Volume One Container Nursery Planning, Development, and Management

Volume Two Containers and Growing Media

Volume Three Container Nursery Environment

Volume Four Seedling Nutrition and Irrigation

Volume Five The Biological Component: Nursery Pests and Mycorrhizae

Volume Six Seedling Propagation

Volume Seven Seedling Processing, Storage, and Outplanting

Landis, T.D.; Tinus, R.W.; McDonald, S.E.; Barnett, J.P. 1989. The Biological 

Component: Nursery Pests and Mycorrhizae, Vol. 5, The Container Tree Nursery 

Manual. Agric. Handbk. 674. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, 171 p.

ii
iii

The Container Tree Nursery Manual

Volume Five

The Biological Component:

Nursery Pests and Mycorrhizae

Chapter 1-Disease and Pest Management

Thomas D. Landis

5.1.1 Introduction 4

5.1.2 Diagnosis of Diseases and Pest

Problems 13

5.1.3 Diseases and Pests of Seeds and

Germinants 21

5.1.4 Diseases and Pests of Seedling Root

Systems 34

5.1.5 Diseases and Pests of Seedling Shoots and

Foliage 51

5.1.6 Diseases and Pest Problems During Seedling

Storage 69

5.1.7 Diseases and Pest Management

Strategies 76

5.1.8 Pesticide Use 90

5.1.9 Conclusions and Recommendations 93

5.1.10 References 94

Chapter 2-Mycorrhizae

Michael A. Castellano and Randy Molina

5.2.1 Introduction 103

5.2.2 Current Status of Mycorrhizae in Container

Nurseries 117

5.2.3 How to Check Seedlings for

Mycorrhizae 123

5.2.4 Mycorrhizal Fungi That Fruit in Container

Nurseries 125

5.2.5 Determining the Need for Mycorrhizal

Inoculation 127

5.2.6 Sources of Inoculum and Inoculation

Techniques 130

5.2.7 Evaluating Inoculation Success 149

5.2.8 Factors Affecting Mycorrhizal

Development 152

5.2.9 Conclusions and Recommendations 159

5.2.10 References 160

Index of Common and Scientific Names 168
Volume One--Container Nursery Planning, Development, and 

Management

Chapter 1 Initial Planning and Feasibility Assessment 

Chapter 2 Site Selection 

Chapter 3 Nursery Layout and Growing Facilities 

Chapter 4 Nonstructural Equipment and Controls 

Chapter 5 Auxiliary Equipment and Buildings 

Chapter 6 Shadehouses, Bedhouses, and Tunnels 

Chapter 7 Nursery Management 

Chapter 8 Troubleshooting Container Nursery Problems

Volume Two--Containers and Growing Media 

Chapter 1 Containers: Types and Functions 

Chapter 2 Growing Media

Volume Three--Container Nursery Environment 

Chapter 1 Temperature 

Chapter 2 Humidity 

Chapter 3 Light 

Chapter 4 Carbon Dioxide

Volume Four--Seedling Nutrition and Irrigation 

Chapter 1 Mineral Nutrients and Fertilization 

Chapter 2 Irrigation and Water Management

Volume Five--The Biological Component: Nursery Pests and 

Mycorrhizae 

Chapter 1 Disease and Pest Management 

Chapter 2 Mycorrhizae

Volume Six--Container Seedling Propagation 

Chapter 1 Stock Type and Growing Schedules 

Chapter 2 Seed Factors and Presowing Treatments 

Chapter 3 Sowing and Other Propagation Methods 

Chapter 4 Establishment Phase 

Chapter 5 Rapid Growth Phase 

Chapter 6 Hardening Phase

Volume Seven--Seedling Processing, Storage and

Outplanting

Chapter 1 Processing and Storage

Chapter 2 Handling and Transportation

Chapter 3 Outplanting

Preface

Work on the first comprehensive technical manual on the 

production of container tree seedlings "How to grow tree seedlings 

in containers in greenhouses" by Richard W. Tinus and Stephen E. 

McDonald was begun in June 1975 and was published by the 

USDA Forest Service as a General Technical Report (GTR RM-60) 

in May 1979. This manual achieved worldwide acceptance as the 

primary reference on the culture of container tree seedlings. "How 

to grow tree seedlings in containers in greenhouses" was originally 

intended as an interim publication and has been reprinted several 

times; however, it is currently out of print.

In 1982, plans were begun for the writing of a new container 

nursery manual based on "How to grow tree seedlings in 

containers in greenhouses" but adding several new chapters. The 

writing team consisted of Thomas D. Landis, Richard W. Tinus, 

Stephen E. McDonald and James P. Barnett. Realizing that container nursery management had changed considerably over the 

past decade, a survey of container tree seedling nursery practices 

in North America was undertaken in 1984. The Container Nursery 

Survey was distributed to 135 container nursery facilities in the 

United States and Canada; response to the Survey was excellent, 

as 78 of 135 surveys were returned. Information from the 

Container Nursery Survey has been used to determine writing 

priorities and emphasis, and information from the Survey has been 

included in many of the chapters in this manual.

The Container Tree Nursery Manual consists of a series of 

separate, sequential volumes. Each volume conta ins chapters on 

closely related subjects concerning the production of tree 

seedlings in containers. The volumes can be accumulated and 

used as a complete nursery manual or can be used separately by 

specialists needing information on a particular subject. Because 

several subjects must be discussed in more than one volume there 

will be some redundancy in the Manual. Some subject repetition is 

justified, however, because most readers will be using the Manual 

as a technical reference and will not be reading the entire text.

The Container Tree Nursery Manual is structured around an 

outline of numerical organizational headings that allow the reader 

to locate a specific subject quickly without referring to an index. 

The general outline of volume and chapter titles is as follows:

iv
v

Chapter 1--Disease and Pest Management

Dr. Jack R. Sutherland, Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific 

Forestry Centre, Victoria, BC

Dr. Robert L. James, USDA Forest Service, Forest Pest 

Management, Coeur d' Alene, ID

Ms. Gwen Shrimpton, British Columbia Forest Service, Surrey 

Nursery, Surrey, BC

Chapter 2--Mycorrhizae

Dr. Gary Hunt, Balco Industries, Ltd., Kamloops, BC

Dr. James M. Trappe, Department of Forest Science, Oregon 

State University, Corvallis, OR

Dr. John L. Ruehle, Institute for Mycorrhizal Research and 

Development, Athens, GA

Dr. Robert G. Linderman, USDA Agricultural Research Service, 

Horticultural Crops Research Laboratory, Corvallis, OR

Dr. Robert K. Dixon, Auburn University, AL

This Manual is based on the best current knowledge on container 

tree nursery management and should be used as a general 

reference. Recommendations were made using the best 

information available at the time and are, therefore, subject to 

revision as more knowledge becomes available. Much of the 

information in this Manual was developed for western and southern 

conifer seedlings. Although the authors attempted to include 

information for species from other geographical areas, because of 

the wide variation in individual species responses, container 

nursery managers will need to adapt these principles and 

procedures to their own nursery situation. There is no substitute for 

individual experience, and recommended cultural practices should 

be tested before being implemented on an operational scale.

Trade names are used throughout the Manual but are only 

provided as examples and no endorsement of specific products, or 

the exclusion of equally suitable products, is implied. The mention 

of specific pesticides is intended only for general information and 

should not be construed as an endorsement. Because of frequent 

changes in pesticide registration and labeling, the reader should 

check with local authorities to make sure that an intended use is 

both safe and legal. Remember that pesticides can be harmful to 

humans, domestic animals, desirable plants, and fish or other 

wildlife if they are not handled or applied properly. Use all pesticides selectively and carefully, following the label directions. Follow 

recommended practices for the disposal of surplus pesticides and 

pesticide containers.

The Container Tree Nursery Manual was organized into separate 

volumes to allow for revisions and updating. The authors request 

that the reader bring any errors in the text to their attention and 

also offer suggestions for improvement. Submit any suggestions to 

Thomas D. Landis, USDA Forest Service, State and Private 

Forestry, P.O. Box 3623, Portland, OR 97208,

Many people have been instrumental in the writing of this manual, 

and the authors would like to thank them for their suggestions and 

encouragement. Dr. Francis A. Uecker, USDA Agricultural 

Research Service, Mycology Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, graciously 

assisted with the mycological nomenclature. Technical review of 

such a large publication involves considerable work, and the 

authors are extremely grateful for the invaluable service provided 

by the following nursery professionals and scientists for volume 

five: