J. Michael Pereira, Duane M. Revilock, and Charles R. Ruggeri

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

William C. Emmerling and Donald J. Altobelli

FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center, Atlantic City International Airport, New Jersey

Ballistic Impact Testing of Aluminum 2024 and 

Titanium 6Al-4V for Material Model Development

NASA/TM—2012-217625

July 2012
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J. Michael Pereira, Duane M. Revilock, and Charles R. Ruggeri

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

William C. Emmerling and Donald J. Altobelli

FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center, Atlantic City International Airport, New Jersey

Ballistic Impact Testing of Aluminum 2024 and 

Titanium 6Al-4V for Material Model Development

NASA/TM—2012-217625

July 2012

National Aeronautics and

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Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

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NASA/TM—2012-217625 1

Ballistic Impact Testing of Aluminum 2024 and Titanium 6Al-4V 

for Material Model Development

J. Michael Pereira, Duane M. Revilock, and Charles R. Ruggeri

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

William C. Emmerling and Donald J. Altobelli

FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center

Atlantic City International Airport, New Jersey 08405

Abstract 

An experimental program is underway to develop a consistent set of material property and impact test 

data, and failure analysis, for a variety of materials that can be used to develop improved impact failure 

and deformation models. Unique features of this set of data are that all material property information and 

impact test results are obtained using identical materials, the test methods and procedures are extensively 

documented and all of the raw data is available. This report describes ballistic impact testing which has 

been conducted on aluminum (Al) 2024 and titanium (Ti) 6Al-4vanadium (V) sheet and plate samples of 

different thicknesses and with different types of projectiles, one a regular cylinder and one with a more 

complex geometry incorporating features representative of a jet engine fan blade. 

Introduction

Numerical simulation of dynamic impact events has reached a level of maturity at which it is 

commonly used as a design tool for a wide variety of aerospace structures such as jet engine containment 

systems, fan blades, radomes and cowlings. However, current efforts require extensive testing in parallel 

with modeling and it is often necessary to adjust model parameters somewhat arbitrarily in order that the 

model fit the test results. Explicit transient finite element modeling of even the simplest of problems, such 

as a regularly shaped projectile impacting a flat plate can result in widely varying results, depending on 

the material and failure models, available material properties, the contact models, the mesh density, and a 

number of different numerical parameters that must be specified in the computer codes.

One of the difficulties with developing and verifying accurate impact models is that parameters such 

as high strain rate material properties, failure modes, static properties, and impact test measurements are 

often obtained from a variety of different sources using different materials, with little control over 

consistency among the different sources. In addition there is often a lack of quantitative measurements in 

impact tests to which the models can be compared. 

To alleviate some of these problems, a project is underway to develop a consistent set of material 

property and impact test data, and failure analysis, for a variety of materials that can be used to develop 

improved impact failure and deformation models. Unique features of this project are that all material 

property data and impact test data are obtained using identical material, the test methods and procedures 

are extensively documented and all of the raw data is available. Four parallel efforts are currently 

underway: Measurement of material deformation and failure response over a wide range of strain rates 

and temperatures; development of improved numerical modeling techniques for deformation and failure; 

ballistic impact testing of flat panels and substructures; and failure analysis of material property 

specimens and impact test articles.

This report focuses on one of these four efforts, the ballistic impact testing for model validation. The 

report describes impact testing which has been done on aluminum (Al) 2024 and titanium (Ti) 6Al4vanadium (V) sheet and plate samples of different thicknesses and with different types of projectiles, one 
NASA/TM—2012-217625 2

a regular cylinder and one with a more complex geometry incorporating features representative of a jet 

engine fan blade. Because of the large volume of data produced by this study, not all can be presented 

here but the methods and major results are given.

Methods

Impact tests were conducted on flat Al-2024 and Ti-6Al-4V panels with two different areal 

dimensions, 24- by 24-in. (61- by 61-cm) large panels and 15- by 15-in. (38- by 38-cm) small panels. The 

smaller panels were impacted in a normal direction with a 0.5 in. (1.27 cm) diameter cylindrical 

projectile. The larger panels involved a more complex projectile, with some features representing those of 

real turbine engine fan blades, impacting the panel in an oblique orientation. Different test setups were 

used for the two sets of impact tests, as described in the following sections. Strains and displacements 

were measured on the back side of the panels and post-test metallography was selectively performed to 

characterize the material microstructure and damage and failure in the test specimens.

Small Panel Test Setup

Fifteen ballistic impact tests were conducted on each of three different thickness panels of each 

material. The projectiles were cylindrical with a large radius front face and impacted the plates in a 

normal orientation. The tests were designed such that the ballistic limit velocity for the particular 

combinations of projectiles and panels was in the range of 600 to 900 ft/sec (180 to 275 m/sec). This 

corresponds to the speed range of the center of mass of a typical un-contained engine fragment. The 

impact tests were conducted at speeds above and below the ballistic limit so that some projectiles 

penetrated and some did not.

Al-2024 sheet and plate, AMS 4037 of three different thicknesses, nominally 0.125, 0.25 and 0.5 in.

(3.18, 6.35 and 12.7 mm) were tested. The 0.125 in. material had a temper of T3 and the 0.25 and 0.5 in.

material had a temper of T351. The titanium test specimens were annealed Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4911, with 

nominal thicknesses of 0.09, 0.14 and 0.25 in. (2.29, 3.56 and 6.35 mm). 

The test specimens were cut in squares, 15 in. (38 cm) on a side, with through holes for mounting 

bolts as shown in Figure 1. The through holes were 9/16 in. (14.3 mm) diameter on a 13 in. (33 cm) 

diameter bolt-hole circle. They were held in a massive steel fixture with a 10 in. (25.4 cm) diameter 

circular aperture.

Figure 1.—Plate test specimen with strain gages mounted on the rear face
NASA/TM—2012-217625 3

Projectiles

All of the projectiles used for the small panel tests were cylindrical with a diameter of 0.5 in.

(12.7 mm) and a relatively large radius of 2.75 in. (7 cm) on the front face. The nose radius was designed 

to allow a slight deviation of 5° in the normal orientation of the projectile. The edge of the front face was 

“broken” with a 1/32 in. (0.8 mm) radius. The projectiles were either Ti-6Al-4V or hardened A2 tool 

steel. The projectiles used for the different test specimens are summarized in Table 1. For the 0.14 in.

thick Ti-6Al-4V panels, two different projectiles were used, as shown in the table, to assess the effects of 

projectile hardness on the penetration velocity. It has been demonstrated in other material systems that the 

ballistic limit velocity decreases significantly when the projectile hardness exceeds that of the target

(Anderson et al., 1999).

TABLE 1.—PROJECTILES USED FOR SMALL PANEL IMPACT TESTS.

Material Nominal

thickness,

in.

Projectile material Hardness, 

HRC

Length, 

in.

Mass, 

gram

Al-2024 0.125 Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4928 36-37 0.7 9.0

Al-2024 0.25 Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4928 36-37 .9 12.8

Al-2024 0.5 A2 Tool Steel 59 1.125 28.0

Ti-6Al-4V 0.09 Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4928 36-37 1.0 14.05

Ti-6Al-4V 0.14 Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4928 36-37 1.5 21.28

Ti-6Al-4V 0.14 A2 Tool Steel* 59 .86 21.25

Ti-6Al-4V 0.25 A2 Tool Steel 59 .875 21.56

*Used to study the effect of projectile hardness on penetration speed

Gas Gun

The cylindrical projectiles were accelerated by a helium filled gas gun with a barrel length of 12 ft

(3.7 m), a bore of 2.0 in. (5.08 cm) and a pressure vessel volume of 681 in3 (0.011 m3

). The projectile was 

carried down the gun barrel supported by rigid foam in a cylindrical polycarbonate sabot. The gun barrel 

protruded into a vacuum chamber which held the fixture for the specimens. The sabot was stopped at 

the end of the gun barrel by a stopper block which had a hole in the front large enough to allow the 

projectile to pass through. This stopper system was designed such that the bottom of the sabot, including 

the o-rings, remained in the gun barrel and formed a seal which prevented the gas pressure behind the 

sabot from affecting the pressure in the vacuum chamber.

Instrumentation

Data acquired from the impact tests included measurements of the impact velocity, post-impact 

velocity if penetration occurred, projectile orientation prior to impact, strain gage measurements and fullfield backside strain and displacement measurements using a digital image correlation system. In addition 

high speed cameras provided qualitative observations of each test.

Seven high speed digital cameras were used for each test. These cameras provided a side view of the 

front of the panel and two views of the rear of the panel (side and top) for post-impact velocity 

measurement. In addition, a calibrated pair of cameras located above and in front of the panel were used 

to measure impact velocity and projectile orientation. A calibrated pair of cameras viewing the backside 

of the panel were used to compute the backside displacement and strain.

Six of the 15 panels from each of the three thicknesses were instrumented with strain gages. Four of 

these six instrumented panels had five uniaxial strain gages located as shown in Figure 1. The other two 

instrumented panels had triaxial rosettes substituted for two of the uniaxial gages, for complete 

determination of the strain field, resulting in nine strain measurements. Triaxial rosettes allow the 

determination of the full in plane strain. The uniaxial strain gages were Vishay Micro-Measurements EA-
NASA/TM—2012-217625 4

06-125AD-120 (Vishay Micro-Measurements, Malvern, PA), with a gage factor of 2.085. The triaxial 

rosettes were Vishay Micro-Measurements WA-06-060WR-120 with a gage factor of 2.11. The strain 

gage bridge completion, signal conditioning and recording were performed with a Spectral Dynamics 

Impax-SD measurement and control system utilizing SD-VX2805 data acquisition modules (Spectral 

Dynamics, Inc., San Jose, CA). The acquisition rate for the strain gages was 1.25 Msamples/sec.

Projectile Speed and Orientation

The speed and orientation of the projectile were measured by tracking the position of two points on 

the projectile and the position of three fixed points which defined the fixed laboratory coordinate system.

The point tracking was accomplished with the use of a calibrated pair of high speed cameras (Phantom 

V7.3, Vision Research, Inc., Wayne, NJ) and the PONTOS point tracking software system (GOM, 

Braunschweig, Germany). The three fixed points were located on a metal plate mounted to the specimen 

fixture in a horizontal plane directly below the path of the projectile. The three points defined a coordinate 

system with the X-axis pointing in the opposite direction of the direction of travel of the projectile, the Zaxis vertically upward and the Y-axis in the horizontal plane and in a direction defined by the vector 

product of unit vectors in the Z and X directions respectively.

The post-impact velocity for the Al panel testing was measured with two high speed cameras on the 

backside of the panel, oriented normal to the path of the projectile, one viewing from above and one 

viewing from the left side (viewing from the gun barrel). These cameras were calibrated prior to the 

impact test using an Al rod protruding from the gun barrel with calibration marks located at every inch.

Calibration tests in which no panel was mounted indicated that the differences in velocity measurements 

between the two cameras and the PONTOS system were well under 1 percent. For the Ti-6Al-4V panel 

testing, the orthogonal camera system for exit velocity measurement was replaced with a second pair of 

calibrated cameras and the PONTOS point tracking system.

Displacement and Strain

Full-field displacement and strain measurements were obtained using a calibrated pair of high speed 

digital cameras (Photron model SA1.1, Photron USA, San Diego, CA) and a digital image correlation 

software package (ARAMIS, GOM, Braunschweig, Germany). The cameras were located on the outside 

of the vacuum chamber and viewed the backside of the panel through two viewports. The distance from 

the cameras to the panel was approximately 36 in. (0.9 m) and the distance between the cameras was 

approximately 16 in. Initially the cameras recorded an area of approximately 4- by 4 in. (10- by 10-cm) 

with a resolution of 128 pix in the horizontal direction and 128 pix in the vertical direction and a frame 

rate of 180,000 frames/sec. Later tests used a resolution of 128×160 pixels and a frame rate of 150,000 

frames/sec. The back side of each panel was painted with a random set of black dots on a white 

background as required by the ARAMIS software. From the images, the software computed the 

displacements in three directions at any point in the view for every recorded frame. In-plane strains on the 

back surface of the panel were computed from the displacements.

Large Panel Test Setup

Four ballistic impact tests were conducted on larger flat panels of each material. These tests were 

designed to involve a more realistic projectile and non-normal impact orientation to provide data for 

validation of numerical models under conditions more complex than the small panel tests.

Test Specimens

The Al test specimens were 24- by 24-in. (61- by 61-cm) Al-2024-T351 with a nominal thickness of 0.25

in. (6.35 mm). The titanium test specimens were 24- by 24-in. (61- by 61-cm) annealed Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 

4911, with a nominal thickness of 0.090 in. (2.29 mm). The panels were held at a 45° angle in a square fixture 
NASA/TM—2012-217625 5

with a 20- by 20-in. (50.8- by 50.8 cm) aperture as shown in Figure 2. The panels were through-bolted with 24

0.5 in. (12.7 mm) bolts equally spaced around the sides, 1.0 in. (2.54 cm) in from the edges.

The projectile used for the large panel test was designed to include some of the features of a real fan 

blade, such as a thin tip and a heavier shank, while being relatively simple to manufacture and model. It 

was made from annealed Ti-6Al-4V, AMS 4911 and had a nominal mass of 340 gram. The dimensions 

are shown in Figure 3. The projectile impacted the panel at a nominal angle of –45° as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2.—Schematic of the large panel test setup showing the 

orientation of the projectile and test specimen

Figure 3.—Dimensions of the projectile used in the large panel impact tests. Dimensions 

in centimeters.
NASA/TM—2012-217625 6

Results and Discussion

Small Panel Impact Tests

The penetration velocity for each combination of panel and projectile was derived by plotting the 

projectile residual velocity against the impact velocity. Sample results are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5

for Al and Ti panels. The penetration velocities derived from these curves are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2.—APPROXIMATE PENETRATION VELOCITY FOR THE SMALL PANEL IMPACT TESTS

Measured 

thickness, 

in.

Projectile material Hardness, 

HRC

Length,

in.

Mass, 

gram

Penetration

velocity, 

ft/sec

Al-2024 0.126 Ti-6Al-4V 36-37 0.7 9.0 700

Al-2024 0.255 Ti-6Al-4V 36-37 .9 12.8 750

Al-2024 0.503 A2 Tool Steel 59 1.125 28.0 800

Ti-6Al-4V 0.092 Ti-6Al-4V 36-37 1.0 14.05 740

Ti-6Al-4V 0.135 Ti-6Al-4V 36-37 1.5 21.28 770

Ti-6Al-4V 0.135 A2 Tool Steel* 59 .86 21.25 650

Ti-6Al-4V 0.254 A2 Tool Steel 59 .875 21.56 735

* Used to study the effects of projectile hardness

Figure 4.—Residual velocity as a function of impact velocity for the 0.25 in.

(6.4 mm) thick Al-2024 small panels.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

500 600 700 800 900 1000

Residual Velocity (ft/sec)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)
NASA/TM—2012-217625 7

Figure 5.—Residual velocity as a function of impact velocity for the 0.14 in. (3.6 mm)

thick Al-2024 small panels.

The residual velocity curves for the 0.125 in. (3.18 mm) and the 0.25 in. (6.35 mm) Al-2024 plates 

has a fairly well defined transition between penetration and non-penetration, and a generally regular 

increase in residual velocity as the impact velocity increases. However, for the 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) thick Al2024 plates there is a considerable range of impact velocities where in some cases penetration occurred 

and in others it did not. It is not clear why this occurred for the thick plates. One speculation is that 

friction plays a more important role in the thicker plates. It is also possible that there is some interaction 

from waves reflecting from the boundaries of the plate. For the heavier and longer projectiles used for the 

0.5 in thick plates the projectile orientation was generally very good, so the impact angle could not be 

considered an explanation for the irregularities.

For all of the Ti-6Al-4V tests there was a well-defined transition between tests where penetration 

occurred and those where there was no penetration as well as a generally regular increase in residual 

velocity as the impact velocity increased. 

Strain Measurements

Strain measurements on the backside of the panels were recorded using both strain gages and the 

digital image correlation (DIC) system. Because of the large volume of strain data collected in this study, 

not all results can be reported here, but a number of observations can be made. In all cases the strain gage 

located on at the center of the panel failed immediately upon impact but in general data was available 

from the rest of the gages. 

With current camera technology there is a compromise between video acquisition speed and spatial 

resolution which can potentially limit the accuracy of strain calculations based on DIC deflection 

measurements. Filtering parameters used in computing strains can affect the values, particularly when 

there are high strain gradients and limited spatial resolution. The use of strain gages allows the DIC 

computed strains to be verified, and ensures that the optimum filtering parameters are used. A number of 

comparisons were made to check the correlation between strain measurements using the two 

measurement methods. In making the comparisons it was questionable whether using the DIC system to 

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

500 600 700 800 900 1000

Residual Velocity (ft/sec)

Impact Velocity (ft/sec)
NASA/TM—2012-217625 8

measure the strain at the actual location of the gage would give accurate results, due to the coating used 

and the existence of the gage itself. So in addition to comparing the results at the gage location, the strain 

gage results were also compared with DIC results at the same radial distance from the impact point, but at 

a location 180° away. Due to the symmetry of the impact configuration, the radial strains should be equal 

at equal distances from the center.

Figure 6 shows a strain gage measurement compared with two DIC strain measurements, one directly 

on the gage and the other at a location 180° away from the strain gage. These measurements were on a 

0.125 in. (3.18 mm) thick Al-2024 panel impacted at 733 ft/sec (223 m/sec). There is good agreement 

between all three measurements.

Large Panel Impact Tests

Four impact tests were conducted on each of the large Al-2024 and Ti-6Al-4V panels described 

above, using the blade-simulating projectile. Results of these tests are shown in Table 3(a) and (b). The 

tests bound the range of penetrated and non-penetrated for both materials, providing data useful for 

validating computational models.

Figure 6.—Comparison of strain gage (bold line) and DIC strain measurements on a 

0.125 in. thick Al-2024 panel impacted at 733 ft/sec (223 m/sec).

-6000

-5000

-4000

-3000

-2000

-1000

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Strain (ustrn)

Time (msec) 
NASA/TM—2012-217625 9

TABLE 3.—RESULTS OF IMPACT TESTS ON LARGE AL2024 AND TI-6AL-4V PANELS

(a) Results of impact tests on large Al2024 panels

Test

ID

Measured

thickness, 

in.

Projectile

material

Projectile

mass,

gram

Impact

velocity, 

ft/sec

Result

LG908 0.257 Ti-6Al-4V 330 691 Contained.

LG909 .259 Ti-6Al-4V 338 791 Contained, perforated

LG910 .257 Ti-6Al-4V 329 743 Contained, perforated

LG911 .257 Ti-6Al-4V 338 706 Contained, perforated

(b) Results of impact tests on large Ti-6Al-4V panels

Test

ID

Measured

thickness, 

in.

Projectile

material

Projectile

mass,

gram

Impact

velocity, 

ft/sec

Result

LG908 0.094 Ti-6Al-4V 339 618 Contained. Small crack

LG909 .095 Ti-6Al-4V 344 698 Projectile penetrated

LG910 .094 Ti-6Al-4V 344 645 Projectile penetrated

LG911 .094 Ti-6Al-4V 344 575 Contained. No cracks

Summary

This report provides results of instrumented impact tests on 15 in. square Al-2024 and Ti-6Al-4V panels 

of three different thicknesses impacted in a normal direction by a cylindrical projectile and 24 in. square 

panels of the same materials impacted at a 45° angle by a more complex projectile having blade-like 

features. The experimental program was designed such that the penetration velocity was in the range of 600 

to 900 ft/sec (180 to 275 m/sec). This was accomplished by varying the mass of the projectile, either 

through length or material changes, while keeping the projectile front face geometry and diameter constant 

(in the case of the small panel tests), or selecting the thickness of the material to achieve this speed range (in 

the case of the large panel tests). In the small panel tests the transition between penetration and nonpenetration was well defined, except in the case of the thickest material studied, the 0.5 in. thick Al-2024. In 

this case there was a significant velocity range over which both penetration and non-penetration occurred.

The reasons for this are not known, but it is speculated that friction may play a role.

Strain measurements in the small panel tests, using both strain gages and a digital image correlation 

system, indicated that there is good agreement between the two. In addition it was shown that strain 

measurements at different circumferential locations, but identical radial distances from the impact point 

showed excellent correlation, as would be expected. The large panel tests provide an excellent means of 

validating computational models in a more complex test configuration than the small panel tests.

Extensive material characterization of the same materials, over a wide range of strain rates and 

temperatures are provided in a set of separate reports currently under preparation. Unique features of the 

data provided include extensive documentation of test procedures and results, material characterization of 

the very same materials used for impact testing, and extensive instrumentation results. These reports 

provide a valuable set of data which can be used for developing and validating computational high strain 

rate and impact deformation and failure models. Although it is impossible to report all data in a single 

report, it is archived and available through the authors.

References

Anderson, C.E., Jr., Hohler, V. and Walker, J.D. (1999) “The influence of projectile hardness on ballistic 

performance,” International Journal of Impact Engineering, 22 (6) 22, p. 619–632.
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An experimental program is underway to develop a consistent set of material property and impact test data, and failure analysis, for a variety 

of materials that can be used to develop improved impact failure and deformation models. Unique features of this set of data are that all 

material property information and impact test results are obtained using identical materials, the test methods and procedures are extensively 

documented and all of the raw data is available. This report describes ballistic impact testing which has been conducted on aluminum (Al) 

2024 and titanium (Ti) 6Al-4vanadium (V) sheet and plate samples of different thicknesses and with different types of projectiles, one a 

regular cylinder and one with a more complex geometry incorporating features representative of a jet engine fan blade. 

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