Bureau of Justice Statistics

 U.S. Department of Justice

 Office of Justice Programs 

Contacts between Police 

and the Public

Findings from the 1999 National Survey

 

In 1999 C

21% of U.S. residents had a contact with police

52% of contacts were in traffic stops

19% of contacts were to report a crime

Under 1% of contacts involved police use of force

10% of white drivers were stopped

12% of black drivers were stopped

9% of Hispanic drivers were stopped

84% of drivers considered stop legitimate
 

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

810 Seventh Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20531

John Ashcroft

Attorney General

Office of Justice Programs

World Wide Web site:

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov

Bureau of Justice Statistics

World Wide Web site:

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

For information contact:

BJS Clearinghouse

1-800-732-3277
 

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Contacts between Police 

and the Public

Findings from the 1999 National Survey

Patrick A. Langan, Ph.D. 

Lawrence A. Greenfeld

Steven K. Smith, Ph.D.

Matthew R. Durose 

David J. Levin

BJS Statisticians

February 2001, NCJ 184957
U.S. Department of Justice

Bureau of Justice Statistics

BJS statisticians Patrick A. Langan, Lawrence A. Greenfeld,

Steven K. Smith, Matthew R. Durose, and David J. Levin

wrote this report. Mike Wajda, BJS student intern, coded

data from the interviewers’ forms. Robert J. Kaminski

provided information on the programs at the National Institute of Justice. Tom Hester and Ellen Goldberg edited and

produced the report. Maureen Henneberg provided review.

 

Numerous people made possible the development and

administration of the Police-Public Contact Survey. Staff

from the U.S. Census Bureau facilitated the final construction of the questionnaire, managed the field aspect of the

data collection, processed the data, and provided the

estimation specifications. 

In addition, a panel of the American Statistical Association

met to review and discuss the survey procedures and

questionnaire and subsequently issued a report on its

recommendations. Assembled by Mark Cohen, Vanderbilt

University, the advisory group included the following scholars: James Lynch, American University Professor of

Justice, Law and Society; James Fyfe, Temple University

Professor of Criminal Justice; Dennis Kenney, Director of

Research at the Police Executive Research Forum; Stephen

Mastrofski, George Mason University Professor of Administration of Justice; and Joel Garner, Director of the Joint

Center for Justice Studies. 

At the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Lee Giesbrecht

and David Banks provided helpful advice in the BJS analysis

of the 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey.

The International Association of Chiefs of Police, as well as

other law enforcement executives and scholars, provided

many valuable comments on the survey procedures and

questionnaire.

Data presented in this report can be obtained from the

National Archive of Criminal Justice Data at the University

of Michigan, 1-800-999-0960. The archive Internet site can

be accessed through the BJS site. 

Electronic versions of this and other reports are available

from the BJS Internet site:

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

Contents

Foreword iii

Highlights 1

Police-Public Contact Survey 3

Incidence and prevalence of police-public contact 5

Traffic stops 12

Police use of force 24

Appendix 30

Questionnaire 32

 

ii Contacts between Police and the Public
This publication represents the annual report to the

Congress as required by Section 210402 of the

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of

1994. The findings are based upon the largest selfreport survey ever conducted among the U.S. resident

population about contacts between the public and the

police and the outcomes of those contacts. The

objective of the survey was to learn more about how

often and under what circumstances a traffic stop or

other contact becomes problematic.

The Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) initiated

surveys of the public on their interactions with police 

in 1996 with the first Police-Public Contact Survey, a

pretest among a nationally representative sample of

6,421 persons aged 12 or older. That initial version 

of the questionnaire revealed that about 20% of the

public had a direct, face-to-face contact with a police

officer at least once during the year preceding the

survey. At that time, BJS estimated that about 1 in

500 residents, or about a half million people, had

experienced an encounter with a police officer involving either a threat of force or the actual use of force.

An improved version of the Police-Public Contact

Survey (PPCS II) was fielded during the last 6 months

of 1999 among a national sample nearly 15 times as

large as the pretest sample in 1996. It yielded nearly

identical estimates of the prevalence and nature of

contacts between the public and the police. The most

recent survey, which obtained data from those age 16

or older, resulted in a finding that about 21% of the

public had a direct, face-to-face contact at least once

with a police officer during the year. As in 1996, the

1999 survey revealed that during the year about 1 in

500 persons, or about 422,000 persons age 16 or

older, experienced a contact with a police officer

which involved force or the threat that force would be

used. 

The PPCS II, because of its much larger sample size,

permitted more extensive analysis of demographic

differences in police contacts. In addition, the PPCS II

added a new and more detailed set of questions about

traffic stops by police, the most frequent reason given

for a contact with police. Among licensed drivers, an

estimated 10% of white drivers, 12% of black drivers,

and 9% of Hispanic drivers were stopped by police at

least once in 1999. 

Overall, most drivers who experienced a traffic stop

indicated that they felt the officer had a legitimate

reason for making the stop: nearly 9 out of 10 white

drivers and 3 out of 4 black drivers described the

officer as having had a legitimate reason for the stop.

Respondents maintained these perceptions regardless of the race of the officer making the stop. White

drivers’ assessments of the legitimacy of the stop

were the same whether the officer making the stop

was white or black. Similarly, black drivers ascribed

the same level of legitimacy to stops by white officers

and stops made by black officers. 

The PPCS provides a new opportunity to learn more

about police and citizen contacts. It is reassuring to

find that most people, of any race, who have a contact

with the police, most often through a traffic stop,

evaluate the stop as having been appropriate. Given

the high level of attention and interest in police-citizen

interactions, BJS expects to continue to collect such

data from the public and to supplement this information with new data to be gathered from administrative

records of law enforcement agencies and those other

public agencies which are primarily responsible for

receiving and adjudicating complaints arising from

police/citizen encounters.

BJS is grateful for the assistance of the many people

who offered their advice and counsel in the construction of the PPCS II questionnaire, the Census Bureau

which fielded the survey, and those persons who

willingly gave of their time as respondents to participate in this important national effort.

Foreword

Contacts between Police and the Public iii
Prevalence of citizen contact 

with police

 ̆ In 1999 an estimated 43.8 million

persons age 16 or older, about 21% of

all persons of this age, had at least one

face-to-face contact with a police

officer. This is approximately the same

rate of contact between police and

citizens found in 1996 when the PolicePublic Contact Survey (PPCS) was first

administered. 

 ̆ On a per capita basis in 1999, the

rate of police-citizen contact for whites

was about 17% higher than for blacks

and about 32% higher than for Hispanics. The rate of contact for males was

about 20% higher than for females and

rates of contact varied inversely with

age: those age 18 to 19 experienced a

rate of contact 160% above that of

those age 50 or older.

 ̆ About two-thirds of all persons experiencing a contact with police during 1999

had one contact for a single reason.

The remaining third of those with

contacts had either multiple contacts or

multiple reasons for a single contact. 

Reasons for citizen contact 

with police

 ̆ About half of all persons experiencing

a contact with police indicated that the

reason for the contact was a motor

vehicle stop. Being either a passenger

or an operator of a motor vehicle was

the most common reason given for a

contact with police. 

 ̆ About 1 in 5 persons with a face-toface contact with a police officer said

that they had contacted the police to

report a crime. 

 ̆ About 3% of all respondents with a

contact said the contact occurred

because the police suspected them 

of involvement in a crime.

 ̆ On a per capita basis, as passengers

or drivers, whites experienced a rate of

contact for traffic stops 6% above the

rate estimated for black respondents

and 26% above that for Hispanics. 

 ̆ In 1999 an estimated 113 whites per

1,000 whites in the resident population

experienced at least one traffic stop as

a driver or passenger. The comparable

rate among black residents was 107,

and among Hispanics, 90.

 ̆ Persons age 18 to 19 had a per capita rate of contact arising from a motor

vehicle stop of 225 per 1,000, more

than 4 times the rate of traffic stops

experienced by those age 50 or older.

 ̆ The percentage of the 43.8 million

residents with a police contact in 1999:

Motor vehicle stop 52% 

Report a crime 19

Ask for assistance 12

Report a neighborhood problem 9

Involved in traffic accident 8

Witness to a traffic accident 5

Witness to a crime 3

Questioned as crime suspect 3

Attend crime prevention meeting 1

Served warrant 1

Citizen contacts with police 

in traffic stops

 ̆ In 1999 an estimated 10.3% of

licensed drivers were pulled over by

police one or more times in a traffic

stop. The 10.3% represent 19.3 million

stopped drivers. The 19.3 million

includes 4 million pulled over more than

once during the year. An estimated

2.1% of all licensed drivers were

stopped two or more times.

 ̆ Of the 19.3 million, an estimated

60.8% (11.7 million) were male and

39.2% (7.6 million) were female; 77%

(14.9 million) were white, 11.6% (2.2

million) were black, 8.4% (1.6 million)

were Hispanic, and 3% (.6 million) were

drivers of other races.

 ̆ Males (12.5%) were more likely than

females (8.2%) to be stopped at least

once, and males (2.9%) were more

likely than females (1.4%) to be stopped

more than once.

 ̆ Blacks (12.3%) were more likely than

whites (10.4%) to be stopped at least

once, and blacks (3.0%) were more

likely than whites (2.1%) to be stopped

more than once. 

Highlights

 Contacts between Police and the Public 1

209,350,600

Experienced a contact with police

43,827,400

Driv ers in a motor v ehicle stop

19,300,000

All other contacts

24,527,400

Use of f orce encounter resulted Use of f orce encounter resulted

139,300 282,400

Overall, less than half of 1% of the population age 16 or older reported 

they had contact with police and were threatened with or actually 

experienced force during the contact
 ̆ Nearly twenty percent (18.2%) of

teenage drivers were stopped at least

once.

 ̆ Of the 19.3 million stopped drivers,

police issued a ticket to 54.2%, carried

out a search of some kind (either a

physical search of the driver or a search

of the vehicle) on 6.6%, handcuffed

3.1%, arrested 3.0%, used or threatened force against 0.7%, and used or

threatened force that the driver deemed

excessive against 0.5%.

 ̆ During the traffic stop, police were

more likely to carry out some type of

search on a male (9.4%) than a female

(2.3%), and more likely on a black

(11.0%) or Hispanic (11.3%) than a

white (5.4%).

 ̆ Police searched the driver or the

vehicle of an estimated 1.3 million

drivers (6.6% of all stopped drivers).

Two-thirds (66.4%) of the 1.3 million

searches were without the driver’s

expressed consent. In nearly 90%

(86.7%) of the 1.3 million searches, no

drugs, alcohol, illegal weapons, or other

evidence of criminal wrongdoing was

found. Searches conducted without the

driver’s consent (12.9%) were not more

likely to find criminal evidence than

consent searches (14.2%).

 ̆ An estimated 11.4% of drivers

stopped by police said the reason for

the stop was a burned out headlight, a

loud muffler, or some other vehicle

defect; 9.2% said a check for vehicle

registration, insurance coverage,

driver’s license, or some other record;

2.3% said a roadside check for drunk

drivers; 2.3% said police suspected

them of something; 51.2% said speeding; and 23.6% said reckless driving,

illegal turn, going through a red light,

driving too closely, or some other traffic

offense.

 ̆ The vast majority of drivers stopped

by police (84%) said they had been

stopped for a legitimate reason, and an

even larger majority (90%) felt police

had behaved properly during the traffic

stop.

Citizen contacts with police 

involving force or the threat of force

 ̆ During 1999 approximately 422,000

persons age 16 or older were estimated

to have had a contact in which police

used or threatened to use force against

them. This finding on the prevalence 

of force encounters is similar to the

estimated 471,000 persons experiencing force in 1996.

 ̆ An estimated 2 in 10 persons experiencing a force encounter reported that

the officer issued a threat to use force

only.

 ̆ The estimate of the number of

persons experiencing force or the threat

of force equals about 1% ( 0.96%) of

the nearly 44 million people reporting

face-to-face contact with police.

 ̆ Among those with police contact,

blacks (2%) and Hispanics (2%) were

more likely than whites (just under 1%)

to experience police threat or use of

force as a consequence of the contact.

 ̆ Respondents reported that police use

or threat of force primarily involved the

citizen being pushed or grabbed: less

than 20% of those experiencing force

reported an injury.

 ̆ Overall, 57% of persons involved in a

police force incident reported that they

argued, disobeyed, or resisted the

police or that they had been drinking or

using drugs at the time.

 ̆ An estimated 49% of persons

involved in a force contact had charges

filed against them & ranging from a

traffic offense to resisting arrest to

assaulting an officer. 

 ̆ An estimated three-quarters of the

422,000 persons involved in a police

force incident characterized the force 

as excessive. Whites were as likely 

as blacks to describe the force

encounter as having been excessive.

There were not statistically significant

differences between whites and

Hispanics.

 ̆ The vast majority (92%) of persons

experiencing threat or use of force said

the police acted improperly.

2 Police and Public Contact 

Force in the Police-Public 

Contact Survey

Force includes contacts in which the

police officer pushed, grabbed,

kicked, or hit the citizen. Hitting was

defined as striking with a hand or an

object held in the officer's hand.

Included in the definition of force

were police dog bites, spray 

with pepper spray or a chemical, 

and a firearm pointed in the citizen’s 

direction. Also included was the

threat to carry out any of these types

of force.

The survey provided an opportunity

for respondents to express their

opinion as to whether any police

force or threat of force used against

them was "excessive." The survey

did not define "excessive" for the

respondent. Respondents who said

they had experienced police use or

threat of force were asked whether

they felt any of the physical force

used or threatened against them was

excessive. If a respondent said the

force was excessive, he or she was

asked about the specific type of

physical force considered excessive.
Title XXI of the Violent Crime Control

and Law Enforcement Act of 1994

requires the Attorney General to publish

an annual summary of data about the

use of excessive force by police. Since

that time, the following reports have

been published:

National Data Collection on Police

Use of Force (April 1996, NCJ

160113) summarizes the literature

and research available, identifies

potential strengths and weaknesses

associated with alternative data

collection strategies, and identifies a

series of steps to acquire both

administrative and self-report data.

Police Use of Force: Collection of

National Data (November 1997, NCJ

165040) provides findings from the

first Police-Public Contact Survey

(PPCS-I) conducted in the spring of

1996 utilizing a nationally representative sample of 6,421 respondents

age 12 or older. In addition,

the report describes the National

Police Use-of-Force Database

Project initiated by the International

Association of Chiefs of Police

(IACP) with funding from both the

National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and

the Bureau of Justice Statistics

(BJS). This report also included

preliminary findings on police-use-of

force from a number of NIJ-funded

studies.

Use of Force by Police: Overview of

National and Local Data (October

1999, NCJ 176330) provides initial

data from the IACP's National Police

Use-of-Force Database Project,

presents findings from studies of the

use of force in six jurisdictions, and

offers new insights into the measurement of suspect resistance in use-offorce encounters. In addition, BJS

describes plans for conducting a

second national survey during the

last half of 1999.

Traffic Stop Data Collection Policies

for State Police, 1999 (February

2000, NCJ 180776) provides an

overview of the status of administrative data collection, both manual and

electronically accessible data, by

State police agencies on traffic stops

and the outcomes associated with

those stops. The report describes

the number of States routinely

collecting information on drivers and

other vehicle occupants with respect

to age, gender, race or ethnicity, and

immigration status. The study also

describes data collected by these

agencies on use-of-force encounters.

Studies of racial and ethnic disparities

in police traffic enforcement in New

Jersey and Maryland also prompted

new interest in national data from the

United States on variations in law

enforcement practices attributable to

race and ethnicity. In addition, the

Congress considered a number of

proposals addressing the issue of law

enforcement integrity, with a particular

concern about the need for data to learn

more about racial profiling practices

(Law Enforcement Trust and Integrity

Acts of 1999 and 2000). 

In June 1999 the President issued an

Executive Memorandum to Federal law

enforcement agencies requiring them to

examine any practices which may be

the result of racial profiling. 

Together these concerns led BJS to

redesign the PPCS-I to gather more

detailed information on traffic stops, the

most frequent form of police-citizen

contact. The Police-Public Contact

Survey (PPCS) was pretested 

in the spring of 1999 and was

conducted between July 1, 1999, and

December 31, 1999, as a supplement 

to the National Crime Victimization

Survey (NCVS). 

The final questionnaire incorporated

some elements of the British Crime

Survey questions on contacts with

police to ensure comparability to the

extent possible. Extensive public

comment was received, and a panel of

law enforcement experts designated by

the American Statistical Association's

Committee on Law and Justice critiqued

the instrument. 

The 1999 PPCS national sample

In 1999 the PPCS respondents included

all NCVS respondents age 16 or older,

with the questionnaire administered

following the NCVS screener and

incident forms. 

During the last 6 months of 1999 in

which interviews were conducted, the

NCVS sample consisted of 94,717

individuals age 16 or older. Of these,

10,424, or 11%, were NCVS noninterviews, though someone else in the

household was interviewed. In addition

to those not interviewed for the NCVS,

986 persons either refused to participate in the PPCS or said they were not

available for the interview or the interviewer failed to indicate the specific

reason for non-interview. 

Police-Public Contact Survey

 Contacts between Police and the Public 3
By far the largest reason for not

completing the PPCS in 1999, accounting for 2,764 respondents, was the

exclusion of the proxy interviews

conducted for the NCVS when a person

was unable, for physical, mental, or

other reasons, to participate. BJS staff

determined that caregivers and other

proxy interviewees would have difficulty

describing the details of any contacts

between police and the sampled

respondent.

The PPCS failed to interview 14,174

persons and interviewed 80,543; this

translates into an 85% response rate 

for the PPCS, compared to an overall

response rate of 89% for the NCVS.

Among the PPCS interviews conducted,

24,829 (31%) were in person and

55,672 (69%) were by telephone. 

The PPCS national sample, after

adjustment for non-response, weights to

a national estimate of 209,350,600

persons age 16 and older. Distributions

by gender, race, ethnicity, and age

parallel the resident population projections (middle-series) published by the

Census Bureau (http://www.census.

gov/ population/projections/nation/detail/

d1999_00.pdf) reflecting the accuracy

of the case-level adjustments to the

weights:

 Resident population 

Charac- Census Bureau PPCS

teristic projection sample 

Gender

Male 48.2% 48.2%

Female 51.8 51.8

Race/ethnicity

White 74.1% 74.1%

Black 11.4 11.7

Hispanic 10.2 10.2

White 9.3 9.8

Black 0.6 0.2

Other* 0.3 0.1

Other* 4.3 4.0

Age

16-17 3.8% 3.9%

18-19 3.8 3.8

20-24 8.6 8.7

25-29 8.7 8.8

30-34 9.4 9.5

35-39 10.7 10.8

40-49 19.8 20.0

50 or older 35.3 34.5

Total 210,604,000 209,350,600

*Other includes Asians, Pacific Islanders, Native

Hawaiians, American Indians, and Alaska

Natives.

Other information on survey

methodology

Unless indicated otherwise, differences

documented in this report were significant at the .05-level. Certain differences were not significant at the .05-

level but were significant at the .10-

level. The term "some indication" refers

to differences significant at the .10-

level.

Regarding racial designations given in

the report, "white" refers to nonHispanic whites, "black" refers to

non-Hispanic blacks, and "other races"

refers to non-Hispanics in the "other

races" category. White Hispanics,

black Hispanics, and Hispanics of

"other races" are categorized in the

report under the heading "Hispanic."

Due to small samples and concerns

about confidentiality, the report does not

provide separate statistics on each of

the racial categories that make up

"other races" (Asians, Pacific Islanders,

American Indians, Native Hawaiians,

and Alaska Natives).

4 Contacts between Police and the Public 
In 1999 there were just over 209 million

U.S. residents age 16 or older. Based

on the results of the 1999 Police Public

Contact Survey, conducted during the

last 6 months of the year, an

estimated 43.8 million residents, or

about 21% of those age 16 or older,

were estimated to have had at least one

face-to-face contact for any reason with

a law enforcement officer during the

year (figure 1). 

Race, Hispanic origin, gender, and

age of citizens having face-to-face

contact with police

In 1999 rates of contact between

residents and the police translate into

about 1 person with a contact for every

4.8 residents age 16 or older. 

Per capita rates of contact between

residents and the police vary by the

race and ethnicity of residents. White

residents experience contact with law

enforcement officers at the highest rate:

about 1 person for every 4.5 white,

non-Hispanic residents age 16 or older

experience a contact. By contrast,

about 1 person for every 5.3 black

residents had contact, and at a lower

rate, about 1 Hispanic for every 6

had a direct contact with a law

enforcement officer. Per capita, the

white rate of police-citizen contact is

about 17% higher than for blacks and

about 32% higher than for Hispanics.

Other races, primarily Asians, Pacific

Islanders, American Indians, and

Alaska Natives, experience contact with

police at the lowest rate; on average,

there is about 1 person with a contact

for every 6.2 persons in the resident

population. 

Age and sex are also important factors

associated with the prevalence of

police-citizen contacts (table 1). About

1 male of every 4.4 males age 16 or

older had a contact with a police officer

in 1999; among women residents age

16 or older, there was about 1 with a

contact for every 5.2 females. Males

had a per capita rate of contact about

20% higher than that for females.

Contact rates generally vary inversely

with age: residents in the youngest age

groupings have higher rates of contact

with police than those in the oldest age

ranges. Residents age 18 to 19

have the highest rates of contact with

police: the per capita rate of 343 per

1,000 equals about 1 person of this age

with a contact for every 2.9 persons in

this age group. By contrast, among

those 50 or older, rates of contact equal

about 1 person with a contact for every

7.6 persons of this age.

 

Incidence and prevalence of police-public contact

 Contacts between Police and the Public 5

Figure 1

Note: Detail may not add to total because of estimation procedures.

Total 43,827,419 165,523,158 209,350,577 209

50 or older 9,442,611 62,817,173 72,259,784 131

45 to 49 4,179,427 15,385,185 19,564,612 214

40 to 44 5,111,473 17,263,649 22,375,122 228

35 to 39 5,145,251 17,479,357 22,624,608 227

30 to 34 4,833,379 15,015,718 19,849,097 244

25 to 29 4,833,335 13,563,021 18,396,356 263

20 to 24 5,730,078 12,582,986 18,313,060 313

18 to 19 2,705,888 5,193,533 7,899,421 343

16 to 17 1,845,977 6,222,534 8,068,511 229

Female 20,692,308 87,790,125 108,482,433 191

Male 23,135,110 77,733,034 100,868,144 229

Rate of contact 

per 1,000 persons

Total 

population 

No contact 

with police

Contact with 

police

Population

characteristic

Persons age 16 or older

Table 1. Rate of face-to-face contact between police and residents age 16 

or older, by gender and age, 1999

209,350,577

34,294,839 4,629,731 3,550,300 1,352,547

Rate per 1,000 221 189 167 161

White

155,182,517

Black

24,505,943

Hispanic

21,276,861

Other race

8,385,256

In 1999 an estimated 43.8 million residents age 16 or older, about 20.9%

of all persons in this age category, had a face-to-face contact with a

police officer. Contact between the police and the public varied by

race/ethnicity, with white respondents reporting contacts at the

highest per capita rates
Size of jurisdiction

Rates of contact between police and

citizens also vary inversely with the size

of the jurisdiction in which the resident

lives (table 2). The smaller the population of the jurisdiction, the higher the

rate of contact with police. This finding

is illustrated in two ways: residents of

central cities reported contacts with

police at rates of about 200 persons

with contact per 1,000 residents while

residents of non-metropolitan or rural

areas reported a 9% higher rate.

Similarly, residents of jurisdictions with

fewer than 100,000 residents had a rate

of contact with police which was 37%

higher than those residing in jurisdictions of 1 million or more residents.

Multiple contacts during the year and

multiple reasons for a contact

Among the 43.8 million persons having

contact with a police officer during the

year, many reported more than one

contact or a variety of reasons for

having contacts. Overall, about

two-thirds of those who reported having

a contact with a police officer had only

the single contact during the year and

gave a single reason for that contact

(table not shown). The remaining third

had combinations of numbers of

contacts and reasons for contact during

the reference year.

Of the 43.8 million persons with

contacts with police:

 ̆ 65% had one contact for a single

reason, and for half of these, the reason

for the contact was a vehicle traffic stop

 ̆ an additional 16% of those with

contacts had multiple reasons for

contacts with police during the year

 ̆ an additional 11% said they had multiple contacts during the year but always

for the same reason

 ̆ 8% had multiple contacts for multiple

reasons during the year.

Persons with contacts with police

distribute slightly differently with respect

to their demographic composition than

those who do not report a contact

during the year. Those with police

contacts are generally more likely to be

male, white, and younger than those

who do not have contacts with police: 

Resident population, age 

16 or older 

Charac- With police Without poteristic contact lice contact

Gender

Male 52.8% 47.0%

Female 47.2 53.0

Race/ethnicity

 White 78.2% 73.0%

Black 10.6 12.0

Hispanic 8.1 10.7

Other race 3.1 4.2

Age

 16-17 4.2% 3.8%

18-19 6.2 3.1 

20-24 13.1 7.6

25-29 11.0 8.2

 30-34 11.0 9.1

 35-39 11.7 10.6

 40-49 21.2 19.7

 50 or older 21.5 38.0

Total 43,827,419 165,523,158

Note: Detail may not add to 100% because 

of rounding.

6 Contacts between Police and the Public 

Note: Detail may not add to total because of estimation procedures.

*The Office of Management and Budget defines the Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) as a

population nucleus of 50,000 or more, generally having a city, its immediate suburbs, and adjacent

communities that are highly integrated socially and economically with the nucleus.

Total 43,827,419 165,523,158 209,350,577 209

1 million or more 2,297,847 12,356,747 14,654,594 157

500,000 to 999,999 1,658,163 6,353,897 8,012,060 207

100,000 to 499,999 5,807,156 22,605,072 28,412,228 204

Under 100,000 34,064,252 124,207,444 158,271,696 215

Not MSA* 9,069,056 32,572,201 41,641,257 218

MSA-noncentral city* 22,513,679 84,103,050 106,616,729 211

MSA-central city* 12,244,683 48,847,907 61,092,590 200

Rate of contact 

per 1,000 persons

Total 

population 

No contact 

with police

Contact with 

police

Geographic

characteristic

Persons age 16 or older

Table 2. Rate of face-to-face contact between police and residents age 16 

or older, by characteristic of the location of residence, 1999
Contact between citizens and the police

can occur in one of three ways: initiated

by a resident, by the police, or by both. 

Examples of self-initiated face-to-face

contacts with a police officer include

reporting a crime, asking the officer for

assistance or directions, or reporting a

neighborhood problem. Examples of

police-initiated contact include motor

vehicle stops, being questioned by the

police about a crime as a suspect,

victim, or witness, or attending policesponsored community meetings on

crime prevention. Because up to a third

of respondents to the PPCS described

multiple contacts for a variety of

reasons during the year, some experienced contacts of both types.

Among the 43.8 million persons with

contact with the police, an estimated

25.9 million persons (59%) experienced

only police-initiated contacts (figure 2).

Nearly 12 million (27%) experienced

only contacts that they had initiated.

The remainder, just over 13% (5.9

million), said that they had both types of

contacts with police during the year

(table not shown). The percentage of

respondents experiencing a policeinitiated contact only was inversely

related to age. While about 8 in 10

16-to-17 year olds with a face-to-face

encounter said that the contacts they

had with police had been initiated by the

police, just over half of those age 35

and older said that the only contacts

they had with police had been initiated

by a law enforcement officer.

Motor vehicle stops, as either a driver or

passenger, was the most frequent

reason for contact, cited by more than

half of all persons with a police contact

during 1999 (table 3). Motor vehicle

stops were also most commonly cited

among those with two or more contacts

during the year. Together, an estimated

22.7 million persons age 16 or older

experienced a traffic stop as a driver or

passenger during 1999, about 11% of

all persons in this age category.

The second most common reason for

contact with police was to report a

crime, accounting for about 1 in 5

persons with a police contact. About

8.4 million persons, or about 4% of the

population age 16 or older, were

estimated to have called the police at

least once during the year to report a

crime. 

Overall, about 19% of residents age 16

or older called the police for the same 

problem at least twice during 1999.

 Contacts between Police and the Public 7

Note: Percentages add to more than 100% because persons may have given more 

than one reason for a contact between a resident and a police officer.

,

Includes persons who were either passengers or drivers.

Other 5,288,699 4,506,961 781,738 12.1 12.8 9.3

Crime prevention 614,743 440,187 174,556 1.4 1.2 2.1

Serve warrant 345,208 232,084 113,124 0.8 0.7 1.3

Suspect in crime 1,314,159 1,116,265 197,894 3.0 3.2 2.3

Witness to crime 1,367,601 1,157,259 210,342 3.1 3.3 2.5

Victim of crime 921,357 792,176 129,181 2.1 2.2 1.5

Witness to accident 766,413 609,237 157,176 1.8 1.7 1.9

Involved in accident 3,354,807 3,158,257 196,550 7.7 9.0 2.3

Motor vehicle stop, 22,731,790 18,100,524 4,631,268 52.0% 51.3% 54.8%

Police contacted

respondent:

Other reasons 4,030,763 3,383,985 646,778 9.2 9.6 7.7

Witness to an accident 1,673,709 1,387,291 286,418 3.8 3.9 3.4

4,001,085 2,979,285 1,021,800 9.2 8.5 12.1

Report a neighborhood

problem

Ask for assistance 5,226,973 4,116,802 1,110,171 12.0 11.7 13.1

Witness to a crime 1,393,327 1,027,015 366,312 3.2 2.9 4.3

Report a crime 8,372,814 6,877,313 1,495,501 19.2% 19.5% 17.7%

Respondent contacted 

police:

43,705,120 35,254,550 8,450,573 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Contact with police: 

Any reason

Two or more

contacts

One 

Total contact

Two or more

contacts 

One 

Total contact 

Reason 

for contact

Percent of residents with

contacts

Contact with police 

during 1999

Table 3. Reasons for contact between the police and public, 

by the number of contacts of the same type during 1999

Figure 2

contact experiencing only

Among persons who had contact 

with the police in 1999, over 70% 

of persons ages 16-19, but 55% 

of those older than 50, had contact 

that the police initiated
The most common types of recurring

reasons for experiencing a contact with

police were: to report a neighborhood

problem, motor vehicle stops, and

attending crime prevention meetings.

About a quarter of those who called the

police about a neighborhood problem

during 1999 said that they called at

least twice during the year about their

concerns. 

The least frequently recurring reason 

for police contact was to have been

involved in a traffic accident. An

estimated 3.4 million persons age 16 

or older were involved in accidents in

1999, with about 6% of these persons

reporting they were involved in two or

more accidents during the year.

On a per officer basis, the number of

contacts with unique individuals age 16

or older averaged about 71 in 1999. 

That is, the 622,041 sworn full-time

State and local law enforcement officers

in the United States had contacts with

43,827,514 persons that year. Officers

employed in jurisdictions of less than

100,000 population on average in 1999

had contacts with about 8 times the

number of people in traffic stops as

those officers employed in jurisdictions

of 1 million or more population (table 4).

In fact, for most of the categories of 

reasons for contact, the ratio of

contacts to officers in smaller jurisdictions is between 5 and 8 times the rate

in the largest jurisdictions. 

8 Contacts between Police and the Public 

Note: Data on the number of sworn officers were obtained from the Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics Survey for 1999 and include sworn officers in both local police

and sheriff’s departments. There were 622,041 full-time sworn law enforcement officers in police

and sheriff's departments nationwide in 1999.

*Includes persons who were either passengers or drivers.

Other reasons 8.5 14.6 4.7 3.5 2.2

Crime prevention 1.0 1.5 0.7 0.5 0.4

Serve warrant 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.2

Suspect in crime 2.1 3.3 1.7 0.7 0.7

Witness to crime 2.2 3.5 1.5 1.4 0.7

Victim of crime 1.5 2.4 0.9 0.9 0.4

Witness to accident 1.2 2.0 0.8 0.8 0.2

Involved in accident 5.4 9.6 3.2 2.0 0.6

Motor vehicle stop* 36.5 64.4 19.7 12.6 7.9

Police contacted respondent:

Other reasons 6.5 11.4 3.2 2.5 1.6

Witness to an accident 2.7 4.6 1.8 0.9 0.6

Report a neighborhood problem 6.4 10.9 3.5 3.7 1.7

Ask for assistance 8.4 14.1 4.8 3.5 2.8

Witness to a crime 2.2 3.3 1.7 2.0 0.9

Report a crime 13.5 21.9 8.6 7.9 3.8

Respondent contacted police:

Contact with police: Any reason 70.5 121.8 39.5 28.3 16.8

1 million

or more

500,000-

999,999

100,000-

499,999

Under

100,000

All

jurisdictions

Reason for contact 

with police

Number of respondents who had contacts 

with police per officer, by size of jurisdiction

Table 4. Estimated rate of contact with police per officer, 

by size of jurisdiction, 1999
Varying rates of contacts

In 1999 an estimated 11.3% of whites

age 16 or older experienced at least

one traffic stop as a driver or

passenger, a rate equal to 113 per

1,000 whites age 16 or older in the

resident population (table 5). Blacks

and Hispanics experienced traffic stops 

while drivers or passengers at lower

rates, 107 per 1,000 and 90 per 1,000,

respectively. Whites were more likely

than blacks or Hispanics to call the

police to ask for assistance, such as

directions, and to report a neighborhood

problem. Whites and blacks were

equally likely to have called the police

during 1999 to report a crime and there

were no differences by race/ethnicity in

participation in community crime

prevention meetings sponsored by the

police. In the aggregate, jurisdiction

size was inversely related to the rate of

contact between police and citizens

(table 6).

For blacks age 16 or older, smaller

population areas had higher contact

levels: black residents of areas with

fewer than 100,000 persons had per

capita rates of contact which were 22%

higher than for persons residing in jurisdictions of 1 million or more population.

Among whites and Hispanics, the

highest rates of contact with police

occurred among residents of jurisdictions with populations of 500,000 to

999,999.

 Contacts between Police and the Public 9

No national data are available from

police officers to describe their

workload and with whom they come

into contact to complement these data

drawn from the general population.

BJS does, however, collect administrative data on the number of sworn

officers. While levels of contact can

be calculated relative to the number of

sworn officers, it is not known to what 

extent such measures may accurately

reflect a typical officer’s workload and

contacts (table 4).

In the aggregate during 1999, an

estimated 71 persons age 16 or older

had contact with a police officer for

each sworn officer employed by State

or local law enforcement agencies

nationwide. 

Law enforcement employees and contacts with the public

Note: Respondents may have described more than one reason for a contact.

*Estimate was based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

,

Includes persons who were either passengers or drivers.

Other reasons 25 27 25 19 17

Crime prevention 3 3 3 2 1*

Serve warrant 2 1 5 1 2*

Suspect in crime 6 6 8 8 5

Witness to crime 7 7 6 6 4*

Victim of crime 4 4 5 5 3*

Witness to accident 4 4 2 2 1*

Involved in accident 16 18 12 10 10

Motor vehicle stop 109 113 107 90 83 ,

Police contacted respondent:

Other reasons 19 21 16 11 14

Witness to an accident 8 9 5 4 4

Report a neighborhood problem 19 21 15 13 7

Ask for assistance 25 27 21 17 18

Witness to a crime 7 7 8 5 7

Report a crime 40 41 39 32 35

Respondent contacted police:

Contact with police: Any reason 209 221 189 167 161

Other

Total White Black Hispanic race

Reason for contact 

with police

Number of respondents who had contacts with

police per 1,000 residents age 16 or older

Table 5. Rate of contact with police per 1,000 residents age 16 or older, 

by race of persons with contacts and reason for contact, 1999

1 million or more 157 179 162 125 129

500,000 to 999,999 207 231 164 221 136

100,000 to 499,999 204 227 197 156 131

Under 100,000 215 222 198 178 182

All jurisdictions 209 221 189 167 161

where resided Total White Black Hispanic Other race

Number of persons who had contact with police 

Size of jurisdiction per 1,000 persons age 16 or older

Table 6. Number of persons with a face-to-face contact with a police officer 

per 1,000 persons age 16 or older, by jurisdiction size and race/ethnicity 

of residents, 1999
The single most important factor affecting the rate of contact between

residents and the police is age, largely

due to the age distribution of those

persons experiencing a motor vehicle

stop (figure 3). Among those ages 18

to 24, the per capita rate of traffic stops

is more than double that of persons age

40 or older (table 7). In addition,

persons age 16 to 19 self-report an

involvement in traffic accidents for

which police responded at nearly twice

the per capita rate reported in the

aggregate for all age groups. Finally,

young people, age 16 to 19, describe a

rate of contact as a suspect in crime

which is nearly 4 times the per capita

rate for all age groups. 

In other words, for young people, the

principal reasons for higher contact with

the police are greater exposure to motor

vehicle stops, higher involvement in

traffic accidents, and greater likelihood

of being questioned as a suspect in a

crime.

10 Contacts between Police and the Public 

*Estimates based on 10 or fewer cases.

,

Includes persons who were either passengers or drivers.

Other reasons 25 39 39 29 27 29 30 16

Crime prevention 3 4 2* 2 3 4 3 2

Serve warrant 2 2* 2* 6 2 2 1 0*

Suspect in crime 6 22 23 16 6 5 5 2

Witness to a crime 7 10 8 11 7 7 8 4

Victim of crime 4 4 9 9 4 5 4 2

Witness to an accident 4 3* 7 5 4 4 4 2

Involved in accident 16 29 29 21 18 14 15 13

Motor vehicle stop 109 130 225 203 155 121 102 54 ,

Police contacted respondent:

Other reasons 19 10 18 18 20 21 27 15

Witness to an accident 8 5 13 10 11 10 9 5

Report a neighborhood problem 19 5 9 15 22 27 25 14

Ask for assistance 25 14 19 28 33 34 29 17

Witness to a crime 7 7 9 9 9 9 8 3

Report a crime 40 24 51 56 52 50 48 23

Respondent contacted police:

Contact with police: Any reason 209 229 343 313 263 235 222 131

Total 16 to 17 18 to 19 20 to 24 25 to 29 30 to 39 40 to 49 50 and older

Number of respondents who had contacts with police per 1,000 residents age 16 or older

Table 7. Number of respondents with contacts with police per 1,000 residents age 16 or older, 

by reason for contact and age, 1999

Figure 3

Per 1,000 persons, older persons had fewer face-to-face encounters with police

officers than younger persons, and those contacts for older persons were less

likely to be traffic stops, which were from half to two-thirds of the contacts 

for age groups under 40
 

 Contacts between Police and the Public 11

Overall, about 7 out of 1,000 persons in the population age 16 or

older reported that they had at least

one contact with police during the

year for reasons related to possible

criminal conduct: They were a

suspect in a crime or they were

served a warrant by police. 

Among subgroups of the population,

men were more than twice as likely

as women to report such reasons for

contact, and blacks reported a higher

rate of such contact than whites.

Those age 18 to 19 reported a rate of

contact for possible criminal contact

which was much higher than that

reported by persons age 50 or older.

and contacts with police

Possible criminal conduct 

Note: Detail may not add to 100% because of

rounding.

1 million or more 7.7 7.6

500,000-999,999 7.1 3.8

100,000-499,999 9.5 18.1

Under 100,000 6.7 70.5%

Size of jurisdiction

where resided

50 or older 1.8 8.9

45-49 4.2 5.4

40-44 6.1 9.2

35-39 6.3 9.5

30-34 6.6 8.8

25-29 7.6 9.3

20-24 19.1 23.4

18-19 24.1 12.8

16-17 23.6 12.8%

Age

Other race 5.7 3.2

Hispanic 8.2 11.7

Black 9.9 16.3

White 6.6 68.9%

Race/ethnicity

Female 4.5 32.6

Male 10.0 67.3%

Gender

Total 7.1 100.0%

Percent 

of those

suspected

of a crime

Number 

with contact

with police

per 1,000

residents

Characteristic 

of persons who

had contact with

police

Persons suspected 

of a crime or served 

a warrant
Number of drivers pulled over 

by police in 1999

The number of drivers age 16 or older

pulled over by police at least once in a

traffic stop in 1999 totaled 19.3 million

persons (table 8). The 19.3 million

estimate is based on the 1999 PolicePublic Contact Survey. The 19.3 million

includes stops of all kinds of motor

vehicles & for example, motorcycles,

buses, and private and commercial cars

and trucks & and both personal and

business travel.

Driver gender

Of the 19.3 million drivers stopped

during the year, approximately 11.7

million, or 61%, were male, and 7.6

million, or 39%, were female. 

Driver race/ethnicity

Of the 19.3 million stopped drivers,

nearly 14.9 million, or 77%, were white;

2.2 million or 11.6%, were black; and

1.6 million, or 8.4%, were Hispanic.

Driver age

Most stopped drivers were adults under

age 40. Eleven percent were under age

20, and over 50% were between 20 and

39 years of age. Stopped drivers

between ages 40 and 49 accounted for

20% and those age 50 or older, 18%. 

Likelihood of driver being stopped

The 1999 U.S. population totaled 209.4

million persons age 16 or older. An

estimated 89%, or 186.3 million, were

licensed drivers (table 9). On at least

one occasion in 1999, 19.3 million were

driving a car or other motor vehicle

when it was pulled over by police in a

traffic stop. The 19.3 million stopped

drivers represent 10.3% of the Nation's

186.3 million licensed drivers. In other

words, an estimated 10.3% of all

licensed drivers & approximately 1 in

10 & were pulled over by police at least

once in 1999.

The 19.3 million stopped drivers

included 4 million who were pulled over

2 or more times during the year. The 

4 million make up 2.1% of the Nation's

186.3 million licensed drivers, indicating

that 2.1% of all licensed drivers &

approximately 1 in 50 & were pulled

over more than once in 1999. 

Traffic stops

12 Contacts between Police and the Public 

Note: Detail may not add to total because of estimation procedures.

Sources: "U.S. population ages 16 or older," "Number of drivers stopped at least once in 1999," and "Number of drivers

stopped more than once in 1999" are from the BJS 1999 Police-Public Contact Survey; "Percent with driver's license" is

from the U.S. Department of Transportation's 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey.

60 or older 42,938,193 80 34,350,554 1,301,646 3.8 144,483 0.4

50-59 29,321,592 93 27,269,081 2,093,557 7.7 307,753 1.1

40-49 41,939,735 95 39,842,748 3,764,485 9.4 527,028 1.3

30-39 42,473,705 94 39,925,283 4,525,604 11.3 819,134 2.1

20-29 36,709,421 90 33,038,479 5,559,921 16.8 1,467,819 4.4

16-19 15,967,931 70% 11,177,552 2,031,789 18.2% 725,349 6.5%

Age

Other race 8,385,255 80 6,708,204 583,999 8.7 87,016 1.3

Hispanic 21,276,862 86 18,298,101 1,615,088 8.8 366,625 2.0

Black 24,505,942 74 18,134,397 2,231,801 12.3 546,791 3.0

White 155,182,518 92% 142,767,917 14,846,114 10.4% 2,984,069 2.1%

Race/ethnicity

Female 108,482,433 85 92,210,068 7,555,194 8.2 1,276,828 1.4

Male 100,868,144 93% 93,807,374 11,721,808 12.5% 2,707,738 2.9%

Gender

Total 209,350,577 89% 186,322,014 19,277,002 10.3% 3,990,339 2.1%

characteristic age 16 or older license license Number Percent Number Percent

Demographic population with driver's with driver's at least once in 1999 more than once in 1999

U.S. Percent Number Drivers stopped Drivers stopped

Table 9. Gender, race/ethnicity, and age of all drivers and of drivers stopped at least once or more than once in 1999

60 or older 1,301,646 6.8

50-59 2,093,557 10.9

40-49 3,764,485 19.5

30-39 4,525,604 23.5

20-29 5,559,921 28.8

16-19 2,031,789 10.5%

Age

Other race 583,999 3.0

Hispanic 1,615,088 8.4

Black 2,231,801 11.6

White 14,846,114 77.0%

Race/ethnicity

Female 7,555,194 39.2

Male 11,721,808 60.8%

Gender

Total 19,277,002 100.0%

characteristic Number Percent

Drivers age 16 or older 

Demographic stopped by police in 1999

Table 8. Gender, race/ethnicity, and

age of drivers stopped by police, 1999
Driver gender

Ninety-three percent of males and 85%

of females age 16 or older were

licensed drivers in 1999. Males (12.5%)

were more likely than females (8.2%) to

be stopped at least once. Males (2.9%)

were also more likely than females

(1.4%) to be stopped more than once.

Driver race/ethnicity and racial profiling

Among all persons ages 16 or older in

1999, 92% of whites, 74% of blacks,

and 86% of Hispanics had a driver's

license.

White drivers and Hispanic drivers did

not differ significantly in their chances 

of being stopped at least once in 1999

(10.4% of whites and 8.8% of

Hispanics) or in their chances of being

stopped more than once in 1999 (2.1%

of whites and 2.0% of Hispanics).

There was some indication that black

drivers were more likely than white

drivers to be stopped at least once in

1999: 12.3% of blacks versus 10.4% of

whites. There was also some indication

that black drivers were more likely than

whites to be stopped more than once

that year: 3.0% of blacks versus 2.1%

of whites.

Put another way, blacks were 9.8% of

licensed drivers but 11.6% of drivers

stopped at least once and 13.7% of

drivers stopped more than once, while

whites were 76.8% of licensed drivers

and 77% of those stopped at least once

and 74.9% of those stopped more than

once. Hispanics were 9.8% of licensed

drivers, 8.4% of drivers stopped at least

once, and 9.2% of drivers stopped more

than once.

In short, survey results indicated that 

in 1999 blacks had higher chances than

whites of being stopped at least once

and higher chances than whites of

being stopped more than once.

However, these racial differences are

not necessarily evidence that police use

race as a factor in deciding whether to

make a traffic stop & that is, not necessarily evidence of “racial profiling.” 

To form evidence of racial profiling, the

survey would have to show that (all

other things being equal) &

Blacks were no more likely 

than whites to violate traffic laws,

and

Police pulled over blacks at a 

higher rate than whites. 

Because the survey has no information

on how often people of different races

break traffic laws & having only data on

how often people are stopped for breaking these laws & analysis of the data

from the 1999 Police-Public Contact

Survey cannot settle the question of

whether or to what extent racial profiling

exists. Put another way, the analysis

cannot determine whether racial differences in the breaking of traffic laws

rather than racial profiling is the reason

for the higher rates at which black

drivers were stopped by police.

Driver age 

In 1999, 70% of all persons ages 16 to

19 had a driver's license. Among

persons in their twenties, thirties,

forties, or fifties, 90% or more had a

license. Of those ages 60 or older, 80%

were licensed.

The younger the driver, the greater the

likelihood that he or she was pulled over

by police at least once in 1999: 18.2%

of teenage drivers, 16.8% of drivers in

their twenties, 11.3% of those in their

thirties, 9.4% of those in their forties,

7.7% of those in their fifties, and 3.8%

of drivers age 60 or older.

The younger the driver, the greater the

likelihood that he or she was pulled over

by police more than once in 1999: 

6.5% of teenage drivers, 4.4% of drivers

in their twenties, 2.1% of those in their

thirties, 1.3% of those in their forties,

1.1% of those in their fifties, and 0.4%

of those age 60 or older.

Number of traffic stops in 1999

The vast majority (79%) of the 19.3

million drivers stopped in 1999 had only

one traffic stop that year (table 10). 

By contrast, 1.8% were stopped by

police five or more times. On average,

stopped drivers were pulled over 1.4

times. The average was 1.4 times for

whites and Hispanics. The average

was greater for blacks (1.6).

Police made an estimated 27 million

traffic stops in 1999. Whites made up

77.0% of stopped drivers and

accounted for 76.7% of traffic stops.

Blacks made up 11.6% of stopped

drivers and accounted for 13.0% of

stops. Hispanics made up 8.4% of

stopped drivers and accounted for 8.1%

of stops.

 Contacts between Police and the Public 13

Note: Drivers of other races not shown separately. Total includes "other races."

*Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Hispanic 2.2 77.0 14.8 4.1 2.7 1.4* 1.4

Black 3.5 74.9 14.9 4.4 2.4 3.4 1.6

White 20.7 79.5 14.6 3.1 1.2 1.6 1.4

Total 27.0 79.0% 14.5% 3.3% 1.4% 1.8% 1.4 stops

of stops

per driver

5 times

1 time 2 times 3 times 4 times or more

in 1999 (in

millions)

Race/

ethnicity

Average

Percent of drivers stopped number 

Total number

of traffic stops

Table 10. Number of traffic stops in 1999
Reason for being stopped

Surveyed drivers were asked what

reason the officer gave for the stop:

Most (51.2%) said "speeding" (table

11).

11.4% said a "vehicle defect" (burned

out taillight, loud muffler, and so forth).

2.3% said a "roadside check for drunk

drivers." (Police may not stop motorists

randomly at roadblocks to search for

drugs but may stop motorists randomly

to search for drunken drivers.)

9.2% said a "record check" of some sort

(for example, a check for driver's

license or insurance coverage or

vehicle registration).

2.3% said they were stopped because

police "suspected them of something"

(for example, they were out late at night

in a location that attracts people looking

for drugs or prostitutes).

22.7% said "some other traffic offense"

(seat belt violation, illegal turn, going

through a red light or a yellow light or a

stop sign or a pedestrian crossing,

following too closely, changing lanes

without signaling, reckless driving, lights

not on, loud music, curfew violation,

throwing a cigarette out a window, and

so forth).

A small percentage of stopped drivers

(1.6%) said police had not given a

reason for the stop.

Driver gender

Females were more likely than males to

say the reason for the stop was "speeding" (females 54.1%, males 49.3%) or

"record check" (females 10.6%, males

8.3%). Males were more likely than

females to say "vehicle defect" (males

12.5%, females 9.6%), "driver

suspected of something" (males 3.0%,

females 1.4%), or "other traffic offense"

(males 23.6%, females 21.3%). Otherwise, there were no significant differences between the sexes. For

example, males (2.5%) and females

(1.9%) were not significantly different in

giving “roadside check for drunk

drivers” as the reason.

Driver race/ethnicity

Whites were more likely than blacks to

say the reason for the stop was "speeding" (whites 53.7%, blacks 43.4%), and

blacks were more likely than whites to

say "other traffic offense" (whites

21.0%, blacks 28.1%). Otherwise,

there were no significant differences

between blacks and whites. For

example, whites (2.5%) and blacks

(1.4%) were not significantly different in

having "roadside check for drunk

drivers" as the reason.

Whites were more likely than Hispanics

to say "speeding" (whites 53.7%,

Hispanics 42.1%), and Hispanics were

more likely than whites to say "vehicle

defect" (whites 10.4%, Hispanics

15.4%) or "other traffic offense" (whites

21.0%, Hispanics 27.9%). Otherwise,

whites and Hispanics did not differ

significantly. For example, the percentage of whites (2.5%) and Hispanics

(1.3%) who said "roadside check for

drunk drivers" did not differ significantly.

14 Contacts between Police and the Public 

Note: Table excludes 1.6% of stopped drivers who said the police had not given a reason for the stop.

*Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Estimated number 19,277,002 9,889,102 2,197,578 443,371 1,773,484 443,371 4,375,879 173,493

60 or older 100.0 43.1 7.6 3.3 13.2 1.4* 29.9 1.5*

50-59 100.0 48.8 8.8 3.8 13.4 1.8 22.6 0.8*

40-49 100.0 51.0 10.4 2.6 9.8 1.6 23.4 1.2

30-39 100.0 51.4 11.5 2.1 10.2 1.8 22.2 0.8

20-29 100.0 53.5 13.5 2.0 7.2 2.3 20.8 0.7

16-19 100.0% 52.3 12.1 0.7 4.4 6.1 23.6 0.8*

Age

Other race 100.0 45.6 15.9 1.2* 4.0* 2.3 30.7* 0.3*

Hispanic 100.0 42.1 15.4 1.3* 9.7 3.0 27.9 0.6*

Black 100.0 43.4 13.4 1.4* 11.0 2.4 28.1 0.3*

White 100.0% 53.7 10.4 2.5 9.1 2.3 21.0 1.0

Race/ethnicity

Female 100.0 54.1 9.6 1.9 10.6 1.4 21.3 1.1

Male 100.0% 49.3 12.5 2.5 8.3 3.0 23.6 0.8

Gender

Total 100.0% 51.2% 11.4% 2.3% 9.2% 2.3% 22.7% 0.9%

Other

Other traffic

offense

Driver suspected of

something

Record

check

Roadside 

check for 

drunk drivers

Vehicle

Total Speeding defect

Characteristic 

of stopped 

driver

Reason police gave for traffic stop

Table 11. Reasons police gave for stopping vehicle, by gender, race/ethnicity, and age of stopped drivers, 1999
A small percentage of stopped drivers

said police had not given a reason for

the stop: 1.5% of whites, 2% of blacks,

2.3% of Hispanics.

Driver age

Speeding & The most consistent finding

was that drivers in the oldest age

category (60 or older) were less likely

(43.1%) than drivers in each of the

other age categories to give "speeding"

as the reason for being stopped.

Vehicle defect & The most consistent

finding was that drivers in the oldest

age category (60 or older) were less

likely (7.6%) than drivers in their teens

(12.1%), or twenties (13.5%), or thirties

(11.5%) to say "vehicle defect" was the

reason.

Roadside check for drunk drivers & The

most consistent finding was that

teenage drivers (0.7%) were less likely

than drivers in each of the older age

categories to say "roadside check."

Record check & The most consistent

finding was that teenage drivers (4.4%)

and drivers in their twenties (7.2%)

were less likely than drivers in each of

the older age categories to say they

were stopped for a "record check."

Driver suspected of something & The

only significant differences were

between teenage drivers and each of

the older age categories. Teenage

drivers stopped by police (6.1%) were

more likely than each of the others to

say that the reason they were stopped

was because they were suspected of

something.

Other traffic offense & The only significant differences were between drivers

age 60 or older and each of the younger

age categories. Drivers ages 60 or

older stopped by police (29.9%) were

more likely than each of the others to

say that the reason they were stopped

was for some other traffic offense.

Traffic tickets

Police issued a traffic ticket to just over

half (54.2%) of the drivers they stopped

(table 12). Another 26.4% received a

warning, and the remaining 19.4%

received neither ticket nor warning. 

The 54.2% includes 1.6% charged with

driving while impaired or intoxicated.

Driver gender

Males (55.8%) were more likely than

females to be ticketed (51.9%).

Driver race/ethnicity

Police were more likely to ticket blacks

(60.4%) and Hispanics (65.6%) than

whites (51.8%).

Put differently, blacks were 11.6% of

drivers stopped by police but 12.9% of

ticketed drivers, and Hispanics were

8.4% of stopped drivers but 10.1% of

those ticketed, while whites were 77%

of stopped drivers and 73.5% of the

ticketed ones.

Driver age

The younger the driver, the greater the

likelihood of a ticket. That is, where

significant differences existed between

younger and older drivers, they were

always in the direction of a greater likelihood of younger drivers being ticketed.

For example, teenage drivers (54.5%),

and drivers in their twenties (59.0%),

thirties (56.5%), or forties (53.9%) were

each more likely than either drivers in

their fifties (45.7%) or drivers age 60 

or older (40.1%).

 Contacts between Police and the Public 15

Driver opinion on being stopped

The vast majority of drivers pulled

over by police (84%) felt they had

been stopped for a legitimate reason.

Still, opinion was not uniform across

the different segments of the

population.

Driver gender

 

Females (87%) were more likely than

males (82%) to say that the stop was

for a legitimate reason.

Driver race/ethnicity

The vast majority of blacks stopped by

police (74%) felt they had been

stopped for a legitimate reason. So,

too, did the vast majority of Hispanics

(82%). Nevertheless, blacks and

Hispanics were less likely than whites

(86%) to say the police had a legitimate reason for stopping them.

Driver age

There were no significant differences

between drivers of one age and

drivers of another age in terms of

opinion about whether they had been

stopped for a legitimate reason.

60 or older 86

50-59 83

40-49 84

30-39 84

20-29 85

16-19 84%

Age

Other race 85

Hispanic 82

Black 74

White 86%

Race/ethnicity

Female 87

Male 82%

Gender

Total 84%

Percent of stopped drivers 

who felt that they had been

stopped for a legitimate reason
Arresting the driver

Three percent of drivers stopped by

police were arrested (table 12). Arrests

occurred for a variety of reasons, such

as &

 ̆ Failing a sobriety test

 ̆ Having drugs or an illegal weapon 

on the driver or in the vehicle

 ̆ Having an outstanding warrant 

for arrest 

 ̆ Assaulting the police officer.

Driver gender 

Males (4.1%) were more likely than

females (1.3%) to be arrested.

Driver race/ethnicity

Blacks (5.2%) and Hispanics (4.2%)

stopped by police were more likely than

whites (2.6%) to be arrested.

Stated differently, blacks were 11.6% 

of drivers stopped by police but 19.9%

of drivers who were arrested, and

Hispanics were 8.4% of stopped drivers

but 11.7% of those arrested, while

whites were 77% of stopped drivers and

66.3% of the ones who were arrested.

Driver age

The younger the driver, the greater the

likelihood of an arrest. That is, where

significant differences existed between

younger and older drivers, they were

always in the direction of a greater likelihood of the younger driver being

arrested. Teenage drivers (4.2%) and

drivers in their twenties (3.4%), thirties

(3.8%), or forties (2.6%) were more

likely than those in their fifties (1.3%) 

or older (0.7%).

Handcuffing the driver

Police handcuffed 3.1% of the drivers

they stopped.

Driver gender

Males (4.3%) were more likely than

females (1.2%) to be handcuffed in a

traffic stop.

Driver race/ethnicity

Blacks (6.4%) and Hispanics (5.0%)

were more likely than whites (2.5%) to

be handcuffed.

Stated another way, blacks were 11.6%

of drivers stopped by police but 23.4%

of drivers who were handcuffed, and

Hispanics were 8.4% of stopped drivers

but 13.2% of those handcuffed, while

whites were 77% of stopped drivers 

and 61.8% of the ones who were

handcuffed.

Driver age

The younger the driver, the greater the

likelihood of handcuffs being used.

That is, where significant differences

existed between younger and older

drivers, they were always in the direction of a greater likelihood of younger

drivers being handcuffed. For example,

drivers in each of the age categories

below age 60 were more likely than

drivers age 60 or older (0%) to be

handcuffed. Teenage drivers (4.1%),

16 Contacts between Police and the Public 

*Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Estimated number 10,448,135 1,272,282 828,911 1,021,681 597,587 578,310 139,327 99,956

 60 or older 40.1 1.6* 0.7* 0.9* 0* 0.7* 0.2* 0.2*

 50-59 45.7 2.7 1.4 2.2 1.3 1.3 0.1* 0*

 40-49 53.9 3.8 2.5 2.6 2.3 2.6 0.3* 0.2*

 30-39 56.5 6.4 4.3 5.2 4 4.0 0.7* 0.6*

 20-29 59.0 8.9 6.1 7.1 4.0 3.4 0.9 0.6

 16-19 54.5 13.3 8.4 11.7 4.1 4.1 2.1 1.4*

Age

Other 61.9 6.5 3.2 5.4 1.7 2.1 0* 0*

Hispanic 65.6 11.3 7.0 9.7 5 4.2 1.4* 1.4*

Black 60.4 11.0 8.0 8.5 6.4 5.2 1.5* 1.0*

White 51.8 5.4 3.5 4.3 2.5 2.6 0.6 0.4

Race/ethnicity

Female 51.9 2.3 1.2 1.9 1.2 1.3 0* 0*

Male 55.8 9.4 6.4 7.5 4.3 4.1 1.2 0.8

Gender

Total 54.2% 6.6% 4.3% 5.3% 3.1% 3.0% 0.7% 0.5%

against the

driver

against

the driver

Arrested 

the driver

Handcuffed 

Driver Vehicle the driver

Driver or

vehicle

Ticketed 

the driver

of stopped

drivers

Used excesCharacteristic Searched & Used force sive force

What police did during traffic stop

Table 12. What police did during the traffic stop, by gender, race/ethnicity, and age of stopped drivers, 1999
drivers in their twenties (4.0%), and

drivers in their thirties (4.0%) were more

likely to be handcuffed than drivers in

their fifties (1.3%).

Police use of force against driver

Based on survey results, 19.3 million

drivers were stopped by police at least

once in 1999. Surveyed drivers were

asked whether, in their opinion, police

had used "force" against them (not

including handcuffing) at any time

during the traffic stop. Approximately

139,000 drivers & or a little over 0.7%

of the 19.3 million stopped by police -

said "yes." 

Surveyed drivers saying police had

used force against them were then

asked what type of force. The most

serious type that a surveyed driver said

had been used was police pointing a

gun but not firing; the least serious was

a verbal threat. From most to least

serious, the 10 different types of force

that surveyed drivers said police had

used were as follows:

1. Police pointed a gun at you but did

not fire.

2. Police sprayed you with chemical or

pepper spray.

3. Police kicked or hit you with his/her

hand or something held in officer's

hand, such as a baton.

4. Police pushed or grabbed you in a

way that caused pain.

5. Police pushed or grabbed you in a

way that did not cause pain.

6. Police threatened you by having a

hand on his/her gun.

7. Police threatened to use chemical or

pepper spray.

8. Police threatened to kick you or hit

you with the officer's hand or with

something held in the officer's hand

(such as a baton).

9. Police threatened to push or grab

you.

10. Police threatened to arrest you or

take you to jail or take some other

nonviolent action.

 Contacts between Police and the Public 17

The survey uncovered evidence of

black drivers’ having worse outcomes

than whites. The question arises

whether blacks’ having worse

outcomes was true regardless of the

officer’s race. To answer it, black and

white drivers stopped by white officers

were compared, and black and white

drivers stopped by black officers were

compared. Results suggest that the

various racial disparities had nothing

to do with the officer’s race. In other

words, blacks generally had a worse

outcome whether they were stopped 

by a white officer or a black officer.

A black driver (60.4%) was more likely

than a white (51.8%) to be ticketed.

Among drivers stopped by white

officers, blacks (60.6%) were more

likely than whites (52.1%) to be

ticketed. Though the racial disparity

was about as great among drivers

stopped by black officers (65.9% of

blacks, 58.3% of whites), the disparity

was not statistically significant,

presumably because of the small

sample.

A black driver (5.2%) was more likely

than a white (2.6%) to be arrested. In

traffic stops by white officers, blacks

(5.3%) were more likely than whites

(2.6%) to be arrested. The racial

disparity was about as great among

drivers stopped by black officers (4.6%

of blacks, 1.3% of whites), but was not

statistically significant, possibly

because of the small sample.

A police officer was more likely to

conduct a search of the vehicle or the

driver in traffic stops of black (11.0%)

than white (5.4%) motorists, and that

was true regardless of the officer’s

race. 

Black drivers stopped by police

(74.0%) were less likely than whites

(86.0%) to have the opinion they had

been stopped for a legitimate reason.

Among drivers stopped by white

officers, blacks (72.7%) were less

likely than whites (86.2%) to feel the

stop had a legitimate basis. There was

also some indication that, among

drivers stopped by black officers, black

drivers (75.2%) were less likely than

whites (84.8%) to say the stop was for

a legitimate reason.

for a legitimate reason 86.0 74.0 86.2 72.7 84.8 75.2

Felt they were stopped

Driver or vehicle searched 5.4 11.0 5.3 11.2 2.8 10.9

Arrested 2.6 5.2 2.6 5.3 1.3 4.6

Ticketed 51.8% 60.4% 52.1% 60.6% 58.3% 65.9%

Outcome of traffic stop White driver Black driver White driver Black driver White driver Black driver

All officers White officers Black officers

Percent of persons stopped 

Race of officer in traffic stops
“Police shot at you” is not in the list of

10 because, though surveyed drivers

were asked if police had done this,

none said “yes.” Likewise, "police

threatened you with a police dog" and

“police actually unleashed a dog on

you” do not appear on the list because

no one said that police had used either

of these forms of force.

Driver gender

Males (1.2%) were more likely than

females (0%) to say police had used

force against them.

 

Driver race/ethnicity

Police used force against 1.5% of black

drivers, 1.4% of Hispanics, and 0.6% 

of whites, not a significant difference.

Driver age

The younger the driver, the greater the

likelihood that police used force. That

is, where significant differences existed

between younger and older drivers,

they were always in the direction of a

greater likelihood of younger drivers

experiencing police use of force. For

example, drivers in each of the age

categories below age 60 were more

likely to experience force than drivers

age 60 or older (0.2%). Also, drivers 

in their teens (2.1%), twenties (0.9%),

or thirties (0.7%) were more likely than

drivers in their fifties (0.1%) to experience force.

Police use of excessive force 

against driver

Of the nationally estimated 139,000

drivers saying police had used some

type of force (not including handcuffing)

against them during a traffic stop, nearly

100,000 felt that the force was "excessive" (table 12). The 100,000 make up

about 72% of the 139,000 who said

police had used force, and a little over

one-half of 1% of the 19.3 million

stopped drivers.

Driver gender

Males (0.8%) were more likely than

females (0%) to say police had used

excessive force.

Driver race/ethnicity

Police used what the drivers believed to

be excessive force against 1.0% of

blacks stopped and 0.4% of whites

stopped, not a significant difference.

Hispanics (1.4%) were significantly

more likely than whites (0.4%) to feel

that excessive force had been used. 

Driver age

The younger the driver, the greater the

likelihood of police using excessive

force. That is, where significant differences existed between younger and

older drivers, they were always in the

direction of a greater likelihood of

younger drivers saying that excessive

force had been used. For example,

drivers in their teens (1.4%), twenties

(0.6%), or thirties (0.6%) were more

likely than drivers in their fifties (0%) 

to say excessive force was used.

Similarly, drivers in their teens (1.4%) 

or twenties (0.6%) were more likely 

than drivers in their sixties (0.2%).

Searching the driver, vehicle, or both

During a traffic stop police sometimes

conduct a search for drugs, open

containers of alcohol, stolen property, or

other evidence of criminal wrongdoing.

The search may be of the vehicle, of the

driver, or of both the vehicle and the

driver.

In 6.6% of the 19.3 million traffic stops

documented in the 1999 national

survey, police searched the driver, the

vehicle, or both. The 6.6% represent

close to 1.3 million drivers who said

they or their vehicle had been searched.

Of the nearly 1.3 million searches, 35%

were searches just of the vehicle, 20%

were searches just of the driver, and the

remaining 45% were searches of both

the driver and the vehicle. 

Driver gender

Police were more likely to conduct a

search of the vehicle and/or the driver 

in traffic stops of males (9.4%) than

females (2.3%).

Driver race/ethnicity

Black (11.0%) and Hispanic (11.3%)

motorists stopped by police were more

likely than whites (5.4%) to be physically searched or have their vehicle

searched.

In other words, blacks were 11.6% of

drivers stopped by police but 19.4% of

drivers who were physically searched or

whose vehicle was searched, and

Hispanics were 8.4% of stopped drivers

but 14.4% of those searched, while

whites were 77% of stopped drivers and

63.2% of those who had some type of

search.

Driver age

The younger the motorist, the more

likely police were to search the vehicle

or the driver. That is, where significant

differences existed between younger

and older drivers, they were always in

the direction of a greater likelihood of

younger drivers’ being frisked or having

their vehicle searched. For example,

teenage drivers (13.3%) were more

likely than drivers in their twenties

(8.9%), who in turn were more likely

than drivers in their thirties (6.4%), who

in turn were more likely than those in

their forties (3.8%).

18 Contacts between Police and the Public 
Searching the driver

Overall, 4.3% of stopped drivers were

physically searched by police. Such

body searches often involve little more

than the driver being frisked or lightly

patted down by the officer. Sometimes

though, the search is more invasive,

involving, for example, the officer’s

reaching into the driver's clothing.

Driver gender

Driver searches (as distinct from vehicle

searches) were more common among

male drivers (6.4%) than female drivers

(1.2%).

Driver race/ethnicity

Black (8.0%) and Hispanic motorists

(7.0%) were more likely than white

motorists (3.5%) to be subjected to a

search of the driver.

Put differently, blacks were 11.6% of

drivers stopped by police but 21.5% of

drivers who were physically searched,

and Hispanics were 8.4% of stopped

drivers but 13.6% of those physically

searched, while whites were 77% of

stopped drivers and 62.6% of the ones

who were physically searched.

Driver age

The younger the driver, the greater the

likelihood of a search of the driver. That

is, where significant differences existed

between younger and older drivers,

they were always in the direction of a

greater likelihood of younger drivers

being searched. For example, drivers

in their twenties (6.1%) were more likely

than drivers in their thirties (4.3%), who

in turn were more likely than drivers in

their forties (2.5%). All drivers, except

those in their fifties, were more likely

than drivers in the oldest age category

(0.7%).

Searching the vehicle

Police searched the vehicle in about 5%

of traffic stops (table 12).

Driver gender

Police were more likely to search a

vehicle driven by a male (7.5%) than a

female (1.9%).

Driver race/ethnicity

Police were more likely to search a

vehicle driven by a black (8.5%) or

Hispanic (9.7%) than a white (4.3%).

Stated another way, blacks were 11.6%

of drivers stopped by police but 18.7%

of drivers whose vehicle was searched,

and Hispanics were 8.4% of stopped

drivers but 15.4% of drivers of searched

vehicles, while whites were 77% of

stopped drivers and 62.8% of the ones

whose vehicle was searched. 

Driver age

The younger the driver, the greater the

likelihood of a vehicle search. More

specifically, where significant differences existed between younger and

older drivers, they were always in the

direction of a greater likelihood of a

vehicle search for the younger drivers.

 Contacts between Police and the Public 19

Driver opinion on whether police

acted properly

An estimated 90% of the 19.3 million

drivers pulled over by police felt that

police had behaved properly during

the traffic stop.

Driver gender

There was some division of opinion

between the approximately 11.7

million males and 7.6 million females

stopped by police. When asked if

police had behaved properly or

improperly, males (88%) were less

likely than females (92%) to say

"properly."

Driver race/ethnicity

Of the nearly 14.9 million whites

stopped by police, 91% said that

police had behaved properly during

the traffic stop. That compares to 82%

of the 2.2 million blacks stopped, and

87% of the 1.6 million Hispanics

stopped. Though vast majorities of

blacks and Hispanics felt police had

behaved properly, blacks and Hispanics were less likely than whites to hold

that opinion.

Driver age

With two exceptions, drivers of one

age category were no different from

drivers of another age category in

terms of opinion about whether police

had behaved properly during the traffic

stop. The two exceptions were the

lower percentages of teenage drivers

(87%) and drivers in their twenties

(89%) who felt police had behaved

properly as compared to drivers in

their fifties (92%).

60 or older 91

50-59 92

40-49 90

30-39 90

20-29 89

16-19 87%

Age

Other 91

Hispanic 87

Black 82

White 91%

Race/ethnicity

Female 92

Male 88%

Gender

Total 90%

Percent of stopped drivers 

who felt that the police had

behaved properly during the

traffic stop
To illustrate, vehicles driven by persons

in their thirties (5.2%) were more likely

to be searched than vehicles driven by

persons in their forties (2.6%) or in their

fifties (2.2%). Teenage drivers (11.7%)

and those in their twenties (7.1%) or

thirties (5.2%) or forties (2.6%) or fifties

(2.2%) were each more likely than

those ages 60 or older (0.9%).

Searches and racial profiling

One definition of racial profiling is "using

race as a key factor in deciding whether

to make a traffic stop." Another definition is “using race as a key factor in

deciding whether, during a traffic stop,

to search the vehicle or the driver."

Survey findings reported above

indicated the following about the likelihood of searches and the race or

ethnicity of the driver:

1. Black (11.0%) and Hispanic (11.3%)

motorists stopped by police were more

likely than whites (5.4%) to be physically searched or to have their vehicle

searched.

2. Black (8%) and Hispanic motorists

(7%) were more likely than white motorists (3.5%) to be subjected to a physical

search of the driver.

3. Police were more likely to search a

vehicle driven by a black (8.5%) or

Hispanic (9.7%) than by a white (4.3%).

However, while the survey data can

reveal these various racial disparities

they cannot answer the question of

whether the driver's race, rather than

the driver's conduct at the time or any

other specific circumstances surrounding the stop, is the reason the search

was conducted. That is because the

survey did not include questions about

circumstances or driver conduct. For

example, having drugs in plain view of

police is a circumstance that would

normally warrant a legal search of the

vehicle. But since the survey did not

ask drivers whether any drugs within

plain view were in the vehicle, the

analysis is necessarily limited.

Limitation of the survey's 

search data

Surveyed drivers were asked about 

any searches that police may have

conducted during the traffic stop.

Based on answers to these questions,

national estimates are made of &

 ̆ the number of drivers who were

searched ("C" in figure 4)

 ̆ the number of searches that were

carried out with the driver's permission

("searches with consent," "A") and the

number carried out without permission

("searches without consent," "B").

An estimate not available from the

survey is the number of traffic stops in

which the driver had refused a request

to conduct a search and no search was

made ("E"). It is unavailable because

not all surveyed drivers, but only drivers

who said they or their vehicle had been

searched, were asked whether the

officer had first requested permission

("A" and "B" ). Consequently, the

survey cannot estimate:

 ̆ how often a driver refused a request

to conduct a search ("B" + "E")

 ̆ the likelihood of police conducting a

search after the driver denied permission 

 ̆ the likelihood of a driver giving

consent.

Search of driver, vehicle, or both

Search with or without driver consent 

In some jurisdictions an officer need not

have any suspicion to ask for permission to conduct a search. In some,

police departments require that the

officer have at least a "reasonable

suspicion" before asking for permission

to conduct a search. In all jurisdictions,

if the officer has "probable cause" to

believe that the person or the vehicle

20 Contacts between Police and the Public 

Figure 4

Police

Police asked conducted

permission to a search

search, and

the driver & Yes No

Consented A D

Did not consent B E 

Total C F

Note: A total of 578,310 drivers had both types of searches. For that reason the sum of the

number of searches under the "driver" column and the number under the "vehicle" column is

greater than the number under the "driver, vehicle, or both" column. Note also that some of the

578,310 drivers consented to one type of search but not the other. In those cases they were

classified as a non-consent search" in the "driver, vehicle, or both" column.

No evidence found 1,103,068 86.7 762,598 92.0 892,949 87.4

Evidence found 169,214 13.3 66,313 8.0 128,732 12.6

Outcome of search

Without consent 844,795 66.4 611,736 73.8 540,469 52.9

With consent 427,487 33.6 217,175 26.2 481,212 47.1

Type of search

All searches 1,272,282 100% 828,911 100.0% 1,021,681 100.0%

number Total number Total number Total

Estimated Estimated Estimated

Driver, vehicle, or both Driver Vehicle

Search of &

Table 13. Type of search of vehicle or driver and the outcome, 1999
contains evidence of a crime, the officer

does not need to ask for permission.

Of the 1.3 million searches, a third, or

about 427,000, were by consent (table

13). In consent searches the search

only occurred after the officer had

asked for and had been granted permission from the driver. The remaining

two-thirds, or about 845,000, were not

by consent; either the officer had not

asked permission before conducting the

search, which was the case in about

96% of searches without consent, or the

officer had asked but the driver reported

saying "no" (the other 4% of searches

without consent). Physical searches

(73.8%) were more likely than vehicle

searches (52.9%) to be searches

without consent.

Likelihood of search finding 

criminal evidence

In 13.3% of the 1.3 million searches,

police found drugs, an illegal weapon,

open containers of beer, or other possible evidence of a crime. The likelihood

of finding criminal evidence was not

significantly different between the

845,000 searches without consent

(12.9%) and the 427,000 searches 

with consent (14.2%) (table not shown).

Driver opinion on searches with or

without consent

Most (71%) of the approximately

845,000 drivers subjected to a search 

of their body or vehicle without consent

felt that police had not had a legitimate

reason for the search. Most (55%) of

the roughly 427,000 drivers who had

consented to being physically searched

or having their vehicle searched also

felt that police had not had a legitimate

reason.

Search of driver

Search with or without consent

Approximately three-fourths (73.8%) of

all body searches were without the

driver's consent, according to surveyed

drivers.

Likelihood of search finding criminal

evidence

Of the 829,000 physical searches, 92%

found no criminal evidence, according

to surveyed drivers. When evidence

was found, it was usually alcohol or

drugs.

The likelihood of finding criminal

evidence was not significantly different

between the 612,000 physical searches

without consent (7.8%) and the 217,000

physical searches with consent (8.5%)

(table not shown).

Driver opinion on searches with or

without consent 

Most (72%) of the approximately

612,000 drivers who were subjected to

a physical search without their consent

felt that police had lacked a legitimate

reason for the search (table not shown).

Most (52%) of the roughly 217,000 who

had consented to being physically

searched also felt that police had not

had a legitimate reason.

Search of vehicle

Search with or without consent 

Roughly half of all vehicle searches

(52.9%) were without driver consent. 

Likelihood of search finding criminal

evidence

Nearly 90% of vehicle searches

(87.4%) found no evidence of criminal

wrongdoing, according to surveyed

drivers. Vehicle searches without

consent (13.1%) were not significantly

more likely than searches with consent

(12.2%) to uncover evidence (table not

shown).

Driver opinion on searches with or

without consent

Most (79%) of the approximately

540,000 drivers who were subjected to

a vehicle search without their consent

felt that police had lacked a legitimate

reason for the search (table not shown).

Most (55%) of the roughly 481,000 who

had consented to a vehicle search also

felt that police had not had a legitimate

reason.

Interpreting opinion data regarding

searches

Among drivers who did not give consent

to being physically searched or to

having their vehicle searched, most said

police did not have a legitimate reason

for the search. Among those who did

give consent, again most said police did

not have a legitimate reason for the

search. To law enforcement officers,

the latter might seem contradictory:

drivers consenting to a search but then

saying the search was not for a legitimate reason. From a legal perspective,

the giving of consent can make a

search legitimate.

It is not certain what drivers who had

given consent meant when they said

police did not have a legitimate reason.

They were not all necessarily expressing criticism of police. Some who had

consented may have merely meant that

they had nothing to hide.

Small sample sizes

Up to now, separate statistics were

given on each of four categories: physical searches with consent, physical

searches without consent, vehicle

searches with consent, and vehicle

searches without consent. Within each

 Contacts between Police and the Public 21
of the four, it would be desirable to have

comparative statistics by gender and

race and age & for example, the

percentage of white physical searches

without consent that found criminal

evidence compared to the percentage

of black physical searches without

consent. But these detailed estimates

would be based on samples too small to

form reliable statistical comparisons.

By combining physical searches and

vehicle searches, additional comparisons can be made. 

Searching the driver, vehicle, or

both: Gender

Search with or without consent

The proportion of all searches (both

physical and vehicle) that were without

consent was identical for males (66%)

and females (66%) (table 14).

Likelihood of search finding criminal

evidence

The proportion of male searches finding

criminal evidence (14%) was not significantly greater than that of female

searches (12%).

Searching the driver, vehicle, 

or both: Race/ethnicity

Search with or without consent

Black searches (physical or vehicle)

were more likely to be without consent

(74%) than white searches (63%) 

(table 14).

The percentage of all searches that

were without the driver’s consent was

greater in physical or vehicle searches

of Hispanics (76%) than whites (63%).

Likelihood of search finding criminal

evidence

Searches of white drivers or their

vehicles were more likely to find criminal evidence (17%) than searches of

blacks (8%), but not significantly more

likely than searches of Hispanics (10%).

Searching the driver, vehicle, or

both: Age

Search with or without consent

The percentage of searches that were

without consent showed no clear

pattern with age.

Likelihood of search finding 

criminal evidence

No comparisons are made between

drivers of different ages because many

of the samples on which the separate

age categories are based are too small

to form reliable estimates.

22 Contacts between Police and the Public 

*Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Number 1,272,282 427,487 844,795 169,214 1,103,068

60 or older 100 51* 49* 0* 100*

50-59 100 19* 81 8* 92

40-49 100 43 57 17* 83

30-39 100 24 76 8* 92

20-29 100 37 63 12 88

16-19 100% 34% 66% 21% 79%

Age

Hispanic 100 24 76 10* 90

Black 100 26 74 8* 92

White 100% 37% 63% 17% 83%

Race/ethnicity

Female 100 34 66 12* 88

Male 100% 34% 66% 14% 86%

Gender

Total 100% 34% 66% 13% 87%

No evidence 

found

Evidence

found

Without

consent 

With

consent

All 

searches

drivers who were

searched

Characteristic of Type of search Outcome of search

Search of the driver or the vehicle

Table 14. Type and outcome of searches conducted by police 

during 1999 traffic stops
Driver opinion on driver, vehicle, or

both being searched

Of the nearly 1.3 million drivers who

experienced either a vehicle search, a

driver search, or both, an estimated

34% felt the search (or, in some cases,

"both searches") was for a legitimate

reason (table 15). The remaining 66%

did not feel it was for a legitimate

reason.

Driver gender

Males (34%) were not significantly less

likely than females (40%) to have the

opinion that the search was for a legitimate reason.

Driver race/ethnicity 

Blacks (17%) were less likely than

whites (39%) to feel that police had a

legitimate reason for searching them,

their vehicle, or both. Opinion did not

differ significantly between whites and

Hispanics (33%).

Driver age

Opinion that the search was for a legitimate reason generally did not vary with

age. 

Driver opinion on being physically

searched

Of the approximately 829,000 drivers

who were physically searched, an

estimated 35% felt the search was for a

legitimate reason. The remaining 65%

did not feel it was for a legitimate

reason.

Driver gender

Males were not significantly different

from females in their opinion about

being physically searched: 36% of

males and 34% of females felt there

was a legitimate reason.

Driver race/ethnicity

Blacks who were physically searched

by police (22%) were less likely than

whites (40%) to feel that police had a

legitimate reason for making the search.

Hispanics (28%) were not significantly

less likely than whites to have that

opinion.

Driver age

Opinion that the physical search was for

a legitimate reason did not vary in any

uniform way across the ages.

Driver opinion on vehicle being

searched

Of the 1 million drivers who said their

vehicle had been searched by police,

34% felt the search was for a legitimate

reason.

Driver gender

Males were not significantly different

from females in opinion about their

vehicle being searched: 33% of males

and 39% of females felt there was a

legitimate reason.

Driver race/ethnicity

Blacks whose vehicle was searched

(15%) were less likely than whites

(39%) to feel that police had a legitimate

reason for the search. Hispanics (31%)

were not significantly less likely than

whites to have that opinion.

Driver age

In general, the older the driver whose

vehicle was searched, the greater the

likelihood that driver felt the search was

for a legitimate reason.

 Contacts between Police and the Public 23

*Estimate is based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

60 or older 35* 0* 58*

50-59 38* 49* 40*

40-49 31 26* 38

30-39 35 40 30

20-29 37 35 36

16-19 30% 35% 30%

Age

Hispanic 33 28* 31

Black 17* 22* 15*

White 39% 40% 39%

Race/ethnicity

Female 40 34* 39

Male 34% 36% 33%

Gender

Total 34% 35% 34%

Search of 

the vehicle

Search of 

the driver

Search of the driver 

or the vehicle

Characteristic of drivers

who were searched

Percent of drivers who felt the search was legitimate

Table 15. Driver opinion on whether the search was for a legitimate

reason, 1999
The 1999 Police-Public Contact Survey

asked respondents who said they had a

face-to-face contact with police whether

the police officer(s) used or threatened

to use physical force against them. 

During 1999 approximately 422,000

persons age 16 or older said the police

used or threatened to use force against

them at least once (table 16). This

amounts to about 1% of the nearly 44

million people reporting face-to-face

police contact during 1999 (table 17).

These overall findings are quite similar

to those from the 1996 survey, which

reported that approximately 500,000

persons age 12 or older experienced

police force & also representing about

1% of those persons who reported faceto-face police contact in 1996. 

About three-quarters (76%) of those

experiencing force in 1999 said the

force used or threatened by the police

was excessive.* 

Among all persons who had a police

contact in 1999, 52.8% were males.

However, among those experiencing

police use or threat of force, 86.9%

were males.

Persons ages 16 to 29 were 34.5% of

the estimated 44 million who had a

police contact but 68.1% of those

experiencing force during a contact.

Persons age 32 or less accounted for

about 75% of all persons who reported

experiencing police use of force. The

median age of those experiencing force

was 23. The oldest person reporting

use of force in the survey was age 72. 

Whites comprised 78.2% of all persons

with a police contact, blacks 10.6%, and

Hispanics 8.1%. About 59% of those

experiencing force were white, 22.6%

black, and 15.5% Hispanic.

Likelihood of experiencing force

Among persons 16 years or older with 

a face-to-face contact, females (.27%)

were less likely than males (1.58%) to

have had a contact with police that

resulted in force (table 17).

Police use of force

24 Contacts between Police and the Public

Note: See Appendix table for distribution of unweighted cases.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

a

Question: “On (this/the most recent occasion), did the police

officer(s) for any reason use or threaten to use physical force

against you, such as grabbing you or threatening to hit you?”

b

The standard error of the estimate of the total number 

of persons reporting use of force is 38,270.

1 million or more 61,386 14.6

500,000-999,999 13,421 3.1*

100,000-499,999 68,640 16.3

Under 100,000 278,267 66.0%

Size of jurisdiction where resided

60 or older 9,981 2.4*

50-59 9,630 2.3*

40-49 36,857 8.7

30-39 78,007 18.5

20-29 158,195 37.5

16-19 129,045 30.6%

Age

Other race 12,205 3.0*

Hispanic 65,530 15.5

Black 95,440 22.6

White 248,539 58.9%

Race/ethnicity

Female 55,181 13.1

Male 366,533 86.9%

Gender

Total persons with force 421,714b 100.0%

Percent of

persons with

force

Number of

persons

with forcea Demographic characteristic

Table 16. U.S. population age 16 or older who

experienced force or threat of force, by gender,

race/ethnicity, age, and size of jurisdiction where

respondents resided, 1999

*In this report “use of force” includes threat of

force unless otherwise indicated.

Note: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

a

Question: “Were any of these contacts with a police officer in person, that is,

face-to-face?”

b

Question: “On (this/the most recent occasion), did the police officer(s) 

for any reason use or threaten to use physical force against you, such 

as grabbing you or threatening to hit you?”

1 million or more 2,297,847 61,386 2.67

 500,000-999,999 1,658,163 13,421 0.81*

100,000-499,999 5,807,156 68,640 1.18

Under 100,000 34,069,252 278,267 0.82%

Size of jurisdiction

 where resided

60 or older 4,308,937 9,981 0.23*

50-59 5,133,674 9,630 0.19*

40-49 9,290,901 36,857 0.40

30-39 9,978,629 78,007 0.78

20-29 10,563,413 158,195 1.50

16-19 4,551,864 129,045 2.83%

Age

Other race 1,352,547 12,205 0.90*

Hispanic 3,550,300 65,530 1.85

Black 4,629,731 95,440 2.06

White 34,294,839 248,539 0.72%

Race/ethnicity

Female 20,692,308 55,181 0.27

Male 23,135,110 366,533 1.58%

Gender

Total persons 43,827,419 421,714 0.96%

police contact who

reported that police

used force or threats

Force used

or threatened 

by policeb

Face-to-face

contact with

policea Demographic characteristic

Percent of persons 

Persons who reported & age 16 or older with

Table 17. Likelihood of force for U.S. population age 16 or older

given police contact, by gender, race/ethnicity, age, and 

size of jurisdiction where respondents resided, 1999
Younger persons age 16 to 29 (1.9%)

with police contact were significantly

more likely than those over age 29

(.47%) to have had force used against

them. 

Among those persons age 16 or older

with a face-to-face contact, blacks

(2.06%) and Hispanics (1.85%) were

more likely than whites (.72%) to have

reported that the police used or threatened force against them. 

Initiator of the contact resulting in force

In the vast majority (95.4%) of the

422,000 force cases, the citizens said

that the police initiated the face-to-face

contact & most commonly through a

traffic-related incident (39.2%) or

because the police suspected the

citizen of a crime (18.8%) or thought the

person was involved in a crime (17.8%)

(table 18). Traffic-related force

incidents include cases in which the

police stopped a motorist and cases in

which police responded to an accident. 

Kind of force used

Among those 422,000 persons who

indicated that the police used or threatened to use force against them, 77.5%

said police actually used force and

22.5% said force was threatened but

not actually employed. 

Respondents who said they experienced police use of force were asked 

to describe the type of force. About

72% of the 422,000 persons involved 

in a force incident said the police

pushed or grabbed them (table 19). 

In about half of these cases the respondent reported experiencing pain. An

additional 13.0% said the police threatened to push or grab them.

Among those 422,000 involved in a

force-related incident, 15.3% of the

persons said the police pointed a gun 

at them. Other types of force or threats

included the use of chemical spray

(9.8%) and the threat to fire a gun

(5.4%). No person in the survey

reported that an officer actually fired a

gun at him or her. Likewise, the survey

did not contain any respondents who

reported being bitten by a police dog.

Amount of force

Citizens involved in a force incident

were asked if they felt any of the physical force used or threatened against

 Contacts between Police and the Public 25

a

Question: “How would you best describe the

reason or reasons for these in-person contacts

with the police during the last 12 months?”

Note: Percents do not sum to 100 because

some respondents reported more than one

reason for police contact. 

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Other 34,907 8.3

23,557 5.6*

Police investigating

 a crime

11,619 2.8*

Police had an

 arrest warrant

79,405 18.8

Citizen was

 suspected of 

 a crime

74,874 17.8

Citizen was

 involved in a crime

2,813 0.7*

Citizen witnessed 

 a crime

9,714 2.3*

Citizen was victim

 of a crime

Traffic-related 165,389 39.2

402,278 95.4%

Police-initiated 

contact

4,630 1.1*

Reported a neigh-

 borhood problem 

11,268 2.7*

Asked for 

 assistance or

 information

Reported a crime 11,614 2.8*

27,512 6.5%

Citizen-initiated

contact

421,714 100.0%

Total persons with

force

Percent of

persons with

force

Number of

persons

with forcea

Reason for face-toface contact

Table 18. U.S. population age 16 or

older who experienced force or threat

of force, by reason for contact, 1999

a

Question: "What type of physical force did the

police officer(s) use or threaten to use during

(this/the most recent) incident?"

Note: Percents do not sum to 100 because

some respondents reported more than one

type of force or threat of force. 

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Other 34,174 8.1

Fire gun 22,573 5.4*

18,452 4.4*

Chemical/pepper 

 spray 

Kicking or hitting 34,070 8.1

54,947 13.0%

Pushing or 

grabbing 

Type of force

threatened by police

Other 9,847 2.3*

Pointed a gun 64,645 15.3

22,779 5.4*

Sprayed chemical/

 pepper spray 

Kicked or hit 42,937 10.2

148,496 35.2

Pushed or 

 grabbed with pain

155,477 36.9%

Pushed or grabbed

 without pain

Type of force used

by police

421,714 100.0%

Total persons with

force

Percent of

persons with

force

Number of

persons

with forcea

Type of force

reported

Table 19. U.S. population age 16 or

older who experienced force or threat

of force, by type of force reported,

1999

Threat only 94,744 22.5

Force and threat 53,371 12.7

Force only 273,599 64.8

Force

421,714 100.0%

Total person

 with force

Percent of

persons with

force

Number of

persons

Type of police

contact

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

a

Question: "Do you feel that any of the physical

force used or threatened against you was

excessive?”

Other race 12,205 12,205 100.0*

Hispanic 65,530 58,215 88.8

Black 95,440 68,830 72.1

White 248,539 181,778 73.1

Total 421,714 321,028 76.1%

Percent

with force

who said it

was excessive

Number of

persons

reporting

force was

excessive

Number of

persons

with forcea

Race/

ethnicity

Table 20. U.S. population age 16 or

older who experienced force or threat

of force and said it was excessive, 

by race/ethnicity, 1999
them was excessive. Most (76.1%) of

the 422,000 people involved in a police

use of force incident said the force was

excessive (table 20). Whites (73.1%)

involved in force incidents were just as

likely as blacks (72.1%) to say the force

was excessive. Among Hispanics with

force used against them, 88.8% said it

was excessive. There was not a statistically significant difference among

estimates for whites, blacks, and

Hispanics. 

Citizens who characterized the incident

as police use of excessive force most

frequently identified the pushing or

grabbing with pain (40.2%) or without

pain (28.4%) as excessive (table 21).

About three-quarters of those who said

the police officer pointed a gun at them

thought it was excessive (not shown in

table).

Injuries from force

Overall, about 15% of the approximately

422,000 persons involved in a force or

threat of force incident reported that

they were injured as a result of the

police action (table 22). Twenty percent

of whites, 10.5% of Hispanics, and

8.2% of blacks in force incidents were

injured. These differences were not

statistically significant. 

The most common type of injury

sustained was bruises and cuts &

86.3% of those injured (table 23). 

The 64,000 respondents who said they

were injured were asked what kind of

treatment, if any, they received for their

injuries. About 40% of injured persons

did not receive any treatment, 33.5%

received emergency services, and

19.7% administered self-treatment

(table 24). 

Characteristics of incident

About two-thirds of those involved in a

force or threat of force incident said the

police searched them or their vehicle.

About 14% of the persons with force

reported that during the course of the

force incident the police found an item

such as drugs, an open alcohol

26 Contacts between Police and the Public

a

Question: "Do you feel that any of the physical

force used or threatened against you was

excessive?” 

If answered yes, "Specifically, what type of

physical force do you feel was excessive?"

Note: Percents do not sum to 100 because

some respondents reported more than one

type of excessive force. Data are missing 

for 543 weighted cases.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Other 24,525 7.7*

Fire gun 12,053 3.8*

15,810 4.9*

Chemical/pepper

spray 

Kicking or hitting 31,987 10.0*

Pushing or grabbing 17,812 5.6%*

Type of excessive

force threatened

Other 21,110 6.6*

Pointed a gun 47,771 14.9

22,779 7.1*

Sprayed chemical/

pepper spray 

Kicked or hit 28,707 9.0*

128,702 40.2

Pushed or grabbed

with pain 

91,014 28.4%

Pushed or grabbed

without pain 

Type of excessive force

Total 320,485 100.0%

Percent of

persons

reporting

excessive

force

Number of

persons

reporting

excessive

forcea

Type of force 

reported as 

excessive

Table 21. U.S. population age 16 or

older who experienced force or threat

of force and said it was excessive, by

type of force considered excessive,

1999

Note: Zero represents no cases in sample. 

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

a

Question: “Were you injured as a result of (this/the most recent) incident?” This question 

was asked only of those who said police used or threatened to use force against them.

Other race 12,205 0 0*

Hispanic 65,530 6,848 10.5*

Black 95,440 7,798 8.2*

White 248,539 49,278 19.8

Total persons with force 421,714 63,924 15.2%

reporting injurya Race/ethnicity Use of force Injury

Number of persons reporting& persons with force

Percent of 

Table 22. U.S. population age 16 or older injured from police use

or threat of force, by race/ethnicity, 1999

a

Question: “Were you injured as a result of

(this/the most recent) incident?” 

Asked only of those who said they were injured

as a result of police force: “Did your injuries

include any of the following: ___ (list)?”

Note: Percents do not sum to 100 because

some respondents reported more than one

injury. 

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Eyes burned 1,604 2.5*

Shoulder injury 2,055 3.2*

Internal injuries 2,083 3.3*

Back injury 2,152 3.4*

Heart pain 2,224 3.5*

Pain in eyes/back 3,970 6.2*

5,199 8.1*

Broken bones or

 teeth knocked out

Bruises or cuts 55,146 86.3

Type of injury

Total persons injured 63,924 100.0%

Percent of

persons

injured

Number of

persons

injureda Type of injury

Table 23. U.S. population age 16 or

older who experienced police use or

threat of force, by type of injury, 1999

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

a

Question: “What type of care did you receive

for your (injury/injuries)?” Asked only of those

who said they were injured as result of police

use of force. 

No care received 27,760 43.4*

Doctor visits 2,152 3.4*

Self treatment 12,573 19.7*

Emergency services 21,439 33.5*

Type of care received

Total persons injured 63,924 100.0%

Percent of

persons

injured

Number of

persons

injureda Type of care received

Table 24. U.S. population age 16 or

older who said they were injured as a

result of police use or threat of force,

by type of care received, 1999
container, or a weapon on or near them 

or their vehicle (table 25). 

Forty-nine percent of the 422,000

persons involved in a contact with force

had at least one kind of charge filed

against them & ranging from a traffic

offense to assaulting an officer (table

26). A traffic-related offense was one of

the most common charges (12%). 

Six percent were charged with drunk

driving. About 8% were charged with

resisting arrest and 3.4% were charged

with assaulting a police officer. 

Officers involved in force incidents

Most incidents involving force had more

than one officer present (not shown in

table). About 20% of the persons

involved in a force incident reported that

a single officer was present. The

median number of officers involved 

in a force incident was two. 

Most persons (85.4%) involved in force

incidents said the officer or a majority 

of officers was white and 3.6% said 

the officer or a majority was black 

(table 27).

Citizen conduct 

Persons experiencing force or threat of

police force were specifically asked if

they thought any of their actions during

the incident may have provoked the

police officer(s) to use or threaten to

use physical force. About 1 in 4 said

they did something to provoke the

officer: 

Whites were not significantly more likely

than blacks to say specifically they did

something during the incident to

provoke the police officer(s).

Respondents were also asked whether

they had engaged in any of the following

listed actions during the incident: 

Verbal

yArgued with or disobeyed the police

officer(s)

yCursed at, insulted, or called the

police officer(s) a name

ySaid something threatening to the

police officer(s)

Cooperation

yResisted being handcuffed or arrested

yResisted being searched or having 

the vehicle searched

yTried to escape by hiding, running

away, or being in a high-speed chase

Physical resistance

yGrabbed, hit, or fought with the police

officer(s)

yUsed a weapon to threaten the police

officer(s)

yUsed a weapon to assault the police

officer(s)

Other

yDid anything else that might have

caused the police officer to use 

or threaten to use physical force 

against you.

 Contacts between Police and the Public 27

a

Questions: “Did the police officer(s) find any

of the following items in the vehicle _____

(list)?” “Did the police officer(s) find any of the

following items on or near you _____ (list)?” 

Note: Included are items found in the vehicles

of stopped drivers. Respondents could report

more than one item found in a search. 

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Illegal fireworks 2,904 0.7*

23,749 5.6*

Open alcohol

container

Drugs 32,082 7.6*

Weapons 13,297 3.2*

59,903 14.2%

Persons with any

item found

421,714 100.0%

Total persons with

force 

Percent of

persons with

force

Number of

persons

with forcea Type of item

Table 25. U.S. population age 16 or

older who had force used against them

and were searched, by type of item

found on or near them during the

incident, 1999

Question: “Do you think any of your actions 

during (this/the most recent) incident may have

provoked the police officer(s) to use or threaten 

to use physical force?”

Hispanic 65,530 12,919 19.7

Black 95,440 14,407 15.1

White 248,539 78,023 31.4

Total 421,714 105,349 25.0%

Percent 

of persons

with force

Said they 

had provoked

the police

Experienced 

force

Race/

ethnicity

Number of persons 

who &

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

 aQuestions: Persons in traffic stop were

asked: "During this incident were you: given a

warning, given a traffic ticket, tested for drunk

driving, charged with driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol, questioned about

what you were doing in the area?" 

All persons with force were asked: "Were you

charged with any of the following: assaulting 

a police officer, resisting arrest, drug offense,

possession of a firearm or concealed weapon,

disorderly conduct?"

Other 62,907 14.9

Drunk driving 24,247 5.7*

Traffic offense 49,971 11.8

Public drunkenness 14,849 3.5*

Disorderly conduct 31,199 7.4

6,936 1.6*

Possession of a

 weapon

Drug offense 23,716 5.6*

Resisting arrest 33,285 7.9

Assaulting an officer 14,244 3.4*

205,081 48.6%

Persons with at least

one charge filed

421,714 100.0%

Total persons with

force 

Percent of

persons

with force

Number of

persons

with forcea

Type of offense

charged

Table 26. U.S. population age 16 or

older who experienced force or threat

of force, by type of offense charged,

1999

a

Question: “Was/were the police officer(s)

white, black, or some other race?”

Note: Excludes 19,408 cases where race of

officer(s) was unknown.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Mixed races 28,957 7.2

Other race 15,335 3.8*

Black 14,508 3.6*

White 343,506 85.4

Total 402,306 100.0%

Percent of

persons

with force

Number of

persons

with forcea

Reported race of

officer(s)

Table 27. U.S. population age 16 or

older who experienced force or threat

of force, by race of officers involved in

incident, 1999
This question was asked of all persons

with force regardless of their response

to the above specific question about

whether they provoked the police.

Overall, 57.0% reported they had

engaged in at least one type of action

during the incident such as arguing,

disobeying, or resisting the police or

using alcohol or drugs (table 28).

Whites (72.7%) involved in a force

incident were significantly more likely

than blacks (23.6%) to have reported at

least one type of action during the

incident, including drinking or using

drugs. Among Hispanics with force,

52.6% reported they did something

during the incident. 

A third of those involved in a force

incident said they argued with or

disobeyed the police officer. Slightly

more than 1 in 10 said they cursed 

or insulted the officer.

Other actions reported by persons

experiencing police use of force include

resisting arrests or handcuffing (7.2%),

trying to escape (5.1%), and fighting

28 Contacts between Police and the Public

Attitudes toward the police differ by race 

Several sources of public opinion indicate that the police enjoy a generally favorable image among the public. However, differences do exist among black and

white citizens regarding their perceptions of the police. Blacks are less likely

than whites to express a favorable opinion of the police, to have confidence 

in the police, or to think the police should use force in any situation. 

In 2000 a majority of persons (81%) surveyed in the United States said they had

a favorable opinion of their local police as well as the State police or troopers in

their area. Whites (85%) were more likely than blacks (58%) to have had a

favorable opinion of their local police.1

 

Differences between black and white respondents can also be found when

asked about their level of confidence in the police. In a 2000 national survey,

57% of whites said they had a great deal or quite a lot of confidence in the

police, compared to 38% of blacks. Nationally a majority of persons (54%) said

they had a great deal or quite a lot of confidence in the police.2

 

White and black attitudes toward police use of force have consistently differed

over the past 25 years as measured by the survey question "[a]re there any

situations you can imagine in which you would approve of a policeman striking

an adult male citizen?" Surveyed annually over this time period, a larger

percentage of whites & about three-quarters & than blacks & about half &

responded "yes."3

 

1

Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1999, BJS, table 2.34, Gallup Organization, 

Gallup Poll Monthly, December 1999, no. 411. 2

Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1999, BJS, table 2.18, Gallup Organization, 2000. 3

Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1999, BJS, table 2.36, National Opinion Research

Center, General Social Surveys, 1972-1998. Question: "Are there any situations you can

imagine in which you would approve of a policeman striking an adult male citizen?"

b

Questions: “Were you drinking at the time of the incident?” "Were you using drugs at the time of the incident?

a

Question: “At any time during (this/the most recent) incident did you: ___ (list)?”

Note: Zero represents no cases in sample.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Use of alcohol or drugs 89,313 21.2% 63,864 25.7% 9,543 10.0%* 13,068 19.9%* b

Other actions to provoke 15,550 3.7* 11,275 4.5* 2,167 2.3* 2,108 3.2*

Other

Grab, hit, or fight officer 9,994 2.4* 2,240 0.9* 5,835 6.1* 1,918 2.9*

Physical resistance

Try to escape 21,381 5.1* 18,607 7.5* 2,774 2.9* 0 0

Resist search 31,658 7.5* 28,457 11.4* 0 0 3,201 4.9*

Resist arrest or handcuffs 30,506 7.2 14,692 5.9* 2,774 2.9* 13,040 19.9*

Cooperation

Verbal threat to officer 38,242 9.1 22,758 9.2* 6,743 7.1* 8,741 13.3*

Curse or insult officer 60,755 14.4 34,637 13.9 8,347 8.7* 17,772 27.1*

Argue or disobey officer 152,919 36.3 106,779 43.0 14,526 15.2* 28,777 43.9*

Verbal

240,461 57.0% 180,646 72.7% 22,529 23.6%* 34,448 52.6%*

Reported at least one of the following 

actions at time of incident:

Total persons with force 421,714 248,539 95,440 65,530

Percent of

persons

with force

Number of

persons with

forcea

Percent of

persons

with force

Number of

persons with

forcea

Percent of

persons

with force

Number of

persons with

forcea

Percent of

persons

with force

Number of

persons with

forcea Type of conduct

Total White Black Hispanic

Table 28. U.S. population age 16 or older who experienced police force or threat of force, 

by race and action during the incident, 1999
with the police (2.4%). Whites (43.0%)

and Hispanics (43.9%) involved in a

force or threat of force incident were

significantly more likely than black

citizens (15.2%) to say that they argued

with the police during the incident. 

Respondents were specifically asked if

they had been using alcohol or drugs

during the force incident. Twenty-one

percent of the citizens involved in a

force or threat of force incident said

they were using drugs and/or alcohol at

the time. Whites involved with police

force (25.7%) were significantly more

likely than blacks (10.0%) to have

reported that they had used alcohol or

drugs during the incident.

Force and arrests

Less than half (42.3%) of the persons

who said force was used or threatened

against them were arrested during the

incident (table 29). Whites (45.9%) who

experienced police force were not

significantly more likely than blacks

(37.1%) or Hispanics (35.5%) to also

have been arrested.

Force and handcuffing

About half (52.1%) the persons experiencing force were also handcuffed

during the incident – including 48.8% of

whites, 67.2% of blacks, and 43.0% of

Hispanics. These differences were not

statistically significant.

Citizen appraisal of police conduct 

The vast majority (91.9%) of the

persons involved in police use of force

incidents said the police acted improperly (table 29). Whites (88.5%) were

nearly as likely as blacks (94.4%) to

contend the police acted improperly. 

Although the majority of persons with

force felt the police had acted improperly, less than 20% of these people

(about 59,600) said they took formal

action such as filing a complaint or

lawsuit with the authorities (table 30).

Those that did file a complaint were

most likely (66.1%) to do so with the

agency employing the police officer(s)

involved in the force incident. Few

(3.7%) citizens who took formal action

filed a police use of force complaint with

their local prosecutor’s office.

 

 Contacts between Police and the Public 29

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

 aQuestions: “Did the police officer(s) search the vehicle?” “At any time during (this/the most

recent) incident, did the police officer(s) search you, frisk you, or pat you down?” “At any time

during (this/the most recent) incident were you handcuffed?” “Were you arrested?” “Looking back

at (this/the most recent) incident, do you feel the police behaved properly or improperly?”

Citizen said officer(s) acted improperly 91.9 88.5 94.4 100.0 100.0*

Arrested 42.3 45.9 37.1 35.5 48.7*

Handcuffed 52.1 48.8 67.2 43.0 48.7*

Person or vehicle searched 65.7% 61.5% 77.4% 68.0% 48.7%*

Characteristics of force incident

Total persons with force 421,714 248,539 95,440 65,530 12,205

Total White Black Hispanic Other race a

Race/ethnicity

Table 29. U.S. population age 16 or older who experienced police use 

or threat of force, by characteristics of force incident, 1999

The median age of persons

involved with the police 

generally declined as the contact

became more serious, 1999

Half the citizens with face-to-face

contact with the police were age 36

or younger, 6 years younger than

the median for the whole population

over age 16. Half the persons who

reported experiencing force by a

police officer were age 23 or

younger.

Number of

persons age Median

16 or older age

U.S. population 

age 16 or older 209,350,600 42

Persons with faceto-face contact with

police in 1999 43,827,400 36

Motorists stopped 19,277,000 34

Persons searched 1,737,700 25

Persons arrested 1,038,300 27

Persons handcuffed 1,154,200 26

Persons reporting

that they experienced

force by the police 421,700 23

a

Questions: “Did you take any formal action,

such as filing a complaint or lawsuit?” “With

whom did you file a complaint or lawsuit?"

Note: Percents do not sum to 100 because

some respondents may have taken more than

one type of formal action. 

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

2,206 3.7*

Local prosecutor's

 office

10,236 17.2*

Took other formal

 action

15,818 26.6

Filed complaint with

 law enforcement or

 local government

39,399 66.1

Filed complaint with

 agency employing

 officer

59,568 100%

Persons who took

formal action against

police

Percent of

persons

filing a

complaint

Number of

persons

filing a

complainta

Table 30. U.S. population age 16 or

older who experienced force or threat

of force and took formal action, 

by type of formal action taken 

against police, 1999
Appendix I. Related background 

publications and current grants

The publications that follow are, 

in whole or in part, related to police use

of force and are among those generated by research supported by the

National Institute of Justice (NIJ) or 

BJS either through grants to outside

researchers or through studies by

in-house staff.

Alpert, Geoffrey P. Police Pursuit:

Policies and Training. Research in Brief.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Justice, NIJ, May 1997. NCJ 164831.

(The related 60-minute videotape:

Alpert, Geoffrey P. Police in Pursuit:

Policy and Practice. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ. 

NCJ 161836.)

&. Helicopters in Pursuit Operations.

Research in Action. Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ,

August 1998. NCJ 171695.

Bir, Cynthia A. The Evaluation of Blunt

Ballistic Impacts of the Thorax. Ph.D.

dissertation. Wayne State University,

2000.

Edwards, Steven M., John Granfield,

and Jamie Onnen. Evaluation of Pepper

Spray. Research in Brief. Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ,

March 1997. NCJ 162358.

Fridell, Lorie A., and Antony M. Pate.

"Death on Patrol: Killings of American

Law Enforcement Officers." In Critical

Issues in Policing: Contemporary

Readings, eds. Geoffrey P. Alpert and

Roger G. Dunham. Prospect Heights,

IL: Waveland Press, 1997.

Garner, Joel; John Buchanan; Tom

Schade; and John Hepburn. Understanding the Use of Force By and

Against the Police. Research in Brief.

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Justice, NIJ, November 1996. NCJ

158614. (The related 60-minute videotape: Garner, Joel H. Use of Force By

and Against Police. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ. NCJ

159739.)

Geller, William A., and Hans Toch, eds.

And Justice for All: Understanding and

Controlling Police Abuse of Force.

Washington, DC: Police Executive

Research Forum, 1995.

Greenfeld, Lawrence A., Patrick A.

Langan, and Steven K. Smith. Police

Use of Force: Collection of National

Data. Washington DC: U.S. Department

of Justice, BJS and NIJ, November

1997. NCJ 165040.

Jefferis, Eric S.; Robert J. Kaminski;

Steven Holmes; and Dena Hanley. "The

Effect of a Videotaped Arrest on Public

Perceptions of Police Use of Force."

Journal of Criminal Justice, 25(5)(1997).

Kaminski, Robert J., and Eric S.

Jefferis. "The Effect of a Violent

Televised Arrest on Public Perceptions

of the Police: A Partial Test of Easton's

Theoretical Framework." Policing: An

International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 21(4)(1998).

Kaminski, Robert J. and Jeffrey Martin.

"An Analysis of Police Officer Satisfaction with Defense and Control Tactics."

Policing: An International Journal of

Police Strategies and Management,

23(2)(2000).

Kaminski, Robert J.; Steven M.

Edwards; and James W. Johnson. 

"The Deterrent Effects of Oleoresin

Capsicum on Assaults Against Police:

Testing the Velcro-Effect Hypothesis."

Police Quarterly, 1(2)(1998).

Appendix

30 Contacts between Police and the Public 

a

Question: “On (this/the most recent occasion), did the police officer(s) for any reason use or

threaten to use physical force against you, such as grabbing you or threatening to hit you?”

1 million or more 5,932 908 20

500,000-999,999 3,366 677 6

100,000-499,999 11,725 2,351 22

Under 100,000 59,520 12,488 90

Size of jurisdiction 

where resided

60 or older 18,134 1,818 5

50-59 12,233 2,163 4

40-49 16,456 3,626 15

30-39 16,555 3,934 27

20-29 12,432 3,545 51

16-19 4,733 1,338 36

Age

Other race 3,411 519 3

Hispanic 8,556 1,382 23

Black 8,282 1,492 27

White 60,294 13,031 85

Race/ethnicity

Female 44,165 8,195 23

Male 36,378 8,229 115

Gender

Total persons 80,543 16,424 138

Number 

of persons 

with forcea

Persons with

police contact

All survey

Demographic characteristic respondents

Appendix table. Survey respondents who said they experienced force 

or threat of force, by gender, race/ethnicity, age, and size of jurisdiction 

where respondents resided, 1999
&. "Assessing the Incapacitative Effects

of Pepper Spray During Resistive

Encounters With Police." Policing: An

International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 22(1)(1999).

Mastrofski, Stephen D.; Roger B. Parks;

Albert J. Reiss, Jr.; Robert E. Worden;

Christina DeJong; Jeffrey B. Snipes;

and William Terrill. Systematic Observation of Public Police: Applying Field

Research Methods to Policy Issues.

Research Report. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ,

December 1998. NCJ 172859.

McEwen, Tom. National Data Collection

on Police Use of Force. Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Justice, BJS

and NIJ, April 1996. NCJ 160113.

NIJ. Oleoresin Capsicum: Pepper Spray

as a Force Alternative. Technology

Assessment Program. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ, March

1994.

&. Preliminary Investigation of

Oleoresin Capsicum. Law Enforcement

and Corrections Standards and Testing

Program. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Justice, NIJ, April 1995.

NIJ Report 100-95.

&. Positional Asphyxia & Sudden

Death. National Law Enforcement

Technology Center Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice,

NIJ, June 1995.

&. High Speed Pursuit: New Technologies Around the Corner. National Law

Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center Bulletin. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ,

October 1996.

&. Pursuit Management Task Force.

Research Preview. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Justice, National

Institute of Justice, August 1998. 

FS 000225.

NIJ and BJS. Use of Force By Police:

Overview of National and Local Data.

Research Report. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Justice, October

1999. NCJ 176330.

Pate, Antony M., and Lorie A. Fridell,

with Edwin E. Hamilton. Police Use of

Force: Official Reports, Citizen

Complaints, and Legal Consequences.

Vols. I and II. Washington, DC: Police

Foundation, 1993.

Pinizzotto, Anthony J.; Edward F. Davis;

and Charles E. Miller III. In the Line 

of Fire: Violence Against Law Enforcement. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, FBI and NIJ, October

1997.

Scrivner, Ellen M. The Role of Police

Psychology in Controlling Excessive

Force. Research Report. Washington,

DC: NIJ, 1994. NCJ 146206.

&. Controlling Police Use of Force: 

The Role of the Police Psychologist.

Research in Brief. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ, 1994.

NCJ 150063.

Current NIJ-supported grants for

research

The Impact of OC Spray on Respiratory

Function in the Sitting and Prone

Maximal Restraint Positions, Grant

#98-IJ-CX-0079

Curbing Police Brutality: A Reanalysis

of Citizen Complaints at the Organizational Level, Grant #98-IJ-CX-0064

Responding to the Problem Police

Officer: An Evaluation of Early Warning

Systems, Grant #98-IJ-CX-0002

An Analysis of Police Use-of-Force

Data, Grant #95-IJ-CX-0104

A Multi-Method Study of Police Special

Weapons and Tactics Teams, Grant

#2000-IJ-CX-0003

Applicability of Non-Lethal Weapons

Technology in Schools, Grant

#99-9226-VA-IJ

North Carolina Highway Traffic Study

(on racial profiling, but includes use 

of force), Grant #99-MU-CX-0022

Use of Force by the Montgomery

County Police Department, 1992-1998,

Grant #98-IJ-CX-0086

The Phoenix Project: Predictors of

Suspect Use of Force, Grant

#98-IJ-CX-0071

The Force Factor: Measuring Police

Use of Force Relative to Suspect 

Resistance, Grant #98-IJ-CX-0018

Impact Munitions Data Base of Use 

and Effects, Grant #98-LB-VX-K006

Police Response to Officer-Involved

Shootings, Grant #97-IJ-CX-0029

An Evaluation of Oleoresin Capsicum

(O.C.) Use by Law Enforcement

Agencies: Impact on Injuries to Officers

and Suspects, Grant #97-LB-VX-K018

Understanding the Use of Force by 

and against the Police, Grant

#95-IJ-CX-0066

 Contacts between Police and the Public 31