Bureau of Justice Statistics

 U.S. Department of Justice

 Office of Justice Programs 

Policing and Homicide, 1976-98: 

Justifiable Homicide by Police,

Police Officers Murdered by Felons

 

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

100

200

300

400

500

Number of homicides

Felons justifiably killed by police

Police officers murdered by felons

1998
 

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

810 Seventh Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20531

John Ashcroft

Attorney General

Office of Justice Programs

World Wide Web site:

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov

Bureau of Justice Statistics

World Wide Web site:

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

For information contact:

BJS Clearinghouse

1-800-732-3277
 

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Policing and Homicide,

1976-98: Justifiable 

Homicide by Police, 

Police Officers Murdered 

by Felons

Jodi M. Brown

and Patrick A. Langan, Ph.D.

BJS Statisticians

March 2001, NCJ 180987
U.S. Department of Justice

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Lawrence A. Greenfeld

Acting Director

This report was prepared by Jodi M.

Brown and Patrick A. Langan of the

Bureau of Justice Statistics. Matthew

Durose and Donna Oliphant assisted

with verification. Tina Dorsey and Tom

Hester edited and produced the report.

Jayne Robinson prepared the report for

printing.

Frankie Kelley of the Federal Bureau 

of Investigation provided tabulations 

of LEOKA data specially for this report.

Staff members of the Criminal Justice

Information Services Division of the

Federal Bureau of Investigation read

drafts of this report and responded with 

many helpful comments.

Police departments in the following

cities contributed valuable descriptions

of actual cases of justifiable homicide

by police in 1996: Atlanta, Baltimore,

Cleveland, Houston, Los Angeles, New

York City, Oklahoma City, and 

Philadelphia. 

The data and the report, as well as 

others from the Bureau of Justice 

Statistics, are available through the

Internet —

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

 

ii Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 
This report brings together in a single

publication national statistics on two

distinct types of homicide: the justifiable homicide of felons by police, and

the murder of police officers by felons.

Although the two are fundamentally

different — the use of deadly force

against a police officer is almost never

justified, while the use of deadly force

by police often is — certain connections

can be made between them beyond the

fact that both always involve the police.

Sometimes one directly results in the

other: 1 in 6 murders of a police officer

result in the justifiable killing of the

murderer. (Still, of all the justifiable

homicides by police only about 3%

occur in connection with the murder of a

police officer.) The two also share

demographic similarities. For example,

almost all the felons justifiably killed by

police (98%) and almost all of the felons

who murdered a police officer (97%)

are males; in both types of homicide

just over half of the felons are ages 18

to 30; and in both types just over half of

the felons are white. 

The first section of the report deals with

the justifiable homicide of felons by

police; the second, with the murder of

police officers by felons. Together, the

two types account for around 2% of all

intentional killings in the United States.

The types of homicide not covered in

this report are: negligent homicides;

justifiable homicides by private citizens;

and murders in which the victim is

someone other than an officer slain in

the line of duty.

Justifiable homicide by police,

1976-98

In this report, killings by police are

referred to as “justifiable homicides,”

and the persons that police kill are

referred to as “felons.” These terms

reflect the view of the police agencies

that provide the data used in this report.

The killing of a felon by police is considered justified when it is done to prevent

imminent death or serious bodily injury

to the officer or another person. Police

justifiably kill on average nearly 400

felons each year (the figure below and

figure 1). 

From 1976 to 1998, the U.S. population

age 13 or older grew by about 47 million

people and the size of the police force

in the United States grew by over

200,000 officers, but the number of

felons justifiably killed by police did not

generally rise.

A growing percentage of felons killed by

police are white, and a declining

percentage are black (figure 4).

 Race of felons killed 

1978 50% White 49% Black

1988 59% White 39% Black 

1998 62% White 35% Black

Felons justifiably killed by police represent a tiny fraction of the total population. Of the 183 million whites in 1998,

police killed 225; of the 27 million

blacks, police killed 127. While the rate

(per million population) at which blacks

were killed by police in 1998 was about

4 times that of whites (the figure below

and figure 5), the difference used to be

much wider: the black rate in 1978 was

8 times the white rate.

Highlights

Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 iii

*Percent is for 1980-98. 

Young black males 16% 21%*

Young white males 16% 20%*

Black 42% 43%

White 56% 54%

Ages 18-30 53% 54%

Male 98% 97%

Percent of

felons who

murdered

police officers,

1976-98

Percent of

felons killed 

by police in

justifiable

homicides,

1976-98

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

100

200

300

400

500

Number of justifiable homicides by police

1998

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Number of justifiable homicides by police

per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older for each race

Black felons

White felons

Other felons

1998
The highest rates of justifiable homicide

are of young black males. Of the

Nation’s 3.4 million young black males

(black males under age 25) in 1998, 48

were justifiably killed by police. That

year, young black males made up 1% of

the total U.S. population but 14% of

felons justifiably killed by police. By

comparison, of the Nation’s 18.3 million

young white males, 53 were justifiably

killed. Young white males were 7% of

the population and 15% of those killed

in 1998.

Of all the felons justifiably killed by

police from 1976 to 1998, 53% were

ages 18 to 30, and 98% were males.

According to the latest statistics (1998),

white officers are 87% of the Nation’s

police force and account for 82% of

justifiable homicides by police. Black

officers make up 11% of the Nation’s

police and account for 17% of the justifiable homicides (figure 10).

Police officers murdered by felons,

1976-98

Since 1976, an average of 79 police

officers have been murdered each year

in the line of duty (figure 12). The

number of officers murdered each year

is dropping, and the rate at which police

officers are being murdered is steadily

falling (the figure below and figure 14). 

In 1978, 1 in 4,000 police officers were

murdered; in 1988, 1 in 6,000; and 

in 1998, 1 in 11,000 officers (figure 14).

Throughout much of the 1990's, white

police officers made up about 87% of all

police officers in the United States and

83% of all officers murdered by felons.

Black officers were 11% of police

officers but 15% of those murdered.

Officers of other races were 2% of

police officers and 2% of those

murdered (figure 15).

On average, officers murdered from

1976 to 1998 had 9 years of law

enforcement service.

From 1976 to 1998, two-thirds of the

felons who murdered a police officer

had a prior criminal arrest (figure 16). 

The majority of police officers murdered

by felons were killed while responding

to disturbance calls (16%) or arrest

situations (39%).

Firearms claimed the lives of 92% of

the officers killed in the line of duty from

1976 to 1998. The officer’s own gun

was used in 12% of all murders of

police officers.

Murderers of police officers represent 

a tiny fraction of the total population. 

Of the Nation’s 18.3 million young white

males (white males under age 25), 

17 murdered a police officer in 1998. 

Of the 3.4 million young black males, 

13 murdered an officer that year. 

From 1980 to 1998, young black males

made up about 1% of the U.S. population but 21% of felons who murdered a

police officer (figure 17); young white

males were 8% of the population but

20% of the murderers of law enforcement officers. Young black males

murdered police officers at a rate

almost 6 times that of young white

males (5.7 versus 1 per million population) (the figure below and figure 18). 

iv Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Police officers murdered by felons,

rate per 100,000 officers

1998

1980 1986 1992 1998

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Young male felons who murdered police officers, 

rate per 1 million U.S. males ages 13 to 24 for each race

Young black male felons

Young white male felons
 

Contents

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 v

Page

Highlights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Justifiable homicide by police, 1976-98. . . . . 1

Annual trends in justifiable

 homicides by police. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Felons killed by police in justifiable 

 homicides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Felons' gender 

Felons' race

Felons' age

Felons' gender and race

Felons' gender, race, and age

Officers who killed felons in justifiable 

 homicides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Officers' gender

Officers' race

Officers' age

Officers' gender and race

Officers' and felons' gender

Officers' and felons' race

Detailed 1998 racial statistics

Descriptions of actual cases of justifiable 

 homicide by police, 1996. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Police officers murdered by felons, 1976-98. . 19

Drop in murders of police officers. . . . . . . . . 19

Drop in rate of murders of police officers. . . 20

Police officers murdered with their

 own firearm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Circumstances at scene of incident. . . . . . . 22

Murdered police officers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Officers' age

Officers' gender

Officers' race

Officers' other characteristics

Detailed racial statistics for the 1990's

Page

Felons who murdered police officers. . . . . . 24

Felons' age

Felons’ gender

Felons’ race

Felons' criminal record

Felons' race and officers' race, 1980-98

Felons' age, race, and gender, 1980-98

Descriptions of actual cases of police officers 

 killed in the line of duty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

The SHR national database on justifiable 

homicides by police.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Evolution of the SHR database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Nonjustifiable homicide by police. . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Errors in the SHR database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Nonjustifiable homicides by police

 in the SHR database

Justifiable homicides by police missing 

 from the SHR database

Misinformation in the SHR database 

 regarding officer characteristics

Missing characteristics of felons and 

 officers in the SHR database

Cautionary note on this report's statistics 

 on justifiable homicides by police. . . . . . . . . . . 30

Justifiable homicides by police in cases 

 involving more than one officer. . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Source of national statistics on police officers 

 murdered by felons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Source of size and characteristics 

 of U.S. police force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Police use of non-lethal force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

A new source of data on police officers

 killed and assaulted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Data for figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Data for tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Appendix tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
 
When a police officer deliberately kills

someone, a determination is made as

to whether the homicide occurred in the

line of duty and whether the homicide

was justified to prevent imminent death

or serious bodily injury to the officer or

another person. If an investigation

determines that the homicide did occur

in the line of duty and that circumstances did warrant lethal force, a

record of a justifiable homicide is voluntarily sent by the officer’s agency to the

FBI in Washington. Each record of

justifiable homicide received is then

entered into a database.

The database contains such information

as the felon’s age, race, and gender,

and such information on the officer as

age, race, and gender.

In this report, killings by police are

referred to as “justifiable homicides,”

and the persons that police kill are

referred to as “felons.” These terms

reflect the view of the police agencies

that provide the data used in this report.

Annual trends in justifiable

homicides by police

Though the FBI database has records

of justifiable homicides by police from 

1968, this report is concerned just with

homicides occurring since 1976 (see

Methodology page 28). The records

since 1976 have fuller information than

earlier records, including information not

only on the felons, but also on the police

officers.

According to FBI national data on justifiable homicides by police from 1976 to

1998 —

• 8,578 felons were justifiably killed 

by police in the United States.

• The largest number of recorded justifiable homicides in a single year was 459

(in 1994), and the smallest number was

296 (in 1987) (figure 1).

• On average 373 felons were lawfully

killed by police each year.

• From 1976 to 1998, the U.S. population age 13 or older grew by about 47

million people and the size of the police

force in the United States grew by over

200,000 officers, but the number of

felons justifiably killed by police did not

generally rise.

• On average each year about 2

persons per 1 million residents age 13

or older were justifiably killed by law

enforcement officers (figure 2).

(Because police rarely kill someone

under age 13, the rate calculation is per

1 million U.S. population age 13 or

older.) 

Justifiable homicide by police, 1976-98

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 1

Figure 1

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

100

200

300

400

500

Number of felons

Felons killed

Number of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98

1998

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

Rate per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older

Felons killed

Felons killed by police in justifiable homicides:

Rate per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older, 1976-98

1998

Figure 2
 

2 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Throughout this report, the national statistics given on justifiable homicides

by police were “unadjusted,” meaning no correction was made for the fact

that some States did not report to the FBI any of the justifiable homicides

that occurred in certain years. For example, Florida did not report in 1988,

and so the national total of 339 justifiable homicides in 1988 is missing

whatever number of justifiable homicides occurred in Florida that year.

To illustrate what effect missing States might have, unadjusted and adjusted

rates of justifiable homicide were plotted on the same graph (below). 

In calculating unadjusted rates, missing States were treated as having no

justifiable homicides; in adjusted rates, missing States were treated as

having the same number of justifiable homicides they had reported in the

closest preceding year. For example, Florida submitted no data for 1988

but did report 24 justifiable homicides in 1987. The 1988 adjusted national

rate therefore includes an estimated 24 Florida homicides.

Estimate used to

Adjusted Missing calculate adjusted rate

year(s) State Number Year

1988-91 Florida 24 1987

1997-98 Florida 6 1996

1988 Kentucky 0 1987

1993-98 Kansas 7 1992

1995 Illinois 25 1994

1996 D.C. 12 1995

1998 D.C. 7 1997

1998 Wisconsin 5 1997

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

Unadjusted rates

Rates of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides

1998

Adjusted rates
• Police used a firearm (usually a

handgun) in 99% of justifiable

homicides (table 1). In many cases

where police killed a felon with a

firearm, the felon was shot multiple

times. This is consistent with police

training. When police have to shoot,

they will keep shooting until the felon no

longer poses a threat.

Felons killed by police in justifiable

homicides

Persons justifiably killed by police are

referred to in the FBI's national

database as "felons" because, at the

time of the homicide, they were involved

(or were thought to be involved) in a

violent felony. The demographic information available on them in the

database is their gender, race, and age.

Of the 8,578 felons killed by police 

from 1976 to 1998, 98% of them had all

3 of their demographic characteristics

recorded in the database.

According to FBI national data on 

justifiable homicides by police from

1976 to 1998 —

Felons' gender

• 98% of persons justifiably killed 

by police were males (table 2).

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 3

Note: “Total number” includes all instances

of justifiable homicide by police whether or

not the type of weapon used is known. The

type of weapon is known in 99.9% of the

justifiable homicides committed by police

between 1976 and 1998.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary

Homicide Reports.

1998 367 99.5

1997 361 99.4

1996 355 98.3

1995 382 99.2%

1994 459 99.8

1993 453 99.6

1992 414 98.3

1991 359 98.6

1990 379 99.2%

1989 362 99.2

1988 339 98.8

1987 296 99.0

1986 298 99.0

1985 321 98.4%

1984 332 98.5

1983 406 99.5

1982 376 96.8

1981 381 98.7

1980 457 98.9%

1979 442 98.9

1978 313 99.7

1977 311 99.0

1976 415 99.8%

Annual average 373 99.0%

Percent

with

firearms

Total number 

of justifiable

Year homicides

Table 1. Felons killed by police in

justifiable homicides: Percent killed

with firearms, 1976-98

Note: “Total number” includes all instances 

of justifiable homicide by police whether or not

the demographic characteristics are known.

The felon’s gender is known in 99.9% of the

justifiable homicides by police between 1976

and 1998.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary

Homicide Reports.

1998 367 98 2

1997 361 97 3

1996 355 98 2

1995 382 99% 1%

1994 459 96 4

1993 453 97 3

1992 414 98 2

1991 359 96 4

1990 379 97% 3%

1989 362 96 4

1988 339 98 2

1987 296 98 2

1986 298 99 1

1985 321 98% 2%

1984 332 98 2

1983 406 99 1

1982 376 98 2

1981 381 99 1

1980 457 98% 2%

1979 442 97 3

1978 313 98 2

1977 311 98 2

1976 415 99% 1%

Annual average 373 98% 2%

Percent of 

killed felons 

Male Female

Total number

of justifiable

Year homicides

Table 2. Gender of felons killed 

by police in justifiable homicides,

1976-98
• Males were slain by police in justifiable

homicides at a rate almost 40 times that

of females (39 deaths of males per 

10 million male residents versus 1

death per 10 million female residents)

(figure 3).

• In 1998, males made up 48% of 

the population age 13 or older, but

accounted for 83% of persons arrested

for violent crime and 98% of felons

killed by police. The 1998 statistics

illustrate both the comparatively high

rate of justifiable homicide involving

males and the similarity between

persons arrested by police and felons

killed by police.

Felons' race

• Most felons killed by police each year

were white (except for 1976 and 1977)

(figure 4).

• A growing percentage of felons killed

by police are white, and a declining

percentage are black.

 Race of felons killed 

1978 50% white 49% black

1988 59% white 39% black

1998 62% white 35% black

4 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Figure 3

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Rate per 10 million U.S. population age 13 or older

Gender of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides:

Rate per 10 million population age 13 or older, 1976-98

Male felons

Female felons

1998

Figure 4

1976 1982 1988 1994

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Percent of killed felons 

White felons

Race of felons killed by police in justifiable

homicides: Percent white, black, and other, 1976-98

Other felons

Black felons

1998
• In 1998 blacks made up 12% of the

population age 13 or older but

accounted for 40% of persons arrested

for violent crime and 35% of felons

killed by police. The 1998 statistics

illustrate both the comparatively high

rate of justifiable homicide involving

blacks and the racial similarity between

persons arrested by police and felons

killed by police.

• Felons justifiably killed by police represent a tiny fraction of the total population. Of the 183 million whites in 1998,

police killed 225; of the 27 million

blacks, police killed 127. While the rate

(per million population) at which blacks

were killed in 1998 was about 4 times

that of whites, the difference used to be

much wider: the black rate in 1978 was

8 times the white rate (figure 5).

• The rate at which blacks are killed by

police in justifiable homicides is declining, while the rate at which whites are

killed by police shows no consistent

trend.

Rate of justifiable homicide 

by police (per 1 million 

population) 

 White Black 

1978 1.0 8.0

1988 1.2 5.7

1998 1.2 4.8

Correlation with arrest for violent crime

• There is little correspondence between

trends in arrests for violent crimes and

trends in justifiable homicides by police

(the correlation is +0.2 for whites and

-0.2 for blacks) (figure 6).

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 5

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

3

6

9

12

Rate per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older

Race of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides:

Rate per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older, 1976-98

White felons

Black felons

Other felons

1998

Figure 5

Figure 6

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Rates of arrest and justifiable homicide

Rates of arrest for violent crime (per 10,000)

and justifiable homicide by police (per 10,000,000)

age 13 or older, 1976-98

Black justifiable

Black violent

White violent

1998

White justifiable

1976 1982 1988 1994

crime arrest

homicide bty police

homicide by police

crime arrest
Felons' age

• Except for an 11-year-old killed by

police in 1981 and a 12-year-old in

1992, all persons slain by police in 

justifiable homicides from 1976 to 1998

were in their teens or older.

• The average age of felons justifiably

killed by police from 1976 to 1998 was

31 years.

• Felons ages 18 to 30 (not shown 

in table 3) were 53% of justifiable

homicides by police from 1976 to 1998.

• In most years, felons in their twenties

accounted for more justifiable

homicides than any other age categories (table 3).

• Persons in their twenties had the

highest rates of being slain by police 

in justifiable homicides (almost 4 per

million population) and persons in their

early thirties had the next highest rate

(figure 7).

• In 1998 persons in their twenties 

made up 16% of the population age 

13 or older, but accounted for 31% 

of persons arrested for violent crime

and 36% of felons killed by police. 

The 1998 statistics illustrate both the

comparatively high rate of justifiable

homicide involving persons in their

twenties and the age similarity between

persons arrested by police and felons

killed by police.

• According to latest statistics (1998),

the average age of felons killed by

police is 32, and half are age 30 or

older.

6 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide 

by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. 

The felon’s age is known in 98.7% of the justifiable homicides by police 

between 1976 and 1998. The 13-19 age category includes one 

11-year-old in 1981 and one 12-year-old in 1992.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 12 18 18 16 12 24

1997 361 11 17 18 17 15 22

1996 355 13 19 17 19 11 21

1995 382 13% 22% 15% 20% 12% 18%

1994 459 12 21 17 17 13 20

1993 453 14 20 17 16 11 22

1992 414 13 22 21 16 11 17

1991 359 15 20 22 18 9 16

1990 379 9% 19% 22% 17% 12% 21%

1989 362 9 19 23 19 10 20

1988 339 10 16 26 19 11 18

1987 296 7 21 19 16 14 23

1986 298 10 18 22 21 11 18

1985 321 7% 22% 25% 15% 11% 20%

1984 332 10 22 21 16 10 21

1983 406 8 20 21 19 9 23

1982 376 10 22 26 17 9 16

1981 381 12 21 26 15 10 16

1980 457 11% 27% 22% 17% 11% 12%

1979 442 13 25 21 15 9 17

1978 313 14 25 17 13 11 20

1977 311 12 23 21 13 10 21

1976 415 15% 25% 25% 13% 8% 14%

Annual average 373 11% 21% 21% 17% 11% 19%

Year homicides 13-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40 or older

of justifiable Percent of killed felons who were ages —

Total number

Table 3. Age of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98

Figure 7

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

2

4

6

Rate per 1 million U.S. population that age

Age of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides:

Rate per 1 million population, 1976-98

20-24

25-29

Ages

1998

30-34
Felons' gender and race

• The vast majority of felons killed by

police each year (about 96%) are either

white males or black males (table 4).

• Of the felons killed by police from

1976 to 1998, 55% were white males,

41% were black males, 1% were white

females, 1% were black females, and

the rest were mostly males in the "other

races" category (Asian, Pacific Islander,

Alaska Native, and American Indian).

• Felons justifiably killed by police represent a tiny fraction of the total population. Of the 89 million white males (age

13 or older) in 1998, police killed 220; of

the 12 million black males (age 13 or

older), police killed 125. In 1998 black

males were around 6% of the general

population (age 13 or older) but 34% of

persons killed by police, and white

males were 41% of the general population (age 13 or older) but 61% of those

killed.

• Among persons killed by police, white

males outnumbered black males.

Percent of all felons killed by police

1978 48% white males 49% black males

1988 57% white males 39% black males

1998 61% white males 34% black males 

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 7

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police, 

whether or not the gender and race are known. The felon’s gender and race 

are both known in 99.3% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998.

Due to rounding error, detail may not sum to total.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 98 61 34 3 2 1 1 0

1997 361 97 61 34 2 3 2 1 0

1996 355 98 60 36 2 2 2 1 0

1995 382 99% 59% 37% 3% 1% 1% 0% 0%

1994 459 96 54 39 3 4 3 1 0

1993 453 97 53 41 3 3 2 1 0

1992 414 98 58 38 2 2 2 0 0

1991 359 96 51 42 3 4 2 1 1

1990 379 97% 61% 34% 2% 3% 1% 2% 0%

1989 362 96 58 36 2 4 2 2 0

1988 339 98 57 39 2 2 2 0 0

1987 296 98 63 33 2 2 1 1 0

1986 298 99 57 40 2 1 1 0 0

1985 321 98% 59% 35% 4% 2% 2% 1% 0%

1984 332 98 56 40 1 2 2 1 0

1983 406 99 54 44 2 1 0 1 0

1982 376 98 51 46 2 2 1 1 0

1981 381 99 54 44 1 1 0 1 0

1980 457 98% 50% 47% 1% 2% 1% 1% 0%

1979 442 97 49 47 2 3 1 2 0

1978 313 98 48 49 1 2 1 1 0

1977 311 98 47 49 2 2 0 2 0

1976 415 99% 46% 51% 2% 1% 1% 0% 0%

Annual average 373 98% 55% 41% 2% 2% 1% 1% 0%

Year homicides Total White Black Other Total White Black Other

of justifiable Male Female

Total number Percent of killed felons who were —

Table 4. Gender and race of felons killed by police 

in justifiable homicides, 1976-98
Felons' gender, race, and age

• The highest rates of justifiable

homicide are of young black males. 

Of the Nation's 3.4 million young black

males (black males under age 25) in

1998, 48 were justifiably killed by police.

That year, young black males made up

1% of the total U.S. population but 14%

of felons justifiably killed by police. By

comparison, of the Nation's 18.3 million

young white males, 53 were justifiably

killed. Young white males were 8% of

the population and 15% of those killed

in 1998.

• From 1976 to 1998 young black males

(black males under age 25) made up

about 1% of the population but 16% of

felons killed by police in justifiable

homicides; young white males made up

about 8% of the population but 16% of

felons killed by police (figure 8). 

• Of all felons justifiably killed by police

from 1976 to 1998, the majority were

young white males under age 25 (16%),

young black males under age 25 (16%),

white males age 25 or older (39%), and

black males age 25 or older (25%).

8 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Figure 8

1976 1982 1988 1994

0%

20%

40%

60%

Percent of killed male felons

Felons killed by police in justifiable homicide:

Percent under and over age 25, by race and gender, 1976-98

Black males age 25 or older

Black males under age 25

White males age 25 or older

White males under age 25

1998
• From 1980 to 1998 young black 

males were killed by police in justifiable

homicides at a rate approximately 

6 times that of young white males 

(16.5 versus 2.9 per million population) 

(figure 9).

• Average ages of felons killed by police

from 1976 to 1998 were —

Race Males Females

White 32 yrs 35 yrs

Black 29 39

Other 29 33

• Median ages of felons killed by police

from 1976 to 1998 were —

Race Males Females

White 30 yrs 33 yrs

Black 27 36

Other 27 33

• White and black males ages 20 to 34

made up most of the felons killed by

police (56%) from 1976 to 1998.

• Based on latest statistics (1998),

together white males and black males

ages 20 to 34 are 10% of the general

population but 48% of those killed 

by police.

• Latest statistics (1998) indicate that

white males ages 20 to 34 are 8% of

the general population but 29% of those

killed by police, and black males ages

20 to 34 are 1.4% of the general

population but 20% of persons killed 

by police in justifiable homicides.

Officers who killed felons 

in justifiable homicides

The police officer's gender, race, and

age are a part of the record for each

justifiable homicide entered into the

national database, but since participation is voluntary, police agencies do not

always supply this information. There

were 8,578 felons killed by police from

1976 to 1998. The age, race, and

gender of the officer involved in the

homicide were recorded on 69% of

them, and at least one of the three

characteristics was recorded on 85%.

According to FBI national data on 

justifiable homicides by police from

1976 to 1998 —

Officers' gender

• The officer in a justifiable homicide

case is almost always a male (98%)

(table 5).

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 9

Figure 9

1980 1986 1992 1998

0

10

20

30

Rate per 1 million U.S. population ages 13-24

Young male felons killed by police in justifiable homicides:

Rate per 1 million young white and black males, 1980-98

Young black male felons

Young white male felons

Note: “Total number” includes all instances 

of justifiable homicide by police whether or 

not the demographic characteristics are 

known. The officer’s gender is known in

84.8% of the justifiable homicides by police

between 1976 and 1998.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary

Homicide Reports.

1998 367 97 3

1997 361 97 3

1996 355 98 2

1995 382 98% 2%

1994 459 99 1

1993 453 98 2

1992 414 98 2

1991 359 98 2

1990 379 97% 3%

1989 362 98 2

1988 339 97 3

1987 296 96 4

1986 298 99 1

1985 321 97% 3%

1984 332 99 1

1983 406 98 2

1982 376 98 2

1981 381 99 1

1980 457 99% 1%

1979 442 99 1

1978 313 99 1

1977 311 98 2

1976 415 99% 1%

average 373 98% 2%

Annual

Year by police Male Female

Percent of officers

justifiable

homicides

number of

Total

Table 5. Gender of police officers who

killed felons in justifiable homicides: 

Percent male and female, 1976-98
Officers' race

• From 1976 to 1998 the officer in 84%

of justifiable homicides by police was

white, and the officer in 15% was black

(figure 10).

Officers' age

• In most years officers ages 25 to 29

accounted for more justifiable

homicides than any other age category

(table 6).

• The average age of the officer in a

justifiable homicide by police was 33

years. 

• 55% of officers in justifiable homicides

were over age 30 (not shown in table 6).

10 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Figure 10

1976 1982 1988 1994

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Percent of officers who killed felons

Race of police officers who killed felons in justifiable

homicides: Percent white and black, 1976-98

White officers

Black officers

1998

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police, 

whether or not the age of the police officer is known. The officer’s age is known 

in 70.1% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998.

Due to rounding error, detail may not sum to 100%. 

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 2 7 27 27 22 15

1997 361 2 6 28 27 20 18

1996 355 0 5 31 23 15 26

1995 382 4% 8% 28% 26% 14% 20%

1994 459 2 8 25 28 18 19

1993 453 1 8 33 24 12 22

1992 414 0 12 25 25 16 22

1991 359 0 12 29 25 17 17

1990 379 1% 7% 26% 23% 21% 22%

1989 362 0 10 27 24 22 17

1988 339 0 4 25 35 18 18

1987 296 1 8 29 23 22 17

1986 298 0 7 28 28 21 16

1985 321 0% 7% 24% 31% 24% 14%

1984 332 0 10 22 31 23 14

1983 406 0 11 24 28 19 18

1982 376 0 7 30 32 19 12

1981 381 0 13 26 31 18 12

1980 457 0% 9% 31% 34% 17% 9%

1979 442 0 9 30 29 16 16

1978 313 1 13 35 32 12 7

1977 311 0 11 39 28 10 12

1976 415 0% 10% 37% 30% 10% 13%

Annual average 373 1% 9% 28% 28% 17% 17%

Year by police Under 20 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40 or older

homicides Percent of officers who were ages —

of justifiable

Total number

Table 6. Age of police officers who killed felons in justifiable homicides, 1976-98
Officers' gender and race

• The officer in a justifiable homicide is

almost always a white or black male

(97%) (table 7).

• White male officers accounted for

83% of justifiable homicides from 1976

to 1998 and black male officers

accounted for 14%.

Officers' and felons' gender

There were 8,578 felons killed by police

from 1976 to 1998. In 85% of these

homicides the gender of both the felon

and the officer was recorded in the

national database.

According to FBI national data on justifiable homicides by police from 1976 to

1998 —

• When a justifiable homicide by police

occurs, it is almost always a male

officer killing a male felon (96%).

• When a male officer kills, the felon

killed is almost always a male (98%).

• When a female officer kills, the felon

killed is almost always a male (93%).

• When a male felon is killed, the officer

is almost always a male (98%).

• When a female felon is killed, the

officer is almost always a male (95%).

Officers' and felons' race

In 77% of the 8,578 justifiable

homicides by police in the Nation's

database, the race of both the felon 

and the officer was recorded. Some 

of the justifiable homicides are interracial, with the race of the felon differing

from that of the officer. Because statistics on interracial homicide are easily

misinterpreted, a few preliminary

comments are offered.

If every police officer in the United

States were white, then any time a 

nonwhite person was justifiably killed 

by police, the homicide would be interracial. This illustrates that the extent to

which justifiable homicide is interracial

in the United States is influenced by the

racial makeup of the police.

Since, according to latest available

statistics (1998), approximately 87% 

of all police officers in the United States

are white (11% are black and 2% are 

of other races), by chance alone the

likelihood is high that the officer who

kills a nonwhite felon is white. The

likelihood is also high that the officer

who kills a white felon is white. It

should not be surprising to find that

most black felons killed by police (just

as most white felons killed by police)

are killed by a white police officer.

"Chance" factors are not the only ones

affecting the likelihood that a justifiable

homicide is interracial. Nonchance

factors have an effect as well. An

obvious one is the policy that police

departments may have for assigning

officers to particular neighborhoods. 

A common policy is to assign black

officers to black neighborhoods.

Consequently, it might be expected

that, when a black officer kills a felon,

there is a high likelihood that the felon 

is also black. In line with that expectation, national statistics indicate that

most of the felons killed by black

officers are themselves black. More

generally, national statistics indicate

that most justifiable homicides by police

are intraracial. 

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 11

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police, whether or not the

gender or race of the police officers is known. The officer’s gender and race are known in 77.2%

of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 80 16 1 2 1 0

1997 361 79 16 2 2 1 0

1996 355 86 11 1 1 1 0

1995 382 83% 14% 1% 1% 1% 0%

1994 459 76 22 1 1 0 0

1993 453 81 16 1 1 1 0

1992 414 81 15 2 1 1 0

1991 359 80 17 1 1 1 0

1990 379 81% 15% 1% 2% 1% 0%

1989 362 84 13 0 3 0 0

1988 339 82 12 2 3 1 0

1987 296 82 11 2 4 1 0

1986 298 89 10 0 1 0 0

1985 321 84% 12% 2% 1% 1% 0%

1984 332 87 11 2 0 0 0

1983 406 89 8 1 1 1 0

1982 376 85 14 0 1 0 0

1981 381 86 13 0 0 1 0

1980 457 85% 13% 0% 1% 1% 0%

1979 442 83 15 1 0 1 0

1978 313 85 14 0 0 1 0

1977 311 82 17 0 1 0 0

1976 415 82% 15% 2% 0% 1% 0%

Annual average 373 83% 14% 1% 1% 1% 0%

Year by police White Black Other White Black Other

homicides Male Female 

of justifiable Percent of officers who were —

Total number

Table 7. Gender and race of police officers who killed felons 

in justifiable homicides, 1976-98
According to FBI national data on 

justifiable homicides by police from

1976 to 1998 —

• In about 65% of justifiable homicides

by police, the officer's race and the

felon's race were the same (figure 11).

Intraracial

White officer kills white felon 53.1%

Black officer kills black felon 11.8

Other-race officer kills other-

 race felon 0.3

Interracial

White officer kills black felon 29.6%

Black officer kills white felon 2.8

White officer kills other-race felon 1.6

Black officer kills other-race felon 0.1

Other-race officer kills white felon 0.5

Other-race officer kills black felon 0.2

• Interracial homicide by police (for

example, the killing of a black felon by 

a white officer or the killing of a white

felon by a black officer) make up about

a third of justifiable homicides.

Felon statistics give one perspective on

the number of police justifiable

homicides that are interracial (for

example, from 1976 to 1998, police

justifiably killed 4,786 white felons, and

in 5% of these homicides the officer

was black). Officer statistics gave

another perspective (for example, from

1976 to 1998 white police officers justifiably killed 5,579 felons, and in 35% of

these homicides the felon was black).

The extent to which justifiable homicide

by police officers are interracial

depends on which statistics are used: 

• When a white officer kills a felon, that

felon is usually a white (63%); and when

a black officer kills a felon, that felon is

usually a black (81%). 

• The majority of black felons killed

were by white officers (71%); the majority of white felons killed were by white

officers (94%); and the majority of other

race felons killed were by white officers

(81%).

• White-officer-kills-white-felon makes

up a growing fraction of all justifiable

homicides by police, while white-officerkills-black-felon makes up a declining

fraction (figure 11).

 Percent of all justifiable 

 homicides by police 

White officer Black officer

kills — kills — 

White Black White Black

felon felon felon felon

1978 46% 38% 2% 14%

1988 57 27 3 10

1998 56 24 5 12

Detailed 1998 racial statistics

According to latest statistics (1998) —

• White officers make up 87% of the

Nation's 641,208 police and account 

for 82% of justifiable homicides by

police. Black officers make up 11% 

of the Nation's police and account 

for 17% of all justifiable homicides.

• White officers (42 justifiable homicides

per 100,000 white officers in 1998) and

black officers (44 justifiable homicides

per 100,000 black officers) commit justifiable homicides at about the same rate,

but the rate for officers of other races 

is lower (25 per 100,000).

• The black-officer-kills-black-felon rate

is 32 per 100,000 black officers in 1998,

which is higher than the white-officerkills-black-felon rate of 14 per 100,000

white officers.

• The white-officer-kills-white-felon rate

is 28 per 100,000 white officers in 1998,

which is higher than the black-officerkills-white-felon rate of 11 per 100,000

black officers. 

12 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

1976 1982 1988 1994

0%

20%

40%

60%

Percent interracial and intraracial

White officer kills white felon

Race of felons and police officers in justifiable

homicides: Percent interracial and intraracial, 1976-98

White officer kills black felon

Black officer kills black felon

Black officer kills white felon

1998

Figure 11
The descriptions below are of cases of

justifiable homicide by police in 1996.

The choice of which cases to describe

was left to the police departments that

voluntarily prepared and submitted the

narratives. Only large urban police

departments were asked to participate.

Atlanta

• On Saturday, December 14, 1996, two

Atlanta police officers attempted to

conduct a traffic stop. The suspect, a

25-year-old male, refused to stop his

vehicle and a chase ensued. The

suspect wrecked, then exited his

vehicle, brandishing a weapon. The

officers began to chase the suspect on

foot. The suspect then turned and fired

several shots in the direction of both

officers. One officer returned fire, striking the suspect multiple times. The

suspect ran into a nearby apartment

complex where he collapsed and died.

• On Thursday, June 6, 1996, at

approximately 5:00 p.m., several plainclothes Atlanta fugitive investigators

went to a residence to serve an arrest

warrant on a 30-year-old male. The

officers approached the residence and

identified themselves. The suspect,

armed with a loaded handgun, tried to

escape through a bedroom window two

stories off the ground. When the

suspect looked down from the bedroom

window, he saw officers outside, on the

ground below him. The suspect pointed

his weapon in the direction of the

officers. One of the officers discharged

his service weapon striking the suspect

in the chest. The suspect later died at a

local hospital.

Baltimore

• At approximately 11:35 a.m., on

Monday, June 24, 1996, two uniformed

Baltimore City police officers were

working as a unit when they observed a

large group of individuals in an alley.

Knowing the area to be a high-crime,

high-drug area, they exited their vehicle

to conduct field interviews. At that time,

two of the subjects ran from the group.

One officer observed a subject reaching

into his waistband, at which time the

subject was ordered to the ground by

the officer. The other officer observed a

second subject reaching into his waistband as he ran from the scene. The

suspect removed a dark colored

handgun from his waistband. The

officers ordered the suspect to drop the

weapon, but the suspect refused. The

suspect continued to run. Numerous

times the officer ordered the suspect to

“stop and drop the weapon,” but the foot

chase continued. The suspect fired

several rounds at the officer from his

Smith and Wesson .357 caliber

revolver. The officer returned fire. The

suspect approached a vehicle parked

on the road. He entered the vehicle

from the passenger side and ordered

the operator of the vehicle to “drive!”

Instead, the operator fled.

The suspect continued to fire at the

officer from the parked vehicle. The

officer returned fire, striking the

suspect, the vehicle, and two additional

vehicles in the immediate area. The

suspect was observed slumped in the

front passenger seat of the vehicle with

a gunshot wound to the right eye and a

gunshot wound to the back. He

succumbed to his wounds at the scene

and was pronounced dead by a medic

at 11:48 a.m. 

• At approximately 2:15 p.m., on Thursday, January 25, 1996, a Baltimore City

police officer was responding to a drugrelated call when he was stopped by an

elderly male who advised the officer

that a male had just discharged a

handgun in a nearby park and was still

there. The elderly male pointed to the

park area and stated, "there he is," as

he pointed to a male wearing a black

hat, green jacket, and blue jeans standing in the park. The officer broadcast

over the police radio information relating

to the man armed with a gun, giving

both physical and clothing descriptions.

Two plainclothes officers (with visible

police ID's on chains around their neck)

and one uniformed officer were together

in a marked police vehicle when they

spotted and approached the suspect.

The suspect was advised by one of the

officers to keep his hands in the air

where the officers could see them. The

suspect turned around to face the

officers and lifted up his coat. 

The officers could see in the suspect's

waistband a black pistol that appeared

to be a semi-automatic. The suspect

withdrew the pistol and fired at the

officers.

The officers returned fire with their

departmentally issued weapons (each a

Glock model 17). The suspect began to

run while continuing to fire at the

officers. The officers returned fire until

the suspect was incapacitated. When

the suspect finally dropped his gun, he

was no longer a threat. One officer

approached the suspect, kicked the

pistol out of the suspect's reach, and

handcuffed him. 

The officers immediately called for

medical personnel because the suspect

was still alive. The suspect was

uncuffed to receive medical aid. The

suspect was pronounced dead of multiple gunshot wounds at a local hospital.

The decedent's green coat was found at

the scene with a black ski mask, more

than 80 .22 caliber cartridges, and a

stainless steel Smith and Wesson

break front revolver with 5 .32 caliber

cartridges. Less than 1 year prior to his

death, the deceased was released from

a super maximum security prison where

he had served a lengthy sentence for

rape and burglary. 

• On Thursday, November 7, 1996, at

approximately 11:05 a.m., responding

to a report of a missing elderly woman,

a Baltimore City police officer was sent

to investigate the woman’s apartment.

After discovering the elderly woman

stabbed to death on her bed, the officer

called the Baltimore City Homicide Unit

to assist with a “questionable death”

investigation. While searching the

apartment for the possible murder

weapon, a detective noticed the

suspect’s feet under a daybed in the 

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-96 13
living room. The officers ordered the

person under the bed to come out.

When the suspect did not respond to

their commands, the officers began to

move the bed, continuing to command

the person to get up. Suddenly the

suspect jumped up, armed with a large

butcher knife raised over his head. The

officers demanded several times that

the suspect drop the knife, but the

suspect refused and began to advance

toward one of the officers. Both officers

opened fire after the suspect’s continued refusal to drop the knife. The

suspect fell to the floor after being

struck several times in the upper torso. 

The suspect was a 41-year-old male.

He was a drug user with a long prior

record of arrests (including rape,

assault, and attempted robbery). The

elderly woman was his grandmother,

with whom he lived. Family of the

suspect reported that he frequently

stole from her to support his drug habit

and had been known to be physically

abusive to her, on at least one occasion

twisting her arm and pushing her to the

ground.

A Baltimore City Fire Department medic

responded to the scene and a technician pronounced the suspect dead at

1:22 p.m. 

Cleveland

• On Friday, July 26, 1996, at approximately 10:29 p.m., a Cleveland police

officer observed a vehicle driving

without headlights. When the officer

made a traffic stop, the suspect

indicated that he had no driver’s

license. The officer asked the suspect

to step out of the car. Rather than

obeying, the suspect put the vehicle 

into reverse, at which time the officer

reached into the vehicle in an attempt to

turn off the key. The suspect began

driving at a high rate of speed holding

onto the officer.

The officer was yelling for the suspect

to stop the car, but the suspect refused.

In response to the officer hitting him

with a flashlight, the suspect was

threatening to crash into a pole or a car

and “take both of them out.” The officer

was pleading with the suspect to stop

the car. The suspect yelled to the

officer, “if we don’t hit a pole and kill

you, I’m going to pull your gun and

shoot you.” At that time, the officer

checked for his weapon and pulled it

out. The officer placed the weapon to

the head of the suspect telling him

numerous times to stop the vehicle or

the officer would be forced to shoot him.

When the suspect would not stop, the

officer fired one time, striking the

suspect in the head. Prior to the vehicle

striking a pole, the officer rolled out.

The suspect died at the scene.

Houston

• On Sunday, February 18, 1996, a

Harris County, Texas, deputy sheriff

was working in uniform at an off-duty

job in a liquor store. (Officers may work

off-duty jobs in uniform after the

employer has received a permit from

the Harris County Sheriff’s Department.)

Two males came into the store in an

attempt to purchase tequila. The

deputy noticed that the males were

already intoxicated and advised the

clerk not to sell the alcohol. One of the

men threw four bottles of mineral water

into a tub with other bottles, walked out

of the store, and got into his car.

Believing the bottles had broken, the

deputy attempted to stop the man. The

deputy stood between the driver’s seat

and the open car door, but the suspect

refused to turn off his vehicle. As the

suspect backed his car away from the

liquor store, the deputy was trapped and

believed that he would be dragged

under the car. Fearing for his life, the

deputy fired his weapon two times at the

suspect, striking him one time in the

chest.

• On Tuesday, February 27, 1996,

Houston police officers were searching

for a male escapee who was wanted for

aggravated assault of a police officer.

After receiving a tip on the suspect's

location, the officers observed the

suspect get off a bus. 

As officers approached him, the

suspect walked away, then attempted to

run. One officer caught the suspect

and wrestled him to the ground. As the

suspect reached the ground, he pulled

a pistol from his pocket and fired at the

officers. Officers returned fire, killing

the suspect. One sergeant involved in

the shooting was shot in the side, but

was not seriously injured because he

was wearing body armor.

• At approximately 9:57 p.m., on Friday,

March 8, 1996, four Houston police

officers were dispatched to a "home

invasion in progress" call. As the

officers approached the house, they

observed a male standing in the

shadows of the doorway. Officers

asked the man to step outside and

remove his hands from his pockets.

The suspect responded by telling the

officers that he had a gun and for the

officers to come in and get him. The

suspect then ran toward one of the

officers, who discharged his weapon at

the suspect, severing the left femoral

artery.

• On the night of Tuesday, March 12,

1996, a Houston police officer working

an off-duty job was called to investigate a loud noise complaint. As the

uniformed officer walked from his apartment, he observed two vehicles — one

had the engine running. The officer

also observed a male standing between

the two vehicles. The officer heard a

man say, "hurry up," then witnessed the

other man jump into the vehicle with its

motor running. The officer ordered the

occupants to stop. The vehicle struck

the officer in the right leg. The officer

fired two rounds at the vehicle, but was

unsure whether he fired before or after

he was struck. Approximately 10

minutes later, one suspect was found

dead at his house from a gunshot

wound to the head. The other suspect

confessed that they were burglarizing a

vehicle when the officer confronted

them.

14 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 
• On Thursday, August 8, 1996,

Houston police officers were assisting a

"neighborhood protection inspector"

with inspections of abandoned houses.

As officers approached one house, a

male walked out of and away from the

house. One officer attempted to stop

the suspect who was walking away,

while the other officer walked onto the

porch. When the officer stepped on the

porch, another male suspect ran out of

the house and grabbed the officer's

weapon. Fearing for his life, the officer

fired one time, striking the suspect in

the chest.

• On Friday, November 8, 1996, at 5:00

a.m., Houston police patrol officers

observed two males walking down the

street carrying a television, a radio, and

a bucket of tools. As officers

approached, the suspects began acting

suspiciously and speaking Spanish to

each other. Officers heard them use

the word "pistola." One suspect

reached into his pocket as if to retrieve

a weapon. In Spanish, the officer

ordered the suspect to raise his hands,

but the suspect refused. The officer

attempted to physically control the

suspect, but the suspect broke away

and continued reaching into his pocket.

Being in fear for his life, the officer fired

two times at the suspect. The suspect

had been attempting to retrieve an open

pocket knife.

• On Tuesday, December 10, 1996,

Houston police narcotic officers were

attempting to buy 5 kilos of cocaine

through an informant. Officers

observed four suspects walking into the

parking lot with the informant. As one

of the officers was parking his car, he

heard someone yell, "police, police."

The officer then observed one male run

past him carrying a gym bag. The

officer chased the suspect, identified

himself as a police officer, and ordered

the man to raise his hands. 

As the suspect raised his left hand, he

pulled a .25 caliber pistol from his right

pocket. The officer fired two times at

the suspect, striking him in the chest

and leg.

• On Sunday, December 15, 1996, a

Harris County, Texas, deputy constable

was dispatched to a "man down" call.

The deputy observed the man lying in

the grass and approached him. The

man jumped up and grabbed a club,

which consisted of two 2x4's nailed

together with nails protruding from the

wood. The deputy drew his service

weapon, but the suspect began advancing toward him and threatening him with

the club. After the deputy retreated

approximately 140 feet, he shot the

suspect one time in the chest.

Los Angeles

• At approximately 6:14 p.m. on Thursday, February 1, 1996, uniformed Los

Angeles police officers driving a marked

police vehicle approached the subject.

The subject produced a 9 mm pistol

and fired several shots at the officers,

hitting the police vehicle and wounding

one officer. Both officers returned fire,

wounding the subject. The subject was

subsequently transported to a Los

Angeles medical center where he

expired during surgery.

• At approximately 7:30 p.m. on Saturday, June 22, 1996, Los Angeles police

responded to a radio call regarding a

“man with a shotgun.” Arriving at the

scene, officers were confronted by the

suspect who was located at the top of a

stairwell in front of the apartment door.

The suspect was armed with a shotgun.

The Los Angeles Police Department’s

S.W.A.T. team was notified. S.W.A.T.

officers were confronted by the suspect 

still armed with a shotgun. When the

suspect pointed the shotgun at the

S.W.A.T. officers, the officers opened

fire. The suspect sustained multiple

shotgun wounds to his chest.

A Los Angeles Fire Department rescue

ambulance responded to the scene,

where the suspect was pronounced

dead at 11:05 p.m. 

• At approximately 6:25 a.m. on Saturday, April 20, 1996, the suspect, armed

with a handgun, confronted and threatened to kill several of his apartment

complex neighbors. Los Angeles police

were notified and responded to the

scene.

Upon arrival at the apartment complex,

officers were confronted by the suspect,

who was still armed with a handgun.

The suspect pointed the handgun at

several officers, threatening to kill them.

An officer-involved shooting occurred

and the suspect sustained multiple

gunshot wounds.

A Los Angeles City Fire Department

rescue ambulance responded to the

scene. The suspect was pronounced

dead at 7:42 a.m. 

• At approximately 9:40 p.m. on Saturday, July 20, 1996, an armed subject

confronted Los Angeles police officers.

The subject was shot to death. 

• At approximately 4:30 p.m. on

Sunday, December 22, 1996, two

uniformed Los Angeles police officers

were investigating a shoplifting in which

two six-packs of beer were stolen from

a convenience store. As the officers

were driving in the alley to the rear of

the store, they observed the suspect

carrying a six-pack of beer in each

hand. As soon as the officers stopped

their police vehicle behind the suspect,

the suspect turned and immediately

walked toward the right side of the

police vehicle. The suspect pulled a

.380 caliber semiautomatic pistol from

his right front pocket and fired two

rounds at the officer seated in the front

passenger seat. Both officers opened

fire with their 9 mm pistols, killing the

suspect. As a result of the suspect’s

gunfire one officer died.

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 15
• At approximately 5:00 p.m. on

Monday, March 11, 1996, the suspect

was driving a vehicle that was stopped

in an alley. Uniformed Los Angeles

police officers approached the vehicle

to conduct a possible stolen vehicle

investigation. During the course of the

investigation, the suspect started the

vehicle in an attempt to flee, dragging

the officer alongside.

An officer-involved shooting occurred

and the suspect sustained a gunshot

wound to his neck. The suspect

expired at the scene. Paramedics

responded and pronounced the suspect

dead at 5:04 p.m. 

New York City

• On Monday, April 8, 1996, two New

York City police officers were conducting an undercover “buy and bust” drug

operation in the Bronx. As one officer

approached a group of males to

purchase the drugs, he overheard

several of the males arguing. During

the argument a gun was mentioned.

The officer turned back to relay this

information to his partner. As the two

officers conferred, one officer observed

one of the male suspects brandish a

gun and fire two bullets at another

person in the group. The officers drew

their firearms and sought cover behind

a telephone pole. One officer identified

himself as a police officer and ordered

the suspect to drop his weapon. The

gunman, standing 25 feet away, turned

toward the officers and began firing his

9 mm semi-automatic pistol at them.

Both officers returned fire. During the

course of the gun battle, the officers

exhausted their ammunition supply.

The perpetrator, with his gun in hand,

then began to advance toward the

officers. With no bullets remaining in

their pistols, one officer retrieved his

off-duty revolver and fired one shot at

the advancing gunman, causing him to

stagger and collapse to the ground,

where he succumbed to his wounds.

• On the morning of Thursday, May 9,

1996, a New York City police officer

was approached by a bus driver who

told the officer that he had just seen a

man armed with a shotgun enter a

crowded office two blocks away.

Responding to the location, the officer

encountered a detective who had

observed several people fleeing the

building and had stopped to investigate.

Looking through the front window, the

officers observed the gunman shouting

and waving the shotgun at a female

hostage. The officers entered the building and were crawling on their hands

and knees toward the rear office when

the gunman spotted them and twice

fired at them through the office window.

As the hostage took cover under a

desk, the detective and police officer

returned fire, striking the gunman six

times and mortally wounding him. A

total of 20 hostages were rescued from

the location. Recovered from the scene

were a 12-gauge shotgun, a fully loaded

.22 caliber revolver, 123 rounds, and

103 shotgun shells. It was learned that

the gunman had threatened to kill

everyone in the office until he located

his estranged girlfriend, an employee

who had transferred to another office

just days earlier.

• Late one Friday night in July 1996, two

New York City police officers were on

routine patrol when they received a

radio broadcast of a “man with a gun.”

Although they were not yet aware of it,

the subject had just robbed a grocery

store while armed with a .44 caliber

revolver. As they pulled up to the

scene, they observed one of the

robbery victims running from the store.

He told the officers that the gunman

was still inside. Suddenly, the suspect

emerged from the store with the

weapon in his hand. Despite repeated

orders to drop the weapon, the suspect

cocked the revolver and aimed it

directly at the officers. The officers fired

a total of five rounds and mortally

wounded the perpetrator.

• On Tuesday, September 3, 1996, 

two police officers in Staten Island

responded to a family dispute. 

The officers were met by the complainant across the street from the location.

She stated that her estranged husband

was in the house, in violation of an

order of protection. She said he was

not armed and informed the officers that

he had ripped the telephone from the

wall, forcing her to call the police from

outside of the house. As the officers

approached the building, the suspect

fired a rifle from the second floor of the

building, barely missing them, but piercing the gas tanks of a parked vehicle.

As the officers took cover, the gunman

fired two more shots. Pinned down by

the rifle-wielding perpetrator and with no

other way to protect either the civilian or

themselves, the officers returned fire

and mortally wounded the gunman.

Oklahoma City

• At approximately 4:37 p.m. on Thursday, April 4, 1996, Oklahoma City

Police Department officers served a

warrant for an immediate drug search 

of a residence. Upon arrival at the

residence, the raid officers each went to

the position that was assigned during

the pre-raid briefing. The front door of

the residence was broken open and,

before making entry, the officers identified themselves as police officers.

As the first two officers entered the

living room, they observed a subject

lying on a sofa. The subject raised up

and pointed a long barreled handgun at

the officers. The two officers fired their

service weapons. Both officers stopped

shooting when the armed subject

collapsed to the floor.

Another subject appeared in the

doorway to the living room. He had

apparently come from another area of

the residence. The officer nearest the

doorway was grabbed from behind by

the second subject. That officer turned

and fired at the second subject. One

suspect died at the scene, and the

second suspect died later at a local

hospital.

16 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 
• At approximately 12:37 a.m. on Friday,

August 6, 1996, several Oklahoma City

Police Department officers were

attempting to locate an armed subject

who was reported to be en route to his

girlfriend’s residence. Information

about the suspect had been announced

in a general broadcast over the police

radio. The suspect had been recently

released from the Oklahoma State

penitentiary. Initially, officers did not

have an address but after searching

phone records from the enhanced 911

system, dispatchers were able to find

an address for the subject’s girlfriend.

While on the phone with someone at

the girlfriend’s residence, a female

dispatcher heard what she thought 

were three gunshots.

When responding officers arrived at the

apartment, the first responding officer

knocked on the front door without a

response. Officers were able to peer

inside the apartment through a window

near the front door. From the window

the officers observed what appeared to

be blood spattered on the walls and a

person lying on the floor.

The officers kicked open the apartment’s front door. The first officer to

enter confirmed a body on the floor.

The officer stepped over the body in the

hallway and moved toward a bedroom

where he observed the body of another

female also on the floor. A small child

was sitting on the shoulder of the dead

female, looking at the officer. Another

child was nearby. As the officer began

to move into the bedroom, a voice from

the bedroom warned the officer that if

he came in he would be shot. The only

light in the bedroom was that of a television. The officer observed the silhouette of a man holding a handgun. The

officer immediately retreated to a

nearby bathroom. The officers identified themselves and ordered the

suspect to drop his weapon. When the

gunman changed locations inside the

bedroom, the officer attempted to

verbally coax the children out of the

bedroom.

From inside the bedroom and out of

sight of the officer, the suspect

announced he was going to push the

two children out through the bedroom

door. As the suspect came into view of

the officer in the bathroom, the officer

could see that the suspect was still

armed with a handgun. The suspect

moved and was standing directly over

the body of the dead female. He began

to raise his weapon and then pointed it

in the direction of the officer in the

bedroom. The officer responded by

firing two rounds from his .45 caliber

service weapon. Both rounds struck the

suspect, killing him. The deceased

suspect had just committed three

homicides.

• At approximately 5:25 a.m. on

Tuesday, November 16, 1996, several

Oklahoma City Police Department

officers met for breakfast at a local

24-hour restaurant. While adjusting

tables to accommodate other officers

who had not yet arrived, the officers

observed a subject sitting in a booth by

himself. The subject matched the

description of a suspect who was

wanted in connection with an “assault

with a deadly weapon with intent to kill”

that had occurred earlier in the evening.

One officer went over to the suspect

while the other officers moved into

position to back up the confronting

officer. To confirm that the suspect was

the one who was wanted for the

assault, the officer asked to look at the

suspect’s forearm. The officer was

looking for an identifying tattoo. 

When the officer saw the identifying

tattoo, he immediately began to back

away from the booth where the suspect

was seated. The seated suspect, with

his right hand, reached into his waistband and produced a semiautomatic

pistol. The officer ordered the suspect

down, but the suspect ignored the order

and brought the gun above the table

top. All four officers began shooting at

the suspect. The suspect was struck

several times and died at the scene.

Philadelphia

• On Friday, June 21, 1996, at approximately 3:38 p.m., a Philadelphia police

officer responded to a “man with a

knife” disturbance. Upon arrival at the

residence, the officer was informed by a

woman yelling from the second floor of

the house that the suspect was

downstairs in the house. She told the

officer to enter through the front door as

it was already open. The officer drew

his gun, then entered the residence.

Inside, a 50-year-old male was carrying

a steak knife while walking out of the

kitchen and toward the officer. Despite

several demands from the officer to

drop the knife, the suspect continued to

approach the officer. The officer fired

his service weapon (a Glock model 17)

one time striking the suspect in the

chest. With the knife still in his right

hand, the suspect fell to the floor.

When rescue services and back-up

officers arrived, the knife was recovered

and the suspect was transported to a

local hospital. The suspect was

pronounced dead at 4:05 p.m.

• On Friday, November 15, 1996, at

approximately 8:51 a.m., a Philadelphia

police officer at a school crossing was

approached by a 29-year-old male in a

car. The man asked for directions.

The officer noticed a gun in the

suspect’s vehicle. While the officer was

investigating the incident, the suspect

pulled out another gun and shot at the

officer, striking him one time in the

chest. The officer returned fire, striking

the suspect several times in the chest

and neck. Both officer and suspect

were taken to a local hospital. Because

the officer had been wearing a bulletproof vest, he was not seriously injured

and was soon released. The suspect

was pronounced dead at 9:20 a.m.

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 17
• On Sunday, November 17, 1996, at

approximately 1:08 a.m., three Philadelphia police officers responded to a

“burglary in progress” call. While covering the rear of the residence, two

officers witnessed a male exiting the

property. The suspect fired a weapon

at the officers. Both officers returned

fire with their service weapons (Glock,

model 17; Glock, model 19), hitting the

suspect in the chest, neck, shoulder,

and hand. 

A second male suspect pushed open

the front door. Seeing a police officer

covering the front of the residence, the

second suspect fired a weapon from

inside the house at the officer. The

officer returned fire, hitting the second

suspect in the chest. The suspect

collapsed on the sidewalk in front of the

house. At the time of the shooting, the

other two officers were inside the

house. 

The first suspect was taken to a local

hospital where he was pronounced

dead. The second suspect was

pronounced dead at the scene. Both

guns used by the suspects were recovered at the scene.

 

18 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 
Throughout this report, the term “police

officer” refers to persons with sworn

arrest powers. Such persons include

sheriffs, deputies, State troopers, and

other law enforcement officers.

When a felon murders a police officer in

the line of duty, the deceased officer’s

agency voluntarily sends a record of the

offense to the FBI in Washington. The

record is then entered into a national

database. The database contains such

information as the officer’s age, race,

and gender, the number of years as a

police officer, and such information on

the felon as age, race, gender, and prior

record.

Drop in murders of police officers

According to national data on felonious

killings of police officers — 

• 1,820 law enforcement officers were

murdered between 1976 and 1998.

• On average, 79 law enforcement

officers were murdered in the United

States each year from 1976 to 1998,

but the annual number is dropping

(figure 12).

Number of

police officers

murdered 

1978 93

1988 78

1998 61

• There is little correspondence between

trends in the murder of police officers

and trends in justifiable homicides 

by police (the correlation is +0.3) 

(figure 13).

• Of all the murders of police officers

from 1987 to 1998 (834), about 1 in 6, 

or 15% (129), were by felons who were

then killed by police in a justifiable

homicide.

• Of all the justifiable homicides by

police from 1987 to 1998 (4,535), about

3% (129) were of felons who had

murdered a police officer. 

Police officers murdered by felons, 1976-98

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-96 19

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

50

100

Number of police officers

Police officers murdered

Number of police officers murdered by felons, 1976-98

1998

Figure 12

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

80

160

240

320

400

480

Number of homicides

Felons killed

Number of police officers murdered by felons compared to the

number of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98

Officers murdered

1998

Figure 13
Perhaps an explanation for the drop 

in police officer murders has something

to do with increasing police use of 

bullet-proof vests and other types 

of body armor. Presumably the more

often that police wear body armor, the

less often that police die in violent

encounters with felons. Needed to test

this explanation are annual statistics

that indicate what percentage of law

enforcement officers wear body armor.

While such statistics apparently do not

exist, annual statistics do exist that

indicate what percentage of murdered

officers are wearing armor at the time of

their attack. These statistics should

suffice so long as it is assumed that

increases in the percentage of

murdered officers wearing armor mirror

a broader trend toward increasing use

of body armor by police. Consistent

with this explanation —

• Police wearing of body armor has

risen (as reflected in the percentage of

murdered officers who are wearing

armor at the time of their attack) and

police deaths have fallen (table 8).

Other factors beyond increased use of

body armor probably have contributed

to the drop in murders of police officers.

These other factors include better training, better communications, and better

police practices.

Drop in rate of murder of police

officers

From 1976 to 1998, on average 17 of

every 100,000 police officers were

murdered annually. Each year this was

an average of more than 1 murdered for

every 6,500 law enforcement officers.

A police officer's risk of being murdered

has dropped (figure 14):

In 1978, 1 in 4,000 police officers was

murdered

In 1988 1 in 6,000 police officers was

murdered

In 1998 1 in 11,000 police officers was

murdered.

20 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: Data on police killed wearing body

armor are not available prior to 1981. 

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers 

Killed and Assaulted.

1998 57

1997 42

1996 56

1995 46%

1994 47

1993 56

1992 27

1991 34

1990 25%

1989 32

1988 26

1987 25

1986 24

1985 19%

1984 24

1983 25

1982 15

1981 12%

Annual average 33%

Percent of murdered 

Year officers wearing body armor 

Table 8. Police officers murdered by

felons: Percent wearing body armor

at the time of death, 1981-98

1976 1982 1988 1994

0

10

20

30

Rate per 100,000 officers

Police officers murdered

Police officers murdered by felons:

Rate per 100,000 officers, 1976-98

1998

Figure 14
Police officers murdered with 

their own firearm

Firearms claimed the lives of 92% 

of the 1,820 law enforcement officers

murdered from 1976 to 1998 (table 9).

Twelve percent of murdered officers

were killed with their own firearms

during the 23-year period. The vast

majority of the officers who were slain

with their own weapons were killed with

a handgun. 

Police officers slain with their own firearm

Number Percent

1978 14 15.1%

1988 12 15.0

1998 6 9.8

Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 21

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. 

1998 61 95 10

1997 70 96 7

1996 61 93 7

1995 74 84% 8%

1994 79 99 8

1993 70 96 7

1992 64 86 6

1991 71 96 11

1990 66 86% 5%

1989 66 86 15

1988 78 97 15

1987 74 89 18

1986 66 94 23

1985 78 90% 14%

1984 72 92 17

1983 80 93 15

1982 92 89 5

1981 91 95 13

1980 104 91% 13%

1979 106 94 16

1978 93 98 15

1977 93 89 10

1976 111 85% 14%

Annual average 79 92% 12%

Percent of murdered police 

officers killed with — 

a firearm their own firearm

Total number

of officers

Year murdered

Table 9. Police officers murdered by felons: 

Percent killed with firearm and percent slain 

with own weapon, 1976-98
Circumstances at scene of incident

On average, 39% of officers lost their

lives during arrest situations. One in 

six officers (16%) were killed while

responding to disturbance calls, 14%

were killed while enforcing traffic laws,

14% were slain while investigating

suspicious persons or circumstances,

and 11% were killed in an ambush

situation (table 10).

22 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: Detail may not sum to 100% due to rounding error. Disturbance calls include: bar fights, man with gun, family quarrels. 

Arrests situations include: burglaries in progress/pursuing burglary suspects, robberies in progress/pursuing robbery suspects, 

drug-related matters, attempting other arrests. Civil disorders include: mass disobedience, riot. 

Ambush situations include: entrapment/premeditation, unprovoked attack. 

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted.

1998 61 26 26 0 7 10 16 0 15

1997 70 20 30 0 6 14 17 1 11

1996 61 7 41 0 0 21 12 2 18

1995 74 11% 28% 0% 5% 23% 19% 1% 12%

1994 79 10 42 0 1 19 10 5 13

1993 70 14 40 0 1 21 7 1 14

1992 64 17 42 0 3 11 11 0 16

1991 71 24 20 0 9 14 16 0 18

1990 66 15% 46% 0% 3% 14% 12% 2% 9%

1989 66 20 36 0 9 15 6 3 11

1988 78 9 42 0 3 28 9 1 8

1987 74 30 37 0 8 7 6 1 11

1986 66 9 39 0 8 17 8 5 15

1985 78 17% 37% 0% 5% 12% 9% 0% 21%

1984 72 11 49 0 4 14 11 0 11

1983 80 19 39 0 4 13 11 1 14

1982 92 20 39 1 3 11 10 2 14

1981 91 21 41 0 1 11 10 2 14

1980 104 12% 46% 0% 1% 16% 7% 2% 16%

1979 106 16 44 0 3 9 10 4 14

1978 93 11 42 0 8 9 13 3 15

1977 93 24 42 0 8 10 4 0 13

1976 111 18% 44% 0% 4% 10% 12% 4% 9%

Annual average 79 16% 39% 0% 4% 14% 11% 2% 14%

Traffic

pursuits/

stops

Mentally

deranged 

Ambush 

situation 

Investigating

suspicious

persons/

circumstances

Handling,

transporting,

custody of

prisoners

Civil

disorders

Arrest

situations

Disturbance

calls

Total number

of officers

Year murdered

Table 10. Police officers murdered by felons: Circumstances at scene of incident, 1976-98
Murdered police officers

According to FBI national data on 

felonious killings of police officers 

from 1976 to 1998 —

Officers' age

• 65% were over 30 years of age

(table 11).

Officer's age

Under 25 8%

25 to 30 27

31 to 40 36

41 or older 29

Officers' gender

• Police officers slain in the line of duty

were almost always males (98%) 

(table 12).

Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 23

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers 

Killed and Assaulted.

1998 11 30 28 31

1997 2 26 35 37

1996 4 35 39 22

1995 8% 26% 24% 42%

1994 8 26 38 28

1993 6 38 34 22

1992 6 21 39 34

1991 7 27 36 30

1990 5% 14% 41% 40%

1989 5 20 38 37

1988 15 15 40 30

1987 11 26 32 31

1986 8 30 29 33

1985 5% 26% 35% 34%

1984 6 28 40 26

1983 10 30 45 15

1982 9 24 44 23

1981 13 23 42 22

1980 12% 26% 43% 19%

1979 9 20 41 30

1978 14 30 30 26

1977 11 39 23 27

1976 11% 32% 28% 29%

Annual average 8% 27% 36% 29%

Year Under 25 25-30 31-40 41 or older

Percent of murdered officers who were —

Table 11. Age of police officers 

murdered by felons, 1976-98

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed 

and Assaulted.

1998 90 10

1997 100 0

1996 96 4

1995 99% 1%

1994 96 4

1993 94 6

1992 100 0

1991 96 4

1990 98% 2%

1989 97 3

1988 97 3

1987 100 0

1986 98 2

1985 96% 4%

1984 94 6

1983 100 0

1982 97 3

1981 98 2

1980 99% 1%

1979 99 1

1978 100 0

1977 99 1

1976 100% 0%

Annual average 98% 2%

Year Male Female

Percent of murdered officers

Table 12. Gender of police officers

murdered by felons, 1976-98
Officers' race

• 86% of murdered officers were white

and 13% were black (figure 15).

Officers' other characteristics

• 72% of officers murdered from 1976 

to 1996 were wearing their uniform

(table 13).

• Murdered police officers had an

average of 9 years of law enforcement

service. 

Years of service

Less than 1 6%

1 to 4 29

5 to 10 31

Over 10 34

Detailed racial statistics for the 1990's

• According to statistics for 1993-98,

white police officers made up about

87% of all police officers in the United

States and 83% of all police officers

murdered by felons. Black officers

were 11% of police officers but 15% of

those murdered, and officers of other

races were 2% of police officers and

2% of those murdered.

Felons who murdered police officers

According to FBI national data on felonious killings of police officers from 1976

to 1998 —

Felons' age

• Most persons who murdered police

were ages 18 to 30 (54%) (table 14).

24 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers 

Killed and Assaulted.

1998 79

1997 75

1996 78

1995 66%

1994 63

1993 81

1992 65

1991 73

1990 63%

1989 67

1988 68

1987 79

1986 67

1985 73%

1984 75

1983 80

1982 52

1981 80

1980 69%

1979 71

1978 80

1977 81

1976 71%

Annual average 72%

Year Percent wearing uniform

Table 13. Police officers murdered 

by felons: Percent wearing uniform 

at time of death, 1976-98

Figure 15

1976 1982 1988 1994

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Percent of murdered officers

White officers

Race of police officers murdered by felons:

Percent white and black, 1976-98

Black officers

1998

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers 

Killed and Assaulted.

1998 13 58

1997 3 58

1996 7 66

1995 18% 46%

1994 18 47

1993 20 47

1992 13 54

1991 9 60

1990 8% 53%

1989 7 42

1988 5 63

1987 13 41

1986 2 58

1985 4% 59%

1984 20 53

1983 8 47

1982 5 57

1981 7 46

1980 9% 62%

1979 5 60

1978 8 62

1977 11 58

1976 10% 45%

Annual average 10% 54%

 Age 

 18-30

Under 

Year age 18

Percent of murderers of

police officers who were —

Table 14. Age of felons who

murdered police officers: Percent

under age 18 and age 18-30, 1976-98
According to FBI national data on felonious killings of police officers from 1976

to 1998 —

Felons' gender

• Persons who murdered a police officer

were almost always males (97%) 

(table 15).

Felons' race

• Most persons who murdered a police

officer were white (54%) (table 16).

• Blacks made up about 12% of the

U.S. population but were 43% of the

felons who murdered a police officer;

whites were about 83% of the U.S.

population but about 54% of murderers

of police officers.

• Murderers of police officers represent

a tiny fraction of the total population. 

Of the Nation's 89 million white males

(age 13 or older), 35 murdered a police

officer in 1998. Of the 12 million black

males (age 13 or older), 21 murdered

an officer that year. White males were

41% of the U.S. population (age 13 or

older) and 58% of those who murdered

a law enforcement officer. Black males

were 6% of the population (age 13 or

older) and 35% of the murderers of

officers.

Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 25

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers 

Killed and Assaulted.

1998 99 1

1997 100 0

1996 99 1

1995 92% 8%

1994 96 4

1993 99 1

1992 99 1

1991 99 1

1990 94% 6%

1989 96 4

1988 98 2

1987 91 9

1986 97 3

1985 99% 1%

1984 98 2

1983 97 3

1982 95 5

1981 96 4

1980 93% 7%

1979 97 3

1978 94 6

1977 99 1

1976 94% 6%

Annual average 97% 3%

Year Male Female

Percent of murderers 

of police officers

Table 15. Gender of felons who murdered

police officers, 1976-98

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers 

Killed and Assaulted.

1998 58 35 7

1997 50 41 9

1996 45 48 7

1995 56% 40% 4%

1994 54 43 3

1993 43 57 0

1992 53 46 1

1991 54 45 1

1990 56% 43% 1%

1989 56 42 2

1988 58 42 0

1987 65 35 0

1986 60 37 3

1985 47% 50% 3%

1984 55 38 7

1983 66 32 2

1982 61 38 1

1981 41 57 2

1980 57% 43% 0%

1979 51 47 2

1978 56 39 5

1977 58 37 5

1976 54% 43% 3%

Annual average 54% 43% 3%

Year White Black Other

Percent of murderers 

of police officers

Table 16. Race of felons who murdered police

officers, 1976-98
According to FBI national data on felonious killings of police officers from 1976

to 1998 —

Felons' criminal record

• Two-thirds of the felons who murdered

a police officer had a prior criminal

arrest (figure 16).

• Half were convicted in the past.

• A third had a prior arrest for a violent

crime.

• A fifth were on parole or on probation

at the time of the murder.

• 4% had a prior arrest for murder

charges.

• 24% had a prior arrest for narcotic

drug law violations.

• 11% had a prior arrest for assaulting

police or resisting arrest.

• 28% had a prior arrest for weapons

violations.

Felons' race and officers' race, 1980-98

A total of 1,417 law enforcement

officers were murdered during the

period 1980 to 1998, and —

• In most of the murders of police

officers between 1980 and 1998 (62%),

the officer's race and the felon’s race

were the same:

Intraracial

White felon kills white officer 51.9%

Black felon kills black officer 10.0

Other-race felon kills other-

 race officer 0.6

Interracial

White felon kills black officer 2.4%

Black felon kills white officer 28.5

White felon kills other-race officer 0.4

Black felon kills other-race officer 0.0

Other-race felon kills white officer 2.6

Other-race felon kills black officer 0.1

Multiple felons of different races kill —

white officer 2.9%

black officer 0.6

other-race officer 0.0

• 38% of murders of police officers are

interracial (for example, a white felon

killing a black officer, or a black felon

killing a white officer).

Victim statistics provide one perspective

on the number of police murders that

are interracial (for example, of all black

officers murdered from 1980 to 1998,

19% were murdered by a white felon).

Offender statistics provide another

perspective (for example, of all white

felons who murdered a police officer

from 1980 to 1998, 3% of the murdered

officers were black). 

The extent to which murders of police

officers are interracial depends on

which statistics — victim or offender —

are used: 

• When a white police officer is

murdered, the offender is usually a

white (60%); and when a black police

officer is murdered, the offender is

usually a black (76%).

• When a black felon murders a police

officer, the officer is usually a white

(74%); and when a white felon murders

a police officer, the officer is usually a

white (95%).

26 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Figure 16

1976 1982 1988 1994

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Percent of murderers of police officers

Felons who murdered police officers:

Percent with criminal history, 1976-98

Criminal arrest

Violent crime

Assaulting police

Prior arrest

1998
Felons' age, race, and gender, 1980-98

• Murderers of police officers represent

a tiny fraction of the total population. 

Of the Nation’s 18.3 million young white

males (white males ages 13 to 24), 

17 murdered a police officer in 1998.

Of the 3.4 million young black males, 

13 murdered an officer that year. 

On average from 1980 to 1998 —

• Young white males made up about 8%

of the population but 20% of felons who

murdered a police officer (figure 17).

Young black males made up about 1%

of the population but 21% of felons who

murdered a police officer. 

• Young black males murdered police

officers at a rate almost 6 times that of

young white males (5.7 versus 1 per

million population) (figure 18).

Descriptions of actual cases 

of police officers killed in the line 

of duty

Descriptions of actual cases of police

officers killed in the line of duty can be

found in the annual FBI publication, 

Law Enforcement Officers Killed and

Assaulted, or on the FBI website at

http://www.fbi.gov/ucr.htm.

 

Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 27

1980 1986 1992 1998

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

Percent of murderers of police officers

Young black male felons

Felons who murdered police officers:

Percent young white and black males, 1980-98

Young white male felons

Figure 17

1980 1986 1992 1998

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Rate per 1 million U.S. population ages 13-24

Young black male felons

Felons who murdered police officers:

Rate per 1 million population for young white and black males, 1980-98

Young white male felons

Figure 18
The SHR national database 

on justifiable homicides by police

Ideally, every time police kill a felon in a

justifiable homicide, a record of the

event is sent to the FBI in Washington.

Each record of justifiable homicide

received by the FBI is then entered into

the Supplemental Homicide Reports

(SHR) database. 

The number of justifiable homicides by

police in the year is available in two

places: the SHR database and the FBI

annual publication Crime in the United

States. (The first published count

covers 1987.) 

Published counts found in Crime in the

United States do not agree precisely

with the number of justifiable homicides

by police found in the database (see

below). Moreover, in certain years

there are police justifiable homicides in

a State that are unaccounted for either

in the annual publication or in the SHR

database. (The FBI publication

routinely summarizes year-to-year

counts of justifiable homicides in a

table. Summary counts in this table are

often not national in scope. To avoid

confusion, the table should alert readers

when States are missing.)

Two sources of FBI statistics on the annual

number of justifiable homicides by police: 

published versus SHR database 

Year Published SHR Difference

1998 365 367 2

1997 366 361 5

1996 358 355 3

1995 389 382 7

1994 462 459 3

1993 455 453 2

1992 418 414 4

1991 366 359 7

1990 385 379 6

1989 363 362 1

1988 343 339 4

1987 300 296 4

Evolution of the SHR database

Three stages describe the evolution of

the SHR database.

1. Early stage: 1963 to 1967

In the early 1960's the FBI started the

SHR database. Police departments

across the Nation began sending to the

FBI a record of each murder (including

nonnegligent manslaughter) in their

jurisdiction. The first records covered

murders occurring in 1963.

The FBI decided to expand the

database to include justifiable

homicides by police and civilians. The

first records received were for justifiable

homicides occurring in 1966 and 1967.

The records included the age, race, and

gender of persons justifiably killed. The

age, gender, and race of the police

officers involved in the homicides were

not included because this information

was not requested. The FBI did not

disseminate statistics on 1966 and 1967

justifiable homicides because the

records were based on too few police

departments.

2. Middle stage: 1968 to 1975

The cooperation of the Nation's police

departments grew to the point where

the FBI began disseminating statistics

on justifiable homicides by police. The

earliest statistics covered those justifiable homicides occurring in 1968.

Statistics from 1968 to 1986 were not

published but were made available

upon request. FBI statistics from 1987

and later were routinely published.

Justifiable homicides in the SHR

database for 1968 through 1975

contained information on the age, race,

and gender of persons killed by police,

but no information on the officers

involved in these incidents. According

to the database, the number of justifiable homicides by police from 1968 to

1975 was:

Number of justifiable 

Year homicides by police

1968 395

1969 424

1970 412

1971 557

1972 469

1973 492

1974 553

1975 559

3. Current stage: 1976 to present

After 1975 the FBI expanded the scope

of the SHR database to include information (age, race, gender) on the police

officers who commit justifiable

homicide.

Nonjustifiable homicide by police

In addition to justifiable homicides by

police, the SHR database also contains

records of two other types of homicide:

• a record of each justifiable homicide

by citizens

• a record of each murder.

While the database has primarily a

statistical purpose, one statistic that is

impossible to obtain from it (or from any

currently existing database) is the

number of murders by police. Murder is

a type of nonjustifiable homicide. If a

police officer deliberately kills someone

and the homicide is not justified, that

type of nonjustifiable homicide is

supposed to go into the database as a

"murder." Undoubtedly some of the

"murders" in the SHR database are

murders by police officers, but their

number is unknown because nothing in

the database distinguishes murders by

police officers from murders committed

by others. Consequently the annual

number of nonjustifiable homicides by

police in the United States is unknown. 

Methodology

28 Policing and Homicide, 1976-96 
Errors in the SHR database

Justifiable homicides by police for an

entire State are sometimes missing

from the SHR database. One way of

determining whether a State is missing

in a particular year is to examine the

number of justifiable homicides that

State reported in previous years. If the

State reports a sizable number year

after year but then reports none, that

probably indicates the State is missing

from the database. For example, in a

large State such a Florida, there is at

least one justifiable homicide by police

each year. Yet none are recorded in

the SHR database for Florida for certain

years.

The opposite problem — too many

rather than too few records of justifiable

homicide by police in the database —

also exists. To understand how that

happens, imagine an officer deliberately

killing a citizen in circumstances that

initially appear to warrant lethal force.

The police department sends a record

to the FBI showing the incident to be a

justifiable homicide, but some time later

a judge or jury decides that the killing

was unlawful and finds the officer guilty

of murder. The FBI urges police

departments to send in a revised record

in such situations so that the SHR

database can be updated. But if the

police department fails to do that, the

killing will remain in the database as a

"justifiable homicide by police" when it

should instead be coded as a “murder”

on the “circumstance” variable. 

Nonjustifiable homicides by police 

in the SHR database

The number of nonjustifiable homicides

by police (or murders) incorrectly

labeled as "justifiable homicide" in the

SHR database is unknown. One way to

spot these errors is to find in the

database a case labeled as "justifiable

homicide by police" that actually

involved a police officer known to have

been convicted of murder for that

homicide.

If the SHR database had the name of

the officer who committed the homicide,

the process would be fairly simple: find

the officer's name and check to see if

the homicide is classified as "justifiable

homicide by police" or "murder." But

the database has no names. So the

check must rely on other recorded 

information about the incident: the

month and year of the homicide; the

police agency in whose jurisdiction the

homicide occurred; the age, race, and

gender of the victim; the age, race, and

gender of the offender; the type of

weapon used; the number of victims in

the incident; the number of offenders in

the incident; and victim-offender

relationship.

To illustrate this type of check, eight

news accounts were obtained of police

officers convicted of murder in the line

of duty. In four of the eight the check

was inconclusive:

1. The SHR database has a record of a

homicide occurring in the place and on

the date shown in the news account,

but the database is missing too much 

data to match the news account. 

2. The SHR database has a record of a

homicide occurring in the place and on

the date shown in the news account,

but some of the information in the SHR

database does not match the homicide

in the news account.

For the remaining four news accounts

the homicide characteristics in the SHR

database did match those in the news

account. 

1. In two cases the homicide is classified correctly as "murder." In both

cases there is evidence of an update,

possibly to change the classification

from "justifiable homicide by police" to

"murder" when the officer was

convicted. 

2. The other two cases are coded

incorrectly: one as "justifiable homicide

by police" and one as "undetermined."

The news accounts indicated that the

police officers involved in these two

cases were convicted of murder or

manslaughter.

Justifiable homicides by police 

missing from the SHR database

The number of missing justifiable

homicides by police is unknown, but

one way to spot missing records is by

examining reporting by States that,

because of their large populations, are

almost certain to have had at least one

justifiable homicide by police in a year.

A year with no recorded justifiable

homicide by police suggests missing

information. A problem with this

method of identifying missing data is

that a State can still have a sizable

number of justifiable homicides in the

database even when a big city police

department in that State fails to send in

any records. Nevertheless, it is instructive to search the SHR database for

years in which a large State has no

justifiable homicides. For 1976 to 1998,

the results are summarized below:

States with justifiable homicides 

by police but no record of them

Year in the SHR database that year 

1988 Florida, Kentucky

1989 Florida

1990 Florida

1991 Florida

1993 Kansas

1994 Kansas

1995 Illinois, Kansas

1996 District of Columbia, Kansas

1997 Florida, Kansas

1998 District of Columbia, Florida,

Kansas, and Wisconsin

Statistics given in this report were not

adjusted to account for missing States.

For example, figure 1 "national" counts

of justifiable homicides are not adjusted

for justifiable homicides thought to be

missing for two States (Florida and

Kentucky) in 1988. However, were

adjustment made by including in the

figure only those States that were missing no data throughout the period from

1976 to 1998, figure 1 would not look

much different from how it looks now.

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 29
Adjusted and unadjusted numbers of

justifiable homicides by police have a

strong positive correlation (+0.95).

Similarly, figure 2 "national" rates of

justifiable homicide are not adjusted for

States missing for certain years. To

illustrate, no justifiable homicides were

recorded for Kansas 1995, but the base

for the 1995 "national" rate includes the

Kansas population. However, excluding

populations of missing States would

have made little difference since

adjusted and unadjusted rates of justifiable homicides by police have a strong

positive correlation (+0.99). 

Misinformation in the SHR database

regarding officer characteristics

Of the 8,578 records in the SHR

database on justifiable homicides by

police from 1976 to 1998, about 5,800

records include both the felon’s and the

officer's age, race, and gender. In

about 4.6% of these 5,800 records (270

cases), the felon’s and officer's age,

race, and gender are identical. For

example, the SHR database describes

both the felon and the officer as a

41-year-old white male.

By chance alone the age, race, and

gender of the felon and the officer can

be the same, but a 4.6% match rate is

too high to be explained solely by

chance. (The likelihood of a chance

match is no more than 1% of cases.)

One explanation for identical felon and

officer characteristics may be confusion

about how to fill out the FBI form. The

form for reporting justifiable homicide is

the same one used to report murders.

The form designates the person who

commits the murder as the "offender"

and the murdered person as the

"victim." Police agencies reporting a

justifiable homicide by police are

instructed to record the felon’s age,

race, and gender under "victim's age,"

"victim's race," and "victim's gender."

The officer's age, race, and gender are

to be recorded under "offender's age,"

"offender's race," and "offender's

gender." To police agencies, the only

"offenders" in a justifiable homicide are

the felons. Consequently, police

agencies may occasionally report felon

characteristics under both "victim" and

"offender" headings.

The effect of such occasional errors on

the national statistics presented in this

report is generally small. Excluding

cases in which the age, race, and

gender of felon and officer are identical

made little difference in this report's

main findings. The one instance of a

sizable effect was the percentage of all

justifiable homicides that were "black

officer kills black felon” (figure 11). 

The percent of justifiable homicide that

were “black officer kills black felon” was

14% in 1993, 20% in 1994, and 12% in

1995. The large rise from 14% in 1993

to 20% in 1994 was due to a large

number of justifiable homicides in 1994

that involved felons and officers with

identical characteristics. More specifically, the large increase is attributable to

the New York City Police Department’s

reporting an unusually large number of

"black officer kills black felon" justifiable

homicides.

Over the 23 years from 1976 to 1998,

270 felons killed in justifiable homicides

had the same age, race, and gender as

the officer. Of the 270 felons, 68.9%

were white, 30.7% were black, and .4% 

were of other races. 

Missing characteristics of felons 

and officers in the SHR database

The gender, race, and age of felons

killed by police are rarely missing in the

SHR database (data for figure 8).

However, it is not uncommon for the

gender, race, and age of the officers to

be missing.

Cautionary note on this report's

statistics on justifiable homicides 

by police

All statistics in this report on justifiable

homicides by police are known to be

missing homicides by police in Florida

from 1988 to 1991, 1997, and 1998; in

Kentucky in 1988; in Kansas from 1993

to 1998; in Illinois in 1995; Wisconsin 

in 1998; and in the District of Columbia

in 1996 and 1998. Other justifiable

homicides by police are probably

missing as well. In addition, some

small but unknown number of homicides labeled "justifiable homicides 

by police" are probably nonjustifiable

homicides.

Certain statistics (for example, the

number and rate of justifiable homicides

by police) are probably more affected by

these errors than other statistics in the

report (for example, the percentage of

persons killed who are male, and the

percentage of justifiable homicides that

involve a firearm).

Justifiable homicides by police 

in cases involving more than 

one officer

In 86% of justifiable homicides by

police, there was a single police officer

("1-officer cases"), in 10% there were 2

officers ("2-officer cases"), and in the

remaining 4% there were 3 or more. In

this report’s tabulations, when more

than one officer killed the felon, the

officer described first in the database

supplied the officer’s characteristics

(age, race, and gender). Using just the

characteristics of the first officer is

sensible if that officer resembles the

other officers in the incident. To check

the resemblance, first-officer and

second-officer characteristics were

compared, and results indicated that, in

the vast majority of cases, there was a

close match.

30 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 
Source of national statistics on

police officers murdered by felons

Most of the data in this report on

murdered police officers were obtained

directly from the annual FBI publication

Law Enforcement Officers Killed or

Assaulted. However, the source of the

1980-98 data on interracial and intraracial murder of police officers was a

tabulation prepared by the FBI specifically for this report.

Source of size and characteristics 

of U.S. police force

The source for the number of full-time

sworn officers in the Nation is the FBI's

annual publication Crime in the United

States. Regarding the racial make-up

of the Nation's police officers in the

1990's, the only existing data are for

1993 and 1997. The BJS publications

containing the 1993 data are:

• Local Police Departments, 1993, 

April 1996, NCJ 148822.

• Sheriffs' Departments, 1993, 

June 1996, NCJ 148823.

• Law Enforcement Management and

Administrative Statistics, 1993: Data for

Individual State and Local Agencies

with 100 or More Officers, 

September 1995, NCJ 148825. 

The titles for the BJS publications

containing the 1997 data are the same

except for the year designation.

• Law Enforcement Management and

Administrative Statistics, 1997: Data for

Individual State and Local Agencies

with 100 or More Officers, 

April 1999, NCJ 171681.

• Local Police Departments, 1997, 

February 2000, NCJ 173429.

• Sheriffs' Departments, 1997, 

February 2000, NCJ 173428.

According to these publications, the

racial make-up of the Nation's police

force changed only slightly from 1993 to

1997 (1% drop in "white" and 1% rise in

"other races"). In 1993, 88% of all

police officers were white, 11% were

black, and 1% were other races. In

1997, the comparable figures were 87%

white, 11% black, and 2% other races.

The percentages given in this report for

the racial classification of the police

force in 1998 and in the 1990’s are

based on the 1997 statistics. Note that

officers designated "Hispanic" in the

publications were classified as "white."

Police use of non-lethal force 

To learn more about the use of force

requires an understanding of the

reasons for and the results of policecitizen encounters. During 1996 (and

again in 1999*), the Bureau of Justice

Statistics (BJS) carried out a special

survey of 6,421 residents age 12 or

older entitled the Police-Public Contact

Survey. 

The Police-Public Contact Survey has

made possible, for the first time,

estimates of the prevalence of all kinds

of contacts between the police and

members of the public, favorable as

well as unfavorable. Results indicate

that a small percentage of police-public

contacts results in the use of force. 

In 1996, for example, about 45 million

Americans age 12 or older (about 1 in 5

residents of this age) were estimated to

have had at least one face-to-face

contact with a police officer. Of these,

about 500,000 (about 1 in 500 residents

age 12 or older) were estimated to have

experienced force or threat of force 

by police during 1996.

There are no official national statistical

data on the number of times police

were justified in using lethal force

(during violent and mass rioting, for

example), but instead used less-thanlethal force. (For example, rather than

using bullets, police can use a weapon

that fires small beanbags or hard plastic

rounds from a shotgun; there are also

foams that can be sprayed by police

that literally stop offenders in their

tracks). 

Additional information about the police

use of force can be found in the

following:

Alpert, Geoffrey. Police Pursuit Driving

and the Use of Excessive Force. NIJ

Final Report, Grant No. 95-IJ-CX-0066,

1996.

Binder, Arnold; Peter Scharf; and

Raymond Galvin. Use of Deadly Force

by Police Officers. NIJ Final Report,

Grant No. 79-NI-AX-0134, 1982.

Bureau of Justice Statistics. Police Use

of Force: Collection of National Data,

NCJ 165040, November 1997.

Fridell, Lorie A. and Antony M. Pate.

Death on Patrol: Felonious Homicides

of American Police Officers. NIJ Draft

Final Report, Grant No. 91-IJ-CX-K025,

1995.

Garner, Joel; John Buchanan; Tom

Schade; and John Hepburn. Understanding the Use of Force By and

Against the Police. NIJ Research in

Brief, 1996.

Geller, William A. and Hans Toch, eds.

And Justice for All: A National Agenda

for Understanding and Controlling

Police Abuse of Force. Washington,

D.C.: Police Executive Research

Forum, 1995.

 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 31

*Findings from the 1999 Police-Public Contact

Survey were published in January 2001.
Matulia, Kenneth J. A Balance of

Forces. Gaithersburg, MD: International Association of Chiefs of Police,

1982.

Pate, Antony M. and Lorie A. Fridell.

Police Use of Force: Official Reports,

Citizen Complaints, and Legal Consequences, Volumes I and II.

Washington, D.C.: The Police Foundation, 1993.

Pinizzotto, Anthony J.; Edward F. Davis;

and Charles E. Miller III. In the Line of

Fire: A Study of Selected Felonious

Assaults on Law Enforcement Officers.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of

Justice, 1997.

Scrivner, Ellen M. The Role of Police

Psychology in Controlling Excessive

Force. NIJ Research Report,

NCJ-146206, 1994.

A new source of data on police

officers killed and assaulted

A growing number of law enforcement

agencies are adopting a new type of

record keeping system — called

National Incident Based Reporting

System or NIBRS — for compiling

crime statistics. While NIBRS data

cannot distinguish nonjustifiable

homicides by police from other nonjustifiable homicides, these data do provide

a source of various statistics on justifiable homicides by police; for example,

the number of justifiable homicides by

police occurring as a result of attacking

the officer, or fleeing from a crime, or

resisting arrest, or committing a crime.

NIBRS data also provide a source of

statistics on murders of, or assaults on,

law enforcement officers. 

NIBRS records also have information

about other offenses that were committed as part of the same incident (if any),

other arrestees (if any), and additional

victims (if any).

Bureau of Justice Statistics reports that

use NIBRS data include:

Effects of NIBRS on Crime Statistics

(BJS 7/2000, NCJ 178890)

Sexual Assault of Young Children as

Reported to Law Enforcement: Victim,

Incident, and Offender Characteristics

(BJS 7/2000, NCJ 182990)

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention reports that use

NIBRS data include:

Characteristics of Crimes Against

Juveniles (OJJDP 6/2000, NCJ 179034)

Kidnaping of Juveniles: Patterns From

NIBRS (OJJDP 6/2000, NCJ 181161)

To obtain copies of these reports,

please contact the National Criminal

Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) 

at 1-800-732-3277 or at

http://www.ncjrs.org/.

32 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 
 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 33

Note: Data shown in table do not

include justifiable homicides by police

for the following years and States: 1988,

Florida, Kentucky; 1989, Florida; 1990,

Florida; 1991, Florida; 1993, Kansas;

1994, Kansas; 1995, Illinois, Kansas;

1996, District of Columbia; Kansas

1997, Florida, Kansas; 1998, District of

Columbia, Florida, Kansas, Wisconsin.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary

Homicide Reports.

1998 367

1997 361

1996 355

1995 382

1994 459

1993 453

1992 414

1991 359

1990 379

1989 362

1988 339

1987 296

1986 298

1985 321

1984 332

1983 406

1982 376

1981 381

1980 457

1979 442

1978 313

1977 311

1976 415

Annual average 373

Total number of 

Year justifiable homicides

Data for figure 1. Felons killed

by police in justifiable homicides,

1976-98

Note: Data shown in table do not include justifiable homicides

by police for the following years and States: 1988, Florida,

Kentucky; 1989, Florida; 1990, Florida; 1991, Florida; 1993,

Kansas; 1994, Kansas; 1995, Illinois, Kansas; 1996, District 

of Columbia, Kansas; 1997, Florida, Kansas; 1998, District 

of Columbia, Florida, Kansas, Wisconsin. 

Populations include States that did not report 

justifiable homicides.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 219,801,000 1.67

1997 361 217,391,000 1.66

1996 355 214,769,000 1.65

1995 382 212,588,000 1.80

1994 459 210,468,000 2.18

1993 453 208,335,000 2.17

1992 414 206,047,000 2.01

1991 359 203,849,000 1.76

1990 379 201,938,000 1.88

1989 362 200,911,000 1.80

1988 339 199,252,000 1.70

1987 296 197,545,000 1.50

1986 298 195,905,000 1.52

1985 321 194,085,000 1.65

1984 332 191,992,000 1.73

1983 406 189,782,000 2.14

1982 376 187,588,000 2.00

1981 381 185,255,000 2.06

1980 457 183,258,000 2.49

1979 442 180,793,000 2.44

1978 313 178,188,000 1.76

1977 311 175,420,000 1.77

1976 415 172,563,000 2.40

Annual average 373 1.90

Rate of 

justifiable

homicides

(per million)

U.S. resident

population

age 13 or older

on July 1 

Total

number of

justifiable

Year homicides

Data for figure 2. Felons killed by police 

in justifiable homicides: Rate per 1 million 

U.S. population age 13 or older, 1976-98
34 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether 

or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s gender is known in 99.9% of the

justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. 

Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides.

Due to rounding error, population detail may not sum to total.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 219,801,000 106,210,000 113,591,000 358 97.5 34 9 2.5 1

1997 361 217,391,000 104,995,000 112,396,000 349 96.7 33 12 3.3 1

1996 355 214,759,000 103,722,000 111,037,000 347 97.7 33 8 2.3 1

1995 382 212,588,000 102,630,000 109,958,000 377 98.7% 37 5 1.3% 0

1994 459 210,468,000 101,549,000 108,919,000 440 95.9 43 19 4.1 2

1993 453 208,335,000 100,499,000 107,836,000 439 96.9 44 14 3.1 1

1992 414 206,047,000 99,358,000 106,689,000 405 97.8 41 9 2.2 1

1991 359 203,849,000 98,222,000 105,627,000 344 95.8 35 15 4.2 1

1990 379 201,938,000 97,325,000 104,613,000 366 96.6% 38 13 3.4% 1

1989 362 200,911,000 96,730,000 104,181,000 347 95.9 36 15 4.1 1

1988 339 199,252,000 95,902,000 103,350,000 333 98.2 35 6 1.8 1

1987 296 197,545,000 95,053,000 102,492,000 290 98.0 31 6 2.0 1

1986 298 195,905,000 94,235,000 101,670,000 294 98.7 31 4 1.3 0

1985 321 194,085,000 93,302,000 100,783,000 314 97.8% 34 7 2.2% 1

1984 332 191,992,000 92,167,000 99,825,000 325 97.9 35 7 2.1 1

1983 406 189,782,000 91,105,000 98,677,000 402 99.0 44 4 1.0 0

1982 376 187,588,000 90,015,000 97,573,000 369 98.1 41 7 1.9 1

1981 381 185,255,000 88,894,000 96,361,000 378 99.2 43 3 0.8 0

1980 457 183,258,000 87,928,000 95,330,000 447 97.8% 51 10 2.2% 1

1979 442 180,793,000 86,757,000 94,036,000 430 97.3 50 12 2.7 1

1978 313 178,188,000 85,527,000 92,661,000 307 98.1 36 6 1.9 1

1977 311 175,420,000 84,234,000 91,186,000 305 98.1 36 6 1.9 1

1976 415 172,563,000 82,883,000 89,680,000 410 98.8% 49 5 1.2% 1

Annual average 373 364 97.7% 39 9 2.3% 1

Year homicides Total Male Female Number Percent 10 million Number Percent 10 million

of justifiable age 13 or older on July 1 Rate per Rate per

Total number U.S. resident population Male felons Female felons

Data for figure 3. Gender of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: 

Rate per 10 million population age 13 or older, 1976-98
 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 35

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable

homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s race is known in 99.3% of the

justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 62 35 3

1997 361 63 35 2

1996 355 61 37 2

1995 382 59% 38% 3%

1994 459 57 40 3

1993 453 55 42 3

1992 414 60 38 2

1991 359 54 43 3

1990 379 62% 36% 2%

1989 362 60 38 2

1988 339 59 39 2

1987 296 64 34 2

1986 298 58 40 2

1985 321 61% 35% 4%

1984 332 58 41 1

1983 406 54 44 2

1982 376 52 46 2

1981 381 54 45 1

1980 457 51% 48% 1%

1979 442 50 48 2

1978 313 50 49 1

1977 311 47 51 2

1976 415 46% 52% 2%

Annual average 373 56% 42% 2%

Year homicides White Black Other

Percent of killed felons 

Total number

of justifiable

Data for figure 4. Race of felons killed by police 

in justifiable homicides: Percent white, black, 

and other, 1976-98
36 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether 

or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s race is known 

in 99.3% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998.

Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 225 127 12 219,801,000 183,098,000 26,605,000 10,098,000 1.67 1.23 4.77 1.19

1997 361 226 127 6 217,391,000 181,480,000 26,159,000 9,752,000 1.66 1.25 4.85 0.62

1996 355 218 130 7 214,759,000 179,835,000 25,679,000 9,245,000 1.65 1.21 5.06 0.76

1995 382 226 143 10 212,588,000 178,363,000 25,292,000 8,933,000 1.80 1.27 5.65 1.12

1994 459 261 185 12 210,468,000 176,901,000 24,899,000 8,668,000 2.18 1.48 7.43 1.38

1993 453 246 191 13 208,335,000 175,451,000 24,506,000 8,378,000 2.17 1.40 7.79 1.55

1992 414 245 155 9 206,047,000 173,906,000 24,081,000 8,060,000 2.01 1.41 6.44 1.12

1991 359 190 154 12 203,849,000 172,450,000 23,657,000 7,742,000 1.76 1.10 6.51 1.55

1990 379 232 135 8 201,938,000 171,178,000 23,299,000 7,461,000 1.88 1.36 5.79 1.07

1989 362 217 136 6 200,911,000 170,984,000 23,326,000 6,601,000 1.80 1.27 5.83 0.91

1988 339 196 132 6 199,252,000 169,909,000 23,031,000 6,312,000 1.70 1.15 5.73 0.95

1987 296 188 100 5 197,545,000 168,824,000 22,711,000 6,010,000 1.50 1.11 4.40 0.83

1986 298 170 119 5 195,905,000 167,785,000 22,400,000 5,720,000 1.52 1.01 5.31 0.87

1985 321 195 113 12 194,085,000 166,604,000 22,056,000 5,425,000 1.65 1.17 5.12 2.21

1984 332 191 136 4 191,992,000 165,143,000 21,728,000 5,121,000 1.73 1.16 6.26 0.78

1983 406 216 177 7 189,782,000 163,610,000 21,325,000 4,847,000 2.14 1.32 8.30 1.44

1982 376 192 172 7 187,588,000 162,022,000 20,961,000 4,605,000 2.00 1.19 8.21 1.52

1981 381 205 172 3 185,255,000 160,557,000 20,498,000 4,200,000 2.06 1.28 8.39 0.71

1980 457 229 217 3 183,258,000 159,147,000 20,148,000 3,963,000 2.49 1.44 10.77 0.76

1979 442 221 213 8 180,793,000 157,553,000 19,791,000 3,449,000 2.44 1.40 10.76 2.32

1978 313 156 155 2 178,188,000 155,582,000 19,381,000 3,225,000 1.76 1.00 8.00 0.62

1977 311 148 158 5 175,420,000 153,451,000 18,937,000 3,032,000 1.77 0.96 8.34 1.65

1976 415 193 215 7 172,563,000 151,219,000 18,494,000 2,850,000 2.40 1.28 11.63 2.46

 average 373 208 155 7 1.90 1.24 7.02 1.23

Annual

Year homicides White Black Other Total White Black Other Total White Black Other

of justifiable Felon’s race age 13 or older on July 1 (per million age 13 or older)

Total number U.S. resident population Rate of justifiable homicide

Data for figure 5. Race of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: 

Rate per 1 million population age 13 or older, 1976-98
 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 37

Source: FBI, Uniform Crime Reports.

1998 183,098,000 26,605,000 390,044 271,823 213 1,022

1997 181,480,000 26,159,000 407,926 295,092 225 1,128

1996 179,835,000 25,679,000 398,612 315,070 222 1,227

1995 178,363,000 25,292,000 432,623 347,664 243 1,375

1994 176,901,000 24,899,000 415,725 348,301 235 1,399

1993 175,451,000 24,506,000 396,288 344,841 226 1,407

1992 173,906,000 24,081,000 397,809 332,674 229 1,381

1991 172,450,000 23,657,000 385,494 321,805 224 1,360

1990 171,178,000 23,299,000 284,759 274,860 166 1,180

1989 170,984,000 23,326,000 348,181 327,083 204 1,402

1988 169,909,000 23,031,000 323,684 292,691 191 1,271

1987 168,824,000 22,711,000 279,711 258,664 166 1,139

1986 167,785,000 22,400,000 289,206 257,404 172 1,149

1985 166,604,000 22,056,000 256,471 234,195 154 1,062

1984 165,143,000 21,728,000 262,591 225,171 159 1,036

1983 163,610,000 21,325,000 255,579 236,967 156 1,111

1982 162,022,000 20,961,000 273,035 245,971 169 1,173

1981 160,557,000 20,498,000 259,795 224,142 162 1,093

1980 159,147,000 20,148,000 258,574 209,707 162 1,041

1979 157,553,000 19,791,000 251,094 206,387 159 1,043

1978 155,582,000 19,381,000 300,752 276,525 193 1,427

1977 153,451,000 18,937,000 227,278 199,077 148 1,051

1976 151,219,000 18,494,000 207,648 195,636 137 1,058

Annual average 257,020 220,159 188 1,197

Year White Black White Black White Black

age 13 or older on July 1 arrests for violent crime arrest for violent crime

U.S. resident population Estimated number of Rate (per 100,000) of

Data for figure 6. Race of felons arrested for violent crime: 

Rate per 100,000 population age 13 or older, 1976-98
38 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether 

or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s age is known in 98.7% of the

justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. The 13-19 age category 

includes one 11-year-old in 1981 and one 12-year-old in 1992.

Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides.

*Population denominators for rates are available in Appendix table 1.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 1.67 1.58 3.62 3.50 2.82 1.86 1.51 1.22 0.83 0.24 0.29

1997 361 1.66 1.42 3.37 3.40 2.85 2.39 1.22 1.19 0.79 0.85 0.25

1996 355 1.65 1.75 3.80 3.21 3.04 1.73 1.35 1.14 0.43 0.62 0.27

1995 382 1.80 1.87 4.59 2.95 3.38 2.02 1.43 1.03 0.59 0.45 0.21

1994 459 2.18 2.19 5.23 4.06 3.43 2.69 1.78 1.50 0.68 0.91 0.35

1993 453 2.17 2.53 4.95 3.92 3.28 2.23 2.08 1.07 0.94 0.75 0.42

1992 414 2.01 2.12 4.83 4.26 2.92 2.09 1.70 1.30 0.50 0.29 0.21

1991 359 1.76 2.17 3.65 3.71 2.93 1.61 1.55 0.78 0.52 0.48 0.17

1990 379 1.88 1.35 3.66 4.05 2.97 2.25 1.80 1.59 0.79 0.19 0.24

1989 362 1.80 1.39 3.58 3.69 3.03 1.89 1.66 1.33 1.32 0.75 0.12

1988 339 1.70 1.29 2.76 3.79 2.94 1.99 1.74 1.07 0.72 0.73 0.17

1987 296 1.50 0.80 3.28 2.46 2.16 2.13 1.61 1.05 0.73 0.99 0.22

1986 298 1.52 1.10 2.45 2.86 2.84 1.60 1.05 0.75 0.92 0.44 0.27

1985 321 1.65 0.85 3.24 3.68 2.37 1.98 1.21 1.03 0.73 0.71 0.43

1984 332 1.73 1.25 3.61 3.24 2.65 1.96 1.81 1.49 0.91 0.44 0.23

1983 406 2.14 1.17 3.82 4.03 3.89 2.15 3.80 0.36 1.52 0.44 0.42

1982 376 2.00 1.33 3.80 4.70 3.36 2.25 1.51 1.18 0.52 0.43 0.40

1981 381 2.06 1.63 3.64 4.83 3.04 2.71 1.25 1.55 0.78 0.34 0.38

1980 457 2.49 1.79 5.51 5.04 4.45 3.41 1.53 1.00 0.86 0.86 0.25

1979 442 2.44 1.96 5.02 4.87 3.77 2.80 1.48 2.23 0.77 0.86 0.40

1978 313 1.76 1.53 3.76 2.91 2.40 2.60 2.21 0.79 0.85 0.53 0.32

1977 311 1.77 1.24 3.74 3.58 2.49 2.44 2.23 1.57 0.34 0.71 0.27

1976 415 2.40 2.04 5.10 5.50 3.67 2.69 1.61 1.12 0.75 0.92 0.43

Annual average 373 1.90 1.58 3.96* 3.84 3.07 2.24 1.70 1.19 0.77 0.61 0.29

Year homicides homicides 13-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 or older

of justifiable of justifiable Rate of justifiable homicide per 1 million

Total number Total rate

Data for figure 7. Age of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: 

Rate per 1 million population that age, 1976-98
 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 39

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether 

or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s age, gender, and race are all known 

in 98.1% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998.

*Felons under age 25 refers only to persons ages 13-24.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 15 14 1 0 0 0 45 21 2 1 1 0

1997 361 12 14 1 0 0 0 49 20 1 2 1 0

1996 355 15 16 1 0 0 0 46 20 1 1 0 0

1995 382 17% 17% 1% 0% 0% 0% 42% 20% 2% 1% 0% 0%

1994 459 16 15 1 1 0 0 38 24 2 2 1 0

1993 453 13 20 1 0 0 0 42 21 1 1 1 0

1992 414 17 17 1 1 0 0 41 21 1 1 0 0

1991 359 16 15 2 0 1 0 35 26 1 2 1 1

1990 379 14% 13% 1% 0% 0% 0% 47% 21% 1% 1% 2% 0%

1989 362 15 12 1 1 0 0 43 23 1 2 2 0

1988 339 11 12 1 1 0 0 46 27 1 1 0 0

1987 296 17 11 0 0 0 0 47 22 1 1 1 0

1986 298 17 13 1 0 0 0 40 27 1 1 0 0

1985 321 15% 13% 1% 0% 0% 0% 45% 22% 1% 2% 1% 0%

1984 332 19 14 0 0 0 0 38 27 1 1 0 0

1983 406 12 15 1 0 0 0 41 29 1 0 1 0

1982 376 17 14 1 0 0 0 33 32 1 1 1 0

1981 381 16 17 0 0 0 0 38 27 1 0 1 0

1980 457 20% 17% 0% 0% 0% 0% 31% 30% 0% 1% 1% 0%

1979 442 18 18 1 0 0 0 32 28 1 1 1 0

1978 313 19 20 0 0 0 0 30 29 0 1 1 0

1977 311 16 19 0 0 1 0 32 30 1 0 1 0

1976 415 19% 20% 0% 0% 0% 0% 27% 32% 1% 1% 0% 0%

Annual average 373 16% 16% 1% 0% 0% 0% 39% 25% 1% 1% 1% 0%

Year homicides White Black race White Black race White Black race White Black race

of justifiable Other Other Other Other

Total number Male Female Male Female 

Percent of killed felons under age 25* Percent of killed felons age 25 or older

Data for figure 8. Felons killed by police in justifiable homicide: 

Percent under and over age 25, by race and gender, 1976-98
40 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: “Total rate” column includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the 

demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s race, gender, and age are all known in 98.1% 

of the justifiable homicides by police between 1980 and 1998.

Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides.

*Felons under age 25 refers only to persons ages 13-24. 

Population denominators are available in Appendix table 2.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 1.67 2.89 14.00 3.32 0.00 0.29 0.00 2.25 8.05 2.22 0.07 0.28 0.00

1997 1.66 2.49 14.20 3.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.45 8.21 0.58 0.09 0.38 0.00

1996 1.65 2.79 16.42 4.32 0.06 0.30 0.00 2.30 8.26 0.60 0.07 0.10 0.00

1995 1.80 3.35 19.54 2.63 0.06 0.00 0.00 2.27 9.02 2.18 0.04 0.10 0.00

1994 2.18 4.03 21.26 4.47 0.18 0.30 0.00 2.56 13.31 2.26 0.15 0.40 0.00

1993 2.17 3.19 26.72 5.48 0.06 0.31 0.95 2.71 11.46 2.01 0.08 0.51 0.00

1992 2.01 3.76 21.16 4.69 0.18 0.00 0.00 2.53 10.56 1.40 0.07 0.10 0.00

1991 1.76 3.19 16.98 5.78 0.06 0.63 0.00 1.87 11.95 1.47 0.10 0.32 0.66

1990 1.88 2.88 15.39 1.97 0.00 0.00 1.05 2.67 10.11 1.92 0.07 0.75 0.00

1989 1.80 2.86 13.58 2.02 0.11 0.00 0.00 2.42 11.34 1.70 0.08 0.77 0.00

1988 1.70 1.96 12.21 2.11 0.17 0.00 0.00 2.42 12.28 1.35 0.03 0.11 0.00

1987 1.50 2.54 9.97 1.10 0.05 0.30 0.00 2.13 8.90 1.92 0.03 0.23 0.00

1986 1.52 2.43 11.04 2.29 0.05 0.00 0.00 1.89 11.44 1.54 0.03 0.12 0.00

1985 1.65 2.28 12.44 2.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.32 10.10 5.47 0.07 0.24 0.00

1984 1.73 2.97 13.58 1.28 0.05 0.00 0.00 2.11 13.26 1.76 0.06 0.12 0.00

1983 2.14 2.27 18.02 4.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.80 17.67 2.51 0.02 0.38 0.00

1982 2.00 2.91 15.60 4.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.15 18.63 2.71 0.06 0.39 0.00

1981 2.06 2.78 18.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.56 16.85 2.21 0.00 0.40 0.00

1980 2.49 4.10 22.84 1.66 0.10 0.00 0.00 2.45 22.09 1.50 0.06 0.54 0.00

Annual average 1.86 2.93 16.50 3.01 0.06 0.11 0.11 2.36 12.29 1.96 0.06 0.33 0.03

Year rate White Black race White Black race White Black race White Black race

 Total Other Other Other Other

Male Female Male Female 

Rate of killed felons under age 25* Rate of killed felons age 25 or older

Data for figure 9. Race, gender, and age of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides:

Rate per 1 million U.S. population under age 25 and 25 or older, 1980-98
 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 41

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable

homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The officer’s race is known in 77.2% of the

justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 82 17 1

1997 361 81 17 2

1996 355 87 12 1

1995 382 84% 15% 1%

1994 459 77 22 1

1993 453 82 17 1

1992 414 82 16 2

1991 359 81 18 1

1990 379 83% 16% 1%

1989 362 87 13 0

1988 339 86 13 1

1987 296 86 12 2

1986 298 90 10 0

1985 321 85% 13% 2%

1984 332 86 12 2

1983 406 90 9 1

1982 376 86 14 0

1981 381 87 13 0

1980 457 86% 14% 0%

1979 442 83 16 1

1978 313 85 15 0

1977 311 83 17 0

1976 415 82% 16% 2%

Annual average 373 84% 15% 1%

Year by police White Black Other

Percent of officers 

of justifiable

homicides

Total number

Data for figure 10. Race of police officers who killed

felons in justifiable homicides: Percent white,

black, and other, 1976-98
42 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not 

the demographic characteristics are known. The officer’s race is known in 76.9% of the 

justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. The felon’s race is known in 99.3% 

of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998.

Detail does not sum to 100% because table does not show all racial combinations.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 56 24 5 12

1997 361 58 22 4 13

1996 355 57 28 3 8

1995 382 57% 26% 2% 12%

1994 459 54 22 2 20

1993 453 53 26 3 14

1992 414 56 24 4 12

1991 359 55 23 2 16

1990 379 56% 24% 5% 12%

1989 362 60 25 2 11

1988 339 57 27 3 10

1987 296 60 25 5 7

1986 298 56 31 2 8

1985 321 58% 25% 5% 8%

1984 332 53 32 3 9

1983 406 52 36 1 8

1982 376 46 39 1 13

1981 381 51 34 2 12

1980 457 50% 35% 1% 13%

1979 442 46 35 3 13

1978 313 46 38 2 14

1977 311 43 38 3 15

1976 415 41% 41% 2% 14%

Annual average 373 53% 30% 3% 12%

Year by police White Black White Black

homicides Officer is white, felon is — Officer is black, felon is —

of justifiable

Total number

Data for figure 11. Race of felons and police officers in justifiable homicides: 

Number and percent interracial and intraracial, 1976-98
 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 43

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement 

Officers Killed and Assaulted.

1998 61

1997 70

1996 61

1995 74

1994 79

1993 70

1992 64

1991 71

1990 66

1989 66

1988 78

1987 74

1986 66

1985 78

1984 72

1983 80

1982 92

1981 91

1980 104

1979 106

1978 93

1977 93

1976 111

Annual average 79

Total number of

Year officers murdered

Data for figure 12. Number of

police officers murdered by

felons, 1976-98

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers 

Killed and Assaulted, and FBI database,

Supplementary Homicide Reports. 

1998 61 367

1997 70 361

1996 61 355

1995 74 382

1994 79 459

1993 70 453

1992 64 414

1991 71 359

1990 66 379

1989 66 362

1988 78 339

1987 74 296

1986 66 298

1985 78 321

1984 72 332

1983 80 406

1982 92 376

1981 91 381

1980 104 457

1979 106 442

1978 93 313

1977 93 311

1976 111 415

Annual average 79 373

Felons 

killed 

Officers

Year murdered

Data for figure 13. Number of police

officers murdered by felons compared

to felons killed by police in justifiable

homicides, 1976-98
44 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted.

1998 61 641,208 9.5 10,512

1997 70 618,127 11.3 8,830

1996 61 595,170 10.2 9,757

1995 74 586,756 12.6 7,929

1994 79 561,543 13.5 7,108

1993 70 553,773 12.6 7,911

1992 64 544,309 11.4 8,505

1991 71 535,629 13.3 7,544

1990 66 523,262 12.6 7,928

1989 66 496,353 13.3 7,521

1988 78 485,566 16.1 6,225

1987 74 480,383 15.2 6,492

1986 66 475,853 13.9 7,210

1985 78 470,678 16.6 6,034

1984 72 467,117 15.4 6,488

1983 80 449,370 17.8 5,617

1982 92 403,407 22.8 4,385

1981 91 398,064 22.9 4,374

1980 104 393,363 26.4 3,782

1979 106 373,605 28.4 3,525

1978 93 391,751 23.7 4,212

1977 93 384,816 24.2 4,138

1976 111 391,895 28.3 3,531

Annual average 79 17.1 6,503

Approximately

1 of every —

Rate per

100,000

Total number 

of sworn police

Total number of

Year officers murdered

Data for figure 14. Police officers murdered 

by felons: Rate per 100,000 officers, 1976-98

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers 

Killed and Assaulted.

1998 87 11 2

1997 80 17 3

1996 80 15 5

1995 84% 12% 4%

1994 84 15 1

1993 86 14 0

1992 82 16 2

1991 87 13 0

1990 80% 18% 2%

1989 89 11 0

1988 91 9 0

1987 90 10 0

1986 89 11 0

1985 89% 10% 1%

1984 85 14 1

1983 83 13 4

1982 84 15 1

1981 85 14 1

1980 87% 13% 0%

1979 88 9 3

1978 91 9 0

1977 90 10 0

1976 90% 8% 2%

Annual average 86% 13% 1%

Year White Black Other

Percent of murdered officers 

Data for figure 15. Race of police officers

murdered by felons: Percent white, black,

and other, 1976-98
 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 45

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted.

1998 71 33 24 7 21 9 44 12

1997 76 44 32 1 37 18 72 24

1996 58 24 38 1 34 15 51 24

1995 69% 38% 48% 1% 31% 22% 42% 18%

1994 58 25 43 4 39 24 39 17

1993 66 31 24 4 33 18 37 14

1992 59 20 38 4 32 8 46 15

1991 60 30 28 1 18 8 46 23

1990 78% 33% 46% 6% 49% 14% 68% 31%

1989 67 17 35 7 30 14 49 12

1988 67 20 29 4 15 5 36 24

1987 54 24 26 1 20 5 49 22

1986 69 27 23 5 20 5 30 22

1985 75% 22% 19% 2% 22% 9% 51% 23%

1984 83 20 24 6 24 8 70 25

1983 72 14 11 3 22 9 40 24

1982 73 22 29 6 36 11 50 25

1981 73 26 47 7 46 14 54 26

1980 73% 26% 48% 6% 36% 9% 49% 25%

1979 63 13 43 8 30 6 49 16

1978 62 9 24 5 21 9 50 23

1977 61 15 31 3 16 3 46 4

1976 60% 18% 25% 5% 16% 4% 44% 23%

Annual average 67% 24% 32% 4% 28% 11% 48% 21%

On parole or

probation at time

of killing

Prior

conviction

Assaulting

police or 

resisting arrest

Weapons

violation

Murder

charge

Any 

violent 

crime

Any narcotic

drug law

violation

Any criminal 

Year act

Prior arrest for —

Data for figure 16. Felons who murdered police officers: 

Percent with criminal history, 1976-98
46 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: Data on the race, gender, and age of felons who murder police officers are not available prior to 1980. 

The felon’s race, gender, and age are all known for 94.4% of felons who murdered police between 1980 and 1998.

*Felons under age 25 refers only to persons ages 13-24.

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted.

1998 26 17 3 1 0 0 33 16 3 1 0 0

1997 10 15 7 0 0 0 42 15 7 0 0 0

1996 14 30 5 0 0 0 28 20 1 1 0 0

1995 20% 27% 1% 3% 1% 0% 28% 11% 3% 3% 0% 0%

1994 25 23 0 2 1 0 26 18 3 1 1 0

1993 21 39 0 0 0 0 20 19 0 1 0 0

1992 25 23 1 0 0 0 27 23 0 0 1 0

1991 21 37 0 0 0 0 35 6 1 0 0 0

1990 18% 18% 0% 1% 1% 0% 35% 24% 1% 0% 2% 0%

1989 7 21 0 1 1 0 46 21 1 0 0 1

1988 29 19 2 0 1 0 25 21 1 1 1 0

1987 20 13 4 4 0 0 37 17 1 2 1 0

1986 26 10 0 0 1 0 35 24 2 1 1 0

1985 18% 22% 3% 1% 1% 0% 25% 29% 0% 1% 0% 0%

1984 20 19 3 2 0 0 29 22 3 1 0 0

1983 22 13 1 0 0 0 42 17 4 0 1 0

1982 21 25 0 0 1 0 35 14 1 3 0 0

1981 12 20 1 0 1 0 25 38 1 2 0 0

1980 26% 19% 0% 3% 2% 0% 26% 22% 0% 1% 1% 0%

Annual average 20% 21% 1% 1% 1% 0% 31% 19% 2% 1% 1% 0%

Year White Black race White Black race White Black race White Black race

 Other Other Other Other

Male Female Male Female 

Percent under age 25* Percent age 25 or older

Data for figure 17. Felons who murdered police officers:

Percent under and over age 25, by race and gender, 1980-98
 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 47

Note: Data on the race, gender, and age of felons who murder police officers are not available prior to 1980. 

The felon’s race, gender, and age are all known for 94.4% of felons who murdered police between 1980 and 1998.

*Felons under age 25 refers only to persons ages 13-24.

Population denominators are available in Appendix table 2.

Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted.

1998 1.20 3.21 1.66 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.31 1.23 0.56 0.01 0.00 0.00

1997 1.66 3.25 4.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.43 1.25 1.44 0.00 0.00 0.00

1996 0.56 6.57 3.45 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 1.74 0.30 0.01 0.00 0.00

1995 1.01 7.21 0.88 0.18 0.30 0.00 0.36 1.19 0.93 0.04 0.00 0.00

1994 1.51 7.29 0.00 0.12 0.30 0.00 0.41 2.30 0.97 0.01 0.10 0.00

1993 0.95 9.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 1.85 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00

1992 1.18 5.91 0.94 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 2.39 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00

1991 1.12 11.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.77 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.00

1990 0.83 4.71 0.00 0.06 0.31 0.00 0.45 2.63 0.38 0.00 0.21 0.00

1989 0.32 5.25 0.00 0.06 0.31 0.00 0.59 2.29 0.42 0.00 0.00 0.38

1988 1.91 7.33 3.16 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.49 3.59 0.45 0.01 0.11 0.00

1987 0.93 3.63 4.40 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.55 2.26 0.48 0.03 0.12 0.00

1986 1.17 2.69 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.00 0.51 3.04 1.02 0.01 0.12 0.00

1985 0.99 7.11 3.62 0.05 0.29 0.00 0.45 4.75 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00

1984 0.93 5.31 3.83 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.46 3.05 1.76 0.02 0.00 0.00

1983 1.11 4.14 1.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.76 2.81 2.51 0.00 0.13 0.00

1982 1.19 8.83 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.00 0.72 2.57 0.68 0.06 0.00 0.00

1981 0.75 7.63 1.52 0.00 0.28 0.00 0.57 8.09 0.74 0.05 0.00 0.00

1980 2.03 9.19 0.00 0.24 0.86 0.00 0.78 6.19 0.00 0.02 0.27 0.00

Annual average 1.12 6.30 1.53 0.06 0.19 0.00 0.48 2.84 0.68 0.02 0.06 0.02

Year White Black race White Black race White Black race White Black race

 Other Other Other Other

Male Female Male Female 

Rate per 1 million under age 25* Rate per 1 million age 25 or older

Data for figure 18. Race and gender of felons who murdered police officers: 

Rate per 1 million U.S. population, 1980-98
 

48 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether 

or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s age is known in 98.7% 

of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. 

The 13-19 age category includes one 11-year-old in 1981 and one 12-year-old in 1992.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 12 18 18 16 12 9 6 4 1 4

1997 361 11 17 18 17 15 7 6 3 3 3

1996 355 13 19 17 19 11 8 6 2 2 3

1995 382 13% 22% 15% 20% 12% 8% 5% 2% 1% 2%

1994 459 12 21 17 17 13 8 5 2 2 3

1993 453 14 20 17 16 11 9 4 3 2 4

1992 414 13 22 21 16 11 8 5 1 1 2

1991 359 15 20 22 18 9 8 3 2 1 2

1990 379 9% 19% 22% 17% 12% 9% 6% 2% 1% 3%

1989 362 9 19 23 19 10 8 5 4 2 1

1988 339 10 16 26 19 11 8 4 2 2 2

1987 296 7 21 19 16 14 9 4 3 4 3

1986 298 10 18 22 21 11 5 3 4 2 4

1985 321 7% 22% 25% 15% 11% 5% 4% 3% 3% 5%

1984 332 10 22 21 16 10 8 5 3 2 3

1983 406 8 20 21 19 9 13 1 4 1 4

1982 376 10 22 26 17 9 5 4 2 1 4

1981 381 12 21 26 15 10 4 5 2 1 4

1980 457 11% 27% 22% 17% 11% 4% 2% 2% 2% 2%

1979 442 13 25 21 15 9 4 6 2 2 3

1978 313 14 25 17 13 11 8 3 3 2 4

1977 311 12 23 21 13 10 8 6 1 3 3

1976 415 15% 25% 25% 13% 8% 4% 3% 2% 2% 3%

Annual average 373 11% 21% 21% 17% 11% 7% 4% 3% 2% 3%

Year homicides 13-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 or older

of justifiable Percent of killed felons who were ages —

Total number

Data for table 3. Age of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98
 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 49

Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether 

or not the demographic characteristics are known. The officer’s age is known in 70.1% 

of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. 

Due to rounding error, detail may not sum to 100%.

Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports.

1998 367 2 7 27 27 22 8 4 2 1 0 0 0

1997 361 2 6 28 27 20 10 4 3 1 0 0 0

1996 355 0 5 31 23 15 14 9 2 1 0 0 0

1995 382 4% 8% 28% 26% 14% 12% 5% 2% 0% 1% 0% 0%

1994 459 2 8 25 28 18 12 5 2 0 0 0 0

1993 453 1 8 33 24 12 12 4 4 0 1 1 0

1992 414 0 12 25 25 16 11 8 2 1 0 0 0

1991 359 0 12 29 25 17 11 4 1 1 0 0 0

1990 379 1% 7% 26% 23% 21% 15% 5% 2% 0% 0% 0% 0%

1989 362 0 10 27 24 22 9 6 1 1 0 0 0

1988 339 0 4 25 35 18 13 3 2 0 0 0 0

1987 296 1 8 29 23 22 13 4 0 0 0 0 0

1986 298 0 7 28 28 21 13 2 1 0 0 0 0

1985 321 0% 7% 24% 31% 24% 8% 5% 1% 0% 0% 0% 0%

1984 332 0 10 22 31 23 10 3 1 0 0 0 0

1983 406 0 11 24 28 19 12 3 2 1 0 0 0

1982 376 0 7 30 32 19 6 4 1 1 0 0 0

1981 381 0 13 26 31 18 8 2 1 1 0 0 0

1980 457 0% 9% 31% 34% 17% 5% 2% 1% 1% 0% 0% 0%

1979 442 0 9 30 29 16 9 4 2 0 1 0 0

1978 313 1 13 35 32 12 5 1 1 0 0 0 0

1977 311 0 11 39 28 10 4 3 3 1 1 0 0

1976 415 0% 10% 37% 30% 10% 5% 4% 2% 0% 1% 1% 0%

Annual average 373 1% 9% 28% 28% 17% 10% 4% 2% 0% 0% 0% 0%

Year by police Under 20 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70 or older

homicides Percent of officers who were ages —

of justifiable

Total number

Data for table 6. Age of police officers who killed felons in justifiable homicides, 1976-98
50 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 

Note: Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides.

Population estimates are rounded and are from the U.S. Census Bureau.

1998 27,172 17,674 18,588 20,186 22,626 21,894 18,859 15,725 12,407 44,670

1997 26,723 17,483 18,812 20,732 22,629 21,376 18,465 15,157 11,755 44,259

1996 26,231 17,369 19,030 21,363 22,501 20,756 18,416 13,909 11,352 43,832

1995 25,626 17,882 19,005 21,867 22,248 20,219 17,449 13,629 11,085 43,578

1994 25,088 18,351 19,206 22,164 21,938 19,687 16,674 13,191 10,933 43,236

1993 24,547 18,785 19,646 22,240 21,571 19,190 15,927 12,727 10,680 43,022

1992 24,071 19,067 20,191 22,242 21,073 18,796 15,355 12,054 10,485 42,713

1991 24,003 19,175 20,737 22,152 20,514 18,756 14,095 11,648 10,422 42,347

1990 24,385 19,136 21,234 21,906 19,975 17,789 13,819 11,368 10,474 41,852

1989 24,399 18,702 21,699 22,135 19,621 16,881 13,521 11,375 10,726 41,852

1988 24,769 19,186 21,876 21,798 19,141 16,124 13,026 11,136 10,897 41,299

1987 25,006 19,790 21,979 21,334 18,737 15,569 12,351 10,927 11,125 40,727

1986 25,422 20,415 22,010 20,774 18,723 14,345 11,927 10,887 11,268 40,134

1985 25,851 20,996 21,754 20,267 17,708 14,055 11,648 10,942 11,337 39,527

1984 26,336 21,310 21,309 19,602 16,813 13,837 11,417 11,013 11,448 38,907

1983 26,562 21,713 21,100 19,045 16,255 13,168 11,184 11,152 11,474 38,129

1982 27,085 21,560 20,649 18,754 15,567 12,558 10,992 11,447 11,519 37,457

1981 27,550 21,733 20,067 18,737 14,406 12,043 10,985 11,546 11,600 36,588

1980 28,438 21,402 19,657 17,756 14,082 11,734 11,042 11,686 11,619 35,842

1979 29,024 21,097 19,077 16,961 13,592 11,523 11,212 11,724 11,582 35,001

1978 29,483 20,748 18,586 16,218 13,052 11,321 11,352 11,814 11,425 34,189

1977 29,735 20,312 18,180 15,661 12,309 11,190 11,495 11,868 11,192 33,478

1976 29,853 19,794 18,177 14,428 11,884 11,147 11,646 11,969 10,884 32,781

Year 13-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 or older

U.S. resident population on July 1 (in thousands)

Appendix table 1. Population denominators for rates in figure 7.
 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 51

Note: Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides. 

Population estimates are rounded and are from the U.S. Census Bureau.

*Felons under age 25 refers only to persons ages 13-24.

1998 18,317 3,430 1,205 17,309 3,393 1,193 70,723 8,939 3,596 76,750 10,843 4,104

1997 18,061 3,380 1,180 17,072 3,349 1,165 70,135 8,772 3,467 76,213 10,658 3,940

1996 17,900 3,344 1,156 16,931 3,318 1,135 69,361 8,586 3,336 75,470 10,447 3,774

1995 17,881 3,322 1,137 16,929 3,304 1,110 68,630 8,417 3,210 74,774 10,252 3,621

1994 17,867 3,290 1,118 16,935 3,279 1,084 67,905 8,261 3,091 74,095 10,071 3,473

1993 17,853 3,254 1,094 16,921 3,247 1,054 67,188 8,112 2,977 73,410 9,895 3,330

1992 17,809 3,213 1,065 16,874 3,212 1,016 66,457 7,954 2,853 72,705 9,709 3,178

1991 17,862 3,179 1,037 16,954 3,194 981 65,642 7,783 2,727 71,946 9,518 3,026

1990 18,052 3,184 1,017 17,120 3,200 953 64,824 7,612 2,610 71,163 9,317 2,886

1989 18,543 3,239 991 17,641 3,268 927 64,175 7,408 2,358 70,663 9,084 2,616

1988 18,897 3,275 948 18,036 3,312 886 63,288 7,245 2,218 69,792 8,889 2,466

1987 19,260 3,310 910 18,440 3,354 851 62,357 7,079 2,085 68,882 8,693 2,324

1986 19,724 3,351 872 18,933 3,404 815 61,355 6,907 1,954 67,916 8,494 2,181

1985 20,163 3,375 828 19,407 3,443 775 60,320 6,735 1,828 66,882 8,287 2,041

1984 20,506 3,387 784 19,776 3,467 736 59,266 6,560 1,706 65,820 8,077 1,908

1983 20,729 3,385 741 20,038 3,481 700 58,257 6,395 1,593 64,801 7,880 1,782

1982 20,972 3,397 703 20,320 3,505 668 57,240 6,227 1,474 63,758 7,675 1,648

1981 21,243 3,408 657 20,598 3,523 629 56,164 6,055 1,355 62,642 7,467 1,513

1980 21,214 3,372 602 20,594 3,494 582 55,418 5,975 1,337 61,810 7,367 1,493

Year White Black race White Black race White Black race White Black race

 Other Other Other Other

Male Female Male Female 

on July 1 (in thousands)* on July 1 (in thousands)

U.S. resident population under age 25 U.S. resident population age 25 or older

Appendix table 2. Population denominators for rates in figures 9 and 18.