Glaciers of Asia—

GLACIERS OF NEPAL—Glacier Distribution in 

the Nepal Himalaya with Comparisons to the 

Karakoram Range

By Keiji Higuchi, Okitsugu Watanabe, Hiroji Fushimi, Shuhei Takenaka, 

and Akio Nagoshi

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, JR., and JANE G. FERRIGNO

U. S. G EO LO G I C A L SU RV EY P RO F E SSI O N A L PA P E R 1 3 8 6 –F– 6

CONTENTS III

CONTENTS

Glaciers of Nepal — Glacier Distribution in the Nepal Himalaya with Comparisons 

to the Karakoram Range, by Keiji Higuchi, Okitsugu Watanabe, Hiroji Fushimi, 

Shuhei Takenaka, and Akio Nagoshi----------------------------------------------------------293

Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------293

Use of Landsat Images in Glacier Studies ----------------------------------293

Figure 1. Map showing location of the Nepal Himalaya and Karokoram 

 Range in Southern Asia---------------------------------------------------------294

Figure 2. Map showing glacier distribution of the Nepal Himalaya and 

 its surrounding regions ---------------------------------------------------------295

Figure 3. Map showing glacier distribution of the Karakoram Range -------------296

A Brief History of Glacier Investigations -----------------------------------297

Procedures for Mapping Glacier Distribution from Landsat Images---------298

Figure 4. Index map of the glaciers of Nepal showing coverage by 

 Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images----------------------------------------------299

Figure 5. Index map of the glaciers of the Karakoram Range showing 

 coverage by Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images -----------------------------300

Table 1. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the glaciers of Nepal ---301

Figure 6. Index map of optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the 

 glaciers of Nepal------------------------------------------------------------------301

Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram Range---------------------302

Glacier Inventory Based on a Map Compiled from Landsat Images ------302

Table 2. Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and surrounding regions-------302–306

Table 3. Glaciers in the Karakoram Range ----------------------------------------------307

Figure 7. Map showing location of individual glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya

 and its surrounding regions, identified by glacier number-------------308

Figure 8. Map showing location of individual glaciers in the Karakoram 

 Range identified by glacier number -----------------------------------------309

Comparison of Nepal Himalaya and Karakoram Range Glacier 

Distribution--------------------------------------------------------------------310

Table 4. List of glaciological characteristics of the Nepal Himalaya 

 and the Karakoram Range -----------------------------------------------------310

Glacier Inventory from Ground Surveys in the Dudh Kosi 

Region, Nepal, and Comparison with Landsat Image Analyses------311

Comparison of Results for the Khumbu Glacier, Nepal, from 

Landsat Image Analysis and Ground Surveys--------------------------311

Figure 9. Landsat image, glacier inventory, and glacier distribution in 

 the Dudh Kosi region, east Nepal--------------------------------------------312

Figure 10. Oblique aerial photograph of the Khumbu Glacier, taken on 

 11 December 1978 --------------------------------------------------------------313

Figure 11. Distribution of supraglacial debris, bedrock, and other 

 features and surface characteristics of the Khumbu Glacier-----------314

Landsat Image Analysis for Monitoring Glacier Disasters ----------------------315

Figure 12. Oblique aerial photograph of the supraglacial lake of the 

 Imja Glacier, taken on 30 November 1975 --------------------------------316

Conclusions--------------------------------------------------------------------------------316

Supplement to “Glaciers of Nepal,” by Yutaka Ageta--------------------------------------317

Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------317

References Cited--------------------------------------------------------------------------319
IV CONTENTS
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F293

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD 

GLACIERS OF ASIA— 

GLACIERS OF NEPAL— Glacier Distribution 

in the Nepal Himalaya with Comparisons to the 

Karakoram Range1

By Keiji Higuchi, Okitsugu Watanabe, Hiroji Fushimi, Shuhei Takenaka, 

and Akio Nagoshi2

Introduction

The Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram Range are the highest 

mountainous regions on Earth, with many peaks higher than 6,000–8,000 m in 

elevation. As a result, attempts to study glaciers in these ranges using field and 

airborne surveys have presented many difficulties historically. The availability 

of Landsat images in the 1970s, however, offered the opportunity to study 

the distribution and morphological characteristics of glaciers in the Nepal 

Himalaya, and to compare them to characteristics of glaciers in the Karakoram 

Range. The  images were particularly valuable because no large-scale official 

maps were available. Additionally, a series of field investigations of the Nepal 

Himalaya glaciers, organized by Nagoya and Kyoto Universities, Japan, and 

conducted over six years (1973–1978), provided ground truth which could be 

used in resolving inherent Landsat image interpretation issues. This was the 

first attempt at glacier surveys in these two regions using Landsat images. 

The Himalaya dominates the central and northern portions of Nepal 

(figs. 1 and 2). The Karakoram Range lies in northern India and Pakistan, 

along the border with China (figs. 1 and 3). Although these ranges are 

geographically near one another, they are separated by the Indus, Gilgit, and 

Shyok Rivers and by approximately 150 km of lower elevation terrain.

Use of Landsat Images in Glacier Studies

Because of the many logistical problems in conducting field and airborne 

surveys, Landsat images are more effective tools for obtaining preliminary 

information about glaciers in relatively unexplored areas such as the Nepal 

Himalaya and the Karakoram Range. However, there are several problems in 

the application of Landsat images to glaciological studies. First, the resolution 

1

This section was written in the early 1980s, and describes the glaciers of Nepal during the 1970s, the 

baseline period for the Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World, U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 1386. Because there was a delay in publication, a supplement by Yuteka Ageta has been added at the 

end of this section to describe more recent research.

2

The authors were with the Water Research Institute, Nagoya University, when this section was written. 
F294 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

of the image may not be adequate to identify smaller glaciers. For example, 

small cirque glaciers (less than 100 m in width) are difficult to recognize on 

Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) images (Higuchi, 1975). Second, some 

glacier surfaces are covered by a combination of materials such as soil, ice, and 

rock that are not only hard to see but difficult to differentiate, so that snow 

facies and glacier structures are not distinguishable in the images. Third, observations with sensors in the visible part of the spectrum are impossible to make 

during the monsoon season, and are difficult at other times of the year (particularly in the afternoon) because of cloud cover. In addition, the orbital parameters of the Landsat satellite result in the images for this area being acquired in 

the morning hours which makes it difficult to see details on the western slopes 

of mountain ridges because of shadows. Therefore, results of the ground investigations conducted during the same period as this study provided a means of 

checking questionable Landsat interpretations.

In this paper, the results of a preliminary application of Landsat images 

to the analysis of glaciological characteristics in the Nepal Himalaya and the 

Karakoram Range are presented. Ground investigation results from detailed 

studies in the Dudh Kosi region of Nepal Himalaya (Higuchi and others, 1978, 

1980) were used to improve the Landsat interpretations.

K A R A K O R A M

H

I

M

A

L A Y A

70°E 75°E

30°N

25°N

35°N

80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

Indus

River

River

River

Ganges

Brahmaputra

Amu Darya

Gilgit R.

Shyok R.

Dhaka

New Delhi

Kanpur Thimbu

Lhasa

Kathmandu

Islamlabad

Kabul

INDIA

NEPAL

CHINA

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

TURKISTAN

0 1,000 MILES

0 1,000 KILOMETERS

Figure 1.— Location of the Nepal Himalaya and Karokoram Range in Southern Asia.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F295 0 200 MILES 0 100 100 200 KILOMETERS Narayani

Ghaghara

Dudh Kosi

Yarlung Zangbo Jiang

Sapt Kosi

Pokhara EXPLANATION

Kathmandu

Mt. Everest

(Sagarmatha)

INDIA

CHINA

AN BHUT

NEPAL

Snow coverSnow cover, estimatedGlacier terminusLakeRiver

31°30°29°28°27°

79° 80° 81° 82° 83° 84° 85° 86° 87° 88° 89°

Figure 2.— Glacier distribution of the Nepal Himalaya and its surrounding regions. Some political boundaries are uncertain.
F296 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Indus

Kabul

Shakhdara

Karakax He

Gilgit

EXPLANATION

Srinagar

INDIA

CHINA

AN AFGHANIST

PAKISTAN

TURKISTAN

Snow coverSnow cover, estimatedGlacier terminusLakeRiver

Compound glacierGlacier terminus, estimated

37°36°35°34°

33°32°

71° 72° 73° 74° 75° 76° 77° 78° 79° 80° 81°

0 200 MILES0

100

100 200 KILOMETERS

Figure 3.— Glacier distribution of the Karakoram Range. Some political boundaries are uncertain.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F297

A Brief History of Glacier Investigations

Since 1949, foreign mountaineers and scientists have repeatedly visited 

the Nepal Himalaya. The first glaciologist to visit Nepal was Fritz Müller who 

was a participant in the Swiss Everest Expedition of 1956. He studied the 

Khumbu Glacier, East Nepal (Müller, 1958). During the following years, the 

number of mountaineering and scientific expeditions has gradually increased, 

improving our knowledge of the Nepal Himalayan region and glaciers.

The Takpu Glacier,3 situated in the northwesternmost part of the Nepal 

Himalaya, was visited by a Japanese expedition in 1963. After additional 

Japanese glaciological work in 1965 on the Gustang Glacier in central Nepal, 

Watanabe (1976) classified the glaciers of the Nepal Himalaya into two types, 

based on climatic characteristics of glacierization and surface morphological 

features: (1) Nepal-type glaciers and, (2) Tibet-type glaciers. The former type 

has relatively wet-maritime characteristics and the latter type has relatively drycontinental characteristics.

In 1963, Miller and others (1965), as scientific members of the American 

Everest Expedition, did glaciological studies on the Khumbu Glacier of 

eastern Nepal. They studied the accumulation processes in the Khumbu 

Glacier by tritium dating ice layers above the equilibrium line in the West 

Cwm, at the head of the Khumbu Glacier. An inventory of glaciers in the Mt. 

Everest (Sagarmatha) region was first attempted by Müller (1970) during the 

International Hydrological Decade (IHD) as a pilot study for the Himalayan 

glacier inventory.

The concept of using a representative glacier as an index of the regional 

characteristics of the Nepal Himalayan glaciers was proposed by Watanabe 

(1976). He selected 80 glaciers from the entire region encompassed by the 

Nepal Himalaya, and described their topographical features from the perspective of the regional characteristics of glaciers. His study is useful for monitoring 

long-term change in glaciers.

The first systematic investigation of the Nepal Himalayan glaciers 

was organized by Nagoya and Kyoto Universities, Japan. The  Glaciological 

Expedition of Nepal (GEN), led by Higuchi (1976, 1977, 1978, 1980), carried 

out a series of field studies in the Khumbu, Shorong, Hink, and Hunk regions 

in eastern Nepal, and the Mukut Himal region in central Nepal from 1973 to 

1978. Year-round meteorological observations were made at Lhajung Station 

(4,420 m), Khumbu region, East Nepal, which operated from 1973 to 1976. 

Also, precise inventory work was performed on the glaciers in the Dudh Kosi 

region, East Nepal, as part of this research program (Higuchi and others, 1978, 

1980). Detailed results of this work are described in this report.

Although the Karakoram glaciers are much larger than those of the Nepal 

Himalaya, fewer glaciological studies have been performed there. For a discussion of some of the earlier work on the Karakoram glaciers, see the section in 

this chapter on the Glaciers of Pakistan, as well as the work of Visser (1928), 

Untersteiner (1955), and von Wissmann (1959).

3

U.S. Government publications require that official geographic place-names for foreign countries be used 

to the greatest extent possible. In the Glaciers of Nepal section, the use of geographic place-names is based on 

the U.S. Board on Geographic Names (BGN) Website http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/index.html. Names 

not listed on the BGN Website are shown in italics.
F298 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Procedures for Mapping Glacier Distribution from 

Landsat Images

Landsat images are available for most of the Nepal Himalaya and Karakoram 

Range. Images acquired between 17  September 1972 and 6  December 1976, 

were used for the analysis of the Nepal Himalaya glaciers (fig. 4); images acquired 

between 19 September 1973 and 27 September 1977, were used for the analysis 

of the Karakoram Range glaciers (fig. 5). The optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images 

for glacier studies in the 1970s time frame are shown in table 1. An accompanying 

index map is shown in figure 6.

Landsat image analysis is the most effective remote sensing technique 

available for analyzing the seasonal and secular variations of cryospheric 

phenomena. The  areal distribution of glaciers and seasonal snow cover are 

easily discernible on the images. However, it is difficult to map the glaciers using 

Landsat MSS images because of the low spatial resolution.

Other problems include how to ascertain the extent of individual glaciers and 

how to distinguish the firn limit from the temporal snow cover in the upper part 

of the glacier. In the ablation area, drawing a clear boundary between the area of 

the supraglacial debris cover and that of the moraine field on glaciated ground is 

also a serious problem in analyzing the images. These difficulties in interpretation 

directly affect the accuracy of maps made from the images.

To solve these problems, comparison studies were conducted using objective 

criteria from ground observations to validate the interpretations from the images. 

The following procedures were used in making the maps.

1. An area was selected where ground survey and aerial photography data 

were available and much data had been collected on the glaciers.

2. Ground observations were plotted and image data related to the glacial 

features on a geographic base map of these areas.

3. Glacier features were classified, and compared to information from 

Landsat images and ground observations.

4. Criteria were established for determining the areal extent of a glacier 

and its morphological surface characteristics.

After some trial and error, the following criteria were established.

1. All snow and/or ice surface areas above the firn limit would be 

included in the “cryospheric zone.” However, there were severe difficulties in deciding whether these features were glacierized or not. 

The limit of perennial snow/ice cover becomes clear just before the 

summer monsoon season, April or May in the Himalaya, so a satellite 

image taken during that time period should be used, if available.

2. According to results obtained from preliminary studies in the area, it 

was not difficult to distinguish between the areas of supraglacial debris 

cover and the areas of moraine which had no subsurface ice body 

(at the image scale). This was because, after comparing Landsat images 

with ground observations, the supraglacial debris-covered area did not 

make much difference in the determination of the glacier extent.

These criteria can only be applied to glaciers larger than a certain limit— 

approximately several kilometers in length and several hundred meters in width. 

Therefore, glaciers smaller than this limit were not mapped as individual glaciers 

but were included in the total cryospheric area. It should be noted that debriscovered areas with stagnant and/or fossil ice, being remnants of past expansion, 

were not mapped as active glacier areas.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F299 Narayani

Ghaghara

Dudh Kosi

Yarlung Zangbo Jiang

Sapt Kosi

Pokhara EXPLANATION

Kathmandu

Mt. Everest

(Sagamatha)

INDIA

CHINA

AN BHUT

NEPAL

Snow coverSnow cover, estimatedGlacier terminusLakeRiver

31°30°29°28°27°

79° 80° 81° 82° 83° 84° 85° 86° 87° 88° 89°

DEC 06, 1976 NOV 17, 1976

DEC 03, 1976 MAR 13, 1975

MAR 13, 1975 DEC 19, 1976

SEP 17, 1972

0 200 MILES0

100

100 200 KILOMETERS

Figure 4.— Index map of the glaciers of Nepal showing coverage by Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images. 
F300 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD Indus Kabul Shakhdara Karakax He Gilgit

EXPLANATION

Srinagar

INDIA

CHINA

AN AFGHANIST

PAKISTAN

TURKISTAN

Snow coverSnow cover, estimatedGlacier terminusLakeRiver

Compound glacierGlacier terminus, estimated

37°36°35°34°

33°32°

71° 72° 73° 74° 75° 76° 77° 78° 79° 80° 81°

SEP 27, 1977 SEP 26, 1977 SEP 19, 1973

JUL 18, 1978 AUG 18, 1977 NOV 20, 1976

SEP 22, 1977

SEP 10, 1976 SEP 11, 1976

SEP 10, 1976

0 200 MILES0

100

100 200 KILOMETERS

Figure 5.— Index map of the glaciers of the Karkoram Range showing coverage by Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F301

Table 1.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the glaciers of Nepal

Path-Row Nominal scene center

latitude and longitude

Landsat identification 

number

Solar 

elevation 

angle

(degrees)

Date Code Cloud cover 

(percent) Remarks

150–41 27°23′N. 87°31′E. 2150041007635490 28 19 Dec 76 5 Dudh-Kosi, 

Mt. Everest region

151–40 28°49′N. 86°29′E. 2151040007507290 43 13 Mar 75 10

151–40 28°49′N. 86°29′E. 2151040007635590 27 20 Dec 76 5

151–41 27°23′N. 86°05′E. 2151041007507290 44 13 Mar 75 5

151–41 27°23′N. 86°05′E. 2151041007635590 28 20 Dec 76 10

152–40 28°49′N. 85°03′E. 215204007633890 30 03 Dec 76 5

153–40 28°49′N. 83°37′E. 1153040007226190 ~45 17 Sep 72 20 Line drops

153–40 28°49′N. 83°37′E. 2153040007700990 27 09 Jan 77 10

154–39 30°15′N. 82°35′E. 2154039007632290 32 17 Nov 76 10

154–40 28°49′N. 82°11′E. 2154040007632290 33 17 Nov 76 30

155–39 30°15′N. 81°09′E. 2155039007634190 28 06 Dec 76 5

Path

150

Row

40

Row

40

Path

150

Path

155

Path

155

Row

42

Row

42

EXCELLENT IMAGE – 0 to 5 percent cloud cover.

GOOD IMAGE – 5 to 10 percent cloud cover.

FAIR TO POOR IMAGE – 10 to 100 percent cloud cover.

NOMINAL SCENE CENTER

≤

> ≤

> <

– For a Landsat image outside the area of glaciers of Nepal.

EXPLANATION

88°E

88°E

86°E

86°E

84°E

84°E

82°E

82°E

80°E

80°E

30°N 30°N

28°N 28°N

26°N 26°N

Kanpur

Lucknow

Kathmandu

Biratnagar

NEPAL

CHINA

INDIA

200 MILES

0 200 KILOMETERS

0

Scale is approximate

100

100

Figure 6.—Index map of optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the glaciers of Nepal.
F302 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and the 

Karakoram Range

Based on the Landsat image analysis, a glacier inventory was developed for 

the Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram, and the glacier distribution and characteristics were compared between the two areas. A ground survey of glaciers 

in the Dudh Kosi region of Nepal was conducted and results were compared 

to results from a Landsat image analysis by Müller (1970). A  comprehensive 

comparison of results from Landsat image and ground investigations was 

conducted on the Khumbu Glacier, in Nepal.

Glacier Inventory Based on a Map Compiled from 

Landsat Images

Tables 2 and 3 list the glaciers which were identified using Landsat images, 

based on the established criteria, for the Nepal Himalaya and Karakoram 

Range, respectively. The  locations of these glaciers are shown on figures 7 

and 8. Italicized glacier names in the tables are tentative designations assigned 

for practical convenience, because official geographic place-names have not yet 

been established for many of the glaciers in these two regions. The  elevation 

of the terminus and the length and width of each glacier in horizontal projection are estimated from various published papers and maps, and from direct 

measurements on the Landsat images.

The “Description” column in tables 2 and 3 includes specific surface 

features and other characteristics of the glacier that were identified directly 

from the images. Surface conditions of a glacier, such as the distribution of 

supraglacial debris and the occurrence of medial moraines, glacier lakes, and 

other glacial features were easily recognized using Landsat images. This information contributed effectively to our knowledge of the present conditions of 

individual glaciers. Additionally, the monitoring of glacier lake conditions and 

surge-type glaciers by means of satellite images appears to be an effective means 

of obtaining advanced warning of potential glaciological catastrophes.

Table 2.—Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and surrounding regions

[Description: D, debris-covered glacier; S, lateral moraine; C, clean glacier; M, medial moraine; Dp, partly debris-covered glacier; P, pond; 

L, lake around glacier; ?, unknown whether it is covered by snow or debris. References: 1, Higuchi and others (1978, 1980); 

2, Schneider (1963); 3, Yoshizawa (1977). Units: m, meter; km, kilometer]

Glacier 

number Glacier name Location latitude and longitude

Lowest glacier 

elevation (m), 

when known

Length/width

(km), 

when known

Description Reference

ALAKNANDA BASIN

001 Bagani Bank 30°45′N. 80°00′E. D, S 3

002 Dunagiri Bank 30°45′N. 80°00′E. D 3

003 Uttari Rishi 30°30′N. 80°00′E. C, S 3

004 Uttari Nanda Devi 30°30′N. 80°00′E. D, S 3

005 Dakkhni Nanda Devi 30°30′N. 80°00′E. D 3

006 South Rishi 30°30′N. 80°00′E. D, S 3

007 Trisal 30°30′N. 79°45′E. D, S 3

KALI BASIN

101 Shalang 30°15′N. 80°15′E. D, M, S 3

102 Milam 30°30′N. 80°15′E. D, M, S 3

103 Kalabaland 30°30′N. 80°30′E. C, S 3

104 Ngalaphu 30°15′N. 80°30′E. D, M, S 3
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F303

Glacier 

number Glacier name Location latitude and longitude

Lowest glacier 

elevation (m), 

when known

Length/width

(km), 

when known

Description Reference

105 Rama 30°15′N. 80°45′E. D 3

106 30°15′N. 80°45′E. Dp

KARNALI BASIN

201 30°00′N. 81°00′E. 4,298 6.8/0.7 D, M 3

202 30°00′N. 81°00′E. 4,480 4.9/0.7 D 3

203 Saipal 30°00′N. 81°30′E. 3,721 5.0/0.4 Dp, S 3

204 Ghat 30°00′N. 81°30′E. 4,419 1.6/ D, S 3

205 30°00′N. 81°30′E. 3,505 7.0/1.4 D, S 3

206 N. Saipal 30°00′N. 81°30′E. 4,282 7.6/0.4 Dp, M 3

207 30°30′N. 80°45′E. C, S

208 30°30′N. 81°15′E. C

209 30°30′N. 81°15′E. D, M, S

210 30°15′N. 81°15′E. Dp

211 30°15′N. 81°45′E. C, S

212 30°15′N. 81°45′E. C

213 30°15′N. 82°15′E. D, S

214 30°00′N. 82°15′E. Dp, S

215 30°00′N. 82°15′E. 4,267 5.1/0.6 D, M, P 3

216 30°00′N. 82°15′E. Dp, S

217 29°45′N. 82°45′E. Dp, S

218 29°45′N. 82°45′E. 5,029 Dp, M, S 3

219 28°45′N. 83°15′E. 4,115 4.6/0.4 ? 3

220 28°45′N. 83°15′E. 4,892 4.3/ ? 3

221 28°45′N. 83°15′E. 4,304 5.4/0.4 ? 3

222 28°45′N. 83°15′E. 4,877 10.0/0.6 D, S 3

223 28°45′N. 83°15′E. 5,264 4.7/0.3 ? 3

224 28°45′N. 83°15′E. 4,724 3.7/0.7 D, S 3

225 28°45′N. 83°15′E. 4,816 5.2/0.3 ? 3

226 Kaphe 28°45′N. 83°15′E. 4,206 8.3/0.5 ? 3

KALI GANDAKI BASIN

301 Konabon 28°45′N. 83°30′E. 4,389 8.5/ ? 3

302 Chhonbarban 28°45′N. 83°30′E. 3,770 14.6/0.4 ?, S 3

303 28°45′N. 83°30′E. 4,282 4.8 ?

304 28°45′N. 83°30′E. 5,014 3.8/0.4 ? 3

305 28°45′N. 83°30′E. 5,608 3.2/ ? 3

306 28°45′N. 83°30′E. 5,303 4.8/0.6 ? 3

307 S. Annapurna 28°30′N. 84°00′E. 3,566 13.7/0.5 D, S 3

308 W. Annapurna 28°45′N. 84°00′E. 3,789 7.8/0.3 D 3

309 E. Annapurna 28°30′N. 84°00′E. 6.9/0.3 D 3

310 28°45′N. 84°15′E. D

311 28°45′N. 84°15′E. D, S, P

312 28°45′N. 84°30′E. D, S

313 28°45′N. 84°30′E. D, M, S, P

314 28°45′N. 84°30′E. D, M, S, P

315 28°45′N. 84°30′E. D, M, S, P

316 28°30′N. 84°30′E. D, P

317 Tulangi 28°30′N. 84°30′E. 4,023 12.4/0.4 D, P 3

318 Chuling 28°30′N. 84°45′E. 3,017 14.0/0.7 D, M, S 3

319 Lidanda 28°30′N. 84°30′E. 3,139 14.0/0.9 D, S 3

320 Pungeu 28°30′N. 84°30′E. 3,840 10.2/0.7 D, S 3

321 Manaslu 28°30′N. 84°30′E. 3,597 7.5/0.4 Dp 3

Table 2.—Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and surrounding regions—Continued

[Description: D, debris-covered glacier; S, lateral moraine; C, clean glacier; M, medial moraine; Dp, partly debris-covered glacier; P, pond; 

L, lake around glacier; ?, unknown whether it is covered by snow or debris. References: 1, Higuchi and others (1978, 1980); 

2, Schneider (1963); 3, Yoshizawa (1977). Units: m, meter; km, kilometer]
F304 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Glacier 

number Glacier name Location latitude and longitude

Lowest glacier 

elevation (m), 

when known

Length/width

(km), 

when known

Description Reference

322 28°45′N. 84°30′E. 4,602 6.1/0.5 D 3

323 Jarkya 28°45′N. 84°30′E. 4,419 12.4/0.7 Dp, S 3

324 28°45′N. 84°30′E. ?

325 Torogompa 28°30′N. 85°00′E. D, S 3

326 28°30′N. 85°00′E. D, S

327 Sangjing 28°30′N. 85°15′E. D, S 3

328 28°45′N. 85°30′E. D, S

329 28°45′N. 85°30′E. D, S

330 28°45′N. 85°30′E. ?

331 28°45′N. 85°30′E. D, S

332 Chinkyong 28°45′N. 85°30′E. D, S 3

333 Lalaga 28°30′N. 85°30′E. D, S 3

334 Phurephu 28°30′N. 85°30′E. D, S 3

335 Chasmudo 28°15′N. 85°30′E. D, S 3

336 Lirang 28°15′N. 85°30′E. 3,962 D, S 3

337 Shalbachum 28°15′N. 85°30′E. 4,114 D 3

338 28°15′N. 85°45′E. 4,663 D, S 3

339 Langtang 28°15′N. 85°45′E. 4,550 D, S 3

SAPT KOSI BASIN

401 28°15′N. 85°45′E. 4,267 4.6/0.6 D 3

402 28°15′N. 85°45′E. 4,115 5.5/0.6 D, S 3

403 Phurbi Cha Chu 28°15′N. 85°45′E. 3,840 7.8/0.4 D, S 3

404 28°15′N. 85°45′E. 3,846 4.8/0.4 D, S 3

405 Nyanamphu 28°30′N. 85°45′E. ?

406 28°30′N. 85°45′E. D, S

407 28°30′N. 85°45′E. ?

408 28°30′N. 86°15′E. ?

409 28°15′N. 86°15′E. ?

410 28°15′N. 86°15′E. ?

411 28°15′N. 86°30′E. ?

412 28°00′N. 86°30′E. D, S, P

413 28°00′N. 86°30′E. D

414 28°00′N. 86°30′E. D, P

415 28°00′N. 86°30′E. D, M, S, P

416 Drogpa Nagtsang 28°00′N. 86°30′E. 10.5/0.8 D, M, S, P 2

417 Ripimu 28°00′N. 86°30′E. 10.5/0.7 D, S 2

418 Tolambau (Drolambao) 28°00′N. 86°30′E. 14.5/0.8 D, P 2, 3

419 (Likhu Nup) 27°45′N. 86°30′E. 4.2/0.5 D 2

420 (Zurmoche) 27°45′N. 86°30′E. 7.3/0.5 D, S 2

421 Dudh Kund 27°45′N. 86°30′E. 4,400 6.6/0.5 D, S 1, 3

422 Lumding 27°45′N. 86°30′E. 4,800 5.3/0.5 D, M, P 1, 3

423 Thengpo 28°00′N. 86°30′E. 4,300 2.2/0.3 D 1, 3

424 Chhule 28°00′N. 86°30′E. 4,680 4.7/0.4 D, S 1, 3

425 Dingjung 28°00′N. 86°30′E. 4,600 7.8/0.7 D, S, P 1, 3

426 Pangbug 28°00′N. 86°30′E. 4,880 8.6/0.7 D, S, P 1, 3

427 Lunak 28°00′N. 86°30′E. 4,600 18.2/0.8 D, S 1, 3

428 Nangpa 28°00′N. 86°30′E. 4,600 18.2/0.8 D, S 1, 3

429 Sumna 28°00′N. 86°30′E. 4,880 9.4/0.7 D, S, P 1, 3

430 Ngojumba 28°00′N. 86°45′E. 4,680 22.4/1.2 D, S, P 1, 3

431 Gyubanare 28°00′N. 86°45′E. 4,680 22.4/1.2 D, S, P 1, 3

432 Changri (Nup) 28°00′N. 86°45′E. 5,180 7.2/0.6 D 1, 2, 3

Table 2.—Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and surrounding regions—Continued

[Description: D, debris-covered glacier; S, lateral moraine; C, clean glacier; M, medial moraine; Dp, partly debris-covered glacier; P, pond; 

L, lake around glacier; ?, unknown whether it is covered by snow or debris. References: 1, Higuchi and others (1978, 1980); 

2, Schneider (1963); 3, Yoshizawa (1977). Units: m, meter; km, kilometer]
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F305

Glacier 

number Glacier name Location latitude and longitude

Lowest glacier 

elevation (m), 

when known

Length/width

(km), 

when known

Description Reference

433 East Changri (Changri Shar) 28°00′N. 86°45′E. 5,180 5.2/0.7 D 1, 2, 3

434 Khumbu 28°00′N. 87°00′E. 4,920 16.5/0.7 D, M, S, P 1, 3

435 West Cwm 28°00′N. 87°00′E. 4,920 16.5/0.7 D, M, S, P 1, 3

436 Nuptse 28°00′N. 87°00′E. 4,960 6.3/0.4 D, S 1, 3

437 West Lhotse (Lotse Nup) 28°00′N. 87°00′E. 4,980 4.2/0.6 D, M, S 1, 2, 3

438 Lhotse 28°00′N. 87°00′E. 4,960 6.4/1.1 D, S 1, 3

439 Imja 28°00′N. 87°00′E. 5,030 9.8/0.7 D, M, S, P 1, 3

440 Ama Dablam 28°00′N. 87°00′E. 4,850 4.8/0.5 D, S 1, 3

441 Hink (Shar Nup) 27°45′N. 87°00′E. 7.5/0.4 D, S 2, 3

442 (Hink Teng) 27°45′N. 87°15′E. 5.0/1.0 D, P 2

443 Hongu 27°45′N. 87°00′E. 5,580 1.0/ D, P 1, 3

444 Iswa 27°45′N. 87°00′E. D, S 3

445 Lower Barun 27°45′N. 87°00′E. 14.5/0.9 D, S, L 3

446 Barun 27°45′N. 87°00′E. 15.5/0.5 D, L 2, 3

447 27°45′N. 87°15′E. D, S

448 Sakyetong 28°00′N. 87°15′E. D, S

449 Kangdoshung 28°00′N. 87°00′E. D, S

450 Chomo Lonzo 28°00′N. 87°00′E. 6.0/0.5 D 2, 3

451 Kangshung 28°00′N. 87°00′E. 16.5/1.3 D, M, S, P 2, 3

452 28°00′N. 87°15′E. D

453 28°00′N. 87°00′E. ?

454 28°00′N. 87°00′E. ?

455 28°00′N. 87°00′E. ?

456 Kharta 28°00′N. 87°00′E. ? 3

457 East Rongbuk (Ronphu Shar) 28°00′N. 86°45′E. ? 2, 3

458 Rongbuk (Ronphu) 28°00′N. 86°45′E. 15/1.1 ? 2, 3

459 Rongta 28°15′N. 86°45′E. ? 3

Gyachung 28°15′N. 86°45′E. ? 3

460 28°15′N. 86°30′E. ?

461 Kyetrak (Gyabrag) 28°15′N. 86°30′E. ? 2, 3

462 28°30′N. 86°30′E. ?

463 28°30′N. 86°15′E. ?

464 28°30′N. 86°15′E. ?

465 28°30′N. 85°45′E. ?

466 28°30′N. 85°45′E. D

467 Lashar 28°00′N. 88°00′E. D, M, S 3

468 Lashar 28°00′N. 88°00′E. D, M, S 3

469 28°00′N. 87°45′E. ?, S, P

470 28°00′N. 87°45′E. ?

471 28°00′N. 87°45′E. ?

472 Hidden 28°00′N. 87°45′E. ?, S 3

473 Phuchong 27°45′N. 88°00′E. ?, S 3

474 Pamdro 27°45′N. 88°00′E. ?, S 3

475 Tsisima 27°45′N. 88°00′E. ?, S 3

476 Broken 27°45′N. 88°00′E. ? 3

477 Kangchenjanga 27°45′N. 88°00′E. ?, S 3

478 Ramtang 27°45′N. 88°00′E. ?, S 3

479 Jannu 27°45′N. 88°00′E. ? 3

480 Yomatari 27°30′N. 88°00′E. Dp, S 3

481 Yalung 27°30′N. 88°00′E. D, S 3

482 Yalung 27°30′N. 88°00′E. D, S 3

Table 2.—Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and surrounding regions—Continued

[Description: D, debris-covered glacier; S, lateral moraine; C, clean glacier; M, medial moraine; Dp, partly debris-covered glacier; P, pond; 

L, lake around glacier; ?, unknown whether it is covered by snow or debris. References: 1, Higuchi and others (1978, 1980); 

2, Schneider (1963); 3, Yoshizawa (1977). Units: m, meter; km, kilometer]
F306 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Table 2.—Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and surrounding regions—Continued

[Description: D, debris-covered glacier; S, lateral moraine; C, clean glacier; M, medial moraine; Dp, partly debris-covered glacier; P, pond; 

L, lake around glacier; ?, unknown whether it is covered by snow or debris. References: 1, Higuchi and others (1978, 1980); 

2, Schneider (1963); 3, Yoshizawa (1977). Units: m, meter; km, kilometer]

Glacier 

number Glacier name Location latitude and longitude

Lowest glacier 

elevation (m), 

when known

Length/width

(km), 

when known

Description Reference

TISTA BASIN

501 27°30′N. 88°15′E. D

502 27°30′N. 88°15′E. D, M

503 27°45′N. 88°15′E. ?, S

504 27°45′N. 88°15′E. D, S, P

505 27°45′N. 88°15′E. D, M, S

506 27°45′N. 88°15′E. D, S, P

507 27°45′N. 88°15′E. D, S, P

508 Jongsan 28°00′N. 88°00′E. D, S, P 3

509 Lhonak 28°00′N. 88°00′E. D, M, S 3

510 28°00′N. 88°45′E. D

511 28°00′N. 88°45′E. D

512 28°00′N. 88°45′E. D

513 28°00′N. 88°45′E. ?

514 27°45′N. 89°00′E. ?

515 27°45′N. 89°00′E. D

YARLUNG ZANGBO JIANG

601 28°30′N. 85°45′E. D, M, S

602 29°00′N. 84°30′E. ?

603 29°00′N. 84°30′E. ?

604 29°00′N. 84°30′E. ?

605 29°00′N. 84°30′E. ?

606 29°00′N. 84°15′E. ?

607 29°00′N. 84°15′E. ?

608 29°45′N. 83°00′E. C, P

609 29°45′N. 83°00′E. C, S

610 29°45′N. 83°00′E. C, S

611 29°45′N. 82°45′E. C

612 29°45′N. 82°45′E. C

613 29°45′N. 82°45′E. C, S

614 29°45′N. 82°45′E. C

615 29°45′N. 82°45′E. C, P

616 30°00′N. 82°45′E. ?

617 30°00′N. 82°45′E. C, S

618 30°00′N. 82°45′E. C, P

619 30°00′N. 82°45′E. C, S

620 30°00′N. 82°45′E. C, L

621 30°00′N. 82°45′E. C, P

622 30°15′N. 82°15′E. C, S, P

623 30°15′N. 82°15′E. C, S

624 30°15′N. 82°15′E. C

625 30°15′N. 82°15′E. C, S, L

SUTLEJ BASIN

701 30°30′N. 81°15′E. C, S

702 30°30′N. 80°30′E. Dp

703 30°30′N. 80°30′E. Dp, S

704 30°30′N. 80°15′E. Dp, S

705 30°30′N. 80°15′E. Dp, S

706 30°30′N. 80°15′E. ?
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F307

Table 3.—Glaciers in the Karakoram Range

[Description: Dp, partly debris-covered glacier; M, medial moraine; C, clean glacier; D, debris-covered glacier; S, lateral moraine; 

L, lake around glacier; ?, unknown whether it is covered by snow or debris. Unit: km, kilometer]

Glacier 

number Glacier name Location latitude and longitude

Length

(km)

Number of 

constituent glaciers Description

1 Upper Tirich 36°26′N. 71°51′E. 17 17 Dp, M

2 Atark 36°30′N. 72°00′E. 16 3 C

3 Niroghi 36°30′N. 72°10′E. 12 2 D

4 Chiantar 36°50′N. 73°40′E. 30 4 Dp, S, M

5 Yashkuk Yaz 36°45′N. 74°20′E. 16 3 Dp, M

6 Batura 36°30′N. 74°40′E. 51 4 Dp, S, M

7 Pasu 36°30′N. 74°45′E. 21 1 Dp, S

8 Ghulkin 36°25′N. 74°50′E. 16 1 D

9 Gulmit 36°25′N. 74°50′E. 8 1 Dp, M

10 Lupghur Yaz 36°25′N. 75°00′E. 13 1 D

11 Momhil 36°25′N. 75°05′E. 20 1 Dp, S, M

12 Mulungutti 36°25′N. 75°15′E. 16 1 Dp, S, M

13 Yazghil 36°20′N. 75°25′E. 26 2 C, S

14 Khurdopin 36°15′N. 75°30′E. 35 2 Dp, S, M

15 Virjerab 36°15′N. 75°40′E. 37 2 Dp, M

16 Braldu 36°10′N. 75°50′E. 31 1 D, M

17 Skamri 36°05′N. 76°10′E. 35 3 Dp, S, M

18 Sarpo Laggo 35°55′N. 76°20′E. 27 3 Dp, S, M

19 K2 36°00′N. 76°30′E. 19 2 D, S, M

20 Gasherbrum 35°50′N. 76°40′E. 23 2 C, S, M

21 Urdok 35°45′N. 76°45′E. 21 2 D, M

22 Staghar 35°45′N. 76°50′E. 16 1 C, S

23 Singhi 35°40′N. 77°00′E. ? 2 Dp, S, M, L

24 Kyagar 35°35′N. 77°15′E. 17 3 C, S, M, L

25 Rimo 35°25′N. 77°30′E. 38 2 Dp, S, L

26 S. Rimo 35°20′N. 77°30′E. 23 2 Dp, L

27 N. Shukpa Kunchang 34°50′N. 77°50′E. ? 3 C, S, M

28 S. Shukpa Kunchang 34°40′N. 77°50′E. ? 3 D, S, M

29 S. Terong 35°10′N. 77°25′E. 24 2 D

30 Teram Shehr 35°30′N. 77°10′E. 28 1 Dp, S, M, L

31 Siachen 35°25′N. 77°05′E. 70 4 Dp, S, M

32 Bilafond 35°20′N. 76°55′E. 20 2 Dp, S, M

33 Sherpi Gang 35°20′N. 76°45′E. 16 1 Dp, S

34 Kaberi 35°30′N. 76°35′E. 25 2 Dp, S, M

35 Chogolisa 35°25′N. 76°30′E. 17 2 D, L

36 Ghondokoro 35°35′N. 76°25′E. 17 2 Dp, S, M

37 Godwin Austin 35°50′N. 76°35′E. 23 2 Dp, S, M

38 Baltoro 35°45′N. 76°20′E. 61 11 Dp, S, M, L

39 Panmah 35°55′N. 76°00′E. 41 4 Dp, S M

40 Biafo 35°50′N. 75°45′E. 52 3 D, S, M

41 Kero Lungma 36°00′N. 75°15′E. 15 3 D

42 Chogo Lungma 35°55′N. 75°10′E. 42 5 Dp, S, M

43 Khotia 35°50′N. 75°00′E. 12 3 D, S

44 Mani 35°55′N. 74°55′E. 14 2 D

45 Bualtar 36°10′N. 74°45′E. 19 2 D, M

46 Barpu 36°10′N. 74°50′E. 22 2 Dp, S

47 Kham Basa 36°10′N. 75°25′E. 13 2 D, S, M

48 Julmau 36°10′N. 75°20′E. 15 3 D, S, M

49 Khingyang 36°15′N. 75°10′E. 20 3 D, S

50 Hispar 36°05′N. 75°20′E. 47 4 D, S, M, L

51 Triror (Gharesa) 36°15′N. 74°55′E. 20 2 Dp, S
F308 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Narayani

Ghaghara

Dudh Kosi

Yarlung

Zangbo Jiang

Sapt Kosi

Pokhara EXPLANATION

Kathmandu

INDIA

CHINA

AN BHUT

NEPAL

Snow coverSnow cover, estimatedGlacier terminusLakeRiver

31°30°29°28°27°

79° 80° 81° 82° 83° 84° 85° 86° 87° 88° 89°

102 706

705

704

703

702

207 208 209 210 211 625 623 621 620 618 617

615 611 609

225

222

221

220

219 308 607 606 604

605 603

602

313 314

324

323

321

327

329

328

331

332

334

601 466

405 465 407

428427426425

413

412

424

416

414415

417

418 419

423 420

422

421 434 436 440 437 441 443 444

446

445

455

454453451452450438447439

456 458

433

431 430 460

448

449

442

461 457

435

432 459

429

408

403

463

462 469

SEE INSET ABOVE

470

471474478479480 482

477

502

514503

481

501

472 468

509

508 506

467

507

505

512

504

511

510 515 513

475473 476 464

333

305

622 701 206 624

001

005

007 006 101

103

104

105 106 202

201 203

204

205

213 215 216

619 616 217

218 614 613

612 610 608

224

223

226

301306 302 304 303

309 310

311

312

315

316 322

317 320 318

326 325

330335

336

337 338

339

401

402

406 404 409

410

411 319

307

212 214

004

003

002

0 200 MILES0

100

100 200 KILOMETERS

Figure 7.

— Location of individual glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and its surrounding regions, identified by glacier number (see table 2). 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F309

Indus

Kabul

Shakhdara

Karakax He

Gilgit

EXPLANATION

Srinagar

INDIA

CHINA

AN AFGHANIST

PAKISTAN

TURKISTAN

Snow coverSnow cover, estimatedGlacier terminusLakeRiver

Compound glacierGlacier terminus, estimated

37°36°35°34°

33°32°

71° 72° 73° 74° 75° 76° 77° 78° 79° 80° 81°

1

2

3

4 5

6 7 11 10

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 37

39 38 36 35 34 33 32

31

29

8

9 45

51 50 49 44 43 42 41 48 47

40

46

20

21 22 23 24 30

25

26 27 28

0 200 MILES0

100

100 200 KILOMETERS

Figure 8.— Location of individual glaciers in the Karakoram Range identified by glacier number (see table 3).
F310 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Comparison of Nepal Himalaya and Karakoram Range 

Glacier Distribution

The Nepal Himalaya extend from about 80° to 87°E. in longitude and 

from about 27.5° to 30.5°N. in latitude (fig.  2). The  central region of the 

Karakoram Range extends from 72° to 79°E. and from 34° to 37°N. (fig.  3). 

Both of these regions are nearly equivalent in areal extent (7 degrees of longitude and 3 degrees of latitude), and both have a northwest-southeast trending 

crest with several mountains over 8,000 m in elevation.

The topographical and climatic characteristics of these two regions are 

very different, however, and because of this, the distribution and features of 

the glaciers in these two regions are very different. The glacierized area of the 

Karakoram is much larger than that of the Nepal Himalaya in horizontal scale 

and is distributed as large, connected, glacier systems, whereas that of the 

Nepal Himalaya is distributed as individual glaciers.

Figures 2 and 3 show that the obvious contrast in cryospheric area 

between the Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram is also reflected in the shapes 

and sizes of the individual glaciers. The total area of the glacierized region and 

the average length of glaciers of both mountain ranges, and the mean elevation 

of glacier termini for the Nepal Himalaya, are shown in table 4. In general, the 

accumulation basins of the Karakoram glaciers tend to concentrate the ice, 

and the river system is well controlled by the regional geological structure, 

so that compound glaciers with long lengths are well developed. In  regard to 

the geomorphology, mountains in the Karakoram Range are massive, and the 

rivers are wholly parallel to the northwest/southeast crest line. Conversely, 

the Nepal Himalaya are composed of mountain ranges that are more separated; and although the mountains have a northwest-southeast trend, rivers 

cut the main range perpendicularly in a north-south direction. Additionally, 

climatic influence of the summer monsoon is different between regions — 

the Karakoram Range is less influenced by the summer monsoon than the 

Nepal Himalaya.

Table 4.—List of glaciological characteristics of the Nepal Himalaya 

and the Karakoram Range

[Abbreviations: km, kilometer; m, meter; ?, unknown]

Characteristic Nepal Himalaya and 

surrounding regions

Karakoram 

Range

Total area of the 

glacierized region 

including snow cover

24,900 km2 65,300 km2

Average length of glacier All glaciers: 8.1 km

Karnāli Basin: 5.6 km

Kāli Gandaki Basin: 9.0 km

Sapt Kosi Basin: 9.6 km

25.4 km

Mean elevation of 

glacier terminus

All glaciers: 4,480 m

Karnāli Basin: 4,450 m

Kāli Gandaki Basin: 4,190 m

Sapt Kosi Basin: 4,710 m

?
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F311

Glacier Inventory from Ground Surveys in the Dudh Kosi 

Region, Nepal, and Comparison with Landsat Image Analyses

Detailed studies on glaciers in the Dudh Kosi region, Khumbu Himal, were 

carried out from 1973 to 1978 as part of the Glaciological Expedition of Nepal 

(GEN) by Japanese scientists. The Lhajung station, located near Periche village 

where the upper Imja Khola joins the tributary originating from the Khumbu 

Glacier, was operated for three and a half years to collect meteorological data 

and to make glaciological observations on many glaciers of various sizes.

As a result of these ground studies, a glacier inventory was prepared 

for the Dudh Kosi region, using data from ground surveys and aerial photographs (Higuchi and others, 1978). In  the glacier inventory, glaciers were 

divided into several categories according to the surface topography: (1)  ice 

body, (2)  ice body covered by debris, (3)  estimated ice body, and (4)  rock 

glacier. The glacier distributions were plotted on the “Mount Everest Regions” 

1:100,000-scale map of the Royal Geographical Society (1975), and glaciers 

were denoted with numbers according to the above-mentioned categories. 

The Dudh Kosi region was divided into several sub-basins identified 

by the letters AX to HX, and each glacier was assigned a three-digit number. 

Glacier numbers from Müller’s pilot study (Müller, 1970) were shown as well 

as glacier names that were collected from various other sources. In  the Dudh 

Kosi region, there are 664 glaciers recorded in this ground surveyed glacier 

inventory by GEN; Müller (1970) identified 166 glaciers in the Nagpo Tsaugpo

and Imja Khola basins of the northernmost Dudh Kosi region.

Figure 9A is a Landsat MSS image of the Dudh Kosi region. The glacier 

distribution in this region as determined from the GEN ground survey is 

shown in figure 9B, and the glacier distribution based on the Landsat images 

is shown in figure 9C. When using the Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) 

images, the minimum width and length of glaciers that are discernable is 

0.3 km and 1.0 km, respectively; these can be seen without difficulty by simple 

visual analyses.

The smaller glaciers are considered as perennial ice-and-snow areas when 

analyzing glacier distribution on the Landsat image. It is possible to discern 

the smaller glaciers from the images only when meteorological conditions are 

good, and it is necessary for them to be checked by ground surveys. 

Comparison of Results for the Khumbu Glacier, Nepal, from 

Landsat Image Analysis and Ground Surveys 

The Khumbu Glacier (fig.  10) is one of the best studied glaciers in 

the Nepal Himalaya. The  glacier is composed of an upper part, the Western 

Cwm, that has an accumulation area that receives ice from the steep cliff of 

Sagarmatha (Mount Everest, 8,848 m) and an ice fall ranging from 5,400 to 

6,000 m, and an ablation area with rich supraglacial debris in its lower part. 

The  equilibrium line altitude is estimated to be at about 5,600 m and the 

terminus is at 4,920 m.

Below the ice fall, there are longitudinal rows of ice pinnacles which disappear in the lower part where the supraglacial debris occurs. Based on the flow 

measurements and surface topography, the present active terminus is thought 

to be located where the Changri Glacier joins from the west (fig. 11A). Below 

the present active terminus, it was thought there was stagnant ice and fossil ice 

from past glacier expansion that occurred in the 16th century (Fushimi, 1978). 

[Editors’ note: However, it was later found that most of the glacier was active 

and flow velocities were measured (Nakawo and others, 1999).]
F312 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

S

C

S

K

Nb

Pa

N

A

C

A

B

C

A Pa

Nb

I

N

D

Glacier inventory

Dudh Kosi region, east Nepal

E 86° 40’ E 87° 00’

N 28° 00’

N 27° 50’

A

C

D

I

K

Nb

N

Pa

S

EXPLANATION

Snow cover

Path of outburst flood

Mt. Ama Dablam

Cho Oyu peak, (8,153 meters 

above sea level)

Dudh Kosi River

Imja Glacier

Khumbu Glacier

Namche settlement

Nare Glacier Lake

Pangboche

Sagarmatha peak (Mt. Everest, 

8,848 meters above sea level)

K

Figure 9.— A, Landsat image; B, glacier 

inventory based on ground surveys; 

and C, glacier distribution mapped from 

Landsat image, in the Dudh Kosi region, 

east Nepal.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F313

Thus, the Khumbu Glacier is broadly divided into a debris-free area 

and a debris-covered area, with ice pinnacles along its boundary. There are 

two types of rock in the supraglacial debris: dark-colored metasediments 

of generally black schists and hornfels, and light-colored plutonic rocks 

such as granite and diorite. Both types come from weathering of bedrock in 

the upper basins. The  distribution of supraglacial debris gives information 

about the flow and ablation processes of compound glaciers.

Detailed topographical surveys and ground investigations of the 

debris-cover in the ablation area of Khumbu Glacier were carried out in 

1978 to clarify the origin of the debris-cover, the heat balance characteristics, and the effects of debris cover on the glacier variations (Watanabe and 

others, 1980; Iwata and others, 1980; Fushimi and others, 1980; Inoue and 

Yoshida, 1980). As a result, a map of the debris-covered area was completed 

(fig. 11B). The map shows the ablation area of the glacier up to 5.5 km from 

the terminus, and contains 125-m grid squares which identify the coverage 

of debris-covered ridges, ice cliffs, lakes, and streams in each square.

Figure 10.— Oblique aerial photograph 

of the Khumbu Glacier, Khumbu region, 

east Nepal, taken on 11 December 

1978.
F314 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Lingtren

6697 m

Khumbutse

6140 m

Lho La

6006 m

Chomo Lungma

Sagarmatha

8848 m

Lhotse

8501 m

Nuptse

7879 m

WEST CWM

Gorak

Shep

B

A

Changri

Glacier

Present

active

terminus

N

Lobujya

Distribution of supraglacial debris, bedrock, and other features of the Khumbu

Glacier, Khumbu Region, east Nepal

Approximate area shown

in Figure 11 B

NOTE: Altitudes shown in

meters above sea level

Lingchen

0 1 2 3 4 5 KILOMETERS

Granite bedrock

Schistose bedrock

Supraglacial 

granitic debris

Supraglacial 

schistose debris

Debris free area

Snow cover

Lateral and terminal

moraines

Ponds and lakes

Lateral moraine ridge

0

1-100

101-200

Lakes

Ridges

Ice cliffs

201-300

301-400

401-500

Distribution of debris-covered ridges: length, in meters

Distribution of ice cliffs: coverage, in percent

Distribution of lakes: coverage, in percent

Distribution of streams: length, in meters

0 1 2 KILOMETERS

0

1-10

11-20

21-30

31-40

41-50

0

1-20

21-40

41-60

61-80

81-100

0

1-80

81-160

161-240

241-320

321-400

Figure 11.— A, Distribution of supraglacial debris, bedrock, and other 

features of the Khumbu Glacier, 

Khumbu region, east Nepal. B, Surface 

characteristics of a 5.5 km length of the 

ablation area of the Khumbu Glacier, 

mapped in 125 m grid squares.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F315

During the same period, Rundquist and Samson (1980) examined the 

Khumbu Glacier using digital Landsat images. The  aim of their study was to 

evaluate the utility of digital Landsat data for the analysis of alpine glaciers. 

They assumed the following six land-cover classes and analyzed their distribution from digital data: (1) water body (lakes, ponds, and streams), (2) barren 

rock, (3) moraine (unconsolidated deposits such as lateral and terminal 

moraines), (4) supraglacial moraine (light deposits termed “debris covered 

ice”), (5) clean ice, and (6) firn and snow. They concluded that their method 

provided a relatively accurate assessment of the surface characteristics of the 

Nepalese glacier.

Results of these simultaneous studies, the digital analysis of the Landsat 

image, and ground surveys of the surface features and topography in the ablation area of the Khumbu Glacier, were compared. Though the comparison 

indicated discrepancies in the interpretation of granitic debris and bare ice, 

generally good agreement was obtained between the surveyed topography 

and the map compiled from digital analysis of Landsat images. Fundamental 

topographic features such as the area of the active glacier, debris-covered area, 

the moraine distribution, and structures of the compound glacier flow are 

almost identical.

Landsat Image Analysis for Monitoring Glacier 

Disasters

Two types of glacier disaster may occur in Nepal— the extraordinary 

advances of surge-type glaciers and glacier outburst floods (GLOFs) 

(jökulhlaups) caused by collapse of moraine- or ice-dammed proglacial lakes. 

These happen simultaneously in some cases and independently in others. 

In  the Khumbu region, it is still a controversial point whether glacier surges 

happened in the past or not; however, there are oral traditions among local 

people that advances of glaciers destroyed pastures, farm lands, and mountain 

paths of the Great Himalayas in the past.

In September 1977, an outburst flood occurred south of Mt. Ama 

Dablam (6,856 m) when the morainic dam of the Nare Glacier lake collapsed 

and caused a flood along the Dudh Kosi river. The flood destroyed river-side 

houses, camping tents, and killed several people.

This outburst flood was caused by rapid drainage from the ice-cored, 

moraine-dammed lake. The size of the lake before the flood was 200×300 m, 

and its depth was 25 m. The  flood level reached up to 10 m, and flood sediments were deposited along the Dudh Kosi river. The  location of the Nare

Glacier lake, the course of the flood, and the affected areas are indicated by a 

dotted line on figure 9C.

It is difficult to predict glacier disasters, but it is possible, as a future 

application of repeated analysis of sequential Landsat images, to observe the 

expansion or partial drainage of glacier lakes, and extraordinary glacier advance 

(surge-type glaciers) by periodic monitoring for many years. Figure 12 shows 

the supraglacial lake of the Imja Glacier (fig. 7) which should be monitored in 

the Khumbu region.

It is clear from published maps and photographs that the supraglacial 

lake of Imja Glacier did not show any indication of expansion in the 1960s. 

However, in the 1970s, the area covered by the glacial lake was estimated from 

various sources and showed a large expansion in total area.

[Editors’ note: Several recent studies have been published about the 

glacier hazards in Nepal. See, for example, the following supplement by Ageta, 

publications by Young, 1993; Young and Neupane, 1996; Upreti, 2000; Mool 
F316 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

and others, 2001; the Nepal Case Study from the NAPA (National Adaption 

Program of Action) Workshop, Thimphu, Bhutan, September 2003, and the 

website of the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development 

(ICIMOD), http://www.icimod.org]

Conclusions

It is clear that Landsat and other high-resolution satellite images are an 

invaluable tool for glaciological studies in Nepal. In  comparisons with glacial 

distribution and features identified from ground investigations, Landsat images 

revealed many of the same features. Also, the distribution and features of the 

glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and Karakoram Range could be compared 

using Landsat images. These images can be used for inventory, monitoring, 

mapping, and hazard prediction and detection. Perhaps the most important 

use is the latter — to help mitigate the disasters caused by potential glacial lake 

outburst floods. The images can be used to determine changes in water supply, 

to monitor lake size and flood threat potential, to monitor glacier termini positions which may indicate increased glacial melt, and to show other vegetation 

and land cover changes that may signal climate change.

Figure 12.— Oblique aerial photograph of the supraglacial lake of the Imja Glacier, 

Khumbu region, east Nepal taken on 30 November 1975. Mt. Makalu (8,481 m) is 

seen in the background.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F317

Supplement to “Glaciers of Nepal” 

By Yutaka Ageta4

Introduction

The preceding section, “Glaciers of Nepal” by Higuchi and others, was 

prepared in the early 1980s to describe the status of glaciers during the 1970s 

as analyzed by Landsat images and localized ground investigations. Here I 

briefly note supplementary information acquired after that time.

Glaciers in Nepal have been observed mainly by Japanese glaciologists 

since the 1970s. Their studies were reported by Higuchi (1993), Nakawo 

and others (1997), and Ageta and others (2001). Studies of Khumbu Glacier 

and other debris-covered glaciers which related to analyses in the preceding 

section were published by Seko and others (1998) and Nakawo and others 

(2000); glacier lakes and their outburst floods in Nepal were reported by 

Yamada (1998).

Another publication describing the glaciers of the Nepal Himalaya is a 

review of glacier distribution, characteristics, and glacier inventories in Asia by 

Tsvetkov and others (1998). Also, recently, Karma and others (2003) analyzed 

the distribution of the highest and lowest glaciers, and estimated equilibrium 

line altitudes of glaciers over most of the Himalayan Range, based on several 

glacier inventories.

Higuchi and others, in table  4 of the preceding section, calculated the 

total area of glaciers in Nepal to be 24,900  km2. Their value is much larger 

than later results because they included the regions surrounding Nepal and the 

area of temporal snow cover. When referring to their work, it is also important 

to know that for several glaciers in the glacier list of table  2, one glacier was 

counted as two glaciers (for example, glacier numbers 430 and 431, 434 and 

435). After their analysis, further estimates were made. The  total glacierized 

surface area in Nepal was estimated at 6,000  km2 from a preliminary glacier 

inventory based on Landsat image maps (Haeberli and others, 1989). [Editors’ 

note: A map compiled by Qin Dahe and others (1999) reported a total of 

3,466 glaciers in Nepal covering an area of 7,929 km2 based on an analysis of 

1975–78 Landsat MSS images.] An updated glacier inventory of Nepal was 

compiled by Mool and others (2001), utilizing Landsat images and other 

sources. They calculated the area of glaciers in Nepal to be 5,324 km2.

[Editors’ note: In addition to the excellent glaciological studies made by 

Japanese scientists in Nepal, other scientists from Nepal, the U.S., the U.K., 

Switzerland, Russia, and Germany, among others, have also made valuable 

contributions to all aspects of the glaciological research in Nepal in the last few 

decades.] 

4

Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan (Retired)
F318 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Vertical aerial photographs were taken in 1992 and 1996 by the 

Survey Department of the Nepalese Government in cooperation with the 

Government of Finland. In  the last several years, a topographical map series 

at 1:50,000 scale has been produced based on the photographs. Compilation 

of a more detailed and accurate glacier inventory of the whole country of 

Nepal using these aerial photographs and maps is now possible. Some work 

has already been done using these materials to analyze glacier variations by 

comparison with other earlier maps, photographs and satellite images and 

more is expected (Asahi, 2001). 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL F319

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