). In addition, metal particulates may be released into the

atmosphere, depending upon their volatility, through engine exhaust or when used mineral-based

crankcase oil is used as supplemental fuel in boilers and incinerators.

In 1983, approximately 699 million gallons of automotive used oil were created. The primary sources

of this oil were do-it-yourself oil changers, which accounted for 34.2% of all automotive oil generated.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 85

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

Sources such as service stations and repair shops accounted for approximately 214.8 million gallons of

used automotive oils. The total used oil, including industrial and automotive oils, consisted of

1.2 billion gallons in 1983. Burning was the primary use of used oils, consuming 48.9% or 590.1

million gallons of the total used oil generated in 1983 (Mueller Associates 1987).

The environmental fate of used mineral-based crankcase oil is dependent on its individual components.

See other ATSDR profiles for the environmental fate of specific components such as PAHs, lead,

cadmium, and zinc (ATSDR 1990c, 1993b, 1992d, 1989b). Chemical and biological processes such as

microbial degradation and oxidation that normally degrade hydrocarbons are less effective on used

mineral-based crankcase oil because the high molecular weight hydrocarbons and less-soluble

aromatics are less susceptible to these environmental processes. Most high molecular weight

hydrocarbons will sorb to organic matter in the soil or particulates in the water column and will

eventually accumulate in the sediment. Microbial degradation is dependent on the hydrocarbon

fractions present in the used mineral-based crankcase oil, the number of microorganisms present in the

soil, sediment, or water, and the environmental conditions, for example, temperature. During

microbial degradation, metals may be released from the oil phase into the aqueous phase, which

increases the persistence, mobility, and toxicity of the metals. Heavy metals may then accumulate in

plants, soil, sediments, surface water, and groundwater.

Minimal exposure to the general population may occur when an individual adds engine oil or checks

the engine oil level in a vehicle. Dermal exposure appears to be the primary route of occupational

exposure for individuals employed in the automotive industry and for individuals who change their oil

or otherwise handle engine components contaminated with used mineral-based crankcase oil.

However, non-occupational exposure is expected to occur only a few days per year. Other

populations potentially exposed either dermally or by inhalation to used mineral-based crankcase oil

include individuals living or working in the vicinity of service stations that improperly dispose of used

mineral-based crankcase oil, active or inactive oil recycling or re-refining facilities, or roads that are

treated with used mineral-based crankcase oil for dust suppression. Individuals who live& work near

facilities that bum used mineral-based crankcase oil as a supplemental fuel for boilers or waste

disposal incinerators may be exposed to high levels of metal particulates.

Used mineral-based crankcase oil has been found in at least 85 of the 1,430 current or former EPA

National Priorities List (NPL) hazardous waste sites (HAZDAT 1996). However, the number of sites
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 86

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

evaluated for used mineral-based crankcase oil is not known. Of these sites, all 85 are located in the

United States, and none are located in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.

The frequency of these sites within the United States can be seen in Figure 5-l.

5.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT

Releases of used mineral-based crankcase oil are not required to be reported under SARA Section 313.

Consequently, there are no data for this compound in the 1993 Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) (TR193

1995).

5.2.1 Air

The combustion products of used mineral-based crankcase oil may be released to the atmosphere when

the oil is used as primary or supplemental fuel in industrial steam boilers, domestic oil burners, utility

steam boilers, rotary cement kilns, or waste disposal incinerators. Combustion products of used

mineral-based crankcase oil include lead, zinc, chromium, aluminum, nickel, copper, other metal

particles, sulfur, nitro-compounds, sulfur dioxide, phosphorus, calcium, hydrochloric acid, and nitrogen

oxides (AEC 1974; Canadian Environmental Protection Act 1994; Vasquez-Duhalt 1989). These

products may also be released during soot blowing at large boilers or during the cleaning of furnaces

or boilers (Mueller Associates 1987). Due to the release of these combustion products, used fuel oil is

regulated by its contaminant concentrations and physical characteristics. Used fuel oil which exceeds

these maximum concentrations is considered off-specification and is subject to additional regulations

regarding the combustion processes (Entropy 1994). According to Entropy (1994), industrial

consumers of used oil bum a combined total of 800 million gallons per year for fuel and release

28.06 tons of lead emissions per year including vapor and uncollected particles. It is used in space

heaters, commercial boilers, industrial boilers, marine boilers, utility boilers, asphalt plants, cement

plants, and pulp-mills. Asphalt plants consume the largest amounts of used oil per year-at 313.4

million gallons, with total lead emissions per year of 9.52 tons. Industrial and utility boilers are the

second and third largest consumers of used oil with estimates of 101.4 million gallons and 92.3

million gallons burned per year respectively. Particulate collection efficiency for the different types

ranged from 0% efficiency to 95% efficiency for cement plants and steel mills (Entropy 1994). Lead

removal efficiency in large boilers >25x106Btu/hr) averages around 70% as a result of destruction

USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 88

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

during combustion. Small boilers emit approximately <50% of the lead in the fuel as emissions

(Suprenant et al. 1983). A 1983 study reported 590.1 million gallons of used oil was disposed of by

incineration (Mueller Associates 1987).

Prior to the introduction of unleaded gasoline, the combustion of used mineral-based crankcase oil in

power plants resulted in high levels of lead emissions (5.0 μg/m3

) for 24-hour periods. The

combustion of used mineral-based crankcase oil originating from automobile engines, collected from

service stations, released 20.9 μg/m3 respirable particulates despite the use of an electrostatic

precipitator. No recent data are available for lead emissions from similar combustion sources (Cooper

1977; Mumford et al. 1986). Oil from crankcase-lubricated engines may also be emitted directly with

automobile exhaust at concentrations of 0.1-0.25 L/1,000 km or together with particulate emissions in

exhaust (Van Donkelaar 1990). Releases of nitrosamines (animal carcinogens and possible human

carcinogens) from heavy duty diesel crankcase emissions were reported when using fresh oil. The

amount of nitrosamines released is dependant on the type of oil used and the flow rate of NOx in the

crankcase. Limited evidence exists for a decrease in nitrosamine release as the age of the oil

increases. Other sources are automobile interiors and possibly diesel exhaust (Baines 1981). Vapors

from the application of used mineral-based crankcase oil to rural roads for dust suppression may also

be released to the atmosphere.

5.2.2 Water

Releases of used mineral-based crankcase oil in urban stormwater runoff have been reported. Used

mineral-based crankcase oil from engine leaks accumulates on parking lots, in garages, and in the

central area of roadway lanes. Stormwater runoff from heavily traveled roadways and bridges is often

contaminated with used mineral-based crankcase oil, with aliphatic hydrocarbon concentrations ranging

from 0.20 to 24 mg/L (200-24,000 μg/L) (Hunter et al. 1979; MacKenzie and Hunter 1979; Van

Donkelaar 1990; Wakeham 1977). The contaminated runoff generally enters a sanitary, storm, or

combined sewer system and may bypass treatment facilities during periods of heavy rainfall (Tanacredi

1977). When more communities separate storm sewers and sanitary sewers, stormwater treatment

plants may be able to remove a portion of the used mineral-based crankcase oil from the stormwater.

Direct dumping of used mineral-based crankcase oil into storm drains is a result of motorists changing

their own engine oil and not having a convenient collection facility available for disposal. An

estimated 7 million gallons out of 340 million gallons of oil drained from automobiles per year are
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 89

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

dumped into sewers (Suprenant et al. 1983). Contaminated water ultimately reaches streams, rivers,

lakes, and sediments because most of the associated hydrocarbons and metals are resistant to

traditional waste water treatment methods (Falahi-Ardakani 1984; Farrington and Quinn 1973;

Freestone 1979; Hunter et al. 1979; Latimer et al. 1990; MacKenzie and Hunter 1979; Tanacredi 1977;

Van Donkelaar 1990; Wakeham 1977).

Hydrocarbons sampled from urban runoff at commercial, residential, and interstate highway sites

displayed the same chromatographic characteristics and PAH distribution as used mineral-based

crankcase oil. Stormwater runoff from an industrial site in Rhode Island used by oil distributors, scrap

metal dealers, and metal finishers contained primarily hydrocarbons (96%) associated with used

mineral-based crankcase oil (Latimer et al. 1990). Runoff from roads treated for dust suppression has

been hypothesized as a major mechanism of transport for oil leaving the road surface from the months

of September through June on a road sampled in New Jersey. Soil samples taken at the base of a

drain pipe carrying water away from the treated road showed a lead concentration of 87 mg/kg. A

stream receiving runoff from the treated road showed two oil patches which, when analyzed, contained

hydrocarbons similar to those found in waste crankcase oil (Freestone 1972). From the data, it is clear

that hydrocarbons and heavy metals from used mineral-based crankcase oil are distributed widely in

the environment, especially where industrial activity and motor vehicles are found, or where used oil is

incinerated, otherwise utilized, or dumped. Surface water, especially runoff from roads, streets,

bridges, and sediments in streams and lakes, contains considerable amounts of these materials. Hence,

the potential risk to human health and to the environment is significant.

5.2.3 Soil

In 1983, an estimated 50-80 million gallons of used oil was used as a dust suppressant for dirt roads

in the United States. At the time of this estimate, road oiling was banned in 8 states and regulated in

13 additional states (Suprenant et al. 1983). This oil can be a source of nearby soil and water

contamination because of runoff and leaching. The rates of removal are highly variable ranging from

3-5% removal to as high as 99% removal (Canadian Environmental Protection Act 1994; Freestone

1972). The rate of removal varies as a result of the environmental conditions the road is subjected to

and the condition and materials of the road itself. Additional removal of used mineral-based

crankcase oil is facilitated by other processes such as adhesion to tires and chemical and biological
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 90

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

degradation (Freestone 1972; Raymond et al 1976; Rudolph 1980; Mueller Associates 1987). The

majority of the oil does not penetrate the road and remains close to the surface.

A simulation of oil application on a roadbed showed that the oil did not penetrate to depths deeper

than 1 cm, with the largest concentration being within the top few millimeters of the soil. Lead

concentrations in soil in a drainage ditch near (exact distance not stated) an oil-treated road ranged

from 50 to 136 mg/kg. Concentrations of lead in soil samples taken from a wheat field 47.7 meters

from the oil-treated road averaged 24 mg/kg, which is higher than expected for the lead background

levels near a rural road (Falahi-Ardakani 1984; Freestone 1979). Other chemicals detected in runoff

include zinc, aluminum, sodium, calcium, and organic compounds such as phenol and chlorophenol

(Canadian Environmental Protection Act 1994). Solid wastes containing metals, chlorinated solvents,

PAHs, and other organics that are created during re-refining are often disposed of in landfills or

lagoons or incorporated into road building materials (Mueller Associates 1987; Weinstein et al. 1982).

Lead levels in soil near a waste oil re-refinery in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, which is on the NPL,

have been measured as high as 4,810 mg/kg (ATSDR 1990a).

5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE

5.3.1 Transport and Partitioning

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is a complex mixture of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, metals,

and other additives. Upon release to the environment, used mineral-based crankcase oil is not

transported as a mixture, but rather, the various components partition to the atmosphere, water, or soil

according to their different physical and chemical properties. Therefore, a mixture of used mineralbased crankcase oil is unlikely to be found intact in various media. However, small and moderate

spills on soil may remain entrained in the soil near or on the surface. The partitioning behavior of

metals is dependent on the form that the metals are in when released into the environment (DOE

1989). Metals released during combustion transform and partition into four different forms: solids

that remain in the combustion process, flyash, solid phase product streams, and vapor phase materials

(Entropy 1994). The fate of the oil that is directly released to the soil is determined by the nature and

the organic content of the soil. Soils with high organic content will tend to absorb the oil and prevent

its spread downward as opposed to permeable soil with little organic matter, which will allow the oil

to migrate downward and possibly contaminate groundwater supplies (Raymond et al. 1976).
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 91

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

The majority of the hydrocarbons in used mineral-based crankcase oil are of high molecular weight

and will volatilize more slowly because of low estimated vapor pressures (<0.001 mmHg at 25°C).

Lower molecular weight hydrocarbons will volatilize quickly from the soil surface to the atmosphere.

However, if used mineral-based crankcase oil is spilled on soil, volatilization may be the major loss

mechanism over long periods of time because the oil is resistant to leaching and degradation and

characteristically remains on the soil surface (DOE 1989). Abiotic degradation was measured in a

laboratory weathering experiment by placing a mixture of 80% used mineral-based crankcase oil and

20% No. 6 sludge (a mixture typically applied to roads) into a shallow pan. The mixture was

subjected to simulated weathering stresses (wind and sunlight for 12 days); a 16-18% loss of weight

was attributed to volatilization (Freestone 1979).

Hydrocarbons, such as highly branched alkanes and PAHs with three or more rings, are transported in

soil runoff to surface water and settle out of the water cohunn into the sediment where they may

persist for many years (Brown et al. 1985; Wakeham and Carpenter 1976). Most hydrocarbons in

used mineral-based crankcase oil have estimated water solubilities of less than 1 mg/L and soil

partition coefficients of 10,000-l,000,000. These values indicate that used mineral-based crankcase oil

will strongly adsorb to soils. Low molecular weight nitrogen- and sulfur-containing molecules, various

additives, and solubilized metals in the mixture may be more mobile (DOE 1989; Vasquez-Duhalt and

Greppin 1986).

When exposed to water, the various water-soluble fractions of used mineral-based crankcase oil will

separate with their concentrations increasing with increasing agitation. Concentrations released from a

1:10 oil-to-water mixture have ranged from 54.4 μg/L to 198 μg/L for benzene, 516 μg/L to 781 μg/L

for toluene, a nondeductible level to 0.17 μg/L for ethylbenzene, and 172 μg/L to 339 μg/L for

xylenes. The ranges were affected by the length of agitation with the lower concentration being

measured after 0.5 hours and the higher concentration being measured after 24 hours of agitation.

These ranges provide the upper ranges of concentrations that can be found in groundwater where the

soil is contaminated’with used motor oil. Other water soluble fractions of used motor oil include

napthalene, 1-methylnapthalene, 2-methylnapthalene, acenaphthylene, phenanthrene, anthracene,

fluoranthene, aenapthene, pyrene, and chrysene. Additional compounds detected in the water soluble

fractions include napthalene, 1-methylnapthalene, 2-methylnapthalene, phenanthrene, and acenaphthene.

In the previous study, iron, copper, cadmium, lead, nickel, and zinc were also detected in the water

soluble fractions (Chen et al. 1994).
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

Studies have shown that used lubricating oil when applied to soil degrades without significant

contamination of the surrounding soil and groundwater. This degradation is due to bacteria and fungi

which can degrade the components of used lubricating oil (Neal et al. 1977; Rittmann and Johnson

1989). The degradation process is faster when the oil is applied to soil that has been previously

exposed to oil due to the increased numbers of the degrading bacteria (Rittmann and Johnson 1989).

To increase the degrading ability of the soil, oil-degrading bacteria that have been cultured in a lab can

be applied to the soil. The speed of the degradation process decreases after a period of time due to

the increase in concentrations of oil components that are harder to degrade (Rittmann and Johnson

1989). Another method of increasing the degradation of oil involves the addition of nitrogen and

phosphorus to the soil (Neal et al. 1977; Rittmann and Johnson 1989). An oil decomposition rate of

approximately 1 pound per cubic foot of soil per month was recorded in one study when commercial

fertilisers were added to the soil (Neal et al. 1977). Additional increases in the rate of degradation can

be obtained by tilling the soil to provide aeration (Elsavage and Sexstone 1989; Raymond et al. 1976;

Rittmann and Johnson 1989). A study of soil degradation of waste oil emulsion used as a coolant

showed a 96% decrease in the concentration of pristane and hexadecane. This decrease was not seen

in sterilized soil. Soil with a higher rate of hexadecane biodegradation also showed a corresponding

higher rate of respiration. The fatty acids contained in the waste emulsion were broken down within

28 days. Plants were observed to grow on the soil immediately after cessation of the oil application,

although it must be noted that in this study the waste oil did not contain the metals found in waste

crankcase oil. In soil cores, the majority of the applied compounds remained within the top 48 cm,

and the components were not detected in significant concentrations in the groundwater below the site

(Elsavage and Sexstone 1989).

Used mineral-based crankcase oil applied to rural roads for dust suppression can be transported to the

air, water, and soil by several mechanisms: volatilization, runoff, capillary action, adhesion to dust

particles, or adhesion to passing vehicles (Freestone 1972, 1979). Factors affecting the transport of

used mineral-based crankcase oil include its viscosity, volatility, presence of surface-active agents, soil

porosity, weather conditions, time to first rain after oil application, presence of oil-consuming

microorganisms, and road conditions. Only 1% of the estimated amount of used mineral-based

crankcase oil applied to two rural roads in New Jersey remained on the top 1 inch of the road surface

material (Freestone 1979). This estimate was based on calculations using measurements of oil in the

surface of the road, and assumptions that two applications were completed per year for 12-20 years at

an application rate of 0.05 gallon/foot2

 for each application. The majority of oil transport occurred via
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 93

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

runoff after the first few rainfalls following the oil application. During dry periods, the primary forms

of transport were volatilization and dust transport. Dust particles may be carried by wind and

contaminate crops located near the oiled roads. Samples were taken from oil on the banks of a stream

near a road treated with used mineral-based crankcase oil and from the treated road. Fluorescent

spectral analysis displayed similar hydrocarbon properties from each sample, indicating that the oil was

reaching the stream and was deposited on the banks during a period of high stream flow (Freestone

1979).

Hydrocarbons from used mineral-based crankcase oil in stormwater were associated primarily with

particulates (86.4%), indicating that adsorption to particles is an integral method of transport

(Freestone 1979; Hunter et al. 1979). Once used mineral-based crankcase oil becomes adsorbed to

particulate matter, diaromatics are lost through natural weathering (MacKenzie and Hunter 1979).

During a storm, the particulates are washed into the sewers and are eventually deposited in the

sediments of the receiving water, especially if combined sewers are utilized and the treatment facility

is bypassed (Freestone 1979; Hunter et al. 1979; MacKenzie and Hunter 1979). In one laboratory

simulation of oil transport by runoff from oil-treated sand roads, the primary mechanism of transport

was flotation of oil-wet sand particles. After two simulated monthly rainfalls, 20% of the oil-wet sand

particles were transported by runoff from the road surface, and the applied used mineral-based

crankcase oil had leached 1 mm into the clay surface of the road (Freestone 1979).

Used mineral-based crankcase oil can affect marine organisms in several different ways. These effects

are categorized as lethal and sublethal toxicity by contact, physical coating by the oil, incorporation of

the oil into tissues, and habitat alteration (Moore and Dwyer 1974). The effects of used mineral-based

crankcase oil on marine organisms depends upon the nature of the oil to which the organism is

exposed. The PAHs present in oil are known carcinogens and are found throughout the ocean in the

residual fractions of crude oil and can concentrate in animal tissue (Hyland and Schneider 1976).

Uptake of PAHs in marine fish and shellfish occurs via absorption of hydrocarbons on the skin, via

dissolved hydrocarbons from the water diffusing through the skin, by transport across the gill

membranes, and through ingestion of hydrocarbon-contaminated food (Connell and Miller 1981). This

uptake is due primarily to the fact that aquatic organisms reach chemical homeostasis with the

surrounding water (Moore and Dwyer 1974).
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

In Williams et al., lobsters (Homarus americanus) were exposed to a surface slick of 25 mL diesel oil.

PAH accumulations were observed in hepatopancreas tissue and tail muscle at days 3 and 4 of the

experiment. The route of exposure for the lobsters was determined to be via absorption of dissolved

hydrocarbons through the gills (Williams et al 1989b). Nine PAHs commonly detected in used

mineral-based crankcase oil were found to bioconcentrate in bivalve mollusks (Mercenaria

mercenariu) within 48 hours of initial exposure (in vitro exposure for 48 hours). Uptake of the PAHs

was directly related to the weight of the mollusks. PAHs were maintained at detectable levels (the

average total PAH concentration was 1522.55 nglg wet tissue weight; the detection limit not reported)

at the end of a 45-day depuration period, suggesting that mollusks may not be able to metabolize

PAHs into water-soluble metabolites that are easily secreted (Tanacredi and Cardenas 1991).

Laboratory studies on Melitu nitidu Smith, an estuarine amphipod, showed decreased survivability

among the juveniles when exposed to 100 ppm waste oil in sediments. The females’ ability to

reproduce decreased as the sediment concentration of waste oil increased. This was due to

morphological abnormalities in the reproductive structures (Borowsky et al. 1993).

Studies on exposure of fish to used mineral-based crankcase oil have shown that rainbow trout

(Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed to waste crankcase oil exhibited an increase in liver, kidney, and heart

mixed-function oxidase (MFO) activity along with a corresponding increase in bile metabolites.

Maximum levels were reached in days 1-4 and returned to basal levels by day 12. The threshold level

for increased liver activity was 3 mg of PACs (polycyclic aromatic compounds) per kilogram of fish

(Upshall et al. 1993). Carp (Cyprinus carpio) exposed to 50 ppb diesel 2 oil within 3 days exhibited

an increase of bile fluorescence to a level 5.8-fold higher than unexposed carp. A saturation level

representing a 12-fold increase in bile fluorescence was reached after 12 days of exposure (Britvic et

al. 1992). Used mineral-based crankcase oil has also been shown to have negative effects on the

growth of tadpoles (Hyla cinerea) as compared to the control groups (Mahaney 1994).

Earthworms found in the soil 10 meters from a roadway were soil-purged and found to accumulate up

to 670 ppm cadmium and 331.4 ppm lead, attributed to used mineral-based crankcase oils deposited on

road surfaces. These metal levels may be lethal to earthworm predators (such as amphibians, reptiles,

birds, and mammals) and may have a detrimental effect on the food chain (Gish and Christensen

1973). Metals can also accumulate in roadside plants through foliar absorption or root uptake (FalahiArdakani 1984).
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

5.3.2 Transformation and Degradation

5.3.2.1 Air

The major removal processes of particles in the air, including aerosols of used mineral-based crankcase

oil, are coagulation, which leads to larger particle sizes that sediment out of the atmosphere and

scavenging by precipitation. Hydrocarbons are removed from the air by chemical and photochemical

reactions. Many of these reactions lead to the formation of free radicals. When photosensitized, metal

oxides may promote the oxidation of hydrocarbons (Manahan 1979). Photochemical transformation

has been considered to be the most important method of atmospheric decomposition of PAH in both

the gas phase and as particulates (Baek et al. 1991).

When used mineral-based crankcase oil is burned, metals, organics, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,

acid halides, and particulates are released into the atmosphere. Metals such as lead and zinc, in

particular, are emitted in substantial quantities. The majority of organic compounds in used mineralbased crankcase oil are destroyed during combustion. When used mineral-based crankcase oil is

applied to roads as a dust suppressant, volatilization can occur which results in its components being

released into the atmosphere (Canadian Environmental Protection Act 1994). Moderately volatile

metals such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, zinc, and nickel compounds will nucleate to form particles in

the submicron size range. Metals of low volatility such as barium, chromium, nickel, and tin will

either vaporize incompletely and nucleate onto solids emitted during combustion or form large-sized

particles (Entropy 1994).

5.3.2.2 Water

When automotive lubricating oil comes into contact with water, a partitioning of various volatile

organic compounds, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, and metals takes place. The hydrocarbons

found in motor oil consist mainly of napthenes and aromatic compounds with smaller amounts of

paraffins. The ratio of these constituents determines the physical properties of the oil such as viscosity

and viscosity-temperature-pressure characteristics. In a study by Chen et al. (1994), the partition

coefficients of aromatic compounds from motor oil to water were estimated using Raoult’s law to

determine equilibrium conditions for the water-to-oil positioning. Compounds detected in the watersoluble fractions of used motor oil include naphthalene, 1-methylnaphthalene, 2-methylnaphthalene,
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 96

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

acenaphthalene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, acenaphthene, pyrene, and chrysene. No

phenols were detected in the water-soluble fractions. The metals detected in the water-soluble

fractions were iron, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc. The concentrations of the solutes introduced into

the water increased with increasing agitation of the oil-water mixture (Chen et a1.1994).

The various constituents of used mineral-based crankcase oil undergo several weathering processes

following a spill. These include volatilization, sinking, emulsification, agglomeration,

photodegradation, and biodegradation, depending on the chemical and physical nature of the

compounds (Canadian Environmental Protection Act 1994).

Metals found in used mineral-based crankcase oil did not inhibit the growth of Pseudomonas

fluorescent bacteria, possibly because the metals were not in a form that the bacteria could assimilate.

However, when the metabolic rate exceeded the growth rate during bacterial biodegradation, metals

were transferred from the oil phase to the aqueous phase. A fraction of the metals in the aqueous

phase was immobilized by adsorption, precipitation, or assimilation during bacterial growth. The

amount of metals solubilized was dependent on the equilibrium between growth and metabolism. The

transfer from the oil phase to the aqueous phase involved an increase in metal persistence, mobility,

and toxicity (Vasquez-Duhalt and Greppin 1986).

5.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil

Used mineral-based crankcase oil released to the soil surface is subject to weathering stresses because

the two primary loss mechanisms, volatilization and aerobic microbial degradation, are very slow.

Microbial degradation of hydrocarbons is highly dependent on the chemical and physical properties of

the hydrocarbon fractions present and on environmental conditions. When used mineral-based

crankcase oil penetrates through the soil to the soil/groundwater interface, microbial degradation and

hydrolysis processes, which are effective in degrading typical hydrocarbons, are not effective in

degrading the less soluble aromatic and high molecular weight aliphatic constituents. Used mineralbased crankcase oil is also resistant to oxidation because anti-oxidants are added to crankcase oil when

originally formulated (DOE 1989). Initial resistance to biodegradation may be attributed to the

inability of the large hydrocarbon molecules to pass through the cell walls to be degraded within the

bacteria. Consequently, the bacteria use extracellular enzymes, and therefore biodegradation is delayed

during the adaptation period (DOE 1989). In soils that were previously exposed to oil, the rate of
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

degradation increased because of the maintenance of a microbial population with the capacity to

degrade hydrocarbons (Elsavage and Sexstone 1989; Neal et al. 1977).

Sediments in the Delaware River near the outfall of a sewage treatment plant were sampled, and the

sulfur profile of the hydrocarbons was found to be analogous to the hydrocarbon profile of used

mineral-based crankcase oil and stormwater runoff. The presence of high-boiling aromatic sulfur

compounds and other hydrocarbons suggested that degradation did not occur in the sediments

(MacKenzie and Hunter 1979).

A single application of 2.98 L/m2

 of used mineral-based crankcase oil from automobiles and trucks to

field soil plots in Pennsylvania (silt loam), Oklahoma (sandy loam), and Texas (clay loam) was

degraded by 55-82% (oil from automobiles) and 24-53% (oil from trucks) over 1 year (Raymond et

al. 1976). Concentrations in fertilized fields of used mineral-based crankcase oil from automobiles and

trucks decreased by 71-82% and 46-77%, respectively. The maximum rate of degradation was 0.60

L/m2

 each month. Cold ambient temperatures appeared to decrease the rate of degradation, and

fertilizer application had little effect on the degradation until 50% of the oil was degraded. Following

50% degradation of the applied oil, the fertilizer-treated plots exhibited degradation rates 20% faster in

Pennsylvania and 4% faster in Texas, compared to the unfertilized plots. The fertilizer-treated plots

did not have significantly more used mineral-based crankcase oil degrading microorganisms compared

to the unfertilized plots. Most of the degradation activity occurred in the top 10 cm of the soil,

suggesting aerobic degradation. Most seeds germinated in treated and control plots; however, few

plants survived and developed normally in both plots. Analyses suggested that an accumulation of

lead affected the plants (Raymond et al. 1976).

Biodegradation of used mineral-based crankcase oil on road surfaces is minimal compared to losses

from volatilization and runoff. Nevertheless, the degradation rate of used mineral-based crankcase oil

on road surface material depends on the presence of hydrocarbon-consuming microorganisms, moisture

content of soil, concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus, and ambient temperatures (Freestone 1979).
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

5.4 LEVELS MONITORED OR ESTIMATED IN THE ENVIRONMENT

5.4.1 Air

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is not monitored in the air as a mixture but rather by its individual

components, such as lead particulates and total hydrocarbons. The individual components may enter

the atmosphere when used mineral-based crankcase oil is used as a fuel for boilers or waste disposal

incinerators (API 1975; Cooper 1977; EPA 1974a; Mumford et al. 1986; NATO 1981), or it may be

emitted directly with auto exhaust (Williams et al. 1989a). Models of emissions of a re-refinery in

Buffalo, New York, produced estimates of hydrocarbons ranging from 4.87 to 10.56 μg/m3

 depending

on atmospheric conditions at a distance of 150 meters from the source (Booth et al. 1983). The

combustion of used mineral-based crankcase oil as l-15% of the total fuel in power plants and other

boilers resulted in measured ambient lead concentrations less than 5.0 μg/m3

 (0.005 mg/m3) for

24-hour periods. The detection limit was not reported (Cooper 1977). Average concentrations were

measured at 0.0001 μg/m3

 at a distance of 10,000 meters from the stack (API 1975).

Used mineral-based automotive crankcase oil was utilized as fuel in two waste oil heaters, an

atomizing oil burner (AOB) and a vaporizing oil burner (VOB). The authors did not state if leaded or

unleaded gasoline was used in the engines which produced the used mineral-based crankcase oil. In

two separate test bums, the AOB emitted 20.9 and 224.45 mg/m3

 of particles ≤1 μm in diameter

consisting primarily of antimony, chromium, copper, lead, magnesium, manganese, nickel, and zinc.

The VOB emitted 0.22 and 18.2 mg/m3 particles ≤3.0 μm in diameter primarily consisting of sulfur,

zinc, aluminum, silicon, and lead (detection limits were not reported). Lead was present at

concentrations up to 7.5% in the AOB emission particulates. The concentration of lead in the used

mineral-based crankcase oil prior to combustion was 1,075 μg/g. An electrostatic precipitator was

used for the two tests which emitted 20.9 and 0.22 μg/m3

 particulates. Combustion of used mineralbased automotive crankcase oil emitted greater levels of inorganic compounds compared to used

mineral-based truck crankcase oil. Cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, phosphorus, and zinc

exceeded the threshold limit values (time-weighted averages) in both of the waste oil heaters (Hall et

al. 1983b; Mumford et al. 1986). In a separate study of emissions from a commercial boiler, a

vaporizing pot burner, and an AOB, zinc concentrations in the stack were 34.8 mg/m3

, 0.04 mg/m3,

and 55.7 mg/m3

, respectively. Emissions of other metals were reported to follow trends similar to

those seen in the zinc concentrations (Canadian Environmental Protection Act 1994).
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

A study comparing emissions of used crankcase oil with those of No. 2 fuel oil in air atomizing

burners showed significantly higher emissions of hydrochloric acid, particulates, and lead from the

used crankcase oil. Lead emissions from the used oil were 74 times higher than lead emission levels

from the burning of No. 2 fuel oil. Results are from an average of tests from five different air

atomizing burners with used oil from gasoline engines sampled in four of the tests and used oil from

diesel engines sampled in the remaining test. The average concentrations were 346.25 mg/minute of

HCl, 466.0 mg/minute of particulates, 1.6455 mg/minute of chromium, 20.8314 mg/minute of lead,

and nondetectable levels of <0.2679 and <0.7428 mg/minute for arsenic and cadmium, respectively.

Used crankcase oil emissions were still below applicable ambient standards (Vermont Agency of

Natural Resources 1994).

The contribution of crankcase oil to exhaust particulate matter during a simulated urban drive cycle

was analyzed by using 13C-labelled lubricating oil. A C19 alkane was synthesized with a 13C-labelled

tracer and used in two vehicles initially registered in 1978 and 1981. Sampling was executed over a

transient urban drive cycle with speeds ranging from 0 to 91 km/hour, with a mean value of

31.7 km/hour. The 13C-labelled tracer demonstrated that 15% weight/weight of particulate matter

emissions were attributable to crankcase oil. The percentage of particles ≤1 μm in diameter ranged

from 70% to 90%, with a mean value of 85% (Williams et al. 1989a).

5.4.2 Water

The mean background concentration for total hydrocarbons is 2 μg/L for ocean water (Tanacredi

1977). Ultraviolet-fluorescence and gas chromatography were used to determine the relationship

between waste-water effluents in Jamaica Bay, New York, and used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Although specific sources for waste petroleum products were not established, samples taken from

Jamaica Bay displayed chromatographs and ultraviolet-fluorescence responses similar to those of used

mineral-based crankcase oil (Tanacredi 1977).

Waste water from a waste oil refinery that was released into the Buffalo Sewer Authority System

contained 44.8 and 78.0 mg/L of what was categorically referred to as “Hydrocarbon Oil & Grease”

(Booth et al. 1983). Surface water samples from on-site ponds at an NPL site, the Double Eagle

Refinery, an inactive waste-oil re-refining facility in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, were analyzed for

chromium, lead, toluene, xylene, and unspecified hydrocarbons. Only chromium, lead, and xylene
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

levels were precisely measured and found to be 10, 118, and 14 μg/L, respectively (ATSDR 1990a).

Another waste oil refinery was tested for inorganic and organic concentrations found in the waste

water effluent. Inorganic concentrations measured were 0.34 mg/L for cadmium, 271 mg/L for lead,

3.4 mg/L for arsenic, 10 mg/L for chromium, 80 mg/L for barium, and 250 mg/L for zinc. Organic

concentrations measured were 1,306 mg/L for toluene, 283 mg/L for napthalene, 364 mg/L for

benzene, and 309-666 mg/L for several unnamed chlorinated solvents. Benzo(a)anthracene and

benzo(a)pyrene concentrations were below detectable limits (0.02mg/L) (Canadian Environmental

Protection Act 1994).

Total extractable hydrocarbon levels from Jamaica Bay surface water ranged from 0.5 to 3.1 mg/L in

1973 and from 0.88 to 5.1 mg/L in 1974. Gas chromatographic sulfur fingerprints of the aromatic

fraction of stormwater runoff in Delaware indicated that used mineral-based crankcase oil was the

likely source of hydrocarbons. Concentrations of particles containing aromatics in the stormwater

ranged from 0.99 to 1.65 mg/L (990-1,650 μg/L), and soluble aromatics ranged from 0.04 to

0.07 mg/L (40-70 μg/L). Detection limits were not reported (MacKenzie and Hunter 1979).

An estimated 7 million gallons out of 340 million gallons of oil drained from automobiles per year are

dumped into sewers (Suprenant et al. 1983). Hydrocarbon concentrations were 2,037±127 μg/L

(Brown et al. 1985) and 8 mg/L (8,000 μg/L) (Hunter et al. 1979) in stormwater at the beginning of a

storm, indicating a flushing effect, since the total flow-weighted hydrocarbon concentrations over

storms ranged from 618 μg/L (Brown et al. 1985) to 5.30 mg/L (5,300 μg/L) (Hunter et al. 1979).

The concentrations of aliphatic hydrocarbons in runoff from two bridges in Seattle ranged from

6,000 to 24,000 μg/L, with a mean of 12,000 μg/L (Wakeham 1977). Only 1% of the hydrocarbons

(25-250 μg/L; mean 100 μg/L) were n-paraffins. Gas chromatography suggested that the source of the

hydrocarbons was used mineral-based crankcase oil. Crankcase oils are dewaxed and generally have

few paraffins. Urban stormwater runoff had lower concentrations of aliphatic hydrocarbons,

(200-7,500 μg/L; mean 1,200 μg/L) and similar to the bridge runoff, low levels of n-paraffins

(4-350 μg/L; mean 13 μg/L). The chromatographic responses of used mineral-based crankcase oil and

the hydrocarbons in the bridge runoff were very similar. The concentration of aliphatic hydrocarbons

in the rivers and streams in the Seattle area varied with the season. During the rainy season, the

hydrocarbon level was slightly higher; however, the paraffin concentrations remained low, ranging
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

from 0.1 to 1 μg/L, indicating the presence of hydrocarbons from used mineral-based crankcase oil

(Wakeham 1977).

Total flow-weighted hydrocarbon concentrations in particulates from urban runoff in Rhode Island

ranged from 16,400 to 34,000 μg/g (mean 24,800 ± 6570 μg/g) in commercial areas, from 61,900 to

507,000 μg/g (mean 211,000 ± 189,000 μg/g) in industrial areas, from 8,750 to 51,800 μg/g (mean

24,800 ± 19,900 μg/g) near interstate highways, and from 15,700 to 59,800 μg/g (mean 42,000 ±

23,200) near residential areas. A PAH signature of the runoff analysis was performed to confirm that

the hydrocarbons originated from used mineral-based crankcase oil (Latimer et al. 1990).

5.4.3 Sediment and Soil

Aliphatic hydrocarbon levels in deep sediments (40-42 cm) samples (n=20) from Lake Washington in

Seattle, Washington, ranged from 10 to 160 μg/g with an average of 32 μg/g for the entire lake.

Surface sediments samples (n=20) ranged from 280 to 1,700 μg/g, with a mean of 1,400 μg/g. Surface

samples were collected from areas near suspected hydrocarbon sources. Gas chromatographic analyses

of the surface sediments indicate that the hydrocarbons were primarily from lubricating oils and

pyrolysis products from automobiles that were transported by stormwater. Samples collected from two

cores 94 cm deep showed an increase in hydrocarbon concentrations after 1880, which correlated with

the industrial development of the area near the lake (Wakeham and Carpenter 1976). An analysis of

sediment hydrocarbons from the Hillsborough Reservoir in Tampa, Florida, indicated that runoff from

stormwater contaminated by used mineral-based crankcase oil was the likely source of the

hydrocarbons. Aliphatic hydrocarbon concentrations ranged from 62 to 396 μg/g dry sediment, and

aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations ranged from 15 to 89 μg/g dry sediment (Brown et al. 1985).

Used mineral-based crankcase oil, determined by a lead concentration of 640 ppm in sediment

samples, was detected 100 feet from an NPL site that was formerly a waste oil recycling facility in

Moira, New York.

Chromium, lead, and unspecified hydrocarbons were detected in the sediments of on-site ponds at an

inactive waste oil re-refining facility, which is also an NPL site. Only chromium was accurately

measured on-site (89,000 μg/kg). Waste solids were reported to have been dumped 850 feet south of

the facility, and the maximum concentrations of chromium and lead in the contaminated soil were

220,000 and 4,810,000 μg/kg, respectively (ATSDR 1990a).
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

Background concentrations of used mineral-based crankcase oil hydrocarbons in roadside soil were

856 μg/g in industrial areas, 265 μg/g near highways, 38.9 μg/g in residential areas, and 138 μg/g in

commercial areas. Metals such as cadmium, copper, lead, manganese, and zinc were also measured in

roadside source materials. Concentration ranges were 0.02-3.40 μg/g for cadmium, 10.4-228 μg/g for

copper, 123-1,410 μg/g for lead, and 47.8-655 μg/g for zinc (Latimer et al. 1990). Soil samples taken

47.7 meters from an oil-treated road in Hunterdon County, New Jersey, contained an average lead

concentration of 24 mg/kg. Two soil samples taken from a drainage culvert that carried runoff had

lead concentrations of 78 and 96 mg/kg (Freestone 1979). Lead deposition from auto exhaust is

typically limited to within 100 feet of a road (Motto 1970); therefore, the high lead concentrations in

soil samples near the oil-treated road in Hunterdon County were most likely caused by the application

of used mineral-based crankcase oil originating from engines burning leaded fuel. As leaded gasoline

was a significant source of lead in soils, the use of unleaded gasoline should result in a reduction of

lead in used mineral-based crank case oils, and a stabilization or reduction of lead in soil near

roadsides.

5.4.4 Other Environmental Media

Background concentrations of lead on road surfaces averaged 39 mg/kg, while lead levels on dirt roads

treated with used mineral-based crankcase oil averaged 209.25 mg/kg. Hydrocarbon concentrations at

the surface of crankcase-oil-treated roads ranged from 5,880.24 to 13,441.25 mg/kg with a mean of

8,169.63 mg/kg. Hydrocarbon concentrations 6 inches below the road surface ranged from 7.65 to

67.63 mg/kg with a mean of 30.82 mg/kg (Freestone 1979).

Ambient hydrocarbon concentrations were measured in street dust and roadside vegetation in Rhode

Island (Latimer et al. 1990). The PAH distribution in the hydrocarbons was similar to that in used

mineral-based crankcase oil, suggesting that used mineral-based crankcase oil was the source of the

hydrocarbons. Concentrations of hydrocarbons in street dust were 157 μg/g in commercial areas,

3,490 μg/g in industrial areas, 1,680 μg/g near highways, and 353 μg/g in residential areas. In

roadside vegetation, the concentrations ranged from 40.6 to 46.1 μg/g in commercial, highway, and

residential areas; however, in industrial areas the concentration was 290 μg/g. (Latimer et al. 1990).

Cadmium and lead at concentrations of 620 ppm and 331 ppm, respectively, associated with used

mineral-based crankcase oil, were found in earthworms near a highway. The levels in the soil-purged
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

earthworms were positively associated with traffic volume and negatively associated with distance

from the highway (Gish and Christensen 1973).

Plants sampled from a field 150 feet from a road where used oil had been applied for dust suppression

contained an average lead concentration of 33.5 mg/kg. The lead concentration in the soil of the field

was 24.0 mg/kg. A possible mechanism of transport to the field was dust containing lead or oil from

the road. The average lead concentration in the oiled section of the road was 209.25 mg/kg as

compared to a lead concentration of 39.0 mg/kg in the un-oiled section of the road. Aquatic

organisms living in a stream running perpendicular to the road showed no real trend in their lead

concentrations from areas upstream of the road and areas downstream of the road (Freestone 1972).

The fluorescence analyses of marine benthic organism (Mya arenaria) extracts from Jamaica Bay, New

York, and used mineral-based crankcase oil were almost identical; however, no concentrations were

reported (Tanacredi 1977).

5.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE

The general population may be exposed to used mineral-based crankcase oil when checking the engine

oil level of a motor vehicle; however, the extent of exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil is

minimal under these conditions (Kahsnitz et al. 1982). Exposure may also occur to the general

population from the prevalent use of used mineral-based crankcase oil as a chain lubricant on

household machinery such as chain saws, sewing machines, hedge trimmers, and lawn mowers

(Brinkman et al. 1982). Several incidents of lead poisoning in cattle have been attributed to the

ingestion of used mineral-based crankcase oil drained in pastures (Osweiler et al. 1973). Individuals

who eat meat or dairy products from contaminated cattle may be exposed to excessive lead

concentrations.

Occupational exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil exists for engine mechanics who change

crankcase oil or work with automobile parts contaminated with used mineral-based crankcase oil.

However, exposure is likely to be low because most automobile repair shops have implemented

procedures to reduce worker exposure (Kahsnitz et al. 1982).
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

Transport of used mineral-based crankcase oil through the soil from a contaminated site and into

groundwater may result in human exposure via ingestion of contaminated drinking water, or dermal

absorption if the water is used for recreational purposes (ATSDR 1988, 1990a; DOE 1989).

5.6 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES

Motorists who maintain and service their own automobiles may increase their likelihood of exposure if

they spend long periods of time in contact with used mineral-based crankcase oil contaminated auto

parts or do not practice good personal hygiene (DOE 1989; Kahsnitz et al. 1982).

Workers involved in the remediation of environmental contamination from used oil re-refining or

recycling facilities may inhale contaminated particulates or volatiles, or be dermally exposed to

contaminated soil, sludge, sediment, or sorbent pads (ATSDR 1988, 1990a). Workers involved in

collecting used mineral-based crankcase oil for recycling or re-refining may also be dermally exposed.

Individuals who work or live in buildings that burn used mineral-based crankcase oil for heating fuel

may be exposed to high levels of metal particulates in the respirable range (Cooper 1977; Hall et al.

1983b; Mumford et al. 1986).

Individuals who live near roads that have been treated with used mineral-based crankcase oil as a dust

suppressant may be exposed to dust particles which are contaminated with used oil.

5.7 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE

Section 104(i)(5) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR (in consultation with

the Administrator of EPA and agencies and programs of the Public Health Service) to assess whether

adequate information on the health effects of used mineral-based crankcase oil is available. Where

adequate information is not available, ATSDR, in conjunction with the NTP, is required-to assure the

initiation of a program of research designed to determine the health effects (and techniques for

developing methods to determine such health effects) of used mineral-based crankcase oil.

The following categories of possible data needs have been identified by a joint team of scientists from

ATSDR, NTP, and EPA. They are defined as substance-specific informational needs that if met would
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5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

reduce the uncertainties of human health assessment. This definition should not be interpreted to mean

that all data needs discussed in this section must be filled. In the future, the identified data needs will

be evaluated and prioritized, and a substance-specific research agenda will be proposed.

5.7.1 Identification of Data Needs

Physical and Chemical Properties. The physical and chemical properties of used mineral-based

crankcase oil as a mixture are not well defined, and data should be gathered in order to estimate the

fate of this oil and its components in the environment. Data needs associated with some specific

compounds that are components of used mineral-based crankcase oil (e.g., PAHs, lead, cadmium, and

zinc) are presented in the ATSDR profiles for these chemicals (ATSDR 1990c, 1993b, 1992d, 1989b,

respectively).

Production, Import/Export, Use, Release, and Disposal. In 1972, 500 million gallons of used

mineral-based crankcase oil were produced in the United States, and in 1982, production increased to

1,350 million gallons (API 1974; Brinkman et al. 1982; Maugh 1976; Vasquez-Duhalt 1989; Weinstein

1974). More recent data on the production of used mineral-based crankcase oil are needed. Used

mineral-based crankcase oil has been used as a supplemental fuel for boilers, waste disposal

incinerators, and cement kilns (API 1975; Cooper 1977; EPA 1974a; Hall et al. 1983a; Mumford et al.

1986; NATO 1981). Most releases of used mineral-based crankcase oil are the result of illegal

disposal and runoff from highways and rural roads. The environmental media most likely to be

contaminated by used mineral-based crankcase oil are water, soil, and sediment. Current disposal

methods are not satisfactory, since a national survey of disposal methods indicated that 40% of used

mineral-based crankcase oil is poured onto the ground, 21% is placed in the trash to be collected, 14%

is recycled, and 25% is used for other purposes (Brinkman et al. 1982). Used mineral-based crankcase

oil is regulated by EPA and by the individual states. All states except West Virginia recognize road

oiling for dust suppression as an important route of exposure and regulate for this release. Further

regulations for used mineral-based crankcase oil are expected in the future.

According to the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986, 42 U.S.C. Section

11023, industries are required to submit substance release and off-site transfer information to the EPA.

The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI), which contains this information for 1993, became available in
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May of 1995. This database will be updated yearly and should provide a list of industrial production

facilities and emissions. However, no data for used mineral-based crankcase oil are included in TRI.

Environmental Fate. Used mineral-based crankcase oil partitions to various environmental media

depending on the physical and chemical properties of its individual components. Major fate processes

include slow volatilization of lower weight aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, and sorption of higher

molecular weight hydrocarbons to soil (DOE 1989). Slow microbial degradation is the primary loss

mechanism for hydrocarbon fractions not lost through volatilization (DOE 1989; Raymond et al.

1976). Metals may be solubilized during microbial degradation, consequently increasing their mobility

and toxicity (Vasquez-Duhalt and Greppin 1986). Used mineral-based crankcase oil is usually

transported to surface water by stormwater runoff. Hydrocarbons that settle out of the water column

into the sediment are persistent (Brown et al. 1985; Wakeham and Carpenter 1976). The half-life of

used mineral-based crankcase oil in soil and water has not been established; therefore, further studies

are required. The environmental fate of some of the individual components has been studied (see

ATSDR profiles for PAHs, cadmium, lead, and zinc [ATSDR 1990c, 1992d, 1993b, 1989b]). The

environmental fate and behavior of used mineral-based crankcase oil have not been well characterized.

Consequently, further data is needed on movement and persistence of the components of used mineralbased crankcase oil in all environmental media.

Bioavailability from Environmental Media. There are limited animal data on the absorption of

used mineral-based crankcase oil by the inhalation, oral, or dermal routes. However, several of the

components of used mineral-based crankcase oil are known to be absorbed. For more information on

absorption of the individual components (e.g., lead, cadmium) see the ATSDR toxicological profiles

on these compounds (ATSDR 1993b, 1992d). Limited animal data regarding lead poisoning related to

the ingestion of used mineral-based crankcase oil indicate that lead from this source is distributed to

various tissues (Osweiler et al. 1973). Limited data exist on absorption of lead in plants grown in

contaminated soil (Raymond et al. 1976) and absorption of PAHs by marine organisms in

contaminated water (Tanacredi 1977; Tanacredi and Cardenas 1991); however, more data are needed

to determine whether the components of used mineral-based crankcase oil are likely to enter the food

chain. Additional data on rates and extent of absorption through inhalation, oral, and dermal routes

may be helpful in determining bioavailability from environmental media.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 107

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

Food Chain Bioaccumulation. Used mineral-based crankcase oil, as a mixture, does not

bioconcentrate in the food chain. However, the individual components may bioconcentrate depending

on their physical and chemical properties. Metals, especially lead, have been found to bioconcentrate

in crops and cause abnormal growth (Falahi-Ardakani 1984; Raymond et al. 1976). Limited

information was also located on the bioconcentration of used mineral-based crankcase oil components

in terrestrial animals and aquatic organisms (Osweiler et al. 1973; Tanacredi 1977; Tanacredi and

Cardenas 1991). Research on the biomagnification of used mineral-based crankcase oil would not be

useful because the oil is not available to the food chain as a mixture. However, further research on

the biomagnification potential of the individual components of used mineral-based crankcase oil may

be helpful in assessing the risk associated with eating foods grown in contaminated soil.

Exposure Levels in Environmental Media. Most monitoring studies assessed the concentration

of used mineral-based crankcase oil in stormwater runoff and sediments, although limited data exist on

hydrocarbon and metal concentrations in surface water, air, marine benthic organisms, roadside plants,

and cattle (Brown et al. 1985; Falahi-Ardakani 1984; Freestone 1979; Gish and Christensen 1973;

Hunter et al. 1979; Latimer et al. 1990; MacKenzie and Hunter 1979; Osweiler et al. 1973; Tanacredi

1977; Van Donkelaar 1990; Wakeham 1977). Limited data are available from monitoring studies near

hazardous waste sites. Lead was detected in sediments and groundwater near a hazardous waste site

(ATSDR 1988), and chromium and lead were detected in soil near another hazardous waste site

(ATSDR 1990a). However, the sampling at each site was not comprehensive, and the validity of the

results could not be verified. Estimates should also be developed for human intake of used mineralbased crankcase oil from environmental media. Recent data on levels of used mineral-based crankcase

oil and its components in environmental media, especially groundwater, are needed to further assess

potential risk from likely sources of exposure. There are no known populations with extraordinarily

high exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Reliable monitoring data for the levels of used mineral-based crankcase oil in contaminated media at

hazardous waste-sites are needed so that the information obtained on levels of used mineral-based

crankcase oil in the environment can be used in combination with the known body burden of used

mineral-based crankcase oil to assess the potential risk of adverse health effects in populations living

in the vicinity of hazardous waste sites.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 108

5. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE

Exposure Levels in Humans. This information is necessary for assessing the need to conduct

health studies on these populations. There is no specific biomarker of exposure to used mineral-based

crankcase oil in humans; therefore, biological monitoring studies are not recommended. See other

ATSDR profiles (PAHs, lead, zinc, and cadmium) for levels of used mineral-based crankcase oil

components detected in human tissue (ATSDR 1990c, 1992d, 1993b, 1989b, respectively).

Exposure Registries. No exposure registries for used mineral-based crankcase oil were located.

This substance is not currently one of the compounds for which a subregistry has been established in

the National Exposure Registry. The substance will be considered in the future when chemical

selection is made for subregistries to be established. The information that is amassed in the National

Exposure Registry facilitates the epidemiological research needed to assess adverse health outcomes

that may be related to exposure to this substance.

5.7.2 On-going Studies

No on-going studies on the exposure or environmental fate of used mineral-based crankcase oil were

located.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 109

6. ANALYTICAL METHODS

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the analytical methods that are available for detecting, and/or

measuring, and/or monitoring used mineral-based crankcase oil, its metabolites, and other biomarkers

of exposure and effect to used mineral-based crankcase oil. The intent is not to provide an exhaustive

list of analytical methods. Rather, the intention is to identify well-established methods that are used as

the standard methods of analysis. Many of the analytical methods used for environmental samples are

the methods approved by federal agencies and organizations such as EPA and the National Institute for

Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Other methods presented in this chapter are those that are

approved by groups such as the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) and the

American Public Health Association (APHA). Additionally, analytical methods are included that

modify previously used methods to obtain lower detection limits, and/or to improve accuracy and

precision.

6.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS

Used mineral-based crankcase oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, metals, and additives

(Vazquez-Duhalt 1989). It contains high levels of metals, such as lead, zinc, copper, chromium,

nickel, and cadmium. It also contains alkanes, cycloalkanes, monoaromatics, diaromatics, PAHs, and

aromatic compounds which contain sulfur, nitrogen, or oxygen. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry

(AAS) is the most commonly used method for detecting the metal components of used mineral-based

crankcase oil in biological materials. Biological materials include the skin, liver, lung, serum, urine,

and milk. Analytical methods for measuring both biological materials and environmental samples are

described in this chapter. The 32P-postlabeling assay has been used to detect the presence of

potentially carcinogenic PAH adducts bound covalently to macromolecules (e.g., DNA) in skin and

lung tissues. See Table 6-l for a summary of the analytical methods most commonly used to

determine the various components of used mineral-based crankcase oil in biological materials and

environmental samples. For more information regarding the analytical methods used for detecting the

various components such as PAHs and lead in biological tissues, see the ATSDR profiles for these

substances (ATSDR 1990c, 1993b).



USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 113

6. ANALYTICAL METHODS

AAS has been used to measure lead compounds from used mineral-based crankcase oil in blood

(Clausen and Rastogi 1977). AAS is the most common detector used to measure lead compounds in

blood, since AAS is a lead-specific detector. The sample preparation procedure, limit of detection,

accuracy, and precision of this method were not reported. Molybdenum has been determined in rumen

contents and in liver and kidney samples using ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) spectrophotometry;

however, no information was provided regarding the sample preparation, detection limit, accuracy, or

precision of this method (Sas 1989).

The 32P-postlabelling assay is a highly sensitive and specific method for detecting PAH-DNA adducts

in the skin and lungs of humans and animals (Carmichael et al. 1990, 1991, 1992; Phillips et al. 1990;

Schoket et al. 1989). The technique generally involves isolating epidermal DNA from human and

mouse skin treated with used oil, and then digesting the DNA enzymatically with micrococcal

nuclease, spleen phosphodiesterase, and nuclease Pl before labeling the DNA adduct by 32Ppostlabelling. Detection limits ranging from 0.05 to 0.57 femtomole (fmol) adducts/μg DNA

(Carmichael et al. 1990, 1991, 1992; Phillips et al. 1990) and from 40 to 150 attomole (amol) total

adducts/μg DNA (Schoket et al. 1989) have been achieved. Recovery and precision data were not

reported.

The urinary concentration of 1-pyrenol, a pyrene metabolite, can also be used as a biological indicator

of exposure to PAHs in automotive repair workers. Granella and Clonfero (1993) evaluated the skin

absorption of PAHs in automotive repair workers whose skin was exposed to used engine oils from

cars and trucks and compared the results to a control group. For each worker, data were obtained on

smoking habits, use of medicines, and hobbies. Subjects were also instructed not to eat foods with

high concentrations of PAHs, such as grilled or barbecued meat, 48 hours before the urine samplings.

The control group was placed on control diets and not occupationally exposed to PAHs. This group

had a higher percentage of smokers, but among smokers in both the control and the exposed groups,

there was no difference in the daily consumption of cigarettes (Granella and Clonfero 1993). The

levels of 1-pyrenol were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a

fluorescence detector. Urinary excretion of 1-pyrenol in this group of workers compared to

occupationally exposed subjects (e.g., creosote, coke oven, and graphite electrode workers) indicated

that exposure to PAHs present in used engine oil through the skin during automotive repair work is

very low (Granella and Clonfero 1993). The urinary 1-pyrenol values were higher in both smoking

(0.259 ± 0.201 umol/mol creatinine) and nonsmoking workers (0.154 ± 0.105 pmol/mol creatinine, as
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 114

6. ANALYTICAL METHODS

compared to 0.083 ± 0.042 pmol/mol creatinine for the nonsmoking controls) (Granella and Clonfero

1993). However, according to the study authors, tobacco smoking and PAH-rich diets are confounding

factors when monitoring this type of exposure, as they influence the urinary concentration of 1-pyrenol

in the general population. Hence, smoking habits and diets should be verified accurately, including

exposure to air pollution, in order to evaluate the specific effect of low-level PAH exposure, especially

among repair workers. In used engine oils, the concentration of 1-pyrenol ranges from 32% (petrol

engines) to 3% (diesel engines) (Granella and Clonfero 1993).

6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES

AAS is the most commonly used method for detecting the metal components of used mineral-based

crankcase oil found in environmental samples. The methods most commonly used to detect or identify

the major hydrocarbon components of used mineral-based crankcase oil in environmental samples

include gas chromatography equipped with a flame ionization detector (GC/FID), flame photometric

detector (GC/FPD), or mass spectrometer (GC/MS), and high-performance liquid chromatography with

ultraviolet detection (HPLC/UV) or a fluorescence detector. Volatile organics have been detected

using an ion trap mass spectrometer (EMS). Infrared spectroscopy (IR) is commonly used to

characterize the major components found in used crankcase oil. See Table 6-2 for a summary of the

analytical methods used to determine used mineral-based crankcase oil in environmental samples. For

further information regarding the analytical methods for detecting the various components such as

PAHs, lead, copper, nickel, and zinc in environmental samples see the ATSDR profiles for these

substances (ATSDR 1989b, 1990b, 1990c, 1992e, 1993b).

Pyrene levels in cloths used by automotive repair workers were determined by HPLC with a UV-VIS

detector. Pyrene contents in oily material taken from cloths used to clean the different types of

engines ranged from 2.8 ± 0.4 ppm (mean ± SD) for matter from diesel truck engines to 9.3 ±

8.2 ppm for matter from petrol car engines. The recovery rate was 96%. These values were much

lower than that found in coal tar, creosote, petroleum, coke, and quenching oils. However, petrol

engines produced five times more pyrene than diesel engines (Granella and Clonfero 1993).

AAS is the most commonly used method to selectively detect and identify the metal components (lead,

cadmium, manganese, copper, nickel, iron, and zinc) of used mineral-based crankcase oil in air

(Clausen and Rastogi 1977), street or stormwater runoff (Latimer et al. 1990; Newton et al. 1974), soil










USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 125

6. ANALYTICAL METHODS

(Gish and Christensen 1973; Lagerwerff and Specht 1970; Motto 1970), dust, vegetation, atmospheric

deposition, and earthworms (Gish and Christensen 1973; Lagerwerff and Specht 1970; Latimer et al.

1990). Air samples are collected on filter paper (Clausen and Rastogi 1977). The other matrices

(runoff, soil, vegetation, and earthworm samples) are usually subjected to an acid digestion procedure.

Although sensitivity data were not reported, ppm-to-ppb levels can be detected based on the measured

samples. Recovery data for measuring metals in air and runoff samples were not reported. Recoveries

for soil samples (>95%) and earthworms (>89%) were very good (Gish and Christensen 1973).

Precision data were not reported.

GC/FID and GUMS are methods used for detecting the hydrocarbon components of used crankcase oil

in surface water (Tanacredi 1977), stormwater runoff and waste water (Brown et al. 1985; Farrington

and Quinn 1973; Latimer et al. 1990), and sediments (Wakeham and Carpenter 1976). Sample

preparation methods generally include solvent extraction followed by a cleanup step using adsorption

chromatography. Although detection limits were not reported for these methods, sensitivity is in the

ppm-to-ppb range based on data reported. Recovery for hydrocarbons in sediment using GC/FID was

>75% (Wakeham and Carpenter 1976). Precision data were not reported.

Petroleum-derived aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons and associated sulfur compounds in urban

stormwater runoff and sediment samples were characterized using GC equipped with a flame

ionization/sulfur specific flame photometric detector system (Hunter et al. 1979; MacKenzie and

Hunter 1979). These detectors allowed simultaneous detection of both hydrocarbon and sulfurcontaining materials. Although sulfur compounds represent only about 4% of a petroleum oil, sulfur

fingerprints have been shown to be a valuable aid in oil characterization and source correlation

(MacKenzie and Hunter 1979). The sulfur aromatics in petroleum oil are predominantly thiophenes

(benzothiophene, dibenzothiophene, naphthobenzothiophene, and their alkyl derivatives). Aromatic

sulfur compounds have been detected in petroleum oils from stormwater runoff. Dibenzothiophene

and phenanthrene and/or anthracene were present in all samples (both used crankcase oil and

stormwater particulates). An average of approximately 70% of the dibenzothiophene was recovered in

stormwater by the analytical method and separation scheme. Recoveries for the aliphatic and aromatic

fractions ranged from 85% to 95% (Hunter et al. 1979). Although detection limits were not reported,

ppm-to-ppt concentrations can be measured based on levels reported (Hunter et al. 1979; MacKenzie

and Hunter 1979). Precision data were not reported.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 126

6. ANALYTICAL METHODS

In Manabe et al. (1984), mutagenic studies (using S. typhimurium strains) of crankcase oil from a

gasoline engine, fractionated by Soxhlet extraction, indicated that used engine oil contained

1-nitropyrene (1-NP) and dinitropyrenes (diNP). Crankcase oils from gasoline and diesel engines

contained 138 and 349 ng of 1-NP and 2 and 31 ng 1,6-diNP, respectively, per mL of oil. In this

study, the 1-NP fraction was collected, analyzed, and quantified by GC/MS and HPLC to prove that

waste water contained 1-NP. Since many unknown compounds in the waste water showed the same

retention time as 1-NP using HPLC, 1-NP was not quantitated precisely by use of an ultraviolet

detector and HPLC. Since the reduced product of 1-NP, 1-aminopyrine (l-AP), is fluorescent and

easily detectable with the fluorescence detector of HPLC, 1-NP was reduced with nitroreductase and

l-AP was then measured. The reaction mixture was incubated at 37°C for 5 or 15 hours without

shaking. An ethyl acetate extract of the mixture was then evaporated, redissolved in methanol, and

injected into the chromatograph. Detection limits for 1-NP and diNP were 1.1x10-2 and 1.3x10-2 pmol,

respectively. Recovery and precision data were not reported. 1,6-diNP (31 ng) accounted for 12% of

the total mutagenicity of the neutral fraction in the assay system (Manabe et al. 1984). According to

the study authors, diNPs showed higher mutagenic activity than 1-NP, and 1,6-diNP was shown to be

carcinogenic in mice.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) phase analysis in conjunction with x-ray florescence (XRF) elemental analysis

is an extremely effective method for characterizing waste incineration by-products, particularly

crankcase oil incineration residues. XRD is a useful technique for determining the phase of the

compounds in a sample. The technique involves scanning the sample with a diffractometer and

interpreting the data according to the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standard (JCPDS) files.

To determine which elements are present in the sample, XRF is conducted using minimal sample

preparation and analysis time. This method analyzes the samples for elements ranging from sodium to

uranium by quantitatively scanning with a sequential wavelength dispersive spectrometer. In the past,

using XRD phase analysis, together with XRF elemental analysis techniques, has produced accurate

percentages of the elements present in the emissions from used mineral-based crankcase oil

commercial waste incinerators and from lead and copper smelters (Briden 1984).

Volatile organics found in used mineral-based crankcase oil have been measured in air, water, and soil

using an ITMS (Buchanan et al. 1990). The ITMS operates at a higher pressure than conventional

mass spectrometers, making it amenable to accommodating higher gas loads, thereby allowing the

direct introduction of gaseous analytes into the ITMS with little or no sample preparation. Because no
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 127

6. ANALYTICAL METHODS

chromatography is used, sample turn around is less than 5 minutes. This method yields excellent

detection limits (ppb-to-ppt levels) and is reproducible for all media. Recovery and precision data

were not reported.

Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) has been used as a screening tool for on-site environmental analysis

of used mineral-based crankcase oil in soil (Newborn and Preston 1991). A detection limit of

100 ppm and a recovery of 70% were achieved for motor oil. TLC is a cost-effective tool for field

screening of samples, especially soils, when low detection limits (i.e., the sensitivity of gas

chromatography) are not required.

IR and fluorescence spectrophotometry have been used to detect mineral oil in air (NIOSH 1977,

1978, 1984). For IR, sensitivity is in the low-ppm range (NIOSH 1978, 1984). For both methods,

recovery (98%) and precision (5% relative standard deviation; 6.5% coefficient of variation) are good

(NIOSH 1977, 1978, 1984). Sensitivity was not reported for fluorescence spectrophotometry. IR,

fluorescence spectrophotometry, and ultraviolet spectroscopy have been used to detect and identify the

main components of oils in sea water (Adler et al. 1990; Zieba 1985).

A photoionization detector (PID) in conjunction with capillary chromatography has been used to detect

and identify PAHs. This is done by comparing the PID response with that of a flame ionization

detector (FID) which gives a substance-specific response ratio. This method is limited in its

usefulness because the obtained ratios are specific to the particular system being used. Ratios for the

same compound can be off by as much as 20% for the same compound in different systems (Berngird

and Colmsjo 1992).

6.3 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE

Section 104(i)(5) of CERCLA, as amended, directs the Administrator of ATSDR (in consultation with

the Administrator of EPA and agencies and programs of the Public Health Service) to assess whether

adequate information on the health effects of used mineral-based crankcase oil is available. Where

adequate information is not available, ATSDR, in conjunction with the NTP, is required to assure the

initiation of a program of research designed to determine the health effects (and techniques for

developing methods to determine such health effects) of used mineral-based crankcase oil.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 128

6. ANALYTICAL METHODS

The following categories of possible data needs have been identified by a joint team of scientists from

ATSDR, NTP, and EPA. They are defined as substance-specific informational needs that if met would

reduce the uncertainties of human health assessment. This definition should not be interpreted to mean

that all data needs discussed in this section must be filled. In the future, the identified data needs will

be evaluated and prioritized, and a substance-specific research agenda will be proposed.

6.3.1 Identification of Data Needs

Methods for Determining Biomarkers of Exposure and Effect

Exposure. Although specific biomarkers for exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil have not

been identified, methods exist to measure the PAH and metal components of used mineral-based

crankcase oil in tissues (skin, lung, liver, kidney) and blood (Carmichael et al. 1990, 1991, 1992;

Phillips et al. 1990; Sas 1989; Schoket et al. 1989). Biomarkers such as metal content of the blood

(Clausen and Rastogi 1977; Sas 1989) or DNA adduct formation (Carmichael et al. 1990, 1991, 1992;

Kurelec and Gupta 1993; Schoket et al. 1989) have been identified as possible indicators of exposure

to chemicals found in used mineral-based crankcase oil. These biomarkers are not specific for

exposure to used mineral-based crankcase oil but may be specific for chemicals found in the oil.

Caution should be used to avoid misinterpretation when using DNA adducts as biomarkers in lower

invertebrates such as sea urchins and sponges due to their inability to form DNA adducts when

exposed to certain compounds such as PAHs. Another consideration with respect to using DNA

adducts as biomarkers is that DNA modifications are found in varying levels in certain aquatic

organisms depending on the season (Kurelec and Gupta 1993). Biomarkers of exposure to metals and

aromatic hydrocarbons are discussed in more detail in other ATSDR profiles (ATSDR 1989b, 1990b,

1990c, 1992e, 1993b). The existing methods are sensitive enough to measure background levels in the

population and levels at which biological effects occur. Recovery and precision data are needed for

measuring PAH-DNA adduct levels in tissues and levels of metals in blood and tissue. Detection limit

data are also needed for measuring metals in blood and tissues. These data will help to improve the

reliability and reproducibility of the methods and will be useful in monitoring populations exposed to

used mineral-based crankcase oil.

Effect. No information was located regarding biomarkers of effect that were specific for used mineralbased crankcase oil. The biomarkers of effect are similar to the biomarkers of exposure listed above.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 129

6. ANALYTICAL METHODS

The methods used to measure biomarkers of exposure are the same as those used to measure

biomarkers of effect and data needs for biomarkers of effect are also similar to those mentioned for

biomarkers of exposure.

Methods for Determining Parent Compounds and Degradation Products in

Environmental Media. Methods exist to detect the various components of used mineral-based

crankcase oil, such as metals (Clausen and Rastogi 1977; Gish and Christensen 1973; Lagerwerff and

Specht 1970; Latimer et al. 1990; Motto 1970; Newton et al. 1974), as well as hydrocarbons and

additives (Adler et al. 1990; Brown et al. 1985; Buchanan et al. 1990; Farrington and Quinn 1973;

Hunter et al. 1979; Latimer et al. 1990; MacKenzie and Hunter 1979; Manabe et al. 1984; NIOSH

1977, 1978, 1984; Tanacredi 1977; Wakeham and Carpenter 1976; Zieba 1985). These methods detect

components in air, water (including runoff), soil, sediments, and some aquatic and terrestrial

organisms. They include AAS, GC/FID, GC/MS, GC/FID/FPD, ITMS, HPLC/UV, HPLC/fluorescence

detector, TLC, IR, fluorescence spectrophotometry, and ultraviolet spectroscopy. These methods are

relatively sensitive and selective and can be used to detect the levels of used mineral-based crankcase

oil components found in the environment and the levels at which health effects could occur. However,

recovery, sensitivity, and detection limit data are needed for measuring the components found in all

media. Recovery and precision data will help to assess and improve the reproducibility of the

methods. Detection limit data will aid in comparison of sensitivity between methods and indicate

where improvements in sensitivity are needed. This information will be useful in monitoring used

mineral-based crankcase oil contamination in the environment. So far, degradation products of used

mineral-based crankcase oil have not been detected.

6.3.2 On-going Studies

No on-going analytical methods studies were located.

USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 131

7. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES

National and state regulations and guidelines pertinent to human exposure to used mineral-based

crankcase oil are summarized in Table 7-1. No international regulations were found.

MRLs have not been derived. Reference dose (RfD) and reference concentration (RfC) data were not

found for used mineral-based crankcase oil.

The information in the following table indicates that used crankcase oil regulations are still being

revised and created. Few water quality standards were found for used mineral-based crankcase oil.

This may be because few states recognize or define used mineral-based crankcase oil as a hazardous

waste.

The primary state regulations listed in Table 7-l are adaptations of the federal regulations. It is

important to note that Colorado, the District of Columbia, and West Virginia have no or very few

regulations for used mineral-based crankcase oil. Also, all states, with the exception of West Virginia,

recognize road oiling and dust suppression as the primary route of environmental exposure and have

enacted regulations to address this release. Further regulations are expected as the category of used

mineral-based crankcase oil becomes more clearly defined.













USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 145

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*Steineck G, Plato N, Alfredsson L, et al. 1989. Industry-related urothelial carcinogens: Application

of a job-exposure matrix to census data. Am J Ind Med 16(2):209-224.

Sternberg, J. 1992. Oil recycling: Used lubricants to gasoline. Biocycle 33(5):80.

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*Zieba J. 1985. Examination of lubricating oils by infrared spectroscopy. Forensic Sci Int

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USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 173

9. GLOSSARY

Acute Exposure -- Exposure to a chemical for a duration of 14 days or less, as specified in the

Toxicological Profiles.

Adsorption Coefficient (Koc) -- The ratio of the amount of a chemical adsorbed per unit weight of

organic carbon in the soil or sediment to the concentration of the chemical in solution at equilibrium.

Adsorption Ratio (Kd) -- The amount of a chemical adsorbed by a sediment or soil (i.e., the solid

phase) divided by the amount of chemical in the solution phase, which is in equilibrium with the solid

phase, at a fixed solid/solution ratio. It is generally expressed in micrograms of chemical sorbed per

gram of soil or sediment.

Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) -- The quotient of the concentration of a chemical in aquatic organisms

at a specific time or during a discrete time period of exposure divided by the concentration in the

surrounding water at the same time or during the same period.

Cancer Effect Level (CEL) -- The lowest dose of chemical in a study, or group of studies, that

produces significant increases in the incidence of cancer (or tumors) between the exposed population

and its appropriate control.

Carcinogen -- A chemical capable of inducing cancer.

Ceiling Value -- A concentration of a substance that should not be exceeded, even instantaneously.

Chronic Exposure -- Exposure to a chemical for 365 days or more, as specified in the Toxicological

Profiles.

Developmental Toxicity -- The occurrence of adverse effects on the developing organism that may

result from exposure to a chemical prior to conception (either parent), during prenatal development, or

postnatally to the time of sexual maturation. Adverse developmental effects may be detected at any

point in the life span of the organism.

Embryotoxicity and Fetotoxicity -- Any toxic effect on the conceptus as a result of prenatal exposure

to a chemical; the distinguishing feature between the two terms is the stage of development during

which the insult occurred. The terms, as used here, include malformations and variations, altered

growth, and in utero death.

EPA Health Advisory -- An estimate of acceptable drinking water levels for a chemical substance

based on health effects information. A health advisory is not a legally enforceable federal’standard, but

serves as technical guidance to assist federal, state, and local officials.

Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) -- The maximum environmental concentration of a

contaminant from which one could escape within 30 min without any escape-impairing symptoms or

irreversible health effects.

Intermediate Exposure -- Exposure to a chemical for a duration of 15364 days, as specified in the

Toxicological Profiles.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 174

9. GLOSSARY

Immunologic Toxicity -- The occurrence of adverse effects on the immune system that may result from

exposure to environmental agents such as chemicals.

In vitro -- Isolated from the living organism and artificially maintained, as in a test tube.

In vivo -- Occurring within the living organism.

Lethal Concentration(LO) (LCLO) -- The lowest concentration of a chemical in air which has been

reported to have caused death in humans or animals.

Lethal Concentration(50) (LC50) -- A calculated concentration of a chemical in air to which exposure for

a specific length of time is expected to cause death in 50% of a defined experimental animal

population.

Lethal Dose(LO) ( LDLO) -- The lowest dose of a chemical introduced by a route other than inhalation

that is expected to have caused death in humans or animals.

Lethal Dose(50) (LD50) -- The dose of a chemical which has been calculated to cause death in 50% of a

defined experimental animal population.

Lethal Time(50) (LT50) -- A calculated period of time within which a specific concentration of a

chemical is expected to cause death in 50% of a defined experimental animal population.

Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL) -- The lowest dose of chemical in a study, or group

of studies, that produces statistically or biologically significant increases in frequency or severity of

adverse effects between the exposed population and its appropriate control.

Malformations -- Permanent structural changes that may adversely affect survival, development, or

function.

Minimal Risk Level -- An estimate of daily human exposure to a dose of a chemical that is likely to be

without an appreciable risk of adverse noncancerous effects over a specified duration of exposure.

Mutagen -- A substance that causes mutations. A mutation is a change in the genetic material in a

body cell. Mutations can lead to birth defects, miscarriages, or cancer.

Neurotoxicity -- The occurrence of adverse effects on the nervous system following exposure to

chemical.

No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (NOAEL) -- The dose of chemical at which there were no

statistically or biologically significant increases in frequency or severity of adverse effects seen

between the exposed population and its appropriate control. Effects may be produced at this doserbut

they are not considered to be adverse.

Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient (Kow) -- The equilibrium ratio of the concentrations of a chemical

in n-octanol and water, in dilute solution.

Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) -- An allowable exposure level in workplace air averaged over an

8-hour shift.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL 175

9. GLOSSARY

q1* - The upper-bound estimate of the low-dose slope of the dose-response curve as determined by the

multistage procedure. The q1* can be used to calculate an estimate of carcinogenic potency, the

incremental excess cancer risk per unit of exposure (usually μg/L for water, mg/kg/day for food, and

μg/m3 for air).

Reference Dose (RfD) -- An estimate (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude) of the

daily exposure of the human population to a potential hazard that is likely to be without risk of

deleterious effects during a lifetime. The RfD is operationally derived from the NOAEL (from animal

and human studies) by a consistent application of uncertainty factors that reflect various types of data

used to estimate RfDs and an additional modifying factor, which is based on a professional judgment of

the entire database on the chemical. The RfDs are not applicable to nonthreshold effects such as cancer.

Reportable Quantity (RQ) -- The quantity of a hazardous substance that is considered reportable under

CERCLA. Reportable quantities are (1) 1 pound or greater or (2) for selected substances, an amount

established by regulation either under CERCLA or under Sect. 311 of the Clean Water Act. Quantities

are measured over a 24-hour period.

Reproductive Toxicity -- The occurrence of adverse effects on the reproductive system that may result

from exposure to a chemical. The toxicity may be directed to the reproductive organs and/or the related

endocrine system. The manifestation of such toxicity may be noted as alterations in sexual behavior,

fertility, pregnancy outcomes, or modifications in other functions that are dependent on the integrity of

this system.

Short-Term Exposure Limit (STEL) -- The maximum concentration to which workers can be exposed

for up to 15 min continually. No more than four excursions are allowed per day, and there must be at

least 60 min between exposure periods. The daily TLV-TWA may not be exceeded.

Target Organ Toxicity -- This term covers a broad range of adverse effects on target organs or

physiological systems (e.g., renal, cardiovascular) extending from those arising through a single limited

exposure to those assumed over a lifetime of exposure to a chemical.

Teratogen -- A chemical that causes structural defects that affect the development of an organism.

Threshold Limit Value (TLV) -- A concentration of a substance to which most workers can be

exposed without adverse effect. The TLV may be expressed as a TWA, as a STEL, or as a CL.

Time-Weighted Average (TWA) -- An allowable exposure concentration averaged over a normal

8-hour workday or 40-hour workweek.

Toxic Dose (TD50) -- A calculated dose of a chemical, introduced by a route other than inhalation,

which is expected to cause a specific toxic effect in 50% of a defined experimental animal population.

Uncertainty Factor (UF) -- A factor used in operationally deriving the RfD from experimental data.

UFs are intended to account for (1) the variation in sensitivity among the members of the human

population, (2) the uncertainty in extrapolating animal data to the case of human, (3) the uncertainty in

extrapolating from data obtained in a study that is of less than lifetime exposure, and (4) the uncertainty

in using LOAEL data rather than NOAEL data. Usually each of these factors is set equal to 10.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL A-l

APPENDIX A

ATSDR MINIMAL RISK LEVEL

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) [42 U.S.C.

9601 et seq.], as amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) [Pub. L.

99-4991, requires that the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) develop jointly

with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in order of priority, a list of hazardous

substances most commonly found at facilities on the CERCLA National Priorities List (NPL); prepare

toxicological profiles for each substance included on the priority list of hazardous substances; and assure

the initiation of a research program to fill identified data needs associated with the substances.

The toxicological profiles include an examination, summary, and interpretation of available toxicological

information and epidemiologic evaluations of a hazardous substance. During the development of

toxicological profiles, Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) are derived when reliable and sufficient data exist

to identify the target organ(s) of effect or the most sensitive health effect(s) for a specific duration for a

given route of exposure. An MRL is an estimate of the daily human exposure to a hazardous substance

that is likely to be without appreciable risk of adverse noncancer health effects over a specified duration

of exposure. MRLs are based on noncancer health effects only and are not based on a consideration of

cancer effects. These substance-specific estimates, which are intended to serve as screening levels, are

used by ATSDR health assessors to identify contaminants and potential health effects that may be of

concern at hazardous waste sites. It is important to note that MRLs are not intended to define clean-up

or action levels.

MRLs are derived for hazardous substances using the no-observed-adverse-effect level/uncertainty factor

approach. They are below levels that might cause adverse health effects in the people most sensitive to

such chemical-induced effects. MRLs are derived for acute (1-14 days), intermediate (15-364 days),

and chronic (365 days and longer) durations and for the oral and inhalation routes of exposure.

Currently, MRLs for the dermal route of exposure are not derived because ATSDR has not yet

identified a method suitable for this route of exposure. MRLs are generally based on the most sensitive

chemical-induced end point considered to be of relevance to humans. Serious health effects (such as

irreparable damage to the liver or kidneys, or birth defects) are not used as a basis for establishing

MRLs. Exposure to a level above the MRL does not mean that adverse health effects will occur.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL A-2

APPENDIX A

MRLs are intended only to serve as a screening tool to help public health professionals decide where to

look more closely. They may also be viewed as a mechanism to identify those hazardous waste sites

that are not expected to cause adverse health effects. Most MRLs contain a degree of uncertainty

because of the lack of precise toxicological information on the people who might be most sensitive (e.g.,

infants, elderly, nutritionally or immunologically compromised) to the effects of hazardous substances.

ATSDR uses a conservative (i.e., protective) approach to address this uncertainty consistent with the

public health principle of prevention. Although human data are preferred, MRLs often must be based

on animal studies because relevant human studies are lacking. In the absence of evidence to the

contrary, ATSDR assumes that humans are more sensitive to the effects of hazardous substance than

animals and that certain persons may be particularly sensitive. Thus, the resulting MRL may be as

much as a hundredfold below levels that have been shown to be nontoxic in laboratory animals.

Proposed MRLs undergo a rigorous review process: Health Effects/MRL Workgroup reviews within the

Division of Toxicology, expert panel peer reviews, and agencywide MRL Workgroup reviews, with

participation from other federal agencies and comments from the public. They are subject to change as

new information becomes available concomitant with updating the toxicological profiles. Thus, MRLs

in the most recent toxicological profiles supersede previously published levels. For additional

information regarding MRLs, please contact the Division of Toxicology, Agency for Toxic Substances

and Disease Registry, 1600 Clifton Road, Mailstop E-29, Atlanta, Georgia 30333.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL A-3

APPENDIX A

MINIMAL RISK LEVEL WORKSHEETS

Data were not sufficient for the derivation of Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs). Therefore, there are no

MRL worksheets for used mineral-based crankcase oil.
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL B-1

APPENDIX B

USER’S GUIDE

Chapter 1

Public Health Statement

This chapter of the profile is a health effects summary written in non-technical language. Its intended

audience is the general public especially people living in the vicinity of a hazardous waste site or

chemical release. If the Public Health Statement were removed from the rest of the document, it would

still communicate to the lay public essential information about the chemical.

The major headings in the Public Health Statement are useful to find specific topics of concern. The

topics are written in a question and answer format. The answer to each question includes a sentence

that will direct the reader to chapters in the profile that will provide more information on the given

topic.

Chapter 2

Tables and Figures for Levels of Significant Exposure (LSE)

Tables (2-l) 2-2, and 2-3) and figures (2-l and 2-2) are used to summarize health effects and illustrate

graphically levels of exposure associated with those effects. These levels cover health effects observed

at increasing dose concentrations and durations, differences in response by species, minimal risk levels

(MRLs) to humans for noncancer end points, and EPA’s estimated range associated with an upperbound

individual lifetime cancer risk of 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 10,000,000. Use the LSE tables and figures

for a quick review of the health effects and to locate data for a specific exposure scenario. The LSE

tables and figures should always be used in conjunction with the text. All entries in these tables and

figures represent studies that provide reliable, quantitative estimates of No-Observed-Adverse- Effect

Levels (NOAELs), Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Levels (LOAELs), or Cancer Effect Levels

(CELs).

The legends presented below demonstrate the application of these tables and figures. Representative

examples of LSE Table 2-l and Figure 2-l are shown. The numbers in the left column of the legends

correspond to the numbers in the example table and figure.

LEGEND

See LSE Table 2-1

(1) Route of Exposure One of the first considerations when reviewing the toxicity of a substance

using these tables and figures should be the relevant and appropriate route of exposure. When

sufficient data exists, three LSE tables and two LSE figures are presented in the document.

The three LSE tables present data on the three principal routes of exposure, i.e., inhalation,

oral, and dermal (LSE Table 2-1, 2-2, and 2-3, respectively). LSE figures are limited to the

inhalation (LSE Figure 2-l) and oral (LSE Figure 2-2) routes. Not all substances will have data

on each route of exposure and will not therefore have all five of the tables and figures.

(2) Exposure Period Three exposure periods - acute (less than 15 days), intermediate (15-364 days),

and chronic (365 days or more) are presented within each relevant route of exposure. In this
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL B-2

APPENDIX B

example, an inhalation study of intermediate exposure duratoin is reported. For quick

reference to health effects occuring from a known length of exposure, locate the applicable

exposure period with the LSE table and figure.

(3) Health Effect The major categories of health effects included in LSE tables and figures are

death, systemic, immunological, neurological, developmental, reproductive, and cancer.

NOAELs and LOAELs can be reported in the tables and figures for all effects but cancer.

Systemic effects are further defined in the “System” column of the LSE table (see key number

18).

(4) Key to Figure Each key number in the LSE table links study information to one or more data

points using the same key number in the corresponding LSE figure. In this example, the study

represented by key number 18 has been used to derive a NOAEL and a Less Serious LOAEL

(also see the 2 “18r” data points in Figure 2-l).

(5) Species The test species, whether animal or human, are identified in this column. Section 2.5,

“Relevance to Public Health,” covers the relevance of animal data to human toxicity and

Section 2.3, “Toxicokinetics,” contains any available information on comparative

Toxicokinetics. Although NOAELs and LOAELs are species specific, the levels are

extrapolated to equivalent human doses to derive an MRL.

(6) Exposure Frequency/Duration The duration of the study and the weekly and daily exposure

regimen are provided in this column. This permits comparison of NOAELs and LOAELs from

different studies. In this case (key number IS), rats were exposed to 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane

via inhalation for 6 hours per day, 5 days per week, for 3 weeks. For a more complete review

of the dosing regimen refer to the appropriate sections of the text or the original reference

paper, i.e., Nitschke et al. 1981.

(7) System This column further defines the systemic effects. These systems include: respiratory,

cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, hematological, musculoskeletal, hepatic, renal, and

dermal/ocular. “Other” refers to any systemic effect (e.g., a decrease in body weight) not

covered in these systems. In the example of key number 18, 1 systemic effect (respiratory) was

investigated.

(8) NOAEL A No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (NOAEL) is the highest exposure level at

which no harmful effects were seen in the organ system studied. Key number 18 reports a

NOAEL of 3 ppm for the respiratory system which was used to derive an intermediate

exposure, inhalation MRL of 0.005 ppm (see footnote “b”).

(9) LOAEL A Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL) is the lowest dose used in the

study that caused a harmful health effect. LOAELs have been classified into “Less Serious”

and “Serious” effects. These distinctions help readers identify the levels of exposure at which

adverse health effects first appear and the gradation of effects with increasing dose. A briefdescription of the specific endpoint used to quantify the adverse effect accompanies the

LOAEL. The respiratory effect reported in key number 18 (hyperplasia) is a Less serious

LOAEL of 10 ppm. MRLs are not derived from Serious LOAELs.

(10) Reference The complete reference citation is given in chapter 8 of the profile.

(11) CEL A Cancer Effect Level (CEL) is the lowest exposure level associated with the onset of

carcinogenesis in experimental or epidemiologic studies. CELs are always considered serious
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL B-3

APPENDIX B

effects. The LSE tables and figures do not contain NOAELs for cancer, but the text may report

doses not causing measurable cancer increases.

(11) Footnotes Explanations of abbreviations or reference notes for data in the LSE tables are found

in the footnotes. Footnote “b” indicates the NOAEL of 3 ppm in key number 18 was used to

derive an MRL of 0.005 ppm.

LEGEND

See Figure 2-1

LSE figures graphically illustrate the data presented in the corresponding LSE tables. Figures help the

reader quickly compare health effects according to exposure concentrations for particular exposure

periods.

(13) Exposure Period The same exposure periods appear as in the LSE table. In this example,

health effects observed within the intermediate and chronic exposure periods are illustrated.

(14) Health Effect These are the categories of health effects for which reliable quantitative data

exists. The same health effects appear in the LSE table.

(15) Levels of Exposure concentrations or doses for each health effect in the LSE tables are

graphically displayed in the LSE figures. Exposure concentration or dose is measured on the

log scale “y” axis. Inhalation exposure is reported in mglm’ or ppm and oral exposure is

reported in mg/kg/day.

(16) NOAEL In this example, 18r NOAEL is the critical endpoint for which an intermediate

inhalation exposure MRL is based. As you can see from the LSE figure key, the open-circle

symbol indicates to a NOAEL for the test species-rat. The key number 18 corresponds to the

entry in the LSE table. The dashed descending arrow indicates the extrapolation from the

exposure level of 3 ppm (see entry 18 in the Table) to the MRL of 0.005 ppm (see footnote “b”

in the LSE table).

(17) CEL Key number 38r is 1 of 3 studies for which Cancer Effect Levels were derived. The

diamond symbol refers to a Cancer Effect Level for the test species-mouse. The number 38

corresponds to the entry in the LSE table.

(18) Estimated Upper-Bound Human Cancer Risk Levels This is the range associated with the

upper-bound for lifetime cancer risk of 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 10,000,000. These risk levels are

derived from the EPA’s Human Health Assessment Group’s upper-bound estimates of the

slope of the cancer dose response curve at low dose levels (q1*).

(19) Key to LSE Figure The Key explains the abbreviations and symbols used in the figure.


USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL B-6

APPENDIX B

Chapter 2 (Section 2.5)

Relevance to Public Health

The Relevance to Public Health section provides a health effects summary based on evaluations of

existing toxicologic, epidemiologic, and toxicokinetic information. This summary is designed to present

interpretive, weight-of-evidence discussions for human health end points by addressing the following

questions.

1. What effects are known to occur in humans?

2 . What effects observed in animals are likely to be of concern to humans?

3 . What exposure conditions are likely to be of concern to humans, especially around

hazardous waste sites?

The section covers end points in the same order they appear within the Discussion of Health Effects by

Route of Exposure section, by route (inhalation, oral, dermal) and within route by effect. Human data

are presented first, then animal data. Both are organized by duration (acute, intermediate, chronic). In

vitro data and data from parenteral routes (intramuscular, intravenous, subcutaneous, etc.) are also

considered in this section. If data are located in the scientific literature, a table of genotoxicity

information is included.

The carcinogenic potential of the profiled substance is qualitatively evaluated, when appropriate, using

existing toxicokinetic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic data. ATSDR does not currently assess cancer

potency or perform cancer risk assessments. Minimal risk levels (MRLs) for noncancer end points (if

derived) and the end points from which they were derived are indicated and discussed.

Limitations to existing scientific literature that prevent a satisfactory evaluation of the relevance to

public health are identified in the Data Needs section.

Interpretation of Minimal Risk Levels

Where sufficient toxicologic information is available, we have derived minimal risk levels (MRLs) for

inhalation and oral routes of entry at each duration of exposure (acute, intermediate, and chronic).

These MRLs are not meant to support regulatory action; but to acquaint health professionals with

exposure levels at which adverse health effects are not expected to occur in humans. They should help

physicians and public health officials determine the safety of a community living near a chemical

emission, given the concentration of a contaminant in air or the estimated daily dose in water. MRLs

are based largely on toxicological studies in animals and on reports of human occupational exposure.

MRL users should be familiar with the toxicologic information on which the number is based. Chapter

2.5, “Relevance to Public Health,” contains basic information known about the substance. Other

sections such as 2.7, “Interactions with Other Substances,” and 2.8, “Populations that are Unusually

Susceptible” provide important supplemental information.

MRL users should also understand the MRL derivation methodology. MRLs are derived using a

modified version of the risk assessment methodology the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

provides (Barnes and Dourson 1988) to determine reference doses for lifetime exposure (RfDs).
USED MINERAL-BASED CRANKCASE OIL B-7

APPENDIX B

To derive an MRL, ATSDR generally selects the most sensitive endpoint which, in its best judgement,

represents the most sensitive human health effect for a given exposure route and duration. ATSDR

cannot make this judgement or derive an MRL unless information (quantitative or qualitative) is

available for all potential systemic, neurological, and developmental effects. If this information and

reliable quantitative data on the chosen endpoint are available, ATSDR derives an MRL using the most

sensitive species (when information from multiple species is available) with the highest NOAEL that

does not exceed any adverse effect levels. When a NOAEL is not available, a lowest-observed-adverseeffect level (LOAEL) can be used to derive an MRL, and an uncertainty factor (UF) of 10 must be

employed. Additional uncertainty factors of 10 must be used both for human variability to protect

sensitive subpopulations (people who are most susceptible to the health effects caused by the substance)

and for interspecies variability (extrapolation from animals to humans). In deriving an MRL, these

individual uncertainty factors are multiplied together. The product is then divided into the inhalation

concentration or oral dosage selected from the study. Uncertainty factors used in developing a

substance-specific MRL are provided in the footnotes of the LSE Tables.