STUDENTS WITH 

DISABILITIES

Better Federal 

Coordination Could 

Lessen Challenges in 

the Transition from 

High School

Report to the Ranking Member, 

Committee on Education and the 

Workforce, House of Representatives

July 2012

GAO-12-594

United States Government Accountability Office

GAO
United States Government Accountability Office

Highlights of GAO-12-594, a report to the 

Ranking Member, Committee on Education 

and the Workforce, House of Representatives

July 2012

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 

Better Federal Coordination Could Lessen 

Challenges in the Transition from High School

Why GAO Did This Study

The transition out of high school to 

postsecondary education or the 

workforce can be a challenging time, 

especially for students with disabilities. 

Multiple federal agencies fund 

programs to support these students 

during their transition. In 2003, GAO 

reported that limited coordination 

among these programs can hinder a 

successful transition. GAO was asked 

to provide information on the (1) 

challenges students with disabilities 

may face accessing federally funded

transition services; and (2) extent to 

which federal agencies coordinate their 

transition activities. GAO reviewed 

relevant federal laws, regulations, and 

agency documents from Education, 

HHS, Labor, and SSA, which 

administer the key programs that 

provide transition services. GAO also 

administered a data collection 

instrument to gather program 

information from these agencies. 

Finally, GAO interviewed various 

stakeholders, including state and local 

officials, service providers, parents, 

and students with disabilities, in five 

states selected based on the number 

of federal grants they received to fund 

transition services.

What GAO Recommends

To improve the provision of transition 

services for students with disabilities, 

GAO recommends that Education, 

HHS, Labor, and SSA develop an 

interagency transition strategy that 

addresses (1) operating toward 

common outcome goals for 

transitioning youth; (2) increasing

awareness of available transition 

services; and (3) assessing the 

effectiveness of their coordination 

efforts. All four agencies agreed with 

the recommendation.

What GAO Found 

Students with disabilities face several longstanding challenges accessing 

services that may assist them as they transition from high school into

postsecondary education or the workforce—services such as tutoring, vocational 

training, and assistive technology. Eligible students with disabilities are entitled to 

transition planning services during high school, but after leaving high school, to 

receive services that facilitate their transition they must apply as adults and 

establish eligibility for programs administered by multiple federal agencies. 

Students with disabilities may face delays in service and end up on waitlists if 

these programs are full. In addition, while all five states GAO contacted have 

taken steps to coordinate their transition services and assist families with the 

transition process, officials said that it is still difficult for students and their parents 

to navigate and for providers to coordinate services across different programs. 

Officials and parents GAO spoke with also noted a lack of sufficient information 

or awareness of the full range of service options available after high school on 

the part of students with disabilities, parents, and service providers. In addition, 

state and local officials said students with disabilities may not be adequately 

prepared to successfully transition to life after high school. This may be due, in 

part, to limited opportunities to engage in vocational and life skills training or 

obtain work experience while in school. 

Students Move from Services Provided through Their High School to Services Delivered 

through Multiple Programs 

The Departments of Education (Education), Health and Human Services (HHS), 

and Labor (Labor), and the Social Security Administration (SSA) coordinate

transition activities to some degree, but their coordination has limitations and 

they do not assess the effectiveness of their efforts. One coordinating body 

involves all four agencies and focuses on transition services. However, that 

group’s primary coordination activity is information sharing among staff-level 

representatives rather than developing common outcome goals and establishing 

compatible policies for operating across agencies. Agency officials told GAO that 

a lack of compatible outcome goals for transitioning students and differences in

statutory eligibility criteria are among the barriers that hinder interagency 

coordination for this population. While agencies collaborate to some extent, their 

efforts represent a patchwork approach and there is no single, formal, 

government-wide strategy for coordinating transition services for students with 

disabilities. Moreover, it is unclear what impact coordination has on service 

provision because agencies do not assess the effectiveness of their coordination 

activities. 

View GAO-12-594. For more information, 

contact Revae E. Moran at (202) 512-7215 or 

moranU@gao.gov.
Page i GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Letter 1 

Background 4

Students with Disabilities Face Several Longstanding Challenges 

Accessing Federal Transition Services 9

Federal Agency Coordination of Transition Activities Has 

Limitations 18

Conclusions 27

Recommendation for Executive Action 28

Agency Comment and Our Evaluation 28

Appendix I Scope and Methodology 31

Appendix II Federal Programs that Provide Transition Services to Youth with 

Disabilities 37

Appendix III Other Federal Coordination Efforts that Address Individuals with 

Disabilities, Including Students 49

Appendix IV Comments from the Department of Education 51

Appendix V Comments from the Department of Health and Human Services 53

Appendix VI Comments from the Department of Labor 60

Appendix VII Comments from the Social Security Administration 62

Appendix VIII GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 64

Contents
Page ii GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Related GAO Products 65

Tables

Table 1: Organizations Contacted 33

Table 2: Education Programs Providing Transition Services to 

Youth with Disabilities (Ranked by Funding Level) 37

Table 3: HHS Programs Providing Transition Services to Youth 

with Disabilities (Ranked by Funding Level) 43

Table 4: Department of Justice Program Providing Transition 

Services to Youth with Disabilities 45

Table 5: Labor Program Providing Transition Services to Youth 

with Disabilities 46

Table 6: SSA Programs Providing Transition Services to Youth with 

Disabilities (Ranked by Funding Level) 47

Figures

Figure 1: Key Federal Legislation Providing for Services to 

Transition-Age Students with Disabilities 6

Figure 2: Students Move from Services Provided through Their 

High Schools to Services Delivered through Multiple 

Programs 10

Figure 3: Federal Coordination Efforts Specific to Transition 

Services 21

Figure 4: Federal Coordination Efforts That Focus on Individuals 

with Disabilities or Youth 49

This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright protection in the 

United States. The published product may be reproduced and distributed in its entirety 

without further permission from GAO. However, because this work may contain 

copyrighted images or other material, permission from the copyright holder may be 

necessary if you wish to reproduce this material separately.
Page 1 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

United States Government Accountability Office

Washington, DC 20548

July 12, 2012

The Honorable George Miller

Ranking Member

Committee on Education and the Workforce

House of Representatives

Dear Mr. Miller:

The transition from high school to postsecondary education or the 

workforce can be a challenging time for all students, and particularly for 

those with disabilities who may need additional services such as tutoring, 

vocational training, assistive technology, and other supports to achieve 

their goals. This can be a daunting process, and research has 

documented that students with disabilities are less likely than their peers 

to successfully make the transition. For example, as of February 2012, 

the employment rate for young adults ages 20 to 24 with disabilities was 

less than half the rate of their peers without disabilities. When young 

adults with disabilities do not successfully transition out of high school, 

they may face a lifetime of continued reliance on public assistance, 

potentially leading to substantial costs to the government and society. 

Although the total amount of federal money spent to support students with 

disabilities in transitioning out of high school is not known, the federal 

investment in educating students with disabilities is substantial. In 2011, 

the Department of Education (Education) awarded about $11.5 billion in 

federal grants to states to help ensure that 6.6 million students with 

disabilities—approximately 2.2 million of whom were of transition-age1

 

1 In this report, we use the term “transition-age” to refer to youth between the ages of 14 

and 25. This age range covers youth served by the key programs we identified as 

providing transition services to youth with disabilities.

—

received a free appropriate public education, as required by the 

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), a key piece of 

legislation pertaining to transition. IDEA requires that beginning not later 

than the first individualized education program (IEP) to be in effect when 

the student turns 16, school officials must include in the IEP 

 
 

Page 2 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

postsecondary goals and the transition services needed to assist the 

student in reaching those goals.2

Students remain eligible for transition planning and services, as well as 

other IDEA services, until they exit high school. Once students exit high 

school, they are no longer entitled to federal transition services under 

IDEA.3 Instead, they may apply and be found eligible for a number of 

other separately administered federal programs that are authorized to 

provide services that can assist youth with disabilities in their transition to 

postsecondary education, employment, and independent living. GAO has 

reported on the need for better coordination among federal disability 

programs, including those serving students with disabilities.4 This is one 

reason that, as of 2011, federal disability programs remained on GAO’s 

high risk list.5

 

2 Pub. L. No. 108-446, 118 Stat. 2647, 2676, § 612(a)(1) (codified as amended at 20 

U.S.C § 1412(a)(1)). 20 U.S.C. § 1414(d)(1)(A)(i)(VIII).

In light of questions about the accessibility and coordination 

of transition services for students with disabilities, you requested we 

provide information on: (1) challenges students with disabilities may face 

3 Students remain eligible for transition planning and services, as well as other IDEA 

services, until they graduate from high school with a regular high school diploma or 

exceed the earlier of age 21 or the eligibility age for a free appropriate public education 

under state law. While federal law authorizes students to receive a free appropriate public 

education up until age 22, eligibility for students aged 18-21 is determined by states. 20 

U.S.C. § 1412(a)(1) and 34 C.F.R. § 300.102 (2011). 

4 See GAO, People with Disabilities: Federal Programs Could Work Together More 

Efficiently to Promote Employment, GAO/HEHS-96-126 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 3, 

1996); Highlights of a Forum: Modernizing Federal Disability Policy, GAO-07-934SP

(Washington, D.C.: August 2007); Special Education: Federal Actions Can Assist States in 

Improving Postsecondary Outcomes for Youth, GAO-03-773 (Washington, D.C.: July 31, 

2003); Summary of a GAO Conference: Helping California Youth with Disabilities 

Transition to Work or Postsecondary Education, GAO-06-759SP (Washington, D.C.: June 

20, 2006); Federal Disability Programs: More Strategic Coordination Could Help 

Overcome Challenges to Needed Transformation, GAO-08-635 (Washington, D.C.: May 

20, 2008); Young Adults with Serious Mental Illness: Some States and Federal Agencies 

Are Taking Steps to Address Their Transition Challenges, GAO-08-678 (Washington, 

D.C.: June 23, 2008); and High Risk Series: An Update, GAO-11-278 (Washington, D.C.: 

February 2011).

5 GAO publishes a high risk list to focus attention on government operations that it 

identifies as high risk due to their greater vulnerabilities to fraud, waste, abuse, and 

mismanagement or the need for transformation to address economy, efficiency, or 

effectiveness challenges. This list is updated biennially to remove areas where progress 

has been made and identify any new areas needing attention by Congress and the 

executive branch.
 

Page 3 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

accessing transition services under existing federal programs; and (2) the 

extent to which federal agencies coordinate their transition activities.

To identify potential challenges, we reviewed the definitions of disability 

and the eligibility criteria in selected federal statutes governing federal 

programs that provide transition services.6

 To assess the extent to which 

federal agencies coordinate their transition activities, we asked officials 

from the four agencies that administer key programs serving students in 

their transition out of high school—Education, the Departments of Health 

and Human Services (HHS) and Labor (Labor), and the Social Security 

Administration (SSA)—to provide information on their coordination efforts 

and activities relating to transition services. We compared their responses 

and agency documents to our criteria on activities that can enhance and 

sustain collaboration among federal agencies.7 In addition, we consulted 

a number of experts in the field of transition and from advocacy 

organizations that represent young adults with a wide range of disability 

types. Finally, to obtain the perspectives of state and local agencies that 

deliver transition services, we selected a nongeneralizable sample of five 

states and contacted officials to obtain their views. We selected these 

states based on the number of federal grants they received in fiscal year 

(FY) 2011 to fund transition services, recommendations of agency 

officials and experts, and geographic diversity.8

 

6 In this report, we use the term “transition services” to include educational services such 

as tutoring or study skills assistance, school-based work experience programs, assistive 

technology or accommodations; employment services such as vocational training, job 

search assistance, job coaching, or supported employment; or other support services 

such as independent living assistance and skill development, transportation, mentoring, 

benefits counseling, information, guidance and referral services, advocacy, or financial 

assistance for adaptive equipment or other assistive technology.

Through a combination of 

site visits and telephone interviews, we spoke with service providers and 

officials from state education, vocational rehabilitation, developmental 

7 In this report we use the term “coordination” broadly to include interagency activities that 

others have variously defined as “collaboration,” “cooperation,” “integration,” or 

“networking.” Although there is no commonly accepted definition of coordination, we 

defined it as any joint activity by two or more organizations that is intended to produce 

more public value than could be produced when the organizations act alone. See E. 

Bardach, Getting Agencies to Work Together: The Practice and Theory of Managerial 

Craftsmanship (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1998).

8 We visited the four states with a relatively large number of grants for programs that 

provide transition services (California, Florida, Maryland, and Minnesota) and interviewed 

officials by phone in the state with a relatively small number of grants for programs that 

provide transition services (Nevada). 
 

Page 4 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

disability, and workforce agencies. In each state we visited, we also met 

with groups of students with disabilities and parents to discuss the 

challenges they face. Appendix I explains our scope and methodology in 

more detail.

We conducted this performance audit from July 2011 through July 2012 in 

accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. 

Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain 

sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our 

findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that 

the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and 

conclusions based on our audit objectives.

To support the educational needs of children with disabilities, Congress 

originally enacted IDEA in 1975.9 Part B of IDEA authorizes federal 

funding for children aged 3 through 21 with a range of disabilities who 

need special education services. To receive federal funds, states and 

local education agencies must identify and evaluate children who have 

disabilities and provide special education and related services, as well as 

supplementary aids and services when necessary, to those who are 

eligible. Such services and supports are formulated in an IEP, which is 

developed, discussed, and documented by a student’s IEP team.10

 

9 IDEA was originally enacted as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. Pub. L. 

No. 94-142, 89 Stat. 773 (codified as amended at 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400-1482) (1975).

In the 

2004 reauthorization of IDEA, Congress required that, beginning no later 

than age 16, a student’s IEP must include measurable postsecondary 

goals related to training, education, employment, and where appropriate, 

independent living skills. The IEP also must specify the transition 

10 20 U.S.C. § 1414(d).

Background 
 

Page 5 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

services11 needed to assist the student in reaching those goals.12 School 

officials are required to invite the student to a meeting where the 

transition services detailed in the IEP are discussed. When appropriate,

they also must invite a representative of any participating outside agency 

(with the prior consent of the parent or student who has reached the age 

of majority).13

As students with disabilities exit high school, they may apply as adults 

and be found eligible for a number of federally funded programs, including 

federal disability programs, if they wish to obtain services important to 

their transition. There is wide diversity in this population—students with 

disabilities can have a range of physical and cognitive disabilities that can 

affect their ability to learn. They may also demonstrate varying levels of 

academic aptitude and achievement in different areas. Thus, the number 

of programs for which each student may be eligible can vary widely based 

on their abilities, postsecondary goals, and the types of supportive 

services they may need to be successful. We identified a range of 

programs that provide services to support students with disabilities in their 

 

11 Under IDEA, transition services are defined as a coordinated set of activities that (1) is 

designed to be within a results-oriented process focused on improving the academic and 

functional achievement of a child with a disability to facilitate the child’s movement from 

school to post-school activities; (2) is based on the individual child’s needs, strengths, 

preferences, and interests; and (3) includes instruction, related services, community 

experiences, the development of employment and other post-school adult living 

objectives, and when appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills and functional vocational 

evaluation. 20 U.S.C. § 1401(34).

12 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-446, 

sec. 101, § 614(d)(1)(A)(i)(VIII),118 Stat. 2647, 2709 (codified at 20 U.S.C. § 

1414(d)(1)(A)(i)(VIII)). 

13 20 U.S.C. § 1414(d)(1)(B)(vii) and 34 C.F.R. § 300.321(b)(1) and (3) (2011). In addition 

to IDEA, other laws support the educational needs of students with disabilities. Section 

504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits entities that receive federal financial 

assistance, including public and private schools, from discriminating on the basis of 

disability against otherwise qualified individuals with disabilities. Pub. L. No. 93-112, § 

504, 87 Stat. 355, 394 (codified as amended at 29 U.S.C. § 794). Regulations 

implementing Section 504 are at 34 C.R.F pt 104 (2011). The Americans with Disabilities 

Act of 1990 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability by public entities and public 

accommodations, including public and private schools, regardless of whether they receive 

federal financial assistance. Pub. L. No 101-336, §§ 201(1), 202, 301(7)(J) and 302, 104 

Stat. 337, 354 and 355 (codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 12131(1), 12132, 12181(7)(J) and 

12182). Title II regulations are at 28 C.F.R. part 35 and Title III regulations at 28 C.F.R. pt 

36 (2011). The requirements of Section 504 and Titles II and III of the Americans with 

Disabilities Act of 1990 and the rights of students with disabilities under them are not 

addressed in this study. 
 

Page 6 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

transition out of high school. These programs vary in the target population 

served, services provided, grant funding amounts, and other 

characteristics. In addition, they are authorized by multiple federal laws 

(administered through various federal agencies), each with its own 

eligibility requirements and application processes. (See fig. 1). Moreover, 

federally funded programs that provide transition services, as defined in 

this report, are often delivered through state and local entities that have 

flexibility on how to administer services.

Figure 1: Key Federal Legislation Providing for Services to Transition-Age Students with Disabilities 

a

Services under the Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended by the Higher Education Opportunity 

Act, begin largely when a student enters postsecondary education. Pub.L. No. 110-315, sec. 709(2), 

§§ 766-769, 122 Stat. 3078,3365-67 (codified at 20 U.S.C. §§ 1140f-1140i) 

b

Students who meet certain criteria may receive SSI benefits prior to age 18; the Social Security 

Administration is statutorily required to redetermine the eligibility of all children receiving these 

benefits within one year of their 18th birthday. 42 U.S.C. § 1382c(a)(3)(H)(iii).

c

Students who meet certain criteria may receive services through the Workforce Investment Act of 

1998 (WIA) youth program between the ages of 14 and 21; services through the WIA adult program 

may begin at age 18. 29 U.S.C. § 2801(1) and (13).
 

Page 7 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

The following four agencies have primary responsibility for administering 

federal programs that can provide services to transition-age youth with 

disabilities:

• Education’s Rehabilitation Services Administration awards funds to 

state vocational rehabilitation (VR) agencies in the form of matching 

grants to help individuals with disabilities prepare for and engage in 

gainful employment.14 VR programs require that an individualized plan 

for employment be developed for eligible students before they leave 

high school.15

• Labor oversees the one-stop center system, a comprehensive 

workforce investment system created under the Workforce Investment 

Act of 1998 (WIA) that brings together multiple federally funded 

employment and training programs that can help all eligible individuals 

seeking employment and training—including students with 

disabilities.

Furthermore, if the student is receiving special 

education services, this plan must be coordinated with the student’s 

IEP in terms of goals, objectives, and services.

16

• SSA provides cash benefits to qualifying individuals with disabilities—

including transition-age young adults—through its Disability Insurance 

Labor also administers the Disability Employment 

Initiative, which is designed to improve educational, training, and 

employment opportunities and outcomes for youth and adults with 

disabilities who are unemployed, underemployed, and/or receiving 

Social Security disability benefits.

 

14 29 U.S.C. §§ 702, 706 and 721(a)(2) and (3). 

15 29 U.S.C. § 721(a)(9) and 34 C.F.R. § 361.22(a)(2) (2011). If a state VR agency is 

operating under an order of selection, a plan must be developed for students who are 

eligible to receive services under the order of selection prior to when they leave school. A 

VR agency must implement an order of selection when it anticipates it will not have 

sufficient fiscal and/or personnel resources to fully serve all eligible individuals. 29 U.S.C. 

§ 721(a)(5) and 34 C.F.R. § 361.36 (2011). An order of selection consists of priority 

categories to which eligible individuals are assigned based on the significance of their

disability—individuals with the most significant disabilities are selected first for the 

provision of vocational rehabilitation services.

16 29 U.S.C. § 2841.
 

Page 8 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) programs.17 SSA also 

administers the Ticket to Work program, which is designed to enable 

individuals with disabilities (who are receiving disability insurance or 

SSI benefits and are between the ages of 18 and 64) to obtain 

services needed to find, enter, and retain employment. They obtain 

these services from providers such as VR agencies.18

• HHS’s Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services manages Medicaid, 

the joint federal-state health care financing program for qualifying lowincome individuals. Within the Medicaid program, states provide home 

and community-based services to individuals with certain types of 

disabilities—which may include young adults—who might otherwise 

be cared for in institutional settings.19 Because Medicaid usually does 

not cover home and community-based services, states must obtain a 

waiver to provide these services. Services provided in accordance 

with these waivers vary by state, are individualized, and may include, 

for example, case management, personal care attendants, or day or 

residential habilitation.

20

In addition, these and other federal agencies fund a number of other 

programs through grants to states, localities, and nongovernmental 

organizations that may assist students and young adults during their 

transition from high school. Some of these grants explicitly target 

 

17 Individuals known as “disabled adult children” can receive Disability Insurance benefits 

if they are age 18 or older, were disabled before age 22, and have at least one parent who 

also receives Social Security payments because of retirement or disability or who is 

deceased but worked long enough to be eligible to receive benefits. 20 C.F.R. § 

404.350(a) (2011). The SSI program provides financial assistance to eligible individuals 

who are age 65 or older, blind, or disabled, and who have limited income and resources. 

42 U.S.C. § 1381a. Children under age 18 may qualify for SSI benefits if they meet SSA’s 

disability definition and financial eligibility requirements. 20 C.F.R. § 416.906 (2011). SSA 

is statutorily required to redetermine the eligibility of all children receiving these benefits 

within one year of their 18th birthday. 42 U.S.C. § 1382c(a)(3)(H)(iii). 

18 42 U.S.C. § 1320b-19.

19 42 U.S.C. § 1396n(c).

20 “Habilitation services” are defined as “services designed to assist participants in 

acquiring, retaining, and improving the self-help, socialization, and adaptive skills 

necessary to reside successfully in home and community-based settings.” 42 U.S.C. § 

1396n(c)(5). Habilitation services are flexible in nature, they can be day or residential, and 

they can be specifically designed to fund services and supports that help an individual 

obtain or maintain employment.
 

Page 9 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

improving postsecondary outcomes for students with disabilities and 

others provide a range of support services such as assistive technology, 

information and referral, advocacy, transportation, leadership 

development, benefits counseling, and independent living services. (See 

app. II for more information on federal programs that received federal 

funding in FY 2011 to provide transition services to students with 

disabilities.)

Students with disabilities face several challenges accessing federally 

funded programs that can provide transition services as they leave high 

school for postsecondary education or the workforce. These include 

difficulty navigating multiple programs that are not always coordinated; 

possible delays in service as they wait to be served by adult programs; 

limited access to transition services; a lack of adequate information or 

awareness on the part of parents, students, and service providers of 

available programs that may provide transition services after high school; 

and a lack of preparedness for postsecondary education or employment. 

Prior GAO work identified many of these same challenges, which is 

indicative of the longstanding and persistent nature of the challenges 

facing students with disabilities as they transition out of high school.21

In each of the five states we contacted, state officials said it can be 

difficult for students with disabilities and their families to navigate the 

multiple federal programs that provide transition services.22 Some officials 

said that the shift from being automatically entitled to services under IDEA 

if identified as disabled while in high school to having to apply as adults 

and be found eligible for multiple programs after exiting high school is 

difficult for students and their parents to understand. (See fig. 2).

 

21 GAO-08-678; GAO-06-759SP; and GAO-03-773. 

22 In this section, we quantified the challenges identified during our interviews as follows: 

we used “most” if a challenge was mentioned in more than 85 percent of our interviews; 

“many” or “frequently” if a challenge was mentioned in over half; “some” if a challenge was 

mentioned in less than half; and “a few” if a challenge was mentioned in less than 25 

percent of the interviews.

Students with

Disabilities Face 

Several Longstanding 

Challenges Accessing 

Federal Transition 

Services 

Difficulty Navigating Multiple 

Programs that Provide 

Transition Services 
 

Page 10 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Figure 2: Students Move from Services Provided through Their High Schools to Services Delivered through Multiple 

Programs

Note: Students may also receive services from other federal and nongovernmental programs.

a

States must identify, evaluate, and provide services to children with disabilities. Students with 

disabilities remain entitled to services until they graduate from high school with a regular high school 

diploma or exceed the earlier of age 21 or the eligibility age for a free appropriate public education 

under state law. While federal law authorizes students to receive a free appropriate public education 

up until age 22, eligibility for students aged 18-21 is determined by states. 20 U.S.C. § 1412(a)(1) 

and 34 C.F.R. § 300.102 (2011).

b

Includes job coaching, job placement, and supported employment.

c

Includes vocational assessment, vocational education, and work-based experiences.

d

Students must disclose their disability to obtain services in college.

e

SSA is statutorily required to redetermine the eligibility of all children receiving SSI benefits within 

one year of their 18th birthday. 42 U.S.C. § 1382(a)(3)(H)(iii).

Many of the stakeholders told us that a lack of coordination between 

programs was another key challenge for students with disabilities and/or 
 

Page 11 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

their families.23 For example, staff from a parent training and information 

Center in Minnesota said that it is very challenging for parents to navigate 

the system and coordinate resources for their children across programs. 

In their experience, none of the program officials coordinate with those 

from other programs to share information on clients. State officials 

suggested that a lack of coordination between programs often arises as 

early as during IEP transition planning meetings. IDEA requires high 

schools to invite, with parental or student consent, representatives from 

adult programs likely to be responsible for providing or paying for 

transition services to the student after high school, such as VR, to these 

meetings to the extent appropriate.24

In each of the five states we contacted, some officials said that differing 

requirements for adult programs can confuse students and parents. For 

example, officials from Florida’s department of VR said that the 

requirement for VR clients to have an individualized plan for employment 

that identifies an employment goal and the services and supports 

necessary to achieve that goal can be confusing for youth who already 

included transition plans and identified a career goal in their IEP. In 

addition, the amount of documentation each program requires can be 

overwhelming for students with disabilities and their parents. According to 

a student in Maryland, there is a continuous administrative burden on 

applicants to provide the same or similar information to multiple 

programs. Officials we interviewed from three of the four federal agencies 

acknowledged these challenges.

These representatives, however, are 

not required to attend, and we heard that they are often not at the table 

for transition planning meetings. VR officials from one state

acknowledged this, saying that while they try to attend transition planning 

meetings, it is not always possible because of resource and time 

constraints. Some of the stakeholders suggested that without the 

commitment of local leaders and service providers to coordinate services 

between high school and adult programs, there is little to no 

communication between programs, which can create difficulty for families 

trying to navigate across different programs. 

 

23 The term “stakeholders” refers to federal, state, and local officials; students and 

parents; and experts on transition. 

24 34 C.F.R. § 300.321(b)(3) (2011).
 

Page 12 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

In each of the states we contacted, officials suggested that it would be 

helpful to appoint a case manager to coordinate services and guide 

students and their families through the transition process. Some of the 

parents and also officials from two of the four federal agencies agreed 

that a case manager could help students with disabilities and their 

families navigate across the multiple programs. However, officials from 

one federal agency cautioned that it could be costly and, given that 

programs that provide transition services are administered by different 

federal agencies and implemented at the state and local level, 

challenging to administer.

Students with disabilities may also face delays in service upon leaving 

high school as they wait to obtain services from adult programs or for 

their eligibility determinations to be finalized. Many stakeholders said that 

delays in service can be caused by limited financial or program 

resources, which may leave youth with disabilities on waitlists for 

services. In particular, states may have waitlists—sometimes with several 

thousand individuals—for home and community-based waiver services. 

The departments of VR in four of the five states we contacted were 

operating under a federally required order of selection, requiring them to 

serve individuals with the most significant disabilities before serving 

others.25

Service delays can be exacerbated if students with disabilities have to 

wait until program officials resolve who should provide and pay for 

services. In addition, some adult programs will not provide services to 

Several parents from Minnesota said that their children had 

been on waitlists for waiver services or VR services for years. One parent 

from Florida said that her adult son was living at home with no services or 

employment options as he waited for waiver services from the state’s 

department of disability. Officials from Nevada’s department of VR said 

that delays in service may also occur when students with disabilities, 

upon leaving high school, must return assistive technology devices on 

loan from the school, such as software for blind individuals that reads text 

on a screen in a computer-generated voice. According to officials, some 

students go without these critical adaptive devices until VR is able to 

equip them with the same or similar technologies.

 

25 29 U.S.C. § 721(a)(5) and 34 C.F.R. 361.36. According to Education officials, 45 VR 

agencies have implemented an order of selection, as required by federal law, because 

they are unable to service all eligible individuals in the state due to their lack of financial or 

staff resources. 

Delays in Service
 

Page 13 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

students who are still eligible to receive services under IDEA.26 Officials 

from two states said that, as a result, there has been a shift toward 

keeping students with disabilities in high school longer so that schools 

continue paying for services until students graduate or turn 22 years of 

age. For example, officials from Maryland’s department of VR said that 

students with developmental disabilities who decide to leave high school 

before they age out of IDEA services often face a delay in services 

because the state department of developmental disability will not provide 

services to students younger than age 21.27

Some of the stakeholders said that differing eligibility criteria, definitions 

of disability, and assessment requirements for the various adult programs 

can also result in service delays while youth with disabilities wait for 

assessments or eligibility determinations. For example, officials in the four 

states in which we spoke with higher education officials said some 

colleges require students with disabilities to be reassessed before they 

can receive accommodations, and that this can cause a delay in service 

because there are long waitlists for these reassessments or because they 

are cost prohibitive for some families.

Limited access to reliable public transportation to and from employment 

programs and service providers—especially in rural areas—was also 

frequently highlighted as a major challenge. For example, officials from 

Florida said limited funding for transportation services contributes to the 

lack of transportation for students with disabilities.

Officials in each of the states we contacted also said that certain groups 

of students with disabilities are more likely to face limited service options 

or gaps in service because their disabilities may be less visible or 

 

26 Young adults with disabilities may not be eligible for some adult services until they 

graduate from high school with a regular diploma or exceed the age eligibility for a free 

appropriate public education under state law because of “payer of last resort” provisions, 

which specify the order in which funding sources or programs should pay for services. For 

example, both VR and Medicaid function as payers of last resort—if another program or 

funding source (for example IDEA) is still available to that individual, that other source 

must be exhausted before VR and Medicaid will pay for services. 29 U.S.C. § 707 

(regarding nonduplication), and 42 U.S.C. § 1396a(a)(25) and 42 C.F.R. § 433.139(b) 

(regarding third-party liability) (2011).

27 According to HHS officials, Maryland has waivers, Community Pathways and New 

Directions Independence Plus, that can serve individuals with developmental disabilities 

who are under the age of 21.

Limited Access to Transition 

Services 
 

Page 14 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

because they are less likely to qualify for adult programs. These groups 

include students with developmental or cognitive disabilities, learning 

disabilities, mental health disabilities, autism, and mild disabilities. 

Further, we heard that there may be limited programs for students with 

hearing or visual impairments, and that if these students also have other 

disabilities, it can be difficult to determine which program (e.g., VR or a 

developmental disability agency) should provide services, which can lead 

to gaps in service. Similarly, officials said that students with disabilities 

who are in the juvenile justice system, are themselves parents, or are 

homeless may also be more likely to face gaps in service than other 

students with disabilities because they tend not to be aware of or 

connected to adult service providers. In addition, some students who 

qualified for services under IDEA and/or under Section 504 of the 

Rehabilitation Act may not meet the eligibility requirements for adult 

programs and may, therefore, have limited or no post-high school service 

options. For example, one parent told us that her daughter, who has a 

serious physical disability, did not receive any transition planning 

assistance and struggled to gain access to services such as personal 

care attendants who would help her successfully transition to a college 

out of state.

A lack of adequate information and awareness of available program 

options on the part of parents, students, and service providers was 

another challenge highlighted during our site visits. Many stakeholders 

said that students with disabilities and their parents do not always receive 

enough information about the full range of service options after high 

school. For example, a parent from California said that she was very 

disappointed with the limited information she received from her school 

district and that she had no idea what resources were available for her 

son after he left high school. A student from Maryland expressed concern 

that students with disabilities who do not seek information about transition 

services outside of high school may not have access to information, and 

consequently, to needed services. In contrast, a few stakeholders said 

parents may receive too much information and feel overwhelmed. For 

example, a parent from California said that families may receive so much 

information that they do not remember everything and do not know where 

to seek help when the time comes. A staff member from the California 

Department of Education’s Workability program said that, even when 

information about transition services is available, it is generally not 

Lack of Adequate Information 

and Awareness of Options after 

High School 
 

Page 15 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

compiled and made available in one central place for families to access.28

Sometimes there was an issue with the accuracy of information parents 

received. For example, officials in three of the five states we contacted 

said that parents may be misinformed about programs, especially about 

the ability of their children to retain SSI benefits. Officials from Florida’s 

developmental disability agency noted that parents are often misinformed 

by teachers or adult program service providers that their children will lose 

these benefits entirely if they obtain any paid employment.

She recommended that states or programs develop an accessible, easy 

to read transition manual that clearly lays out post-high school service 

options.

Lack of awareness of service options also extended to teachers and other 

high school personnel. Many of the stakeholders said that teachers and 

other high school personnel may not always be aware of post-high school 

service options for students with disabilities. For example, one parent said 

that while there are a lot of programs in her community that can aid 

students in transition, school personnel are not aware of them and 

therefore cannot appropriately guide students with disabilities and their 

families. Moreover, some experts and state education officials said that 

teacher training and professional development programs do not always 

adequately prepare teachers to provide transition services or inform them 

about the various agencies and resources available to students with 

disabilities. A few of the officials, however, said that teachers in some 

school districts are well trained in and aware of adult programs that can 

provide transition services, which allows them to disseminate information 

to students and their parents.

In addition, some stakeholders said that service providers from adult 

programs may not be used to working with this student population or have 

limited awareness of other adult programs that can provide 

complementary transition services. For example, stakeholders in 

Maryland and Nevada said that VR counselors need additional training to 

work with transition-age youth with disabilities and officials from 

Maryland’s local workforce agencies said that one-stop center staff need 

more training to help these students enter the workforce. A representative 

 

28 California’s Workability program is a school-based work program for students with 

disabilities, designed to offer the opportunity to complete high school while obtaining 

marketable job skills. 
 

Page 16 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

from a parent training and information center in Maryland added that the 

knowledge service providers have about other programs is piecemeal and 

inconsistent. She suggested the federal government support additional 

training for all professionals who work with students in transition.

Many stakeholders said that high schools do not always adequately 

prepare students with disabilities for college or the workforce, and cited

several contributing factors. According to some officials, the federal 

requirement to begin transition planning by age 16 is too late. In fact, 

officials in four of the five states we contacted said that schools are 

required to start transition planning at an earlier age.29 In addition, in all 

five states we heard that schools’ emphasis on academic achievement 

has left little time for vocational and life skills training, even though these 

skills may be key to gaining and retaining employment—especially for 

students with disabilities. Officials from Minnesota’s department of VR 

said that schools need to pay greater attention to vocational training 

because students with disabilities are at a distinct disadvantage if they 

leave high school with no work experience. Further, officials from 

Maryland’s department of developmental disabilities said that because 

most jobs require a high school diploma, students with disabilities who 

receive certificates instead of diplomas could find their employment 

options significantly curtailed because many employers do not recognize 

alternative completion documents.30

 

29 Since the 2004 reauthorization of IDEA, schools have been required, beginning no later 

than the first IEP that will be in effect when a student turns 16 years of age, to include in 

the IEP postsecondary goals and the transition services needed to assist the student in 

reaching those goals. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, 

Pub. L. No. 108-446, sec. 101, § 414(d)(1)(A)(i)(VIII), 118 Stat. 2647, 2709 (codified at 20 

U.S.C. § 1414(d)(1)(A)(i)(VIII)). Furthermore, we were told by state officials that some 

states require that transition planning begin earlier than age 16, including four of the five 

states we contacted, which required transition planning to begin at age 14.

As a transition specialist from 

Maryland noted, many students with non-traditional diplomas end up in 

30 In some states, some students with disabilities receive a certificate of completion or 

other alternatives to a high school diploma. 

Inadequate Preparation for 

Postsecondary Education or 

the Workforce
 

Page 17 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

sheltered workshops because they are not considered to be qualified for 

competitive employment opportunities.31

In addition, according to some stakeholders, adult programs are not 

always designed to meet the needs of transition-age youth with 

disabilities in ways that will help them succeed in college or in a job. For

example, a few state officials said that the VR system does not provide 

incentives for serving transition-age youth with disabilities because VR’s 

performance indicators reward counselors for serving clients who find and 

maintain employment for at least 90 days, and youth with disabilities may 

take longer to do so.

 

32 Similarly, we heard from a few officials, including 

representatives from California’s workforce agency, that the time frame of 

the employment outcome measures under the WIA youth program may 

be too short—for example, the employment retention rate at 6 months33—

and not appropriate for transition-age youth with disabilities who often 

require follow-up support longer than 6 months in order to be successful 

at a job.34

Another frequently mentioned challenge was low expectations by parents, 

service providers, and even students themselves about what students 

with disabilities can achieve. These groups told us that low expectations 

often contributed to students with disabilities being unprepared for college 

or the workforce because parents, teachers, and others may not have 

exposed them to all available options for life after high school. 

Consequently, some officials said students may be directed to apply for 

 

31 To prevent curtailment of employment opportunities for individuals with disabilities, 

Labor is authorized under certain conditions to issue certificates permitting employers to 

pay them less than the otherwise required minimum wage. 29 U.S.C. § 214(c). Sheltered 

workshops, which are also referred to as work centers, exclusively or primarily employ 

people with disabilities certified to be paid less than the otherwise required minimum 

wage. 

32 We previously reported that Education does not comprehensively measure the 

performance of VR for certain key populations, including transition-age youth. See GAO, 

Vocational Rehabilitation: Better Measures and Monitoring Could Improve the 

Performance of the VR Program, GAO-05-865 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 23, 2005).

33 29 U.S.C. § 2871(b)(2)(A)(i)(II).

34 We previously reported that WIA performance measures can create disincentives for 

one-stop centers to serve clients with disabilities. See GAO, Workforce Investment Act: 

Labor Has Taken Several Actions to Facilitate Access to One-Stops for Persons with 

Disabilities, but These Efforts May Not Be Sufficient, GAO-05-54 (Washington, D.C.: Dec. 

14, 2004). 
 

Page 18 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

social security benefits instead of receiving job training, and that students 

with more serious disabilities who could benefit from competitive 

employment (i.e., applying for and getting a job) may be steered instead 

toward adult day training programs and sheltered workshops.

Education, HHS, Labor, and SSA coordinate transition activities to some 

degree, but their coordination has limitations and they do not assess the 

effectiveness of their efforts. They coordinate on some specific transition 

activities, but their efforts are primarily focused on information sharing 

and lack elements that our prior work identified as enhancing and 

sustaining effective coordination.35 We have reported on the importance 

of developing common outcome goals and of engaging in strategic 

planning and coordination to address issues that cut across agency 

boundaries. This can take many forms, ranging from occasional meetings 

between agency staff to more structured joint policy teams operating over 

a long period of time.36

One federal coordination effort—the Federal Partners in Transition 

Workgroup—targets transition services to students with disabilities and 

involves all four agencies that administer the key programs that provide 

transition services to youth with disabilities.

37

 

35 While some coordination efforts included in this report involve other federal agencies, 

we focused on Education, HHS, Labor, and SSA because these four agencies administer 

the key programs serving students in their transition out of high school.

However, this workgroup is 

informal and primarily involves information sharing among staff-level 

representatives, according to agency officials. For example, SSA officials 

36 GAO-06-15. 

37 The Federal Partners in Transition Workgroup focuses on all youth, including students, 

with disabilities. In this report, we refer to the group’s efforts related to students with 

disabilities, as appropriate, to be consistent with the focus of our review. 

Federal Agency 

Coordination of 

Transition Activities 

Has Limitations

Federal Agencies 

Coordinate on Specific 

Transition Activities but 

Face Some Barriers
 

Page 19 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

told us that in past meetings, their staff presented information about SSI 

requirements for the transitioning youth population, including the process 

for redetermining eligibility for SSI when youth turn age 18, and 

information on the Student Earned Income Exclusion.38 To a lesser 

extent, some workgroup members also reported that they have jointly 

developed guidance for students with disabilities and grantees, including 

a fact sheet about how students can take advantage of Schedule A hiring 

authority for federal jobs.39

Education and Labor also participate in the National Community of 

Practice in Support of Transition, which was developed by the IDEA 

Partnership and focuses on joint efforts among state and local agencies 

to coordinate and improve outcomes for youth with disabilities in 

transition. Both agencies also have established intra-agency groups to 

facilitate collaboration between internal program offices.

In addition, the workgroup has convened 

forums to help students with disabilities develop their leadership and selfadvocacy skills and to discuss action steps to ensure students are 

prepared to move successfully to adulthood. This workgroup also 

convened a meeting of representatives of technical assistance centers to 

discuss coordination among the centers. Agencies involved in the 

workgroup reported varying levels of involvement in more extensive 

coordination activities, such as policymaking, program planning, and joint 

strategic planning. Labor officials leading the effort told us they are in the 

process of drafting a strategic plan to identify objectives, activities, and 

outcomes for the group.

40

 

38 The Student Earned Income Exclusion allows SSA to exclude a certain amount of a 

beneficiary’s earned income when determining benefits payments. 42 U.S.C. § 

1382a(b)(1). This exclusion is one of the incentives SSA offers to encourage work among 

SSI recipients. In addition, the Social Security Disability Amendments of 1980 allowed for 

continued payments under VR or a similar program to eligible beneficiaries until the 

completion of the program, beneficiary participation ends, or continued participation will 

not increase the likelihood of exit from the disability benefit rolls. Pub. L .No. 96-265, § 

301, 94 Stat. 449-50 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 425(b) and 1383(b)(6)). 

Examples of specific programs that trigger this provision include Ticket to Work, VR, and 

special education services under IDEA for individuals ages 18 through 21.

(See fig. 3.) 

39 Schedule A hiring authority allows individuals with disabilities to apply for a federal 

appointment through a noncompetitive hiring process. 5 C.F.R. § 213.3102(u). (2012).

40 The IDEA Partnership is funded by the Office of Special Education Programs through 

the Technical Assistance and Dissemination to Improve Services and Results for Children 

with Disabilities program. 20 U.S.C. § 1463. The partnership brings together 

representatives from national associations, service providers, and agencies that have a 

vested interest in improving results for all students, including those with disabilities.
 

Page 20 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Education officials also said they recently sponsored a national transition 

conference for more than 800 professionals, families, and students to 

facilitate collaboration and communication across federal, state, and local 

entities. Aside from these efforts, officials said most of their interagency 

coordination regarding transition services occurs on an ad hoc basis, 

such as sharing white papers and holding informal discussions about 

policies, performance measures, and technical assistance to states. In 

addition, several federal coordination efforts broadly target disadvantaged 

youth or all individuals with disabilities and may address some aspects of 

transition. (See app. III). 
 

Page 21 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Figure 3: Federal Coordination Efforts Specific to Transition Services 

Note: While some coordination efforts included in this figure involve other federal agencies, we 

focused on Education, HHS, Labor, and SSA because they administer the key programs serving 

students in their transition out of high school. Key activities coordinated and mechanisms of 

coordination were reported by at least half of the reporting member agencies. For efforts with two key 

member agencies, only mechanisms and activities reported by both agencies were included.

Some federal agencies are involved in new demonstration projects that 

plan to address coordination across systems at the state and local level. 

For example, an official from HHS stated that the agency has coordinated 

with Education and Labor to develop grants under the new Projects of 

National Significance Partnerships in Employment Systems Change. This 

initiative will provide resources for state agencies and service providers to 

collaborate with other services systems to develop statewide model 

demonstration projects that expand competitive employment for youth 

with developmental disabilities. In another example, officials at all four 
 

Page 22 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

agencies said they have been involved in early discussions regarding 

implementation of the new Promoting Readiness of Minors in 

Supplemental Security Income (PROMISE) initiative, which will fund pilot 

projects in states to promote positive changes in the outcomes of youth 

SSI recipients and their families.41

Despite these efforts, federal agency officials identified several barriers 

that limit their ability to coordinate. We have reported that federal 

agencies face a range of coordination barriers, one of which stems from 

goals that are not mutually reinforcing or are potentially conflicting, 

making it difficult to reach a consensus on strategies and priorities.

Education officials said they are in the 

process of holding meetings to gather input on potential projects from 

federal partners and stakeholders, including state agency officials, service 

providers, researchers, policy experts, and families. As part of the 

initiative, Education and SSA officials said they will work collaboratively to 

identify legislative barriers to competitive employment and ways to 

improve coordination at the state level. In addition to collaborative efforts 

across agencies, Education officials said that six grants focusing on 

transition and funded by their Rehabilitation Services Administration are 

in their fifth and final year of operation. According to Education officials, 

these grants demonstrate the use of promising practices of collaborative 

transition planning and service delivery to improve the postsecondary 

education and employment outcomes of youth with disabilities. 

42 We 

found interagency coordination is enhanced by having a clear and 

compelling rationale for staff to work across agency lines and articulate 

the common federal outcomes they are seeking.43

The incompatibility in outcome goals is highlighted in the implementation 

of specific programs, according to agency officials. For example, goals for 

employment outcomes in VR and workforce programs are in some cases 

Indeed, officials 

identified a lack of compatible outcome goals for transitioning students 

with disabilities as one of the key barriers that hinder their coordination 

efforts.

 

41 PROMISE, which was first funded in FY 2012, is a joint initiative of Education, HHS, 

Labor, and SSA. Education officials said they are currently in the planning stage of the 

initiative.

42 Mutually reinforcing goals or strategies are designed to help align agency activities, 

core processes, and resources to achieve common outcomes.

43 GAO-06-15. 
 

Page 23 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

countered by requirements for students to prove that their disabilities limit 

their ability to work in order to receive SSI benefits.44

Differences in statutory eligibility criteria among programs also limit 

federal agencies’ ability to coordinate, according to agency officials. For 

example, one official said that special education and SSI programs, in 

effect, have different legal definitions of “child”

Similarly, officials 

told us that, in early interagency discussions regarding the PROMISE 

initiative, special education officials focused on students’ access to 

postsecondary education, while VR and SSA officials were more 

concerned about students’ earnings. Officials from all four agencies said 

that aligning outcome goals for transition-age students with disabilities 

would enhance interagency coordination and help agencies approach 

transition in a more integrated way. Some officials suggested establishing 

a common agreement on desired outcomes for transitioning students, 

such as economic self-sufficiency or engagement in meaningful 

employment, volunteer work, or postsecondary education by a certain 

age.

45 and “transition 

services,”46

 

44 42 U.S.C. § 1382c(a)(3) (defining “disabled” in part as “unable to engage in any 

substantial gainful activity by reason of any medically determinable physical impairment). 

HHS officials said parents’ fear of losing health insurance benefits for their children with 

disabilities creates a similar disincentive for these youth to pursue competitive 

employment. However, officials said new provisions under the Patient Protection and 

Affordable Care Act that allow individuals to remain on their parents’ insurance policies 

until age 26 could help mitigate this. Pub. L. No. 111-148, sec. 1001, § 2714, 124 Stat. 

119,132 (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 300gg-14). 

making it more difficult to identify potential service recipients 

across programs and to share data about individuals served by multiple 

45 The age range for children served through special education under IDEA is 3 through 

21. 20 U.S.C. § 1412(a)(1)(B). SSI serves children from birth to age 18, (42 U.S.C. § 

1382c(c)), at which point there must be a redetermination as to whether or not they are 

still eligible for SSI benefits as adults (42 U.S.C. § 1382c(a)(3)(H)(iii)).

46 Under IDEA, transition services are provided through special education and make up a 

coordinated set of activities that (1) is designed to be within a results-oriented process 

focused on improving the academic and functional achievement of a child with a disability 

to facilitate the child’s movement from school to post-school activities; (2) is based on the 

individual child’s needs, strengths, preferences, and interests; and (3) includes instruction, 

related services, community experiences, the development of employment and other postschool adult living objectives, and, when appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills and 

functional vocational evaluation. 20 U.S.C. § 1401(34). The definitions of transition 

services under IDEA and the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 are very similar and there is no 

statutory definition of transition services under SSI.
 

Page 24 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

programs.47

Officials also identified a lack of clarity on agencies’ roles and 

responsibilities for providing and paying for transition services as another 

coordination barrier. For example, each program has its own statutory 

authority, permitting it to pay only for certain services or types of services. 

This can create confusion, particularly at the state and local levels, about 

who is responsible for paying for a particular service. It can also result in 

frequent debates about which agency is responsible for funding services, 

according to some officials, creating a disincentive for agencies to work 

together. While certain state agencies such as educational agencies and 

VR agencies are required to articulate roles and responsibilities in 

interagency agreements,

As a result, agencies are limited in their ability to target 

services to recipients who might benefit from them. Moreover, integrating 

information about students served by multiple programs over time would 

allow agencies to assess the impact of transition services across 

programs, according to Education and SSA officials. In addition, officials 

said sharing information about common service recipients would help 

agencies serve students with disabilities in a more streamlined way. For 

instance, SSA could identify students receiving employment and training 

services through other federal programs and provide counseling to help 

them understand how paid employment affects their SSI benefits and 

health insurance, with an eye toward helping students attain greater 

economic self-sufficiency. Officials cautioned, however, that privacy 

concerns may limit some information sharing and make it difficult to 

integrate information from multiple systems. While officials noted that the 

Federal Partners in Transition Workgroup has discussed these 

information sharing challenges at some of its meetings, one official noted 

that there is no substantive effort to address them at the federal level.

48

 

47 Education officials noted that federal agencies have recently begun working to improve 

data collection and sharing. Education also updated its regulations on the Family 

Educational Rights and Privacy Act and clarified the means by which education entities, 

including school districts, can collect and share data with other agencies. 76 Fed. Reg. 

75,604 (Dec. 2, 2011) (codified at 34 C.F.R. pt. 99) (2011). We also previously reported 

on efforts to develop statewide longitudinal data systems that link education and 

employment databases. See GAO, Postsecondary Education: Many States Collect 

Graduates’ Employment Information, but Clearer Guidance on Student Privacy 

Requirements Is Needed, 

Education officials suggested that a program’s 

authorizing statute should clearly define agency responsibilities to help 

GAO-10-927 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 27, 2010), 4. 

48 34 C.F.R. § 300.154 (2011).
 

Page 25 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

avoid confusion and minimize potential delays and disruptions in 

delivering transition services.

Although federal agencies are engaged in some coordination efforts, 

these efforts represent a patchwork approach and officials at all four 

agencies indicated there is no single, formal, government-wide strategy 

for coordinating transition services. While such a strategy is not required, 

we have previously cited the need for an overall federal strategy and 

government-wide coordination to align policies, services, and supports 

among the various disability programs, which include supports for 

transition-age students.49 Agency officials acknowledged that coordination 

specifically on transition services could be improved. For example, one 

official said agencies could work collaboratively to identify opportunities to 

address legislative and regulatory barriers to coordinating transition 

services. Officials added that improved data collection and sharing could 

help agencies adopt a more coordinated and crosscutting approach to 

delivering transition services to students with disabilities. Labor officials 

leading the Federal Partners in Transition Workgroup said that, while an 

overall plan for transition remains beyond the group’s scope of work, a 

framework that identifies what is needed for a successful transition could 

be used at the federal level to review collaboration across systems and to 

identify definition, service, and funding gaps.50 Such a framework could 

also be used at the local level to identify gaps in communities and 

individual plans.

It is unclear whether existing federal coordination efforts have had a 

positive effect on access to transition services because agencies do not 

assess their coordination efforts. We have reported that developing 

mechanisms to monitor, evaluate, and report on the results of their 

coordination efforts can help key decision makers within agencies, as well 

 

49 GAO-11-278. 

50 According to Education and Labor officials, this framework is referred to as the 

“Guideposts to Success” and was developed by Labor’s Office of Disability Employment 

Policy, in collaboration with the National Collaborative on Workforce Disability for Youth 

(http://www.ncwd-youth.info/guideposts). According to Labor officials, the framework 

currently includes the following components of a successful transition: school-based 

preparatory experiences, career preparation and work-based learning experiences, youth 

development and leadership, connecting activities, and family involvement and supports. 

Agencies Lack a 

Government-wide Strategy 

or Framework for 

Coordinating Transition 

Services

Federal Agencies Do Not 

Assess the Effectiveness of 

Their Coordination Efforts
 

Page 26 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

as clients and stakeholders, obtain feedback for improving both policy 

and operational effectiveness. For example, coordinating agencies could 

require members with lead responsibilities for a focus area to report on 

their progress in achieving defined objectives.51 Federal officials said that 

coordination has helped improve relationships and communication across 

agencies administering transition services, yielding an increased 

understanding of each other’s research, policy, and evidence-based 

practices as a result of their involvement in interagency efforts, including 

the Federal Partners in Transition Workgroup. Agency officials also told 

us that some coordination efforts have led to increased engagement in 

transition policy by students with disabilities and their families and 

improved results in achieving career readiness and self-sufficiency. 

However, these results are difficult to corroborate because agencies do 

not evaluate the impact of their efforts, and in many cases do not track 

coordination outcomes at the federal level, according to agency officials.52

Some federal agencies monitor compliance with requirements for 

grantees to coordinate with other state and local entities under individual 

programs. For example, Part B of IDEA requires state educational 

agencies to report annually on their performance using 20 indicators 

established by the Secretary.

Furthermore, the effectiveness of existing federal coordination efforts is 

questionable, as evidenced by persistent challenges students with 

disabilities face navigating multiple programs.

53 One of the indicators measures the state’s 

compliance with the requirement under IDEA to include postsecondary 

goals and transition services in the IEPs of students age 16 and above; 

and to invite the student and, if appropriate, representatives from other 

participating state agencies to the student’s IEP team meetings if 

transition services are to be discussed.54

 

51

Similarly, state VR agencies 

must report annually to the Rehabilitation Services Administration on 

GAO-06-15. 

52 Labor officials said the intra-agency Youth with Disabilities Workgroup tracks progress 

toward outcomes through an informal internal work plan. Officials participate in monthly 

meetings to discuss status updates on policy guidance issuance, leveraging resources, 

upcoming webinars, and innovative initiatives. 

53 20 U.S.C. § 1416(b)(2)(C)(ii)(II).

54 Part B-SPP/APR Related Requirements, 

http://www2.ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/bapr/index.html.
 

Page 27 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

whether they have identified the responsibilities of other agencies through 

statute, regulation, or written agreements, and to undergo monitoring of 

their coordination activities.55 These monitoring reviews, however, mainly 

address compliance with programmatic and fiscal requirements, help

ascertain whether state agencies have in place signed formal interagency 

agreements, and check whether these agreements include key 

components such as providing technical assistance to school districts on 

transition planning. Agency officials noted that there are no quantifiable 

measures to assess how effectively transition services are coordinated, 

and that any assessment is typically based on observation and a review 

of practices and procedures rather than on data.56

The current federal approach to assisting students with disabilities in their 

transition to postsecondary education or the workforce necessitates that 

students and their parents navigate multiple programs and service 

systems to piece together the supports these students need to achieve 

maximum independence in adulthood. Under this complex structure, 

information dissemination and service coordination are essential. Without 

receiving accurate and timely information about available services, 

students may miss opportunities to access needed services that could 

mean the difference between achieving an optimal level of self-sufficiency 

and relying on public assistance to meet their basic needs. While officials 

report that federal agency coordination efforts, such as the Federal 

Partners in Transition Workgroup, have improved relationships and built 

shared knowledge across participating agencies, they have yet to adopt a 

broader interagency strategic approach to addressing longstanding 

challenges in providing transition services to students with disabilities. 

The transition workgroup, in particular, represents a unique vehicle that 

could provide leadership in developing such a strategy specifically 

focused on students with disabilities who are transitioning out of high 

school. Given the multiple agencies involved in supporting this population, 

in conjunction with multiple eligibility criteria and definitions established in 

statute, the lack of such a strategy is a missed opportunity to break down 

coordination barriers and work across agency boundaries. Only then can 

 

55 20 U.S.C. § 1412(a)(12).

56 Education officials said they are working with SSA to determine how to track outcomes 

of transition interventions, including coordination, in SSA’s planned evaluation of the 

PROMISE initiative.

Conclusions 
 

Page 28 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

agencies systemically address persistent transition challenges and 

improve outcomes for students with disabilities. Furthermore, without 

assessing the effectiveness of federal coordination efforts, agencies are 

unable to determine what works well, what needs improvement, and 

where best to direct increasingly constrained federal resources.

To improve the provision of transition services to students with disabilities 

through enhanced coordination among the multiple federal programs that 

support this population, we recommend that the Secretaries of Education, 

HHS, and Labor, and the Commissioner of SSA direct the appropriate 

program offices to work collaboratively to develop a federal interagency 

transition strategy. This strategy should address:

1. compatible policies, procedures, and other means to operate across 

agency boundaries towards common outcomes for transitioning youth 

and their families;

2. methods to increase awareness among students, families, high school 

teachers, and other service providers on the range of available 

transition services; and

3. ways to assess the effectiveness of federal coordination efforts in 

providing transition services.

To the extent that legislative changes are needed to facilitate the 

implementation of this transition strategy, agencies should identify and 

communicate them to the Congress.

We provided a draft of this report to officials at the Departments of 

Education, HHS, and Labor, and to SSA for their review and comment. 

Their responses are reprinted, respectively, in appendixes IV, V, VI, and 

VII of this report. They also provided technical comments, which we 

incorporated as appropriate. 

In their comments, all four agencies agreed with our recommendation and

noted that they have been or will be in contact with each other to expedite 

preliminary discussions on an implementation strategy.

Some of the agencies also described coordination efforts beyond those 

mentioned in our draft report. Specifically, Education said it is currently 

engaged in numerous transition coordinating activities with HHS, Labor, 

and SSA related to discretionary grants, legislative proposals, draft 

regulations, policy positions, and program improvements. Education 

Recommendation for 

Executive Action

Agency Comment and 

Our Evaluation 
 

Page 29 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

highlighted the National Transition Conference it hosted in May 2012, 

explaining that the four agencies worked together to plan and participate 

in all stages of the conference with the goals of raising awareness of 

services, sharing promising practices, and creating an action agenda to 

improve transition outcomes for youth with disabilities. 

HHS noted that it funds the Consortium to Enhance Postsecondary 

Education for Individuals with Developmental Disabilities. This consortium 

conducts research, provides training and technical assistance, and 

disseminates information on promising practices that support individuals 

with developmental disabilities to increase their independence, 

productivity and inclusion through access to postsecondary education. 

Since 2010, HHS has also collaborated with Education and Labor on 

Project SEARCH, a program to support local students with disabilities in 

their last year of high school to experience work opportunities within these 

federal agencies. 

Labor stated that it plans to reach out to Education and SSA to explore 

ways to formalize its Federal Partners in Transition Workgroup. This 

group will work to help align policies, services, and supports provided by 

various programs to transition-age youth with disabilities, and to help 

identify legislative and regulatory barriers that prevent the coordination of 

transition services. Moreover, this group would assess the impact of its 

coordination efforts by developing common outcome goals. 

Finally, HHS noted that the Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill 

of Rights Act of 2000 does not provide for direct transition services. In 

response, we clarified, in figure 1, that the act provides funding for 

activities that support employment and training for youth with disabilities. 

HHS also questioned the relevance of several programs included in our 

list of federal programs that provide transition services, on the basis that 

the programs do not provide direct services. We agree that one of these 

programs, Partnership in Employment Systems Change Grants, is 

intended to enhance collaboration rather than provide transition services; 

therefore, we removed it from the list. However, we disagreed that the 

Youth Information, Training and Resources Centers program be omitted 

from the list. It provides self-advocacy services that we consider to be a 

type of transition service for youth. Similarly, we disagreed that 

Developmental Disabilities Protection and Advocacy should be omitted 

from the list. This program provides information on transition services and 

supports to youth, among other things. Consequently, both programs are 

still included.
 

Page 30 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

As agreed with your office, unless you publicly announce the contents of 

this report earlier, we plan no further distribution until 30 days from the 

report date. At that time, we will send copies of this report to the 

Secretaries of Education, HHS, and Labor, as well as the Commissioner 

of SSA, and other interested parties. In addition, the report will be 

available at no charge on our website at: http://gao.gov. 

If you or your staff have any questions concerning this report, please 

contact me at (202) 512-7215 or moranr@gao.gov. Contact points for our 

Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on 

the last page of this report. Key contributors to this report are listed in 

appendix VIII.

Sincerely yours,

Revae Moran

Director, Education, Workforce and

Income Security Issues
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology

Page 31 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Our review examined the (1) challenges students with disabilities may

face accessing federally funded transition services; and (2) extent to 

which federal agencies coordinate their transition activities. To determine 

the challenges students with disabilities may face accessing transition 

services as they leave high school for postsecondary education or the 

workforce, we selected a nongeneralizable sample of five states and 

interviewed state and local officials responsible for administering the key 

federal programs that provide transition services. We visited four states: 

California, Florida, Maryland, and Minnesota, and interviewed officials in 

Nevada by phone. In the four states we visited, we also met with groups 

of parents and students with disabilities to discuss the challenges they 

face. In addition, we met with a number of experts in the field of transition 

and with associations representing young adults with a wide range of 

disability types to obtain their perspectives on challenges students face 

during transition. Finally, we reviewed the definitions of disability and the 

eligibility criteria in selected federal statutes that govern relevant federal 

programs providing transition services to identify any potential legislative 

or regulatory challenges they may pose.

To assess the extent to which the four key federal agencies that 

administer programs providing transition services—the Departments of 

Education (Education), Health and Human Services (HHS), and Labor 

(Labor), and the Social Security Administration (SSA)—coordinate their 

transition activities, we interviewed agency officials, obtained their written 

responses to questions about their coordination efforts, and reviewed 

agency documents. We analyzed this information based on GAO criteria 

detailing activities that can enhance and sustain collaboration among 

federal agencies. We conducted this performance audit from July 2011 to 

July 2012 in accordance with generally accepted governmental auditing 

standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to 

obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for 

our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe 

that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings 

and conclusions based on our audit objectives.

We selected the five states in our nongeneralizable sample based on the 

number of grants each state received under key federal programs that 

provide transition services, recommendations from agency officials and 

experts, and geographic diversity, to the extent possible. To identify these 

key federal programs that provide grants to states and localities for 

Appendix I: Scope and Methodology
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology

Page 32 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

transition services, we searched the Catalog of Federal Domestic 

Assistance (CFDA)1 and asked relevant agency officials to verify this list 

of programs and identify any programs that were not captured in our 

search results. Based on this search, we identified six federal grant 

programs that had a specific focus on improving transition services, and 

we looked at the distribution of grants to select states that received a 

relatively high number of federal grants for transition services.2

In each state we visited, we met with officials from state departments of 

education or special education, higher education, vocational 

rehabilitation, developmental disabilities, workforce agencies,

We also 

asked agency officials and experts for their recommendations of states 

with model programs or promising practices related to transition services 

and/or state-level collaborative efforts to improve transition outcomes. We 

did not do an independent legal analysis to verify program information 

from the CFDA or agency officials. To identify what additional challenges, 

if any, students may face in states with relatively few programs that 

provide transition services, we also selected one state with relatively few 

federal grant programs to determine if the key challenges identified were 

similar to those in other states.

3 and staff 

from parent training and information centers.4

 

1 CFDA is a government-wide compendium of federal programs, projects, services, and 

activities that provide assistance or benefits to the American public. While the General 

Services Administration (GSA) maintains the CFDA system and website, the content of 

individual program descriptions is the responsibility of the agency that has issued the 

program description. The Office of Management and Budget serves as an intermediary 

agent between the federal agencies and GSA and provides oversight to the necessary 

collection of federal domestic assistance program data.

In addition, with the 

exception of Nevada, staff from parent training and information centers in 

2 The six federal programs were: Education’s Model Comprehensive Transition and 

Postsecondary Programs for Students with Intellectual Disabilities, Regional Parent 

Training and Information Technical Assistance Centers, and Rehabilitation Services 

Administration’s Parent Information and Training Projects; HHS’s Youth Information, 

Training and Resource Centers; Labor’s Disability Employment Initiative; and SSA’s Youth 

Transition Demonstration Projects. 

3 In a few states we visited, our interviews with workforce agency officials included staff 

from WIA one-stop centers.

4 There were three exceptions: In Florida and California, we did not meet with higher 

education officials, although we did meet with two higher education associations in 

California; and in Maryland we did not meet with the state workforce agency, although we 

obtained written responses to our questions from several local workforce entities. 
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology

Page 33 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

each state assisted us by organizing discussion groups with parents and 

students with disabilities that were in the process of planning their 

transition from high school to postsecondary education or employment or 

had recently made the transition out of high school. In a few states, we 

also met with officials from centers for independent living, other 

nongovernmental organizations that received federal grants to provide 

transition services, and transition specialists and experts. See table 1 for 

a complete list of the organizations and groups we interviewed. During 

our interviews, we discussed challenges students with disabilities may 

face—including legislative or administrative barriers, potential gaps in 

transition services, knowledge of teachers and other service providers 

about transition services and options, parent and student awareness of 

available transition services and options, and coordination among federal 

agencies providing transition services. Finally, we asked officials from the 

relevant Education, HHS, Labor, and SSA program offices for their 

perspectives on the challenges faced by transitioning students with 

disabilities.

Table 1: Organizations Contacted

Stakeholder Organizations and groups interviewed

California State Departments of Education, Rehabilitation, Developmental Services, and Employment 

Development; State Council on Developmental Disabilities; a Workforce Investment Act One-stop 

Center; the State Foundation for Independent Living Centers; the State Transition Leadership Team and 

Transition specialists, experts, and coordinators; representatives from Higher Education groups and 

institutions; representatives from the State Workability Program; representatives from two Parent 

Training and Information Centers; and parents of and students with disabilities. 

Florida State Department of Education, Bureau of Exceptional Students and Divisions of Vocational 

Rehabilitation and Blind Services; State agencies for Persons with Disabilities and Workforce Innovation; 

Transitions specialists and coordinators; representatives from a Parent Training and Information Center; 

representative from three non-profit organizations serving transition-age youth; and parents of and 

students with disabilities. 

Minnesota State Departments of Special Education, Human Services, and Employment and Economic 

Development, including the State Services for the Blind; Special Education Directors; a representative 

from a National Center on Secondary Education and Transition; representatives from higher education 

groups and institutions; representatives from one Parent Training and Information Center; 

representatives from one non-profit organization serving transition-age youth; and parents of and 

students with disabilities. 

Maryland State Departments of Education, Divisions of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services, and 

Disabilities; the State Developmental Disability Administration; the State Higher Education Commission; 

representatives from one Parent Training and Information Center; representatives from one non-profit 

organization serving transition-age youth; several local workforce agenciesa

; and parents of and students 

with disabilities. 

Nevada State Departments of Special Education and Vocational Rehabilitation; and representatives from one 

Parent Training and Information Center. 
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology

Page 34 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Subject matter experts and 

Associations 

We spoke with 13 experts or groups that focus on transition, including groups representing students with 

developmental disabilities, students who are deaf or hard of hearing, students with learning disabilities, 

and students with intellectual and significant developmental disabilities

Federal agencies Education: Office of Special Education Programs; Rehabilitation Services Administration; and the Office 

of Postsecondary Education.

Labor: Office of Disability Employment Policy; and Employment and Training Administration

HHS: Administration on Developmental Disabilities; and Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services

SSA: Office of the Deputy Commissioner, Retirement and Disability Policy

Source: GAO.

a

We received written responses to our interview questions from some of Maryland’s local workforce 

agencies, but did not speak with them in person.

To supplement the information collected during our interviews, we 

reviewed written responses and documents provided by officials from 

state and local organizations; reviewed selected statutory language 

related to some of the main legislative challenges identified by federal, 

state and local officials; and conducted a limited literature review of recent 

research related to transition challenges.

To evaluate the extent to which federal agencies coordinate their 

transition activities, we asked officials from Education, HHS, Labor, and 

SSA to complete a data collection instrument we developed that 

requested information on their coordination efforts and activities relating 

to transition services. We reviewed agency officials’ written responses to 

determine whether their efforts were formal or informal, targeted towards 

transitioning students with disabilities, which agencies were involved, and 

which specific activities were coordinated. We also interviewed agency 

officials from relevant program offices at each agency to obtain additional 

information about ongoing coordination efforts related to transition

services. These interviews also addressed inter- and intra-agency 

coordination efforts related to transitioning students with disabilities, 

examples of successful outcomes from these coordination efforts, any 

agency assessments of their coordination efforts, and potential barriers to 

coordination. In addition, we reviewed and analyzed available documents 

from each agency, including their strategic plans, performance reports, 

and agency performance measures; program websites and descriptions; 

and other relevant agency documents, such as joint technical guidance. 

We assessed the extent of the agency’s coordination efforts based on 
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology

Page 35 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

GAO’s criteria for practices agencies can use to help enhance and 

sustain interagency collaboration.5

To provide an overview of federal programs that provide transition 

services to youth with disabilities, we identified 21 such programs 

administered by five federal agencies: Education, HHS, the Department 

of Justice, Labor, and SSA.6 (See app. II). To identify these programs, we 

first searched the CFDA using key subject terms related to transition 

services for students with disabilities.7

From this second list, we selected programs that met the following 

criteria: they (1) exclusively serve individuals with disabilities, including 

students of transition-age (age 14 to 25); (2) provide transition services 

directly to youth going from high school to postsecondary education or the 

workforce and/or services to their families; and (3) received federal 

funding in fiscal year 2011.

This search produced a preliminary 

list of programs that was reviewed independently by two analysts. Each 

analyst reviewed the program descriptions in CFDA and from the relevant 

program websites, as necessary, and independently determined whether 

a program should be excluded due to clear lack of relevance to transition 

services for students with disabilities. The analysts then compared and 

discussed their decisions to further refine the list of programs.

We determined CFDA was sufficiently reliable for our purposes by 

confirming with federal agency officials that the programs identified met 

our criteria and obtaining information from agencies about any additional 

programs for our consideration. Specifically, we asked officials to correct 

any information we obtained from CFDA and program websites, identify 

 

5 GAO-06-15. 

6 The 21 programs included in this appendix met the specific selection criteria described in 

this appendix. In contrast, the programs described in the background section of this report 

are examples of broader programs administered by Education, HHS, Labor, and SSA that 

support transition-age students with disabilities, although they may not directly provide 

transition services.

7 We determined key subject terms by inputting basic key words, such as ‘disability,’ 

‘student,’ and ‘transition,’ into the subject terms field of the CFDA advanced search form. 

This field produced a list of searchable subject terms related to each of the basic key 

words. From this list, we selected those subject terms that addressed at least two of the 

following topic areas: (1) disabilities, (2) youth or students, (3) vocational rehabilitation, 

and (4) postsecondary education. 
Appendix I: Scope and Methodology

Page 36 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

any programs meeting our selection criteria that were not included in our 

search results, and provide additional information on the selected 

programs.8

 

8 We obtained information on the program title, purpose, services provided, and eligibility 

criteria from CFDA and program websites. We asked officials to verify or correct this 

information and provide additional information on funding amounts and recipient data.

We followed up with agency officials through teleconferences 

and email, as necessary, to clarify program information and make a 

decision to include or exclude programs. We reviewed agency 

documentation and selected laws and regulations to verify eligibility 

criteria, including definitions of disability and funding information. To 

assess the reliability of recipient data reported in our tables, we reviewed 

agency officials’ responses to questions regarding how they collected the 

data, any potential limitations of the data, and the databases and systems 

used to maintain the information on program recipients. To assess the 

reliability of funding data, we reviewed publicly available and agencyprovided budget documents. In cases where funding amounts for specific 

programs were not separately reported, we clarified the information with 

agency officials and noted that data were reported by the agency. Based 

on our review of agency officials’ responses to our questions and of 

budget documentation, we determined that the recipient and funding data 

we reported were sufficiently reliable to include in this report.
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 37 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Tables 2 to 6 of this appendix contain information on various federal 

programs that provide transition services to youth with disabilities.

Table 2: Education Programs Providing Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities (Ranked by Funding Level) 

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided Eligibility criteria 

Recipient 

dataa Fundingb

Special Education

Grants to States

Provide free appropriate 

public education to all 

children with disabilities

• Instruction

• Community 

experiences

• Development of 

employment and 

other post-school 

adult living 

objectives

• Daily living skills

• Functional 

vocational 

evaluation

• Transportation

• Physical and

occupational 

therapy

Child with a disability 

(i.e., intellectual, 

emotional, or learning 

disabilities; hearing, 

speech, language, 

visual, or orthopedic 

impairments; autism; 

traumatic brain injury; 

or other health 

impairments) who 

needs special 

education and related 

services, as 

determined by a team 

of qualified 

professionals and the 

child’s parent 

Total number 

of recipients 

served in 

school year 

2010-11:

6,558,053

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youthc in 

school year 

2010-11:

2,198,474

(34 percent)

Type of funding:

Formula grants 

and program 

technical 

assistance to 

states, fiscal year 

(FY) 2011 

obligations:

$11.5 billion

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$11.6 billion

Vocational 

Rehabilitation State 

Grants

Assist states in creating 

and operating 

comprehensive 

rehabilitation programs 

to prepare disabled 

individuals for 

competitive employment

• Job-related 

services including 

job search and 

placement

• Vocational 

guidance and 

counseling

• Vocational or other 

training services

• Assistive and 

rehabilitation 

technology

• Supported 

employment

• Transportation

Individual with a 

disability (i.e., a 

physical or mental 

impairment that 

results in a substantial 

impediment to 

employment) who 

requires vocational 

rehabilitation services 

to prepare for, secure, 

retain, or regain 

employment 

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

589,773d

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youthe in FY 

2011:

179,535d

(30 percent)

Type of funding:

Formula grants to 

states

FY 2011 

obligations:

$2.9 billioni

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$3.1 billion

Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 38 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided Eligibility criteria 

Recipient 

dataa Fundingb

Centers for

Independent Living

Establish, operate, and 

provide financial 

assistance to a 

statewide network of 

centers for independent 

living, designed to 

enhance independence 

and productivity of 

individuals with 

significant disabilities

• Information and 

referral services

• Independent living 

skills training

• Peer counseling

• Advocacy

Individual with a 

significant disability 

means an individual 

with a severe physical 

or mental impairment 

whose ability to 

function independently 

in the family or 

community or whose 

ability to obtain, 

maintain, or advance 

in employment is 

substantially limited 

and for whom the 

delivery of 

independent living 

services will improve 

the ability to function, 

continue functioning, 

or move toward 

functioning 

independently in the 

family or community 

or to continue in 

employment, 

respectively

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

238,005

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youthf

in FY 

2011:

31,703

(13 percent)

Type of funding:

Grants to 

consumercontrolled, 

community based, 

cross-disability, 

nonresidential 

private nonprofit 

agencies

FY 2011 

obligations:

$80.1 million

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$80 million

American Indian

Vocational 

Rehabilitation 

Services 

Provide vocational 

rehabilitation services to 

American Indians with 

disabilities residing on 

or near Federal or State 

reservations and help 

them prepare for and 

engage in gainful 

employment

• Job-related 

services including 

job search and 

placement

• Vocational 

guidance and

counseling

• Vocational or other 

training services

• Assistive and 

rehabilitation 

technology

• Supported 

employment

• Transportation

American Indian (i.e., 

person who is a 

member of any federal 

or state Indian tribe or 

community) with a 

disability (i.e., a 

physical or mental 

impairment that 

results in a substantial 

impediment to 

employment)

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011: 

8,130 

(approx.)

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youthe in FY 

2011:

Data on age of 

individuals 

served not 

collected

Type of funding:

Grants to 

governing bodies 

of Indian tribes or 

consortia of those 

governing bodies 

located on federal 

and state 

reservations

FY 2011 

obligations:

$43.6 million

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$37.9 million
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 39 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided Eligibility criteria 

Recipient 

dataa Fundingb

Supported 

Employment 

Services for 

Individuals with the 

Most Significant 

Disabilities

Provide supplemental 

funds to state vocational 

rehabilitation agencies 

to help support the cost 

of supported 

employment services for 

individuals with the most 

significant disabilities 

participating in the VR 

State Grants program

• On-the-job and 

systematic training

• Job development

• Follow-up services

• Observation and 

supervision at 

training sites

Individual eligible for 

vocational 

rehabilitation services, 

determined to have a 

most significant 

disability, and for 

whom supported 

employment is the 

rehabilitation objective 

based on a 

comprehensive 

assessment of 

rehabilitation needs

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

34,667d

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youthe in FY 

2011:

13,454d

(39 percent)

Type of funding:

Formula grants to 

state vocational 

rehabilitation 

agencies

FY 2011 

obligations:

$29.1 million

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$29.1 million

Special Education—

Parent Training and 

Information Centers

Ensure parents of 

children with disabilities 

receive training and 

information to help 

improve results for their 

children

• Financial support of 

parent information 

centers and 

community parent 

resource centers

• Technical 

assistance

Parent of child or 

youth with a disability 

(i.e., intellectual, 

emotional, or learning 

disabilities; hearing, 

speech, language, 

visual, or orthopedic 

impairments; autism; 

traumatic brain injury; 

or other health 

impairments) or 

parent who suspects 

their child may have a 

disability or has been 

inappropriately 

identified as having a 

disability

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

1,498,007g

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youthe in FY 

2011:

107,600g

(parents of 

transition-age 

youth)

(7 percent) 

Type of funding:

Project grants to 

parent 

organizations

FY 2011 

obligations:

$28 million

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$28.9 million

Assistive 

Technology State 

Grants

Maximize access to 

assistive technology 

devices and assistive 

technology services for 

individuals with 

disabilities and their 

family members

• Assistive 

technology devices 

and services

Individual with a 

disability (as defined 

by any federal or 

applicable state law) 

who would be enabled 

by assistive 

technology device or 

service to minimize 

deterioration in 

functioning, to 

maintain a level of 

functioning, or achieve 

a greater level of 

functioning in any 

major life activity

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

1,375,472

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youth in FY 

2011:

Data on age of 

individuals 

served not 

collected.

Type of funding:

Formula grants to 

states

FY 2011 

obligations:

$25.6 million

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$25.6 million
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 40 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided Eligibility criteria 

Recipient 

dataa Fundingb

Independent Living 

State Grants

Expand and improve 

independent living 

services to individuals 

with significant 

disabilities. Services are 

intended to promote full 

integration and inclusion 

of individuals into 

mainstream society

• Core independent 

living services, 

including training

• Support 

independent living 

centers operations

• Outreach to 

unserved and 

underserved 

populations

Individual with a 

significant disability 

means an individual 

with a severe physical 

or mental impairment 

whose ability to 

function independently 

in the family or 

community or whose 

ability to obtain, 

maintain, or advance 

in employment is 

substantially limited 

and for whom the 

delivery of 

independent living 

services will improve 

the ability to function, 

continue functioning, 

or move toward 

functioning 

independently in the 

family or community 

or to continue in 

employment, 

respectively

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

59,391

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youthf

in FY 

2011:

4,826

(8 percent)

Type of funding:

Formula grants to 

states

FY 2011 

obligations:

$23.4 million

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$23.4 million

Protection and 

Advocacy of 

Individual Rights

Support systems for 

protection and advocacy 

for the rights of 

individuals with 

disabilities who are 

ineligible for advocacy 

services from other 

programs 

• Information and 

technical 

assistance

• Advocacy services

• Legal 

representation, 

including legal 

counsel and 

litigation services

Individual with a 

disability (i.e., a 

physical or mental 

impairment that 

results in a substantial 

impediment to 

employment) who 

requires vocational 

rehabilitation services 

to prepare for, secure, 

retain, or regain 

employment and who 

needs protection and 

advocacy services 

beyond the scope of 

other programs 

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

14,739

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youth in FY 

2011:

Data on age of 

individuals 

served not 

collected

Type of Funding:

Formula grants to 

designated 

protection and 

advocacy 

agencies

FY 2011 

obligations:

$17.7 millionh,i

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$17.7 millionh,i
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 41 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided Eligibility criteria 

Recipient 

dataa Fundingb

Model 

Comprehensive 

Transition and 

Postsecondary 

Programs for 

Students with 

Intellectual 

Disabilities (TPSID)

Create or expand model 

comprehensive 

transition and 

postsecondary 

programs for students 

with intellectual 

disabilities. Funds also 

support a coordinating 

center that provides 

related services

• Technical 

assistance and 

information

• Academic 

enrichment

• Socialization

• Independent living 

skills, including selfadvocacy

• Integrated work 

experiences and 

career skills

• Individual planning 

for course of study

Student with an 

intellectual disability 

(i.e., cognitive 

impairment with 

significant limitations 

in intellectual and 

cognitive functioning 

and adaptive 

behavior) who is or 

was eligible for special 

education and related 

services 

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

507

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youth in FY 

2011:

430

(85 percent)

Type of funding:

Grants to 

institutions of 

postsecondary 

education

FY 2011 

obligations:

$11 millioni

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$11 million

Helen Keller 

National Center for 

Deaf-Blind Youth 

and Adults

Maximize employment 

and independent living 

opportunities for deafblind individuals by 

providing services to 

those individuals, their 

families, and service 

providers nationwide

• Training, 

counseling, and 

technical 

assistance

• Service projects

• Work experiences 

and internships

• Vocational and 

rehabilitation 

services

• Short-term training 

for youth in 

secondary 

education

Individual who is deafblind (i.e., has a low 

central visual acuity 

with corrective lenses, 

a visual field defect, or 

a progressive visual 

loss; has a severe 

chronic hearing 

impairment or 

progressive hearing 

loss; and has extreme 

difficulty attaining 

independence in daily 

life activities or 

employment due to 

these impairments)

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

1,356

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youth in FY 

2011:

Data on age of 

individuals 

served not 

collected.

Type of Funding:

Non-competitive 

grant to Helen 

Keller Services for 

the Blind, Inc.

FY 2011 

obligations:

$9.1 millioni

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$9.1 million

Protection and 

Advocacy for 

Assistive 

Technology

Support protection and 

advocacy services to 

assist in the acquisition, 

utilization, or 

maintenance of 

assistive technology 

devices and services for 

individuals with 

disabilities 

• Information 

services

• Advocacy services

• Legal 

representation

Individual with a 

disability (as defined 

by any federal or 

applicable state law) 

who would be enabled 

by an assistive 

technology device or 

service to minimize 

deterioration in 

functioning or achieve 

a greater level of 

functioning in any 

major life activity

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

2,089

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youth in FY 

2011:

Data on age of 

individuals 

served not 

collected

Type of Funding:

Formula grants to 

designated 

protection and 

advocacy 

agencies

FY 2011 

obligations:

$4.3 million

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$4.3 million
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 42 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided Eligibility criteria 

Recipient 

dataa Fundingb

Rehabilitation 

Services 

Demonstration and 

Training Programs 

(Transition Model 

Demonstration 

Grants)

Provide financial 

assistance to projects 

and demonstrations that 

expand and improve the 

provision of 

rehabilitation and 

related services

• Technical 

assistance

• Supported 

employment

• Parent information 

and training

• Career preparatory 

and preemployment 

experiences

• Youth development 

activities

• Practices to 

enhance family 

involvement

Individual with a 

disability (i.e., a 

physical or mental 

impairment that 

results in a substantial 

impediment to 

employment) who 

requires vocational 

rehabilitation services 

to prepare for, secure, 

retain, or regain 

employment

Total number 

of recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

2,096

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were 

transition-age 

youth in FY 

2011:

2,096

(100 percent)

Type of funding:

Grants to states 

and public or 

nonprofit 

organizations

FY 2011 

obligations:

$3 millioni,j

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$0 (funding for 

program ended in 

FY2011)

Source: Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance and information provided by Department of Education officials.

a

Data reported on transition-age youth refer to youth ages 14 to 25, unless otherwise noted. All 

recipient data reported by agency officials.

b

Funding data obtained from publicly available and agency-provided budget documentation, unless 

otherwise noted.

c

Includes youth ages 14 to 22 only; program services end when youth turn 22.

d

Reflects number of recipients whose cases were closed in FY 11. Cases may not have been closed 

for all individuals who received services in FY 11, but information on age is only reported at case 

closure. For the Vocational Rehabilitation Grants to States program, 1 million individuals were served 

in FY 11. 34 C.F.R. § 361.42 (2011).

e

For this program, data reported are for individuals ages 14 to 24.

f

Includes youth ages 5 to 24. However, officials reported the preponderance of recipients is older than 

age 14.

g

Reflects the number of instances of services provided. Youth, parents, and professionals may 

request information from the centers more than once.

h

Amount includes funds used to support training and technical assistance.

i

Data reported by agency officials.

j

Officials reported that this amount represents obligations for transition model demonstration grants 

only.
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 43 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Table 3: HHS Programs Providing Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities (Ranked by Funding Level) 

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided Eligibility criteria Recipient dataa Fundingb

Medicaid Infrastructure 

Grant

Develop infrastructure, 

including linkages 

between Medicaid and 

other employmentrelated service 

agencies, supporting 

competitive 

employment 

opportunities for 

individuals with 

disabilities

• Removal of 

systemic barriers 

to employment 

and 

enhancements to 

state Medicaid 

programs and 

services.

• Specific services 

may include:

• Personal 

assistance

• Supported 

employment

• Benefits 

counseling

Individual who is 

eligible for 

Supplemental 

Security Income 

program or was 

previously eligible but 

is determined to have 

medically improved

Total number of 

recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

Data not 

collected at 

service recipient 

level

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were transitionage youth in FY 

2011:

Data not 

collected at 

service recipient 

level

Type of funding:

Grants to state 

Medicaid 

agencies

FY 2011 

obligations:

$70 millionc

FY2012 

appropriations:

$0 (funding for 

program ended in 

FY 2011)

Developmental 

Disabilities Protection 

and Advocacy

Support protection of 

legal and human rights 

of individuals with 

developmental 

disabilities

• Complaints 

investigation

• Mediation

• Alternative 

dispute resolution 

and litigation

• Information on 

transition 

services and 

supports, such as 

benefits 

counseling

Individual with a 

developmental 

disability (i.e., a 

severe, chronic 

disability attributable 

to a mental and/or 

physical impairment, 

manifested before 

age 22 and likely to 

continue indefinitely, 

resulting in 

substantial functional 

limitations, and 

reflecting the need 

for lifelong or 

extended services)

Total number of 

recipients 

served in FY 

2010:

21,155

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were transitionage youthe in FY 

2010:

13,750

(65 percent)

Type of Funding:

Formula grants to 

states.

FY 2011 

obligations:

$40.9 millionc

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$40.9 million
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 44 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided Eligibility criteria Recipient dataa Fundingb

Developmental 

Disabilities Projects of 

National Significance —

Youth Information, 

Training and Resource 

Centers, National Youth 

Information Centers

Increase and support 

the independence, 

productivity, and 

community integration 

and inclusion of 

individuals with 

developmental 

disabilities. Youth 

projects provide 

capacity building in self 

advocacy for 

postsecondary 

education, training, 

and employment

• Training

• Information 

dissemination

• Outreach

Youth with a 

developmental 

disability (i.e., a 

severe, chronic 

disability attributable 

to a mental and/or 

physical impairment, 

manifested before 

age 22 and likely to 

continue indefinitely, 

resulting in 

substantial functional 

limitations, and 

reflecting the need 

for lifelong or 

extended services)

Total number of 

recipients 

served in FY 

2011:

11,831

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were transitionage youth in FY 

2011:

Data on age of 

individuals 

served not 

collected

Type of funding:

Grants to state 

and local

agencies and 

nonprofit 

organizations.

FY 2011 

obligations:

$100,000c

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$0

Section 1915(c) and (i) 

Home and Community 

Based Services

Allow states to provide 

long term care services 

in home and 

community based 

settings, as an 

alternative to 

institutional care, under 

the Medicaid program

• Case 

management

• Independent 

living assistance

• Family training

• Supported 

employment

• Environmental 

modifications

• Other services as 

approved

Individual that meets 

targeting criteria for a 

waiver (e.g., age and 

condition; a state 

may have a number 

of waivers targeting 

different groups) and 

needs-based criteria 

(e.g., institutional 

level of care or other 

level determined by 

the state)

Total number of 

recipients 

served in 2010:

274,657d,f

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who 

were transitionage youth in

2010:

Data on age of 

individuals 

served not 

collected

Type of funding:

Matching statefederal 

partnership

FY 2011 federal 

net expenditures:

$37.1 billiond

FY 2012 

appropriations:

Data not 

available

Source: Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance and information provided by Department of Health and Human Services officials.

a

Data reported on transition-age youth refers to youth ages 14 to 25, unless otherwise noted. All 

recipient data reported by agency officials.

b

Funding data obtained from publicly available and agency-provided budget documentation, unless 

otherwise noted.

c

Data reported by agency officials. FY 11 obligations for the Medicaid Infrastructure Grant include 

$23.5 million in carryover funding from previous years.

d

Most recent data available are from FY 10 because state reporting of recipient data to HHS’s 

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services lags 18 months behind service provision.

e

Includes youth ages 5 to 25. Data are not collected for the 14 to 25 age group.

f

Agency officials did not specify whether these data were for the FY.
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 45 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Table 4: Department of Justice Program Providing Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities 

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided Eligibility criteria Recipient dataa Fundingb

Juvenile 

Mentoring 

Program —

Mentoring for 

Youth with 

Disabilities 

Initiative

Provide mentoring 

services to youth 

with disabilities 

who are in the 

juvenile justice 

system or at risk 

of delinquency to 

ensure they 

develop into 

healthy, 

productive adults

• Mentoring Youth under age 18 with 

a disability as defined by 

the Americans with 

Disabilities Act (i.e., a 

physical or mental 

impairment that 

substantially limits the 

performance of one or 

more major life activities)

Total number of 

recipients served in 

FY 2011:

Data not yet 

available

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who were 

transition-age youth 

in FY 2011:

Data not yet 

available

Type of funding:

Grants to states, 

public and nonprofit 

organizations, and 

postsecondary 

institutions

FY 2011 obligations:

$2.2 million

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$78 million 

appropriated for 

youth mentoring; no 

separate allocation 

for this program

Source: Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance and information provided by Department of Justice Officials

a

Data reported on transition-age youth refer to youth ages 14 to 25, unless otherwise noted. All 

recipient data reported by agency officials.

b

Funding data obtained from publicly available and agency-provided budget documentation, unless 

otherwise noted. 
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 46 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Table 5: Labor Program Providing Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities 

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided Eligibility criteria Recipient dataa Fundingb

Disability 

Employment 

Initiative

Improve educational,

training, and 

employment 

opportunities and 

outcomes for youth 

and adults with 

disabilities who are 

unemployed, 

underemployed, and 

or receiving Social 

Security disability 

benefits

• School-based 

preparatory 

experiences

• Career 

preparation and 

work-based 

learning 

experiences

• Youth 

development and 

leadership

• Family 

involvement and 

supports

• Connecting 

activities

Individuals with 

disabilities who are 

eligible for employment 

and training services 

under the Workforce 

Investment Act, Social 

Security disability 

beneficiaries, and in the 

target population of focus 

as determined by the 

grantee. Projects with a 

focus on youth target 

youth ages 14 to 24 

(currently, projects in 4 

states serve this specific 

population)

Total number of 

recipients served in 

FY 2011:

Data not yet 

available

Number and 

Percentage of 

Recipients that were 

transition-age youth 

in FY 2011:

Data not yet 

available

Type of Funding:

Grants to states

FY 2011 

obligations:

$24 millionc

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$24 millionc

Source: Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance and information provided by Department of Labor officials.

a

Data reported on transition-age youth refer to youth ages 14 to 25, unless otherwise noted. All 

recipient data reported by agency officials.

b

Funding data obtained from publicly available and agency-provided budget documentation, unless 

otherwise noted.

c

Data reported by agency officials.
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 47 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Table 6: SSA Programs Providing Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities (Ranked by Funding Level)

Program Purpose

Types of transition 

services provided

Eligibility 

criteria Recipient dataa Fundingb

Ticket to Work Provide additional 

choices for employment 

services for individuals 

receiving Social 

Security disability 

benefits

• Vocational 

rehabilitation 

services

• Career counseling 

and job placement

• Ongoing 

employment 

support

Individuals ages 

18 to 65 

receiving Social 

Security disability 

benefits

Total number of 

recipients served in 

2011:

7,812c,k

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who were 

transition-age youth 

in 2011:

441c (6 percent)

Type of funding:

Contract and 

blanket funding 

agreements

FY 2011 obligations:

$25.7 milliond,e

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$39 millionf,e

Youth Transition 

Demonstration

Assist youth with 

disabilities to 

successfully transition 

from school to economic 

self-sufficiency

• Individualized 

work-based 

experiences

• Job development

• Youth 

empowerment and 

family supports

• Social and health 

services

• Benefits 

counseling

• SSA program 

waiversg

Youth ages 14 to 

25 receiving or 

likely to receive 

Social Security 

disability benefits

Total number of 

recipients served 

from 2007 to 

2012h,k: 

4,920

Number and 

percentage of 

recipients who were 

transition-age youth 

from 2007 to 2012h

 : 

2,520i (51 percent)

Type of funding:

Demonstration 

grants to states and 

community 

organizations

FY 2011 obligations:

$1.6 millionj

FY 2012 

appropriations:

$1.5 millionj

Source: Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance and information provided by Social Security Administration officials

a

Data reported on transition-age youth refer to youth ages 14 to 25, unless otherwise noted. All 

recipient data reported by agency officials.

b

Funding data obtained from publicly available and agency-provided budget documentation, unless 

otherwise noted.

c

Reflects number of recipients for which SSA paid employment networks due to beneficiaries meeting 

program criteria for work and earnings.

d

Reflects amounts SSA paid employment networks.

e

Data reported by agency officials.

f

Reflects amount available for payment to employment networks.

g

The Youth Transition Demonstration (YTD) program removes some disability program rules to 

encourage and reward work. For example, YTD participants may take advantage of earned-income 

exclusions, which allows SSA to exclude a certain amount of a beneficiary’s earned income when 

determining benefits payments. According to SSA officials, this is a rigorous research project with a 

random assignment design that will yield real results for this population and help to answer questions 

about better outcomes. They noted that this is the only research of its kind on this population

h

Data are reported for the life of the program (2007 through 2012) because it is a demonstration 

program.

i

Under the demonstration program, a portion of the participants received services while the remaining 

participants were placed in a control group.
Appendix II: Federal Programs that Provide 

Transition Services to Youth with Disabilities

Page 48 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

j

Amounts include project funds from Section 1110 (90 percent of funds) and direct apportionments of 

Section 234 funds (10 percent of funds) authorized under the Social Security Act for research and 

demonstration projects, which are not part of the annual research appropriations request. Section 234 

amounts were reported by agency officials.

k

Agency officials did not specify whether these data were for the FY.
Appendix III: Other Federal Coordination 

Efforts that Address Individuals with 

Disabilities, Including Students

Page 49 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Some of the coordination efforts of the Departments of Education 

(Education), Health and Human Services (HHS), Labor (Labor), and the 

Social Security Administration (SSA) broadly address youth or individuals 

with disabilities (see fig. 4). A focus on transition-age students with 

disabilities may or may not be explicitly included in these federal 

coordination efforts, but agency officials indicated that all of these efforts 

include discussions of programs or policy that impact this population in 

some manner.

Figure 4: Federal Coordination Efforts That Focus on Individuals with Disabilities or Youth 

Note: While some coordination efforts included in this figure involve other federal agencies, we 

focused on Education, HHS, Labor, and SSA because they administer the key programs that serve 

students in their transition out of high school. Key activities coordinated and mechanisms of 

coordination were reported by at least half of the reporting member agencies. For efforts with two key 

member agencies, only mechanisms and activities reported by both agencies were included.

Appendix III: Other Federal Coordination 

Efforts that Address Individuals with 

Disabilities, Including Students 
Appendix III: Other Federal Coordination 

Efforts that Address Individuals with 

Disabilities, Including Students

Page 50 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

a

Participating offices from HHS include the National Institutes of Health, Indian Health Service, and 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Administration on Developmental Disabilities (ADD) 

at HHS is planning to re-engage in this effort. Key activities coordinated and mechanisms of 

coordination were reported by Education.

b

The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation at HHS leads this effort. Key 

activities coordinated and mechanisms of coordination were reported by Labor.

c

The Department of Transportation leads this council. ADD at HHS is planning to re-engage in this 

effort. Key activities coordinated and mechanisms of coordination were reported by Labor.

. 
Appendix IV: Comments from the Department 

of Education

Page 51 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Appendix IV: Comments from the 

Department of Education
Appendix IV: Comments from the Department 

of Education

Page 52 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of Health and Human Services

Page 53 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of Health and Human Services 
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of Health and Human Services

Page 54 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of Health and Human Services

Page 55 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of Health and Human Services

Page 56 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of Health and Human Services

Page 57 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of Health and Human Services

Page 58 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of Health and Human Services

Page 59 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities
Appendix VI: Comments from the Department 

of Labor

Page 60 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Appendix VI: Comments from the 

Department of Labor
Appendix VI: Comments from the Department 

of Labor

Page 61 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities
Appendix VII: Comments from the Social Security 

Administration

Page 62 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Appendix VII: Comments from the Social 

Security Administration
Appendix VII: Comments from the Social Security 

Administration

Page 63 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities
Appendix VIII: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments

Page 64 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Revae E. Moran, (202) 512-7215 or moranr@gao.gov

In addition to the contact named above, Meeta Engle (Assistant Director), 

Nora Boretti (Analyst-in-Charge), Rachel Batkins, Brenna Guarneros, and 

Jennifer McDonald made significant contributions to this report. In 

addition, assistance, expertise, and guidance were provided by Susan 

Anthony, James Bennett, Amy Buck, Susannah Compton, Elizabeth 

Curda, Jill Lacey, Kathy Leslie, Craig Winslow, and Carolyn Yocom.

Appendix VIII: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments 

GAO Contact: 

Staff 

Acknowledgments: 
Related GAO Products

Page 65 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

High Risk Series: An Update. GAO-11-278. Washington, D.C.: February 

2011.

Postsecondary Education: Many States Collect Graduates’ Employment 

Information, but Clearer Guidance on Student Privacy Requirements Is 

Needed. GAO-10-927. Washington, D.C.: September 27, 2010.

Higher Education and Disability: Education Needs a Coordinated 

Approach to Improve Its Assistance to Schools in Supporting Students. 

GAO-10-33. Washington, D.C.: October 28, 2009.

Young Adults with Serious Mental Illness: Some States and Federal 

Agencies Are Taking Steps to Address Their Transition Challenges. 

GAO-08-678. Washington, D.C.: June 23, 2008.

Federal Disability Programs: More Strategic Coordination Could Help 

Overcome Challenges to Needed Transformation. GAO-08-635. 

Washington, D.C.: May 20, 2008.

Highlights of a Forum: Modernizing Federal Disability Policy. 

GAO-07-934SP. Washington, D.C.: August 2007.

Summary of a GAO Conference: Helping California Youths with 

Disabilities Transition to Work or Postsecondary Education, 

GAO-06-759SP. Washington, D.C.: June 20, 2006.

Results-Oriented Government: Practices That Can Help Enhance and 

Sustain Collaboration among Federal Agencies, GAO-06-15. Washington, 

D.C.: October 21, 2005.

Vocational Rehabilitation: Better Measures and Monitoring Could Improve 

Performance of the VR Program. GAO-05-865. Washington, D.C.: 

September 23, 2005.

Federal Disability Assistance: Wide Array of Programs Needs to Be 

Examined in Light of 21st Century Challenges. GAO-05-626. Washington, 

D.C.: June 2, 2005.

Workforce Investment Act: Labor Has Taken Several Actions to Facilitate 

Access to One-Stops for Persons with Disabilities, but These Efforts May 

Not Be Sufficient. GAO-05-54. Washington, D.C.: December 12, 2004.

Related GAO Products
Related GAO Products

Page 66 GAO-12-594 Students with Disabilities

Special Education: Federal Actions Can Assist States in Improving 

Postsecondary Outcomes for Youth. GAO-03-773. Washington, D.C.: 

July 31, 2003.

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