July 2012 

NASA/TM–2012-217591 

Refined Synthesis and Characterization of 

Controlled Diameter, Narrow Size Distribution 

Microparticles for Aerospace Research 

Applications 

Pacita I. Tiemsin and Christopher J. Wohl 

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 
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July 2012 

NASA/TM–2012-217591 

Refined Synthesis and Characterization of 

Controlled Diameter, Narrow Size Distribution 

Microparticles for Aerospace Research 

Applications 

Pacita I. Tiemsin and Christopher J. Wohl 

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 
Available from: 

NASA Center for AeroSpace Information 

7115 Standard Drive 

Hanover, MD 21076-1320 

443-757-5802 

Acknowledgments 

The authors would like to thank Donald Oglesby for his extensive help and mentoring 

regarding PSL synthesis and characterization, Jacqueline Schryer for assistance in batch 

preparation and general laboratory assistance, Anthony Watkins, Gregory Herring, John 

Connell, and James Meyers for scientific discussion, Kenneth Wright, William 

Humphreys and Ken Tedjojuwono for scientific discussion and mentorship, and James 

Baughman for scanning electron microscopy imaging. 

The use of trademarks or names of manufacturers in this report is for accurate reporting and does not constitute an 

official endorsement, either expressed or implied, of such products or manufacturers by the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration.
5 

Abstract 

Flow visualization using polystyrene microspheres (PSL)s has enabled researchers to learn a 

tremendous amount of information via particle based diagnostic techniques. To better accommodate wind 

tunnel researchers’ needs, PSL synthesis via dispersion polymerization has been carried out at NASA 

Langley Research Center since the late 1980s. When utilizing seed material for flow visualization, size 

and size distribution are of paramount importance. Therefore, the work described here focused on further 

refinement of PSL synthesis and characterization. Through controlled variation of synthetic conditions 

(chemical concentrations, solution stirring speed, temperature, etc.) a robust, controllable procedure was 

developed. The relationship between particle size and salt concentration, MgSO4, was identified enabling 

the determination of PSL diameters a priori. Suggestions of future topics related to PSL synthesis, 

stability, and size variation are also described. 

Keywords: dispersion polymerization, PSLs, particle image velocimetry, 

 

Introduction 

Seed Materials for Wind Tunnel Testing and PSL Advantages 

In spite of the significant advances in computing power and computational fluid dynamics (CFD), 

wind tunnel testing remains a critical aspect of aeronautics development. Experimentally determining the 

impact of the airflow on wind tunnel models can be performed in two ways, either using sensors 

embedded in the structure itself or sensing the properties of the flow field directly. Pressure sensitive 

paints, shear stress sensors, and pressure taps are among the on-body approaches that can be used to 

ascertain the impact of airflow on the test article as well as to make inferences regarding the impact the 

structure has on the flow field. Off-body techniques make measurements of various parameters, such as 

velocity, pressure and temperature, in the flow field and can be divided into three categories. Intrusive 

probes such as Hot-wire anemometers and Pitot probes are inserted into the flow to make measurements. 

Molecular diagnostics such as laser-induced fluorescence (LIF), Rayleigh and Raman scattering, are 

examples of nonintrusive molecular techniques that can measure off-body flow parameters with minimal 

disturbance to the flow. Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) are 

examples of Particle based laser diagnostics that form the third category of off-body techniques, which 

represent the primary application for the seed particles described in the current study. 

Throughout the history of wind tunnel measurements that utilized seeded airflows, a variety of seed 

materials have been investigated each with advantages and disadvantages. (For a review of several seed 

materials, see Ref. 1)1

 For example, kerosene and olive oil have both been used as seed materials with 

one of the primary advantages being availability of seed material. However, a major drawback for both 

systems is the broad size distribution of microdroplets generated by the nebulizing systems, not to 

mention flammability issues associated with kerosene and olive oil. Smoke has also been utilized as a 

seed material but issues regarding uniform dispersion of the smoke particulates have limited applications. 

Sand and other inorganic small particles have been demonstrated to be far too abrasive for use in wind 

tunnel testing, and the dense nature of these materials presents a severe drawback for obtaining reliable, 

truly representative data concerning the characteristics of the flow field. Plastic particles overcome many 

of these challenges due to the: relatively low density and hardness, capability to obtain and use significant 

volumes with narrow size distributions, ability to characterize the particles prior to use in the wind tunnel, 

and reduced risk to facility, model, and personnel, compared to some other seed materials. 

Historically, the huge drawback for using plastic microparticles for seed material has been cost and 

availability. Researchers at NASA Langley investigated potential ways to reduce the cost of Polystyrene 

Latex (PSL) particles and improve the availability of these seed materials. Exploring synthetic 
6 

approaches available at the time for PSL generation, Cecil Nichols developed a dispersion polymerization 

technique to generate polystyrene PSLs.2

 This approach utilized basic chemical components and a 

straightforward reaction procedure to generate PSLs in a range of 0.5 – 3 micrometers. PSLs were 

generated in a temperature-controlled reaction kettle using mechanical stirring. Although this approach 

was effective, there were a number of areas that could be improved to enable improved PSL synthesis 

with more control over particle diameter and particle size distribution. Additionally, the work conducted 

by Cecil Nichols did not permit researchers to interpolate required chemical compositions for target 

particle sizes not specifically outlined in the original Nichols TM. 

In this technical memorandum, improved processes for producing batches of polystyrene 

microspheres with controllable diameters are discussed in detail. Concentration/size relationships are 

described to enable generation of size-targeted PSLs over a broad range of diameters. Characterization 

techniques are also described. 

Light Scattering and Signal Detection of PSLs 

The seed particles required for LDV measurements must have both predictable laser scattering 

performance as well as consistent dynamic response to flow fluctuations. (For a review of the 

fundamental mathematics for LDV measurements the reader is referred to Ref 3.)3

 Seed materials have a 

relaxation time constant, p, indicative of the delay in particle velocity change from fluid velocity 

change.4

 The p depends on the particle’s drag coefficient which is influenced by shear force and skin 

friction changes. Spherical particle response times in a fluid flow scale linearly to particle density, , and 

as the square to the particle diameter, d: 



 

d r

p C

d

3 Re

4 2

 (1) 

where Cd, Rer, and  are the drag coefficient, Reynolds number, and dynamic viscosity, respectively. 

Seed particles are detected in the airflow as a result of Mie scattering incident laser light. Mie scattering 

is nonuniform with regions of enhanced and minimized scattered light intensity dependent on the 

direction of laser incidence. The intensity of the scattered light depends on the differential cross-section 

of the particle, among other variables. Thus, increasing the particle size increases the scattered light 

intensity. Concomitant to the increase in signal strength, the particle relaxation constant also increases. 

The balance between particle detection and particle behavior has resulted in use of a finite size regime of 

particle. Fortuitously, polystyrene PSLs have a density close to water enabling use of these materials in 

wind tunnels over a much broader range than is capable with higher density, inorganic materials. 

To quantify the accuracy of the LDV measurements of the flow field, the researcher has to know the 

scattering particle characteristics. In order to obtain optimum LDV measurements, the researcher is 

striving to achieve control of the particle characteristics and to verify those characteristics at the 

measurement point. The most desirable seeding characteristics are particles which are spherical, 

monodisperse (uniform size and shape), and have the ability to be sized according to a given wind tunnel 

and laser system. The ultimate objective of the particle formulation and fabrication process described is 

to achieve efficient operation of the particle based laser diagnostics during wind tunnel tests and, most 

importantly, to ensure accurate measurements with various particle based techniques. The accuracy of 

particle based measurement systems depends on the ability of the scattering particle to faithfully track the 

local flow field. A complex relationship exists between the particle motion and the local flow field, 

dependent upon particle size, size distribution, shape, and density. It should be noted that detection of 

scattered light from particles in the flow is often complicated by issues with light reflected from the 

model itself, this is especially true for near-wall measurements. 

Polystyrene as a seeding substrate in microsphere form meets the challenges described above on 

nearly all accounts. In addition to its high performance as a seeding substance, polystyrene microspheres 

are relatively inexpensive and easily produced in large quantities in a short period of time. 
7 

Synthesis of PSL Particles using Dispersion Polymerization 

PSL microparticles have been synthesized predominantly using emulsion polymerization.5,6 In this 

approach, styrene monomer is added to an aqueous solution containing a surfactant which stabilizes the 

emulsion. Introduction of an initiator molecule, typically a radical species, results in generation of the 

PSL microparticles. One major drawback to this approach is difficulty in controlling particle size and 

size distribution. Instead, greater success has been realized using dispersion polymerization which 

replaces the surfactants with alternative stabilizing molecules.7

 Two categories of stabilizers are 

commonly used; electrostatic2,8 (salts) and steric9,10 (polymeric) stabilizers, each with advantages and 

disadvantages. For the work described here, MgSO4 was utilized as an electrostatic dispersion stabilizing 

agent. In dispersion polymerization using electrostatic stabilizers, the ionic salt species stabilize the 

droplets of styrene in water, as an oil in water mixture, by migrating to the interface. Since dispersion 

stabilization using ionic salt species is realized using mechanical stirring, the stir speed has been 

demonstrated to be of significant importance with regards to generating monodisperse PSLs.11 The 

requirement of stirring can be circumvented in mixed-solvent systems, typically water/acetone, due to a 

reduction in the solution surface tension.12 This reduced surface tension enables the styrene microdroplets 

to be stabilized without the need of an ionic salt stabilizer. Once the oil-in-water dispersion has been 

generated, a polymerization initiator is added to the mixture. The initiator migrates to the oil (styrene) 

droplets and initiates polymerization that is propagated within the oil droplet. The size of the oil droplet, 

and thus the size of the resultant PSL particle, is controlled by the concentration of the dispersion 

stabilizing agent. 

For the work described here, the radical initiator chosen was potassium persulfate (K2S2O8, KPS) 

which decomposes, resulting in generation of an oxygen-centered radical.13,14 Although more stable 

radical polymerization initiators have been used in the past,15 such as TEMPO,16 issues with controlling 

particle size, size distribution, and the range of available particle sizes accessible with these initiators has 

detracted from their use. 2,2’-Azobisiso-butyronitrile (AIBN) has also been successfully used as an 

initiator to generate monodisperse PSL;17 however, flammability and acute toxicity are strong detractors 

from using this material as a radical initiator. One drawback of using KPS, and many other radical chain 

polymerization initiators, is sensitivity to oxygen dissolved in the reaction mixture. Therefore, sparging 

the reaction mixture prior to addition of KPS is paramount to successfully generating PSLs with a narrow 

size distribution. For this work, this was achieved by sparging the mixture with N2 to ensure 

displacement of all of the dissolved O2. 

In this technical report, the materials utilized to synthesize PSLs as well as the protocol developed to 

conduct the synthesis are described in detail. Next, characterization of the PSLs using light scattering and 

microscopy techniques is described. Size variation of PSLs with respect to MgSO4 concentration and a 

statistical analysis of the concentration-size relationship are discussed in the following section. 

 Materials and Methods 

Equipment-for PSL Synthesis 

As this TM is being prepared with the idea that future researchers will be able to replicate the 

experimental set-up and procedures, the details given below should serve as an inventory of required 

equipment for PSL synthesis and characterization. The items listed below are those used in our work. 

Other suitable configurations are, of course, possible. Several of these items are also highlighted in 

Figures 1 and 2. 

(1) Chiller, NESLAB- RTE-111 set to approximately 20°C. 

(2) Stirring motor assembly. IKA Eurostar Power Control-visc 6000 with a conical non-push 

through shaft. The impeller purchased from Ace Glass was adapted to fit. 
8 

(3) Teflon adaptor gasket, home-made, to fit on the stirring rod and over the center neck of the 

reactor lid. 

(4) Heating mantle. 3000 mL, Glas Col from Ace Glass order code 12058-22. 

(5) Reaction kettle assembly. Pyrex, 3000mL, 4-neck, from Fisher Scientific, catalog number 11-

847D. 

(6) Clamp for reaction kettle assembly, above. Ace Glass order code 6508-11. 

(7) Two gaskets for reaction kettle clamp. Gaskets were cut in-house from a sheet of Teflon. 

(8) Beaker, Griffin, 4000 mL, heavy-duty. Fisher Scientific catalog number 02-555-25K. This 

beaker is used to hold filtered product until it is cool enough to pour into jugs for storage. 

(9) Adaptor tube, Pyrex, with parallel side arm, 24/40 joints. Fisher Scientific catalog number 15-

326A 

(10) Graduated cylinder, 2000 mL, Class A. Fisher Scientific catalog number 08-553H. 

(11) Gas dispersion tube (sparge tube) Ace Glass order code 7198-06, lengthened by special order to 

320 mm. 

(12) Condenser, cold finger, 24/40 joint, 215 mm length below joint. 

(13) Graham condenser, 24/40 joint, 200 mm jacket length. Ace Glass order code 5977-12 

(14) Agitator, 316 stainless, 75 mm. Ace Glass order code 8095-31. 

(15) RTD Sensor probe, PFA coated, detachable lead. Ace Glass order code 12139-35. 

(16) Temperature readout/controller, 120V, for temperature sensor probe above. Ace Glass order code 

12107-20. Temperature set to 70 °C throughout the run. 

(17) Adaptor for temperature probe, "Mini", #7 Ace thread, 24/40 joint. Ace Glass order code 5272-

15 

(18) Flowmeter/controller, Teledyne Hasting-Raydist 0-500 sccm (air). 

(19) 1-gallon plastic “milk” jugs with screw tops, available from U.S. Plastics, among other vendors. 

(20) Miscellaneous lab supplies: Tygon tubing, cheesecloth, sieve, large funnel, Swagelok valves, 50 

or 100 mL beakers, glass syringe pipet, laboratory oven, milligram balance, wipes/paper towels. 

Figure 1. PSL reaction kettle and experimental setup. 
9 

Figure 2. Photograph of the individual components of the PSL reaction kettle: (A) reaction kettle lid, 

(B) reaction kettle, (C) stir paddle, (D) stir rod, (E) reaction kettle clamp, (F) 2 Teflon® washers nested 

between the reaction kettle and the lid. 

Figure 3. Several different stir paddle geometries were evaluated. The most reliable results were 

those obtained with paddle “C.” This is possibly due to an increased ability to agitate the solution 

creating the most homogenous styrene droplet sizes. 

Equipment-for PSL Characterization 

The synthesized PSLs were characterized using light scattering measurements and various 

microscopies. For light scattering, a NECOM -PSS Particle Sizing Systems light scattering instrument 

was used. To make the measurement, 1 drop of the PSL dispersion is placed in 40 mL of deionized 

water. This solution is stirred and 1 drop of this solution is transferred to the analysis container using a 
10 

pipette. Prior to PSL measurements, background scans were collected on deionized water to ensure the 

analysis chamber was properly flushed of particulates from previous measurements. If the total particle 

count of the background scan was greater than 500 at 0.5 m, the reading was repeated. If the count 

exceeded this minimum value twice, the analysis chamber was drained and refilled with new deionized 

water. Once the data was collected, the number count size distribution was analyzed to determine the 

dispersity and modality of the PSLs. Microscopic characterization of the PSLs was performed using a 

NECOM-PSS Particle Sizing Systems and Hitachi S-3700 scanning electron microscope and a Zeiss LSM 

5 Exciter confocal microscope operated in scattering mode with excitation at 543 nm. 

Process Monitoring Software and Instrumentation 

It was recognized that in order to ensure repeatability of the process and to facilitate the analysis of 

unexpected results it was necessary to accurately record all the variables of the process. Gathering this 

continuous data stream would alert us to abnormal behavior such as if the motor bogged down due to 

unusual viscosity changes or if the sparge gas flow rate changed because of a nitrogen supply problem. 

These variables included the temperature of the reactor, stirring motor speed, chiller temperature, ambient 

temperature and sparge gas flow rate. These parameters were measured using an Agilent 34970A data 

acquisition\switch unit. This is a self contained unit and is essentially a 20 channel scanner\multiplexer 

connected to a high precision voltmeter. All signals were connected to the multiplexer card which is 

inserted into the back of the unit. All channels are configurable for its respective input type. The 

temperatures were measured with thermocouples. It was determined that type “T” thermocouples would 

be most suitable for the expected temperature range. The reactor temperature thermocouple was dipped 

into the process solution through an access hole in the reactor. The ambient temperature thermocouple 

was mounted in room air in the general vicinity of the process equipment and the chiller thermocouple 

was dipped into the chiller reservoir. 

The stirring motor has a built in analog output voltage that is available on a Sub “D” connector that is 

proportional to the speed of the motor. This voltage was 1 volt at 2000 revolutions per minute (RPM). 

The 34970A unit has the ability to enter scaling parameters for each channel. Using this function, the 

voltage as read by the unit was scaled to read out directly in engineering units, in this case RPM. The flow 

meter has a full scale output of 5 volts for a flow of 500 SCCM (standard cubic centimeters per minute). 

This was similarly scaled to read out in engineering units. 

Synthesis of Polystyrene Microparticles 

In order that other researchers could more easily produce their own particles, both a general description 

and a detailed description of the PSL synthesis procedure is included here. 

General procedure: A 2 L reaction kettle was fitted with 2 Teflon® gaskets to ensure an airtight fit 

followed by the reaction kettle lid, mechanical stirrer, temperature probe, and a cold finger. The reactor 

was charged with deionized 18 MOhm water, MgSO4, and styrene in appropriate quantities. The chiller 

was turned on to 20°C which fed the condenser and cold finger. The cold finger was removed and 

replaced with a gas dispersion tube. N2 was introduced to the reaction mixture through the dispersion 

tube at approximately 100 cc/m. The reaction mixture was stirred at 150 RPM and heated to 70°C. After 

40 minutes, the gas dispersion tube was removed and replaced with the cold finger. K2S2O8 was added to 

deionized 18 MOhm water held at 70°C. Once dissolved, this was added to the reaction kettle. The 

reaction mixture was stirred for 20 h at 250 RPM and 70°C under N2 flowing at 450 cc/m. The solution 

was allowed to cool slightly and filtered through four layers of cheese cloth for analysis. The glassware 

will likely have plastic deposits on it and can be readily cleaned by wiping with xylenes or toluene. The 

stir paddle and reaction kettle may need to be soaked in these solvents overnight. 

 
11 

Detailed Procedure:

1. Assemble the reactor as shown in Figure 1. Turn the stirring paddle by hand to make certain that 

it is not binding or striking anything in the vessel. 

2. Charge the reactor with 2000 ml water. 

3. Using a 50 ml glass syringe and needle, remove 40 ml water from the reactor and discharge it into 

a 100 ml beaker. This water will be heated to 70 C and used to dissolve the K2S2O8. 

4. Use the formulation equation or Table 1 to determine the weight of magnesium sulfate (MgSO4)

based on the desired particle size. Add the MgSO4 to the reactor water. 

5. Add 200 g (265 ml) styrene to the reactor. 

6. Close the stopcock in the line for padding the system with nitrogen (on the fitting for the 

thermocouple). 

7. Start the cold water flowing through the condenser and cold finger. With the water flowing, 

invert the cold finger to remove the air. Do not place the cold finger into the reaction mixture at 

this time. 

8. Insert the gas dispersion tube into the reaction vessel. Clamp off the nitrogen padding line, open 

the clamp on the dispersion tube line, and adjust the flow of nitrogen. 

9. Start the stirrer (150 rpm) and begin heating to 70 C. 

10. Bubble nitrogen through the reaction mixture for 40 minutes (approx. 100 cc/min). 

11. Remove the nitrogen bubble tube from the reactor after 40 minutes. Do not allow the tube to hit 

the stirrer. 

12. Insert the cold finger in place of the nitrogen bubble tube. Do not allow the cold finger to hit the 

stirrer. 

13. Using the appropriate tubing clamps, divert the flow of nitrogen to the gas inlet on the 

thermocouple fitting. Open the stopcock. Maintain nitrogen flow into the reaction vessel during 

the entire reaction time (approx. 450 cc/min). 

14. Using a mortar and pestle, grind 1.61 g K2S2O8 until it is a fine powder. 

15. Remove the 40 ml of water from the oven and dissolve the ground K2S2O8 in the warm water. 

When the salt has completely dissolved transfer the solution to the reactor using the 50 ml 

syringe. 

16. After 20 hours turn the temperature controller off, and stop the stirrer. After cooling for a few 

minutes, carefully remove the stirrer motor. Turn off the water, and remove the condenser and 

the cold finger. Remove the thermocouple. Remove the top of the reaction vessel. 

17. Filter the reaction product through four layers of cheese cloth into a large beaker. Use a large, 

wire mesh filter to support the cheese cloth. 

18. Clean the glassware with either xylenes (more preferable) or toluene. Soak the stir paddle in a 

xylene or toluene solution overnight with a parafilm covering to prevent evaporation of solvent. 

19. Store the filtered product in a 1 gallon container. 

20. Determine the weight percent solids by evaporation at 65-70 C. 

Generation of PSL Samples for Microscopic Analysis 

Microscope slides were coated with PSLs in order to determine their diameter microscopically. The 

slides were first submerged in a basic solution (potassium hydroxide aqueous solution, approximately 2 

M) to remove the thin oil layer and improve slide wettability. Next, the slide was rinsed with deionized 

water and a droplet of the PSL suspension was deposited on the slide using a pipette. The side of the 
12 

narrow portion of the pipette stem was used to spread the droplet to all areas of the slide that had been 

submerged in the KOH solution. Since the best resolution of particle profiles can be obtained by 

observing a monolayer of particles, a minimal amount of solution was applied to the slide and spread over 

a maximum surface area. The slide was next placed in an oven at approximately 70 °C and allowed to 

dry. A good indication of adequate surface coverage of a glass slide was observed by tilting the slide. If 

the slide was somewhat transparent when viewed at a normal incidence and became very hazy upon 

tilting, a good monolayer of PSLs was often present on the surface. An example picture of good and bad 

PSL microscopy samples is shown below. 

Figure 4. PSL microscopy slides exhibiting good (left) and poor (right) PSL depositions. 

Results and Discussion 

PSL Sphericity and Size Distribution 

Building upon the work of Cecil Nichols,2

 PSLs were generated using dispersion polymerization with 

MgSO4 as a dispersion stabilizing agent and K2S2O8 as a radical polymerization initiator. Although the 

reaction progress was not quantitatively monitored, the transformation of the reaction mixture from 

transparent to opaque was a good indicator that the PSL synthesis was proceeding. (See region of the 

reaction kettle below the kettle clamp in Figure 5) Once the allotted time for the reaction to progress was 

complete, the solution was allowed to cool slightly and subsequently filtered through cheese cloth. 

Approximately 50% of the time, there were large deposits of amorphous polymerized styrene on the stir 

paddle and the sides of the reaction kettle. 
13 

Figure 5. PSL reaction vessel during PSL synthesis. 

Once the particles were generated, they were analyzed using a light scattering particle analyzer and 

several microscopic techniques. Shown below is an example of the analysis results obtained from a batch 

of PSLs (Table 1). As can be seen, there are a number of different statistics calculated from the particle 

analyzer that are of utility when discussing the PSL batch. Although the volume-weighted averages are 

important for synthesis concerns, they are not as relevant as the number-weighted averages for wind 

tunnel uses and therefore are not considered for the remainder of this discussion. The number-weighted 

mean was calculated to be 1.2 mm for this batch, yet there were a significant number of particles that 

were greater in diameter. If this “tail” of larger particles was of concern for PSL users, they could readily 

be removed from the PSL dispersion by standard filtration techniques. Histograms of the particle counts 

and number-weighted cumulative particle counts were often of utility when a batch of PSLs was 

evaluated for a particular application. An example histogram with this information is provided below for 

the PSL batch analyzed in Table 1 (Figure 6). 
14 

Table 1. Analytical results from the Particle Sizing System light scattering particle analyzer for a batch of 

PSLs. 

Particle Sizing Systems, Inc. 

Santa Barbara, Calif., USA 

Model 780 AccuSizer 

Caption: POLYSTYRENE PARTICLES, Final 

File Name = 021308.s 

Sensor Model: 

LE400-0.5 

SUM S/N: 409904 Cal. File: 0409904s.sns 

Elapsed Time of Data Collection = 120 Sec. 

Background File = 021308.bkg 

Total # Part. Sized (>=Thres. 0.50 um ) = 296414 

Calculated Total No. of Particles in Sample = 16167930 

Dilution Factor, DF = 54.55 2nd-stage DF2= 1 

Fluid Volume 

Sampled = 120 ml 

No. of 

Channels = 128 

NUM-WT Mean = 1.2 um Mode = 1.29 um Median = 1.29 

VOL-WT Mean = 89.74 um Mode = 133.28 um Median = 133.28 

Summary of Detailed Distribution, Weightings 

Diameter # Part. Cum Num Num % Vol % Cum Num % Vol Num % 

(microns) Sized >=Diam. >=Diam. >=Diam. 

0.51 9947 296414 3.356 0.031 100 100 

0.54 12849 286467 4.335 0.048 96.644 99.969 

0.57 11023 273618 3.719 0.048 92.309 99.921 

0.6 6112 262595 2.062 0.031 88.591 99.872 

0.64 2479 256483 0.836 0.015 86.529 99.841 

0.67 1022 254004 0.345 0.007 85.692 99.826 

0.71 448 252982 0.151 0.004 85.348 99.819 

0.75 442 252534 0.149 0.004 85.196 99.815 

0.79 685 252092 0.231 0.008 85.047 99.811 

0.83 771 251407 0.26 0.01 84.816 99.803 

0.88 1032 250636 0.348 0.016 84.556 99.792 

0.93 1369 249604 0.462 0.026 84.208 99.776 

0.98 2012 248235 0.679 0.044 83.746 99.75 

1.04 2624 246223 0.885 0.068 83.067 99.706 

1.09 4372 243599 1.475 0.134 82.182 99.637 

1.15 9918 239227 3.346 0.356 80.707 99.504 

1.22 32283 229309 10.891 1.363 77.361 99.148 

1.29 106296 197026 35.861 5.277 66.47 97.785 

1.36 62821 90730 21.194 3.667 30.609 92.508 

1.43 6780 27909 2.287 0.465 9.416 88.841 

1.51 6070 21129 2.048 0.49 7.128 88.376 

1.6 6887 15059 2.323 0.653 5.08 87.886 

1.68 4730 8172 1.596 0.528 2.757 87.232 

1.78 1503 3442 0.507 0.197 1.161 86.705 

1.88 809 1939 0.273 0.125 0.654 86.508 

1.98 496 1130 0.167 0.09 0.381 86.383 

2.09 200 634 0.067 0.043 0.214 86.293 

2.21 100 434 0.034 0.025 0.146 86.251 

2.33 69 334 0.023 0.02 0.113 86.225 

2.46 47 265 0.016 0.016 0.089 86.205 

2.59 27 218 0.009 0.011 0.074 86.189 

2.74 24 191 0.008 0.011 0.064 86.178 

2.89 19 167 0.006 0.011 0.056 86.166 

3.05 16 148 0.005 0.011 0.05 86.156 

3.22 19 132 0.006 0.015 0.045 86.145 

3.4 10 113 0.003 0.009 0.038 86.13 

3.58 8 103 0.003 0.009 0.035 86.121 

3.78 8 95 0.003 0.01 0.032 86.113 

3.99 9 87 0.003 0.013 0.029 86.102 

4.21 8 78 0.003 0.014 0.026 86.089 

4.45 5 70 0.002 0.01 0.024 86.075 

4.69 7 65 0.002 0.017 0.022 86.065 

4.96 7 58 0.002 0.02 0.02 86.048 

5.23 6 51 0.002 0.02 0.017 86.028 

5.52 4 45 0.001 0.016 0.015 86.008 

5.83 2 41 0.001 0.009 0.014 85.992 

6.15 2 39 0.001 0.011 0.013 85.983 

6.49 3 37 0.001 0.019 0.012 85.972 

6.85 0 34 0 0 0.011 85.953 
15 

Figure 6. Example histogram of PSL particles. 

Scanning electron, optical, and confocal microscopies were also used to characterize the PSLs. The 

analysis for each technique was similar with glass slides being prepared as described above. The diameter 

of the particles was then determined from the images collected on the sample slides. Several examples 

are shown below (Figures 7 and 8). 

 Figure 7. Scanning electron micrograph of PSL particles at low (left) and high (right) magnification. 

Figure 8. Micrographs of PSLs collected using the optical mode on the confocal microscope. 
16 

PSL Size Dependence on MgSO4 Concentration 

Initial results of PSL generation experiments revealed a repeatable trend regarding MgSO4

concentration and PSL diameter. Therefore, a series of experiments were performed to assess the 

reliability of this trend. Several batches of PSLs were synthesized with the same concentration of each 

reactant in as rapid of a fashion as possible. Since the reaction runs for approximately 21 h, this required 

approximately 1.5 weeks to complete. This approach was taken to minimize unforeseen or unknown 

environmental variables that may impact particle size. PSL diameters from 0.5 m to 2 m were targeted 

as this is the range of diameters of utility for most wind tunnel experiments. The resultant mean particle 

size and standard deviation for each batch is presented in Table 1. As can be seen, increasing the MgSO4

concentration resulted in an increase in PSL diameter. Similar results have been observed for PSLs 

generated using NaCl18 and CaSO3

19 as electrostatic stabilizers. In this work, production of larger 

particles was much less predictable than smaller ones, which could be the result of the MgSO4 interfering 

with the radical reaction itself. 

Table 2. PSL synthesis repeatability and reliability experimental results. 

a

This is the calculated concentration of Mg SO4 in the aqueous solution.

b

The minimum resolvable diameter for the light scattering detector is 0.5 m. Therefore, 

these numbers are likely an artifact of the detector limitations. 

The mean particle diameter was plotted against the MgSO4 concentration and it was determined that 

the relationship between these two parameters was nonlinear and a reasonable correlation was calculated 

using Eq. 2. Similar nonlinear relationships between particle diameter and electrolyte concentration have 

been reported previously.18 

MgSO4

concentration, mMa Batch Mean 

Diameter, m 

Average 

Diameter, m 

Standard 

Deviation, m 

0.00 

1 0.55b

0.55 N/A 

2 0.55 

3 0.55 

4 0.55 

5 0.55 

0.457 

1 1.20 

1.25 0.09 

2 1.28 

3 1.36 

4 1.28 

5 1.12 

0.914 

1 1.63 

2 1.57 1.61 0.03 

3 1.62 

1.591 

1 1.85 

1.33 0.48 

2 0.94 

3 1.06 

4 0.94 

5 1.85 
17 

Although these results indicated that this synthetic approach was very robust for the PSL size range 

desired for wind tunnel uses, it is important to note that they are very specific to the setup used to 

generate the PSLs. Changing to a different stir paddle, using a different stir speed, even starting a new 

bottle of a reactant may impact the coefficients defined in Eq. 2. Therefore, Eq. 2 should be considered as 

a starting point towards development of a calibration curve for the specific setup and protocol to be 

utilized for PSL synthesis. 

Figure 9. Particle diameter increases with MgSO4 concentration. The correlation coefficient for the 

exponential fit was 0.9899. 

Future PSL Synthesis Opportunities 

PSL synthesis research has resulted in generation of an inventory of PSLs of various particle sizes 

and size distributions that are available in ASOMB for a variety of fluid characterization experiments 

(Figure 10). These particles have been used to successfully determine velocity in the flow field during 

testing in ground test facilities. Currently, research is being conducted to generate multifunctional 

particles that would provide additional information including temperature, pressure, and other parameters 

in the flow by evaluating excited state relaxation processes of fluorescent particles. 

B[M ] d d M Ae   (2) 

d = particle diameter, m 

dM = maximum particle diameter attainable with this technique, 1.99 m 

A = pre-exponential coefficient, 1 

B = multiplier, 1.44191 mM-1

[M] = MgSO4 concentration, mM 
18 

Figure 10. Inventory of PSLs synthesized in ASOMB. 

Similarly, according to the results of fitting the particle diameter data to Eq. 2, the available range of 

particle diameters is limited. Although it is not clear what dM depends on, one possibility is that there is a 

dependence on the ionic radius of the dispersion stabilizer, MgSO4. Thus, by changing the dispersion 

stabilizer, it is conceivable that the constants in Eq. 2 would be different and would enable a new size 

regime of particle to be synthesized due to differences in the ionic radius (Table 3). One way to examine 

this would be to change the cation of the sulfate salt. As an example, a schematic is presented in Figure 

11 that shows the area of a styrene droplet that could be stabilized using the same number of Mg2+ and 

Ca2+ cations. As can be seen, the larger ionic radius of Ca2+ encompasses a larger styrene droplet area and 

may result in generation of larger PSLs. A preliminary investigation has indicated that changing to 

Na2SO4 resulted in generation of slightly larger particles (data not shown). It is unclear how changing 

from a divalent to monovalent cation would impact the PSL diameter. 

Table 3. Ionic radii of select cations.20 

Cation Ionic Radius, pm 

Mg+2 86 

Cu+2 87 

Zn+2 88 

Ca+2 114 

Na+

 116 

NH4

+

 143 

K+

 152 
19 

Figure 11. Schematic of the potential influence of ionic radius on maximum particle diameter 

attainable using dispersion polymerization. 

Conclusion 

The use of dispersion polymerization techniques to make PSLs for use in wind tunnel testing has been 

demonstrated to be an effective way to provide seed material for particle based laser diagnostics utilized 

by flow physics researchers and others involved with wind tunnel testing. Beyond being able to provide 

large quantities of narrow size dispersion particles at a fraction of what they would cost from commercial 

sources, the capability of being able to tune the properties of the seed material, namely the particle 

diameter, for specific applications is truly advantageous. Based on the described protocols, several 

gallons of PSLs of a specific size can be generated in a few weeks which is a much shorter lead time than 

would be required from a commercial entity that would have to ramp up to provide particles due to the 

niche nature of this requirement. Additionally, experimentation has begun on synthesis of multifunctional 

PSLs to further expand the capabilities for wind tunnel experiments that incorporate seed material to 

potentially include detection of temperature and pressure in the flow field using fluorescent particles. 

References 

(1) Meyers, J. F., "Generation of Particles and Seeding," von Karman Institute 

for Fluid Dynamics, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, 1991. 

(2) Nichols, C. E. J., "Preparation of Polystyrene Microspheres for Laser 

Velocimetry in Wind Tunnels," TM-89163, 1987. 

(3) Meyers, J. F. and Walsh, M. J., "Computer Simulation of a Fringe Type 

Laser Velocimeter," Project Squid Workshop on the Use of the Laser Velocimeter 

for Flow Measurements, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 1974. 

(4) Ecker, T. Experimental Investigation of Particle Lag Behind a Shock Wave 

Using a Novel Laser Doppler Accelerometer, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and 

State University, Masters 2011. 
20 

(5) Juang, M. S. Preparation of Monodisperse Polystyrene Lattices by Emulsion 

Polymerization, Case Western Reserve University, Ph.D. 1975. 

(6) Vanderhoff, J. W., "Mechanism of Emulsion Polymerization," Journal of 

Polymer Science: Polymer Symposium, 72,1985, pp. 161-198. 

(7) Kawaguchi, S. and Ito, K., "Dispersion Polymerization," Advances in 

Polymer Science, 175,2005, pp. 299-328. 

(8) Goodwin, J. W., Ottewill, R. H., Pelton, R., Vianello, G. and Yates, D. E., 

"Control of Particle Size in the Formation of Polymer Latices," British Polymer 

Journal, 10,1978, pp. 173-180. 

(9) Bamnolker, H. and Margel, S., "Dispersion Polymerization of Styrene in 

Polar Solvents: Effect of Reaction Parameters on Microsphere Surface 

Composition and Surface Properties, Size and Size Distribution, and Molecular 

Weight," Journal of Polymer Science: Part A Polymer Chemistry, 34,1996, pp. 

1857-1871. 

(10) Shay, J. S., English, R. J., Spontak, R. J., Balik, C. M. and Khan, S. A., 

"Dispersion Polymerization of Polystyrene Latex Stabiliized with Novel Grafted 

Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Macromers in 1-Propanol/Water," Macromolecules,

33,2000, pp. 6664-6671. 

(11) Inukai, S., Tanma, T., Orihara, S. and Konno, M., "A Simple Method for 

Producing Micron-Sized, Highly Monodisperse Polystyrene Particles in Aqueous 

Media: Effects of Impeller Speed on Particle Size Distribution," Trans IChemE,

79,2001, pp. 901-905. 

(12) Li, Z., Cheng, H. and Han, C., "Mechanism of Narrowly Dispersed Latex 

Formation in a Surfactant-Free Emulsion Polymerization of Styrene in AcetoneWater Mixture," Macromolecules, 45,2012, pp. 3231-3239. 

(13) Beylerian, N. M., Vardanyan, L. R., Harutyunyan, R. S. and Vardanyan, R. 

L., "Kinetics and Mechanism of Potassium Persulfate Decomposition in Aqueous 

Solutions Studied by a Gasometric Method," Macromolecular Chemistry and 

Physics, 203,2002, pp. 212-218. 

(14) Kolthoff, I. M. and Miller, I. K., "The Chemistry of Persulfate. I. The 

Kinetics and Mechanism of the Decomposition of the Persulfate Ion in Aqueous 

Medium," Journal of the American Chemical Society, 73,1951, pp. 3055-3059. 
21 

(15) Qiu, J., Charleux, B. and Matyjaszewski, K., "Controlled/Living Radical 

Polymerization in Aqueous Media: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems," 

Progress in Polymer Science, 26,2001, pp. 2083-2134. 

(16) Gasaston, L. I., Jackson, R. A. and Armes, S. P., "Living Free-Radical 

Dispersion Polymerization of Styrene," Macromolecules, 31,1998, pp. 2883-2888. 

(17) Qi, H., Hao, W., Xu, H., Zhang, J. and Wang, T., "Synthesis of Large-Sized 

Monodisperse Polystyrene Microspheres by Dispersion Polymerization with 

Dropwise Monomer Feeding Procedure," Colloid and Polymer Science, 287,2009, 

pp. 243-248. 

(18) Goodwin, J. W., Hearn, J., Ho, C. C. and Ottewill, R. H., "The Preparation 

and Characterization of Polymer Latices Formed in the Absence of Surface Active 

Agents," British Polymer Journal, 5,1973, pp. 347-362. 

(19) Chiu, W. and Shih, C., "A Study on the Soap-Free Emulsion Polymerization 

of Styrene," J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 31,1986, pp. 2117-2128. 

(20) Shannon, R. D., "Revised Effective Ionic Radii and Systematic Studies of 

Interatomice Distances in Halides and Chalcogenides," Acta Crystallographica,

A32,1976, pp. 751-767. 
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved

OMB No. 0704-0188

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Refined Synthesis and Characterization of Controlled Diameter, Narrow 

Size Distribution Microparticles for Aerospace Research Applications 

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Tiemsin, Pacita I.; Wohl, Christopher J.

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NASA Langley Research Center

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14. ABSTRACT

Flow visualization using polystyrene microspheres (PSL)s has enabled researchers to learn a tremendous amount of 

information via particle based diagnostic techniques. To better accommodate wind tunnel researchers’ needs, PSL synthesis 

via dispersion polymerization has been carried out at NASA Langley Research Center since the late 1980s. When utilizing 

seed material for flow visualization, size and size distribution are of paramount importance. Therefore, the work described 

here focused on further refinement of PSL synthesis and characterization. Through controlled variation of synthetic conditions 

(chemical concentrations, solution stirring speed, temperature, etc.) a robust, controllable procedure was developed. The 

relationship between particle size and salt concentration, MgSO4, was identified enabling the determination of PSL diameters 

a priori. Suggestions of future topics related to PSL synthesis, stability, and size variation are also described. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Dispersion Polymerization; PLS; Particle Image Velocimetry

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