Glaciers of Asia—

GLACIERS OF THE FORMER SOVIET UNION

By V.M. KOTLYAKOV, senior author, with contributions from A.M. DYAKOVA

(Siberia), V.S. KORYAKIN (Russian Arctic Islands), V.I. KRAVTSOVA

(Caucasus, Altay), G.B. OSIPOVA (Tien Shan), G.M. VARNAKOVA (Pamirs 

and Alai Range), V.N. VINOGRADOV (Kamchatka), O.N. VINOGRADOV

(Caucasus), and N.M. ZVERKOVA (Ural Mountains and Taymyr Peninsula)

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, JR., and JANE G. FERRIGNO

U. S. G EO LO G I C A L SU RV EY P RO F E SSI O N A L PA P E R 1 3 8 6 –F– 1

CONTENTS III

CONTENTS

Glaciers of the Former Soviet Union — by V.M. Kotlyakov, senior author, with 

contributions from A.M. Dyakova (Siberia), V.S. Koryakin (Russian Arctic 

Islands), V.I. Kravtsova (Caucasus, Altay), G.B.Osipova (Tien Shan), 

G.M. Varnakova (Pamirs and Alai Range), V.N. Vinogradov (Kamchatka), 

O.N. Vinogradov (Caucasus), and N.M. Zverkova (Ural Mountains and 

Taymyr Peninsula) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1

Abstract---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

Discussion of Glaciers by Region-------------------------------------------------------- 2

Figure 1. Glacierized regions of the Former Soviet Union according 

 to the Glacier Inventory of the USSR--------------------------------------------3

Table 1. Data on the glaciers of the Former Soviet Union--------------------------------3

Figure 2. Morphological types of mountain glaciers adopted for the 

 Glacier Inventory of the USSR ----------------------------------------------------4

Caucasus (in Russia and the Republic of Georgia)-------------------------- 4

Figure 3. Map of the glacierization of a large portion of the 

 Caucasus region, compiled for the World Atlas of Snow 

 and Ice Resources---------------------------------------------------------------------5

Table 2. Distribution of glaciers in the main regions of the Caucasus-----------------5

Table 3. Glacier complexes and large glaciers of the Caucasus--------------------------6

Table 4. The distribution of glaciers and glacier complexes in the 

 Caucasus based on their area-------------------------------------------------------6

Table 5. The distribution of glaciers of the Caucasus according to 

 morphological types -----------------------------------------------------------------7

Figure 4. Part of an enlarged Landsat 2 MSS image taken on 9 July 1976, 

 and map of the morphologial types of glaciers of the same part 

 of the Western Caucasus, including Gora El’brus-----------------------------7

Figure 5. Aerial photograph of the Lednik Marukhskiy taken on 

 15 September 1955, and a series of glaciological maps of this 

 glacier based on detailed studies done during the IHD----------------- 8–9

Figure 6. Enlargement of part of a Landsat 2 MSS image taken on 

 9 July 1976, depicting the El’brus massif -------------------------------------10

Figure 7. Panoramic photographic mosaic of the northern and southern 

 slopes of Gora El’brus--------------------------------------------------------------10

Figure 8. Part of an enlargement of a Landsat 2 MSS image of the Central 

 Caucasus, taken on 13 September 1977, and map of the 

 morphological types of glaciers of the Central Caucasus -----------------11

Figure 9. Two enlargements of the part of the Central Caucasus around 

 Lednik Bezengi depicted on Landsat 2 MSS images taken on 

 9 July 1976 and 13 September 1977--------------------------------------------12

Figure 10. Illustrations of the surging Lednik Kolka, Gora Kazbek: Aerial 

 photograph, sketch map of the advance, and morphology of 

 the glacier basin----------------------------------------------------------------------13

Figure 11. Part of the Eastern Caucasus with the Djul’tydag range depicted 

 on a Landsat 2 MSS image taken on 28 August 1976----------------------14

Pamirs, Alai (Alayskiy), and Gissar (Hisor) Ranges (in the 

Republics of Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan)------------------14

Table 6. Largest glaciers of the Pamirs and the Gissar (Hisor) and Alai 

 (Alayskiy) Ranges-------------------------------------------------------------------15

Table 7. Distribution of glaciers based on their area -------------------------------------15

Figure 12. Landsat 2 MSS image of the Central Pamirs acquired on 

 28 September 1977, and the distribution pattern of the area 

 and number of glaciers related to glacier orientation in the 

 Hisor and Alayskiy Ranges and the Pamirs-----------------------------------16

Figure 13. The Lednik Bivachnyy surging glacier, tributary of Lednik 

 Fedchenko with loops of medial moraines -----------------------------------17
IV CONTENTS

Figure 14. Enlargement of part of the Landsat image, showing the Lednik

 Fedchenko basin, and sketch map showing the distribution

 pattern of morphological types of glaciers in this area ---------------------18

Figure 15. Enlargement of part of the Landsat image of 28 September 

 1977, showing the eastern part of Zaalayskiy Khrebet 

 (Qatorkŭhi Pasi Oloy) and part of the Eastern Pamirs, and 

 sketch map showing the pattern of morphological types of 

 glaciers in this region---------------------------------------------------------------19

Figure 16. Debris-free slope glaciers of the Eastern Pamirs-------------------------------20

Figure 17. Enlargement of part of the Landsat image, showing the upper

 reaches of the Saukdara river, and sketch map of surges 

 of the Saukdara group of glaciers from 1973 to 1977-----------------------20

Figure 18. Photograph taken August 1976 of the rapid advance of ice 

 of Lednik Valy caused by its surge -----------------------------------------------21

Figure 19. Photograph showing the western part of the Khrebet Alayskiy 

 on 18 September 1976-------------------------------------------------------------22

Tien Shan (in the Republics of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan)------------22

Figure 20. Morphological types of glaciers in the western part of Khrebet 

 Alayskiy delineated from space photographs and images -----------------23

Table 8. Distribution of Tien Shan glaciers in various river or lake basins----------23

Piks Pobedy and Khan-Tengri in Central Tien Shan --------------24

Figure 21. Part of a Landsat 2 MSS image of the Pobedy and Khan Tägiri/

 Kan-Too peak region taken on 16 October 1976 ----------------------------24

Table 9. Largest glaciers in the Tien Shan --------------------------------------------------25

Table 10. Distribution of glaciers in two regions of the Central Tien Shan 

 based on their area ------------------------------------------------------------------25

Figure 22. Enlargement of part of a Landsat 1 MSS image taken on 

18 September 1973, and aerial photograph and map of the same area ---------26

Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak in Central Tien Shan --------------------------27

Figure 23. Enlargement of part of a Landsat 1 MSS image of Khrebet 

 Ak-Shyyrak taken on 18 September 1973, map of the 

 morphological types of glaciers, and distribution pattern 

 of the area and number of glaciers ----------------------------------------------28

Figure 24. Aerial photograph of Lednik Severniy Karasay in Khrebet 

 Ak-Shyyrak ---------------------------------------------------------------------------28

Altay (Russia and Kazakhstan) -------------------------------------------------29

Figure 25. Glaciers in the main mountain-glacier areas of the Altay — 

 on the Katunskiy, Severo-Chuyskiy, and Yuzhno-Chuyskiy 

 Khrebet, and the distribution pattern of the area and number

 of glaciers------------------------------------------------------------------------------29

Table 11. Largest glaciers in the Russian Altay----------------------------------------------30

Figure 26. Image of the central Altay with the Gora Belukha glacier group 

 taken from the Salyut–1 space station on 14 June 1971; and 

 comparison of the delineation of the glacier boundaries shown 

 on topographic maps and derived from the space image------------------31

Figure 27. Part of a Landsat 2 MSS image of Katunskiy Khrebet taken on 

 11 July 1977, map of surface morphology, and morphological 

 types of glaciers in this region----------------------------------------------------32

Figure 28. Part of the Landsat 2 MSS image taken on 11 July 1977 of

 the Bish-Irdu glacier complex in the Severo-Chuyskiy 

 Khrebet, enlarged portion of the image, and depiction of this 

 region on a map ---------------------------------------------------------------------33

Ural Mountains (Ural’skiye Gory) ---------------------------------------------34

Figure 29. Enlargement of a Landsat 1 MSS image of the Northern Urals 

 acquired on 25 June 1973---------------------------------------------------------34

Figure 30. Distribution pattern of glaciers in the Polar Urals, and by area 

 and number related to orientation ----------------------------------------------35

Figure 31. Part of an enlargement of a Landsat 1 MSS image of part of the 

 Polar Urals acquired on 6 March 1973: Bol’shoy Khadyta

 river-valley, and location of the Lednik Obrucheva --------------------------36
CONTENTS V

Figure 32. Aerial photograph taken on 30 July 1953 of Lednik Obrucheva; 

 morphology of the surface; and changes of the surface 

 elevation of the Lednik Obrucheva in the Polar Urals-----------------------36

The Byrranga Mountains (Gory Byrranga) in Northern Russia---------37

Figure 33. Landsat 1 MSS image acquired 26 July 1973 showing the 

 distribution of glaciers in the Gory Byrranga in the region near 

 lat. 76°N., long. 108°E.; sketch of glacier location; and dis-

 tribution pattern of glacier orientation in the Gory Byrranga------------37

Northeastern Siberia --------------------------------------------------------------38

Figure 34. Distribution of glaciers over Khrebet Suntar-Khayata; distribution

 patterns of the number and area of glaciers relating to the

 orientation in Khrebet Suntar-Khayata; and Khrebet 

 Cherskogo ----------------------------------------------------------------------------38

Table 12. Distribution of glaciers in the Khrebet Suntar-Khayata based on 

 their size -------------------------------------------------------------------------------39

Figure 35. Enlargements of two Landsat 2 MSS images of the Koryakskoye 

 highland, northeastern Siberia, taken on 2 July 1975 and 

 26 August 1975; and distribution of glaciers in the highest 

 part of the Koryakskoye highland-----------------------------------------------39

Figure 36. Distribution of aufeis areas in northeastern Siberia---------------------------40

Kamchatka --------------------------------------------------------------------------40

Figure 37. Morphological types of present-day glaciers in the volcanic 

 regions of Kamchatka--------------------------------------------------------------41

Figure 38. Aerial photograph of glaciers in the crater and on the slopes of 

 Vulkan Mutnovskaya Sopka------------------------------------------------------41

Russian Arctic ----------------------------------------------------------------------42

Franz Josef Land (Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa) ---------------------------42

Figure 39. Glacierized regions of Franz Josef Land: western region; 

 central region; and eastern region-----------------------------------------------43

Table 13. The area of glaciers in Franz Josef Land -----------------------------------------43

Figure 40. Landsat 3 MSS image of the western part of Franz Josef Land 

 acquired on 24 March 1978 ------------------------------------------------------44

Severnaya Zemlya ---------------------------------------------------------44

Figure 41. Glacierization of Severnaya Zemlya ----------------------------------------------45

Table 14. The area of glaciers on Severnaya Zemlya --------------------------------------45

Figure 42. Landsat 1 MSS image of the northern part of Severnaya Zemlya 

 taken on 28 July 1973 --------------------------------------------------------------46

Novaya Zemlya ------------------------------------------------------------47

Conclusions----------------------------------------------------------------------------------47

Figure 43. Glacierization of Novaya Zemlya -------------------------------------------------48

Acknowledgments--------------------------------------------------------------------------48

Table 15. The glaciers on Novaya Zemlya --------------------------------------------------49

Figure 44. Landsat 1 MSS image of the central part of Novozemel’skiy

 ice cap taken on 23 July 1973 -----------------------------------------------------49

Table 16. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of glaciers of the 

 Former Soviet Union--------------------------------------------------------50–55

Figure 45. Index map of the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images 

 of the Former Soviet Union -----------------------------------------------56–58

Fluctuations of Glaciers of the Central Caucasus and Gora El’brus, with a 

Section on the Glaciological Disaster in North Osetiya — by V.M. 

Kotlyakov, O.V. Rototaeva, and G.A. Nosenko ------------------------------------------59

Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------59

Figure 46. Image of Gora El’brus and its glaciers on 25 August 2002------------------60

Figure 47. ASTER image of the glaciers on the southern slope of 

 Gora El’brus taken on 15 September 2001-----------------------------------60

Figure 48. Map of the glaciers of Gora El’brus-----------------------------------------------61
VI CONTENTS

Table 17. Changes in the position of the termini of El’brus glaciers during 

 different periods of observation -------------------------------------------------61

Figure 49. Part of the 25 August 2002 International Space Station image 

 enlarged to show the lake-moraine complex near the terminus 

 of the retreating Lednik Birdzhalytchiran, Gora El’brus--------------------63

Figure 50. Aerial and space photographs of Lednik Bol’shoy Azau, 

 Gora El’brus, showing changes in the terminus shape and 

 position--------------------------------------------------------------------------------64

Figure 51. Aerial photograph (1987) of the terminus of Lednik 

 Ullumalienderku, Gora El’brus, during a surge event -----------------------65

Glaciological Disaster in North Osetiya-----------------------------------------------66

Figure 52. Photographs (1981 and 2004) of the Lednik Kukurtli, 

 Gora El’brus--------------------------------------------------------------------------67

Figure 53. ASTER image taken on 15 September 2001, showing glaciers 

 of the central Caucasus ------------------------------------------------------------68

Table 18. Changes in the position of glacier termini from 1987 to 2001/04 

 in the Tcherek River basin ----------------------------------------------68

Figure 54. Image taken from the International Space Station in 2002, 

 showing the retreating Lednik Karaugom ------------------------------------69

Figure 55. Aerial photograph taken in July 2004 of the terminus of Lednik 

 Ailama and the stagnant terminus of Lednik Dykh-su covered 

 with debris----------------------------------------------------------------------------69

Figure 56. Photograph taken in August 2003 of the advancing front of 

 Lednik Mizhirgitchiran--------------------------------------------------------------70

Figure 57. Oblique aerial photograph of avalanche debris in the Karmadon 

 basin caused by the 20 September 2002 catastrophic collapse 

 of the Lednik Kolka -----------------------------------------------------------------70

Figure 58. Two ASTER images of the Genaldon river valley, scene of the

 Lednik Kolka disaster---------------------------------------------------------------71

Figure 59. Oblique aerial photograph taken on 21 September 2002, looking 

 southwest at the avalanche debris saturated with water -------------------72

Figure 60. Oblique aerial photograph taken on 24 September 2002, 

 looking south at the mountain crest in the source region of 

 Lednik Kolka--------------------------------------------------------------------------73

Figure 61. International Space Station image taken on 13 August 2002 of 

 Lednik Maili and Lednik Kolka --------------------------------------------------74

Figure 62. Oblique aerial photograph taken September 2002, looking south 

 at the empty cirque of Lednik Kolka after the disaster----------------------74

Figure 63. International Space Station image taken on 19 October 2002, 

 looking south at Gora Kasbek volcanic massif and the cirques 

 of Ledniki Maili and Kolka--------------------------------------------------------75

Figure 64. Enlarged section of 27 September 2002 ASTER image ---------------------75

Figure 65. Terrestrial photograph taken on 28 June 2003 of one of the lakes 

 in the Kolka bed dammed by a combination of ice and debris-----------76

Figure 66. Oblique aerial photograph taken on September 2003, looking 

 southeast at the collapsing avalanche debris in Karmadon 

 basin and the dammed lake near Saniba settlement one year 

 after the disaster---------------------------------------------------------------------76

Investigations of the Fluctuations of Surge-Type Glaciers in the Pamirs based 

on Observations from Space — by V.M. Kotlyakov, G.B. Osipova, and 

D.G. Tsvetkov------------------------------------------------------------------------------------77

Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------77

Compilation of an Inventory of Surging Glaciers of the Pamirs -----------------77

Table 19. The number of surge-type glaciers in the large river basins of 

 the Pamirs-----------------------------------------------------------------------------78

Table 20. The largest observed surges of the glaciers of the Pamirs from 

 1960 to 2003 -------------------------------------------------------------------------78

Figure 67. KFA-1000 photograph taken in 1973 from a Resurs-F1 satellite 

 showing surge-type glaciers in the Central Pamirs--------------------------79
CONTENTS VII

Figure 68. KFA-1000 photograph taken in 1985 from a Resurs-F1 satellite 

 showing surge-type glaciers in the central part of Zaalayskiy 

 Khrebet (Qatorkŭhi Pasi Oloy in Tajikistan, Chong Alay Kyrka 

 Toosu in Kyrgyzstan) --------------------------------------------------------------80

Investigation of the Fluctuation Regime of Compound Glaciers----------------80

Figure 69. Morphology of the lower part of Lednik Oktyabr’skiye from 

 1946 to 1990 -------------------------------------------------------------------------81

Figure 70. Photographs from space of Lednik Oktyabr’skiye ----------------------------82

Figure 71. Graph of the velocity of the ice movement along longitudinal 

 profile of Lednik Oktyabr’skiye, showing the stage of recovery 

 (1972–1985) and the surge (1985–1990) -----------------------------------82

Figure 72. Photographs of Lednik Bivachniy and Lednik Moscow State 

 University: 1973, pre-surge; 1980, post-surge; and 2001 soon 

 after the successive surge ----------------------------------------------------------83

Figure 73. Images from space of the Gando-Dorofeeva glacier system before, 

 during, and after the 1989–1990 surge ----------------------------------------84

The State of Surging Glaciers — Ledniki Medvezhiy and Geograficheskogo

Obshchestva -----------------------------------------------------------------------------85

Figure 74. Aerial photographs showing the tongue of Lednik Medvezhiy 

 during the surge of 1988 to 1989, and in 2001-------------------------------86

Figure 75. Sketch map of the Lednik Geograficheskogo Obschestva (RGO 

 Glacier) basin showing glaciers, the reconstructed outline of 

 the glacier’s terminus in 1916, a reconstructed dammed lake 

 in 1916, locations of velocity profiles, and a mudflow on the 

 surface of the glacier in September 2002 --------------------------------------88

Figure 76. Aerial photograph taken on 13 October 2002 of the terminus 

 of Lednik RGO, looking northeast ---------------------------------------------89

Figure 77. International Space Station images of Lednik RGO taken on 

 25 June 2001 and 30 September 2002-----------------------------------------90

Investigations of the Fluctuations of “Normal” Non-Surging Glaciers 

in the Eastern Pamirs-------------------------------------------------------------------90

Figure 78. Landsat image of the Eastern Pamirs where glacier-retreat 

 measurements listed in table 21 were made ----------------------------------91

Table 21. Retreat velocity of the termini of glaciers of the Eastern Pamirs 

 from 1972 to 2001------------------------------------------------------------------92

Figure 79. Sketch map showing the retreat of the terminus of Lednik 

 Severniy Zulumart (Eastern Pamirs) based on interpretation 

 of a 1946 aerial photograph and 1972, 1978, 1990, and 2001 

 space images and photographs---------------------------------------------------92

Table 22. Retreat of the terminus and decrease in the area of the tongue 

 of Lednik Severniy Zulumart from 1946 to 2001 ----------------------------93

The Glaciology of the Russian High Arctic from Landsat Imagery — 

by J.A. Dowdeswell, E.K. Dowdeswell, M. Williams, and A.F. Glazovskii---------94

Abstract---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------94

Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------95

Glaciological Background ----------------------------------------------------------------95

Figure 80. Map of the Russian High Arctic showing the major ice-covered 

 archipelagos of Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and 

 Severnaya Zemlya, together with the smaller glacierized islands 

 further east----------------------------------------------------------------------------96

Figure 81. Diagrams showing the effects of cloud cover on Landsat image 

 quality for selected Path–Rows in the Russian High Arctic, 

 including Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and Severnaya 

 Zemlya: April to September, May, July, and September-------------------97

Franz Josef Land--------------------------------------------------------------------98

Severnaya Zemlya------------------------------------------------------------------98

Figure 82. Map of the Franz Josef Land archipelago showing the 

 distribution of ice masses ---------------------------------------------------------99
VIII CONTENTS

Figure 83. Map of the islands of Severnaya Zemlya showing the 

 distribution of ice masses ------------------------------------------------------ 100

Figure 84. Landsat false-color Multispectral Scanner image of the ice caps 

 in northern Severnaya Zemlya------------------------------------------------ 101

Novaya Zemlya -------------------------------------------------------------------102

Other Glacierized Islands in the Russian High Arctic -------------------102

Figure 85. Map of Novaya Zemlya showing the distribution of ice masses-------- 103

Glaciological Investigation of Russian High Arctic Ice Masses from 

Landsat Imagery-----------------------------------------------------------------------104

Ice-Surface Topography --------------------------------------------------------104

Figure 86. Map of the ice divides on the ice caps of Franz Josef Land, 

 shown on a georeferenced mosaic of Landsat TM images 

 acquired on 25 July 1986------------------------------------------------------- 105

Ice Dynamics ---------------------------------------------------------------------105

Outlet Glaciers and Icebergs------------------------------------------105

Figure 87. Landsat TM image sub-scene showing an example of the 

 major ice divides on the Ostrov Gallya ice cap in Franz 

 Josef Land-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 106

Figure 88. Digitally enhanced Landsat TM image sub-scene of the major 

 ice divide running along the northeast-southwest trending 

 spine of Novaya Zemlya-------------------------------------------------------- 107

Figure 89. Landsat TM images of iceberg-producing outlet glaciers 

 draining ice caps in the Russian High Arctic ------------------------------ 108

Figure 90. Four georeferenced and edge-enhanced sub-scenes of Landsat 

 images of the Lednik Znamenityy on Zemlya Vil’cheka, 

 Franz Josef Land, showing large numbers of tabular icebergs--------- 109

Floating Ice Shelves or Ice Tongues---------------------------------110

Figure 91. Annotated Landsat TM band 3 image sub-scene of the Lednik

 Matusevicha on Ostrov Oktyabr’skoy Revolyutsii, Severnaya 

 Zemlya------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 110

Figure 92. Graph showing ice-surface profiles from two ice shelves and 

 their parent drainage basins on Severnaya Zemlya, derived 

 from analysis of Russian aerial photographs from the 1950s---------- 111

Figure 93. Landsat TM image of three flat ice-marginal glacier termini 

 on the ice cap on Ostrov Zemlya Georga, western Franz 

 Josef Land-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 112

Figure 94. Map of the ice caps on Franz Josef Land, with marginal areas of 

 low surface gradient ------------------------------------------------------------- 113

Surge-Type Glaciers ----------------------------------------------------114

Figure 95. Digitally enhanced Landsat TM image of the outlet glaciers

 entering Zaliv Nordenshel’da, Novaya Zemlya --------------------------- 115

Snow-and-Ice Facies and Glacier Mass Balance---------------------------115

Figure 96. Digitally enhanced Landsat TM sub-scene showing the 

 snow-and-ice facies on a summer image of the Lednik 

 Kropotkina on Ostrov Zemlya Aleksandry, Franz Josef Land -------- 116

Figure 97. Landsat TM sub-scene of Ostrov Ketlitsa, Franz Josef Land ----------- 117

Conclusions--------------------------------------------------------------------------------118

Acknowledgments------------------------------------------------------------------------119

References Cited--------------------------------------------------------------------------119
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F1

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD 

GLACIERS OF ASIA— 

GLACIERS OF THE FORMER SOVIET UNION1

By V.M. KOTLYAKOV2, senior author, with contributions from 

A.M. DYAKOVA (Siberia), V.S. KORYAKIN (Russian Arctic 

Islands), V.I. KRAVTSOVA (Caucasus, Altay), G.B. OSIPOVA 

(Tien Shan), G.M. VARNAKOVA (Pamirs and Alai Range), 

V.N. VINOGRADOV(Kamchatka), O.N. VINOGRADOV (Caucasus), 

and N.M. ZVERKOVA (Ural Mountains and Taymyr Peninsula)

Abstract

Glaciers in the Former Soviet Union cover a total area of 78,938 km2; 72 percent 

(56,894 km2) are in the Russian Arctic (Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, Novaya Zemlya, 

and Wrangel Island) and 28 percent (22,044  km2) in various mountain ranges (mainly the 

Caucasus, Pamirs, Alai Range (Alayskiy Khrebet), Tien Shan, Altay, Ural Mountains, and those 

of Northeastern Siberia) in Russia and in the Republics of Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, 

Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. The  Glacier Inventory of the USSR and the World Atlas of Snow 

and Ice Resources records a total of 26,881 glaciers, 1,983 in the Russian Arctic, and 24,898 in 

Russia and in the four independent republics. Information from the Glacier Inventory, World 

Atlas, Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images from the 10-year Landsat Baseline Period (1972–1981), 

Soviet space imagery, aerial photographs, and maps were used to provide information on the 

glacierized areas. Russian glaciologists recognize 20 morphological types of mountain glaciers 

and 7 types of ice caps, ice fields, and ice sheets from a global perspective (World Atlas). Glaciers 

in the Former Soviet Union represent 11 of the 20 types of mountain glaciers and all of the types 

of ice caps and ice fields. The early (1972–1981) Landsat MSS images were found to be useful 

in delineating the margins and ice divides on ice caps and the termini and some margins of larger 

mountain glaciers, if the images were acquired under conditions of minimum cloud cover and 

late season, residual snow pack, but before new snowfall. Analysis of changes in smaller glaciers 

was not possible with the limitations of pixel resolution (80 m) of MSS images. Later Landsat TM 

and more recent Landsat ETM+ and ASTER images have overcome the spatial resolution 

problem. The Resurs-F1 KFA-1000 photographs and Landsat MSS images were especially useful 

for identifying surge-type glaciers and for determining the position of termini of glaciers.

Introduction

The information presented in this part of the chapter is the result of 

interpretation of Landsat images, Soviet space images, and aerial photographs. 

The  data presented in the Soviet Glacier Inventory (USSR Academy of 

Sciences, 1965–1983) are also widely used in this chapter, as are some of the 

sketches and sections of maps compiled for the World Atlas of Snow and Ice 

Resources (Kotlyakov, 1997).

1

Editors’ Note: This manuscript was originally written in 1981 to describe the glaciers of the Former 

Soviet Union in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the “benchmark” time period for the Satellite Image Atlas 

of Glaciers of the World, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386-A–K. Because there were delays 

in publishing, the authors and editors updated this manuscript by adding references to more recent work 

while still retaining the original benchmark information. In  addition, three supplemental sections were 

added to give a fuller description of more recent glaciological work — “Fluctuations of Glaciers of the 

Central Caucasus and Gora (Mount) El’brus with a section on the Glaciological Disaster in North Osetiya,” 

“Investigations of the Fluctuations of Surge-type Glaciers in the Pamirs Based on Observations from Space,” 

and “The Glaciology of the Russian High Arctic from Landsat Imagery.”

 2Institute of Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Staromonetny 29, Moscow, Russia.
F2 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The Glacier Inventory of the USSR was published between 1965 and 

1983 as a series of publications that comprise 108 issues. The  Inventory 

provides quantitative information on all of the main characteristics of 

glaciers — dimensions, shape, position, and regime. These data were obtained 

from interpretation of aerial photographs and cartographic materials, sometimes supplemented by field and aerial studies of the glaciers. In  some cases, 

the Inventory has made it possible to correctly interpret space images; and in 

some areas such as the Altay, interpretations using the Soviet space images have 

provided additional data to the Glacier Inventory.

According to the Glacier Inventory of the USSR, glaciers are situated 

in 26 regions of the Former Soviet Union (fig. 1). In  addition to the glacierized regions shown on the index map (fig. 1), isolated glaciers and perennial 

snow patches are situated in the Kharaulakhskiy3 Khrebet (Mountains) to the 

north of the Khrebet Orulgan, and on the Khrebet Pekul’ney (Range) on the 

Chukotka peninsula north of the Koryakskoye Nagor’ye (Highland). [Recent 

work includes Sedov (1997a, b) and Dolgushin and Osipova (1989).]

Based on the data in the Glacier Inventory of the Former Soviet Union, 

glaciers had an area of 78,938  km2, of which 56,894  km2 is in the Arctic and 

22,044  km2 is in mountain regions. The  total number of individual glaciers 

is 28,881, of which 1,983 are in the Arctic and 24,898 are in the mountains. 

Table 1 lists the number of glaciers and the total glacierized area for each of the 

26 glacierized regions of the Former Soviet Union.

The Former Soviet Union had previously established its own morphological classification of glaciers, which was standardized with due regard to 

the inventorying of glaciers. The  Guide for the Compilation of the Glacier 

Inventory of the USSR (USSR Academy of Sciences, 1966) distinguishes 20 

morphological types of mountain glaciers and 7 types of ice caps/ice fields/

ice sheets. Figure 2 shows examples of the 11 major morphological types of 

mountain glaciers described in the Former Soviet Union. They are shown on 

the maps of glacier morphology contained in this chapter. The colors assigned 

to each glacier type are consistent on all of the maps.

Discussion of Glaciers by Region

Glaciers within seven of the major regions of the Former Soviet Union 

are discussed in this section. These regions include the Caucasus, the Pamirs 

and surrounding ranges, Tien Shan, Altay, the Ural Mountains, Kamchatka, 

and the Russian Arctic. Within the Tien Shan, the Piks Pobedy, Khan-Tengri, 

and Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak areas are discussed in more detail. After the Ural 

Mountain region, the Byrranga Mountains and Northeast Siberia are discussed. 

And within the Russian Arctic, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, and 

Novaya Zemlya are described in more detail.

3

Official geographic place-names for foreign countries are required to be used in U.S. Government 

publications to the greatest extent possible. In  this section, the use of geographic place-names is based on 

the U.S. Board on Geographic Names (BGN) as listed on the GEOnet Names Server (GNS) website: http://

earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/index.html. The  website lists some conventional names and those will be used 

when available, for example Caucasus, Franz Josef Land, and Kara Sea. All other names will be the Russian 

names introduced by or with the English equivalent in parenthesis if needed for understanding. Names not 

listed in the BGN website will be shown in italics. Commonly used Russian generic terms are lednik, ledniki 

(glacier, glaciers); khrebet (mountain range); Gora, Gory (mount, mountains); pik, piks (peak, peaks); 

ozera (lake); poluostrov (peninsula); proliv (strait); and ostrov (island).
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F3

40°

40°

20° 40° 60° 80°100° 120° 140° 160° 180°

60°

60° 80° 100° 120°

Gora

Khibiny

Novaya Zemlya

Ostrov

Viktoriya Franz Josef Land

Ostrov Ushakova

Severnaya

Zemlya Koryakskoye

Nagor’ye

Ostrova De-Longa

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Wrangel

Island

1

Khrebet

Cherskogo

3

Kamchatka

3

Khrebet Suntar-Khayata

Khrebet

Orulgan

1

3

Gory Byrranga

Plato Putorana

1

Urals 1

Main Caucasus

22

1 Lesser Caucasus

Khrebet

Kodar

1

Sayan Mountains

3 1

Kuznetskiy Alatau

Pamirs + Alayskiy Khrebet

24

Tien Shan

22

1

4

Zhongghar

Alatau Zhotasy

Sauyr Zhotasy

Altay

8

1,000 - 5,000 > 10,000

500 - 1,000

5,000 - 10,000

< 100 100 - 500

GLACIERIZED AREAS OF EACH REGION, IN KILOMETERS2

EXPLANATION

Figure 1.—Glacierized regions of the Former Soviet Union according to the Glacier Inventory of the USSR. The number 

near the symbol for each region denotes the section of the Glacier Inventory that describes that region.

Table 1.—Data on the glaciers of the Former Soviet Union 

[Data source: USSR Academy of Sciences (1965–1983). Unit: km2, square kilometer]

Glacierized area

Number 

of 

glaciers

Total 

area of 

glacierization (km2

)

Date 

of area 

calculation

Glacierized area

Number 

of 

glaciers

Total 

area of 

glacierization (km2

)

Date 

of area 

calculation

ICE CAPS AND ASSOCIATED OUTLET GLACIERS MOUNTAIN GLACIERS (Continued)

Novaya Zemlya 685 24,413 1960–80 Kamchatka 405 874.1 1960–80

Severnaya Zemlya 285 18,325 1960–80 Koryakskoye Nagor’ye (upland) 1,302 240.6 1960–80

Franz Josef Land (Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa) 995 13,738.8 1960–80 Khrebet Suntar-Khayata 208 201.6 1960–80

Ostrov Ushakova (Ushakov Island) 2 325.4 1960–80 Khrebet Cherskogo 372 156.2 1960–80

Ostrova De-longa (De Long Islands) 15 80.6 1960–80 Gory Byrranga 96 30.5 1960–80

Ostrov Viktoriya (Victoria Island) 1 10.7 1960–80 Sayany 105 30.3 1960–80

 Total 1,983 56,893.5 1960–80 Ural Mountains 143 28.7 1960–80

MOUNTAIN GLACIERS

Kodar 30 18.8 1960–80

Orulgan 74 18.4 1960–80

Qatorkŭhi Hisor/Hisor Tizmasi and 

 Alayskiy Khrebet

3,893 2,335.8 1960–80 Saūyr

Kuznetskiy Alatau

18

91

16.6

6.8

1960–80

1960–80

Pamirs 6,730 7,493.4 1960–80 Lesser Caucasus 42 3.8 1960–80

Subtotal 10,623 9,829.2 1960–80 Wrangel Island (Ostrov Vrangelya) 101 3.5 1960–80

Tien Shan 6,347 7,251.7 1960–80 Plato Putorana 22 2.5 1960–80

Main Caucasus 2,047 1,424.4 1960–80 Khibiny 4 0.1 1960–80

Zhongghar Alatau-Zhostasy 1,369 1,000 1960–80 Grand Total 24,898 22,044.3 1960–80 Altay 1,499 906.5 1960–80
F4 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Caucasus (in Russia and the Republic of Georgia) 

The Caucasus mountain system consists of two major mountain ranges: 

the southern Lesser Caucasus, and the northern Greater, or Main, Caucasus. 

Precipitation in the Lesser Caucasus is much lower, and glaciers are concentrated in the Main Caucasus, which is the subject of this section and referred 

to herein as the Caucasus. The study of glaciers in the Caucasus began in the 

first quarter of the 18th century. The first data on glaciers can be found in the 

works of Vakhushti Bagrationes (1997). In the middle and the second half of 

the 19th century, studies of glaciers were carried out together with geological 

investigations, geographical travels, mountaineering, and topographic studies. 

At the beginning of the 20th century, active glaciological investigations of the 

Caucasus were undertaken by the Russian Geographical Society.

The compilation of the first reliable map of the Caucasus, at a scale 

of 1:420,000 and depicting the largest glaciers, was completed by 1862. 

Topographic surveys of the Caucasus at a scale of 1:42,000 were accomplished 

30 years later. Having analyzed these maps, K.I. Podozerskiy (1911) published 

the first inventory of Caucasus glaciers, compiling data on the lengths and areas 

of all of the glaciers.

In 1911, the German explorer H. Burmester (1913) performed the 

first phototheodolite surveys of the Bol’shoy Azau and Shkelda Glaciers. 

Tachymetric surveys of the termini of many glaciers were undertaken in 

1932 during the Second International Polar Year (IPY, 1932-1933) (Russia, 

Committee of the Second International Polar Year, 1936b). Aerial photographs 

acquired during the 1940s and topographic maps compiled and published 

during the 1950s provided the basis for more modern studies and inventories 

of glaciers.

During the International Geophysical Year (IGY) (1957–1959) and for 

the next ten years, the glaciers of the Caucasus were studied during expeditions 

by Kharkov University (Kharkov University, 1960–1961), Moscow University 

(Tushinskiy, 1968), Institutes of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences 

(Various authors, 1964) and Georgian Academy of Sciences. Repeated aerial 

photography and phototheodolite surveys of some glacier areas were also 

undertaken. The  comprehensive surveys performed by Moscow University 

in the El’brus area resulted in the compilation of the Atlas of El’brus Glaciers 

(Various authors, 1967).

Hanging Niche Slope

Cirque

(corrie)

Cirque-valley

(corrie-valley)

Hollow basin Simple-valley Compoundvalley Dendritic

Flat summit

Conic summit

glacier

Figure 2.—Morphological types of 

mountain glaciers adopted for the 

Glacier Inventory of the USSR and 

used in this chapter.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F5

Comprehensive Caucasus studies used to compile the Glacier Inventory 

of the USSR, as well as water, ice, and heat-balance studies, were carried out in 

the representative Marukhskiy, Dzhankuat, and Gergetskiy glacier basins under 

the International Hydrological Decade (IHD) program from 1965 to 1974 

(Golubev and others, 1978; Krenke and others, 1988; Panov, 1993). Results 

of these studies provided the basis for the Caucasus maps in the World Atlas 

of Snow and Ice Resources (Kotlyakov, 1997). Cartographic sources, aerial 

photographs, and space images were used to compile later maps of the glaciers 

of the Caucasus (Dolgushin and Osipova (1989)). Figure 3 is an example.

The glacierized area of the Caucasus extends for about 1,000  km from 

the northwest to the southeast. It is traditionally subdivided into three main 

regions: Western, Central, and Eastern Caucasus. The  Western Caucasus 

region lies generally between the Black Sea and Mount El’brus, the Central 

Caucasus region, between Mount El’brus and Mount Kazbek, and the Eastern 

Caucasus region, between Mount Kazbek and the Caspian Sea. The northern 

and southern slopes are also considered separately. The distribution of glaciers 

in these areas is shown in table 2.

The Caucasus contains two large glacier complexes — one includes 23 

glaciers on Gora (Mount) El’brus, at the west end of the Central Caucasus 

region, and the other includes 14 glaciers on Gora Kazbek, at the eastern end of 

the Central Caucasus region. Additionally, there are 11 valley and compound 

valley glaciers, each with an area of more than 10 km2 (table 3). However, small 

glaciers with areas less than or equal to 1 km2 prevail in the Caucasus (table 4). 

The number of these small glaciers is 85 percent of the total number of glaciers, 

but the area covered by them is 29 percent of the total area of glacierization. 

More than 60 percent of glaciers (57 percent of the glacierized area) have a 

northern exposure: northwest, north, or northeast (see fig. 3). However, the 

glaciers facing south are, in general, 1.5 times larger than the glaciers that have a 

northern exposure (Vinogradov and others, 1976).

Most of the morphological types of glaciers can be found in the Caucasus. 

Compound-valley glaciers and two glacier complexes on conic summits spread 

along the main ridge of the Central Caucasus, and the extent of glacierization 

in that area is more than 50 percent. Valley glaciers are situated at the edges 

of compound-valley glaciers. Cirque glaciers occur most frequently on the 

0 10 20 30 PERCENT

N

S

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 KILOMETERS

42°E

43°N

43°N

42°E

N

W E

S

ORIENTATION OF TOTAL GLACIER

AREA–In percent

ORIENTATION OF TOTAL NUMBER

OF GLACIERS–In percent

EXPLANATION

Chegem River

Ardon River

Uruk h R.

Baksan River

Enguri River

Te e berda Riv r

Aksaut R r ive

Kodori R.

Figure 3.—Map of the glacierization of a large 

portion of the Caucasus region, compiled for the 

World Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources. The distribution pattern of the area (1) and number (2) of 

glaciers is also shown.

Table 2.—Distribution of glaciers in the 

main regions of the Caucasus

[Unit: km2, square kilometer]

Region of 

glacierization

Number of 

glaciers

Total area

(km2)

Western Caucasus 565 277.7

Central Caucasus 1,110 1,033.3

Eastern Caucasus 372 113.4

 Total 2,047 1,424.4

Northern Slope 1,471 992.4

Southern Slope 576 432.0

 Total 2,047 1,424.4
F6 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Western Caucasus and on the northern slope of the Central Caucasus. Hanging 

glaciers are found everywhere, but they are most numerous in the Central 

Caucasus. Table 5 summarizes data on the distribution of the main morphological types of glaciers in the Caucasus. In the table, the category of valley glaciers 

also includes cirque-valley glaciers; the category of cirque glaciers incorporates 

hanging cirque glaciers, and the category of hanging glaciers also includes 

spill-over glaciers, glaciers lying near the crest, and niche glaciers. Table  5 

only contains data on glaciers whose area is ≥0.1 km2; the number of glaciers 

included in glacier complexes is shown in parenthesis.

Morphological characteristics of certain glacierized areas of the Caucasus 

are well depicted on Landsat images. The image of the Western Caucasus and 

Mount El’brus (fig. 4A) shows the spectacularly scattered and dispersed nature 

of the glacierization, with prevailing cirque and cirque-valley glaciers extending 

along and abutting the mountain crests. The relationship between morphological types of glaciers of this area is well represented on the map of the same area 

compiled for the World Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources (fig. 4B).

Table 3.—Glacier complexes and large glaciers of the Caucasus

[Abbreviations: km, kilometer; m, meter; AP, aerial photography; SI, surface investigation]

Glacier name Name of the 

river basin

Area

(km2)

Length

(km)

Elevation

of the tongues 

(m)

Elevation 

of the firn line

(m)

Firn line observations

Methodology Dates

Gora El’brus glacier complex Kuban’ Malka, 

Baksan

122.6 — 2,480–3,697 3,550–4,000 AP 22 Aug 1957

The glacier complex of Gora Kazbek Terek, Gizel’don 64.8 — 2,260–3,450 3,260–3,720 AP 1960–1965

Bezengi Cherek 36.2 17.6 2,080 3,400–3,750 AP 15 Aug 1957

Dykh-Su Cherek 34.0 13.3 2,070 2,900–3.750 AP 16 Sep 1957

Lekziry Enguri 33.7 11.8 2,020 3,090 SI 3 Sep 1959

Tsaneri Enguri 28.8 10.1 2,390 3,190 SI 25 Aug 1960

Karaugom Urukh 26.6 13.3 1,830 3,440 AP 15 Sep 1957

Tviberi Enguri 20.1 5.8 2,200 3,150 SI 15 Aug 1960

Agashtan Cherek 15.9 9.8 2,250 3,140–3,380 AP 10 Sep 1957

Kvitlodi Enguri 11.9 7.8 2,320 3,160 SI 30 Aug 1960

Chalaati Enguri 11.3 7.3 1,850 2,980 SI 5 Sep 1959

Khalde Enguri 11.0 8.4 2,450 3,440 SI 2 Sep 1962

Shaurtu Chegem 10.1 9.1 2,220 3,220 AP 15 Aug 1957

Table 4.—The distribution of glaciers and glacier complexes in the Caucasus 

based on their area

[Unit: km2, square kilometer]

Dimensions of glaciers and 

glacier complexes Number of glaciers Total area(km2)

Largest (>100 km2) 1 complex (El’brus) 122.6

Large (10.1–100 km2) 1 complex (Kazbek); 11 other 

glaciers listed in table 3

304.4

Middle-sized (1.1–10.0 km2) 250 581.9

Small (≤1 km2) 1,749 415.5
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F7

Figure 4.— A, Part of an enlarged Landsat 2 MSS image taken on 9 July 1976. B, Map of the 

morphological types of glaciers of the same part of the Western Caucasus, including Gora El’brus. 

Landsat 2 MSS image 2185030007619190, Path 185–Row 30 is from the U.S. Geological Survey, 

EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.

Table 5.—The distribution of glaciers of the Caucasus according to morphological types

[Values in parenthesis indicate number of individual glaciers. Abbreviations: N, number of glaciers; A, glacierized area, in square kilometers] 

Glacierized 

area

Glacier 

complexes on 

conic summits

Compoundvalley

Valley 

(includes 

cirque-valley)

Cirque (Corrie)

(includes 

hanging cirque)

Hanging 

(includes spillover and niche)

Flat summits’ 

glaciers Total

N A N A N A N A N A N A N A

Western Caucasus — — — — 61 121.6 338 135.6 53 13.7 — — 452 270.9

Central Caucasus 2 (37) 187.4 14 230.1 188 416.8 413 155.0 129 26.3 — — 781 1,015.6

Eastern Caucasus — — — — 33 39.5 182 55.1 64 12.4 2 1.8 281 108.8

Northern Slope 2 (37) 187.4 11 165.0 143 306.0 668 267.7 212 43.5 2 1.8 1,073 971.4

Southern Slope — — 3 65.1 139 271.9 265 78.0 34 8.9 — — 441 423.9

 Total Caucasus 2 (37) 187.4 14 230.1 282 577.9 933 345.7 246 52.4 2 1.8 1,514 1,395.3

N

S

42 ̊E

43 ̊15′ N

Kvemo

Omarishara

Gora El’brus

5642

Klukhorskiy 

Pass

Teberda

Aksaut

Kuban’

Lednik Shkhel’dy

Dombay

Teberda

Terskol

El’brus

Nakera Pass

Marukhskiy

Pass

Lednik 

Amanauzskiy

Lednik 

Marukhskiy

0 10 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

5

Scale is approximate

0 10 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

5

Scale is approximate

N

S

A

B

EXPLANATION

COMPOUND-VALLEY GLACIER

SIMPLE-VALLEY GLACIER

CIRQUE-VALLEY GLACIER 

CIRQUE GLACIER

HANGING GLACIER 

ICE APRON GLACIER

CONIC SUMMIT GLACIER 

CRESTS OF RANGES

N

S

42 ̊E

43 ̊15′ N

Kvemo

Omarishara

Gora El’brus

5642

Klukhorskiy 

Pass

Teberda

Aksaut

Kuban’

Lednik Shkhel’dy

Dombay

Teberda

Terskol

El’brus

Nakera Pass

Marukhskiy

Pass

Lednik 

Amanauzskiy

Lednik 

Marukhskiy

0 10 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

5

Scale is approximate

0 10 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

5

Scale is approximate

N

S

A

B

EXPLANATION

COMPOUND-VALLEY GLACIER

SIMPLE-VALLEY GLACIER

CIRQUE-VALLEY GLACIER 

CIRQUE GLACIER

HANGING GLACIER 

ICE APRON GLACIER

CONIC SUMMIT GLACIER 

CRESTS OF RANGES
F8 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

During the IHD, detailed studies were undertaken in the Western 

Caucasus, in the representative Marukh mountain-glacier basin (fig. 4). These 

studies resulted in a series of regime maps of the Marukh Glacier (Lednik 

Marukhskiy) (fig. 5), which served as a model for similar maps in the World 

Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources.

The Landsat image makes it possible to distinguish the star-like shape 

of the Gora El’brus glacierization (fig. 6) with its complex of conic summit 

glaciers. Despite the small scale of this image, the termini of 14 large glaciers 

can be recognized. The  glaciers can be seen in detail on the phototheodolite 

panoramas (photographic mosaic) of the northern (fig. 7A) and southern 

(fig. 7B) slopes of Gora El’brus.

Glacierization of the Central Caucasus has a fairly continuous nature, as 

can be seen on part of the Landsat image shown in figure 8A. It is well represented by the map of morphological types of glaciers, compiled for the World 

Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources (fig. 8B). Unlike the mostly debris-free 

glaciers of Western Caucasus, the Central Caucasus glaciers are characterized 

by well-developed moraines, which can be seen in space images on the surface 

of large valley glaciers.

N 

S 

0 0.5 1 MILE 

0 0.5 1 KILOMETER

A

Figure 5.—(above and continued at right) A, Aerial photograph of the Lednik Marukhskiy (see 

fig. 4 for location) taken on 15 September 1955, and B, a series of glaciological maps of this 

glacier based on detailed studies done during the IHD.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F9

N 

S 

0 0.5 1 MILE

0 0.5 1 KILOMETER

SURFACE 

TOPOGRAPHY

LINES EQUAL ELEVATION 

 ON ICE–In meters above sea level.

LINES OF EQUAL RUNOFF–In g/cm2

FIRN LINE

0 20 40 60 

INTERNAL FEEDING, IN g/cm2

>20

400 600

ABLATION, IN g/cm2

50 100 150 200 250 

5 10 15 20

ACCUMULATION, IN g/cm2

ICE-FORMATION ZONES

-30 -20 5

CONTINUOUS DEBRIS MANTLE

DISCONTINUOUS DEBRIS MANTLE

RUNOFF, IN g/cm2

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 >400 

-40 -15 -10 -5 0 10 15 20

MASS BALANCE OF GLACIER, IN g/cm2

SEASONAL SNOW LINE − And date

FIRN-ICE ZONE

ICE-ZONE

WARM-FIRN

ICE MOTION, IN cm/DAY

(Horizontal component of the velocity) CHANGE OF SURFACE HEIGHT 

FROM 1957 TO 1967, IN METERS

0

50 100 150 200 300

FLOW LINES

ISOTACHES–In centimeters per day

-400 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 

FIRN LINE

EXPLANATION

EXPLANATION

EXPLANATION

EXPLANATION

EXPLANATION

EXPLANATION

CREVASSES

LINES OF EQUAL GLACIER 

 THICKNESS–In meters

June 30

July 20

August 10

August 30

September 10

June 30

LINE OF EQUAL INTERNAL FEEDING–In 

 grams per square centimeter (g/cm2

)

B
F10 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

1 

2 3 4 

5 

6 

7 

N

S

Lednik Ullumalienderku 

Lednik Terskol

Lednik Garabashi 

Lednik Maliy Azau

4

5

6

7

EXPLANATION

Lednik Ulluchiran 

Lednik Karachaul 

Lednik Ullukol 

1

2

3

0 5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

A

B

1 2

3 4

5

6

7

7 Lednik Maliy Azau

EXPLANATION

Lednik Ulluchiran 

Lednik Karachaul 

1

2

Lednik Ullukol 

Lednik Ullumalienderku

3

4

Lednik Terskol

Lednik Garabashi

5

6
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F11

Figure 6.— (at left, top) Enlargement of part of a Landsat 2 MSS image taken on 9 July 1976, depicting the El’brus massif 

(lat 43°21′N., long 42°26′E.). Landsat 2 MSS 2185030007619190, Path 185–Row 30, is from the U.S. Geological Survey, 

EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.

Figure 7.— (at left, bottom) Panoramic photographic mosaic of the northern (A) and southern (B) slopes of Gora El’brus. 

Phototheodolite surveys were done by F.N. Nikulin in 1957 and A.V. Brukhanov in 1958, respectively. 

N

S

44 ̊E 

43 ̊N 

0 25 MILES

0 25 KILOMETERS

HANGING GLACIER 

CONIC SUMMIT

 GLACIER 

CRESTS OF RANGES

EXPLANATION

COMPOUND-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

SIMPLE-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

CIRQUE-VALLEY 

 GLACIER 

CIRQUE GLACIER

Terskol

El’brus

Bezengi

Sovetskoye

Lesken

Chicola

Lentekhi

Cikhareshi

Shovi

Mestia

Kholst

Verkhniy 

Zgid

Gora Kazbek

5033

Mamisonskiy

(pass)

Lednik Bezengi

Lednik 

Shkel’dy

Lednik Basil’

Lednik 

Dolra Lednik Lekzyr

Lednik Karaugom

Lednik 

Dykh-Su Enguri

Baksan

Urukh

Ardon

A

B

N

S

0 10 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

5

Scale is approximate

Figure 8.— (this page) A, Part of an enlargement of a Landsat 2 MSS image of the Central Caucasus, taken on 13 September 

1977. B, Map of the morphological types of glaciers of the Central Caucasus. Landsat 2 MSS image 2184030007725690, 

Path 184–Row 30, is from the U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
F12 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

43 ̊N 

43 ̊E September 13, 1977

N 

S 

0 10 MILES

0 10 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

43 ̊E 

43 ̊N 

July 9, 1976

The ability to identify glaciers on space images depends naturally on the 

season, residual snow pack, or new snow cover at the time of the surveys. For 

example, a comparison of two images of the same area of the Caucasus taken 

on 9  July 1976 and on 13  September 1977 (fig. 9), suggests that the latter 

image is not as useful for observing the glaciers because the upper parts of the 

ranges already had been covered with early autumn snowfalls.

The Kazbek massif in the eastern part of the Central Caucasus can be seen 

very well in figure 8. The surging Lednik Kolka is situated here, and a surge was 

observed in the winter of 1969/70. Continued investigations undertaken in 

this area by the Institute of Geography, the USSR Academy of Sciences, made 

it possible to compile the sketches shown in figures 10B and C. They indicated that the overloading of this glacier by debris was one of the main causes 

of its surge, which is clearly seen in the aerial photograph (fig. 10A) (see also 

companion section in this part of the chapter which provides a discussion of 

the 2002 surge of the Lednik Kolka).

Glacierization of the Eastern Caucasus has a disparate nature. Separate 

groups of glaciers are confined to the high parts of crests that have cirques. 

On the northern slopes of these ranges, small cirque glaciers are situated in the 

near-crest zone. One such area of glacierization situated on the Djul’tydag range

in the upper reaches of the Karakoysu river is seen in the part of the Landsat 

image shown in figure 11. This image, together with two other parts of Landsat 

images of the Western and Central Caucasus, testifies to the differences in the 

general nature of the mountain glaciers depicted on space images.

Figure 9.—Enlargements of the part of the Central Caucasus around Lednik Bezengi 

depicted on Landsat 2 MSS images taken on 9 July 1976 and 13 September 1977. Landsat 2 

MSS images 2185030007619190, 9 July 1976; Path 185–Row 30, and 2184030007725690, 

13 September 1977; Path 184–Row 30, are from the U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Data 

Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F13

Figure 10.— Illustrations of the surging Lednik Kolka (approximate lat 42°50′N., long 44°30′E.), Gora Kazbek: A, Aerial 

photograph, B, sketch map of the advance, and C, morphology of the glacier basin.

LEDNIK KOLKA 

LEDNIK MAILI

Kolka 

Genaldon 

1980 

2250 

2600 

3000

2,000 

2,500 

3,000 

4 3 2 1 0 

METERS 

KILOMETERS 

10° 13°

21° 9° 14°

7-9°

Lednik Kolka

PROFILE OF GLACIER’S ROUTE

ELEVATION–In meters above sea level

GLACIER BOUNDARIES−In a stationary position

BOUNDARIES OF AN ADVANCING GLACIER

HEAD OF GLACIAL MUD-FLOW−Which took place

 between September 28 and October 4, 1969.

October 22, 1969 

January 10, 1970 

October 4, 1969 

August 1969 

August 1967 

1959 

1940’s

EXPLANATION 

ICE DIVIDES

BOUNDARIES OF GLACIERS 

ELEVATION–In meters above sea level

INTER-RIDGE DEPRESSIONS

ROCK GLACIER

FLUVIOGLACIAL CONES

SCREE CONES AND TRAILS 

ROCKFALLS 

ROCKY CLIFFS 

ROCK 

SLOPES-Covered with thin stable ice 

 sinters with outcrops of rocks.

CRESTS OF MORAINIC RIDGES

DEPOSITS

DEBRIS ON GLACIERS-a-moraines; 

 b-continuous debris mantle; 

 c-discontinuous debris mantle 

WATER-COURSES ON GLACIERS:

 a-open; b-subglacial 

FIRN-ICE CLIFFS 

GLACIER CREVASSES 

GLACIER SURFACE-In the ablation zone. 

FIRN FIELDS ON GLACIERS 

THE FIRN LINE 

LEDNIK SHAU 

LEDNIK MIDAGRABIN 

LEDNIK KOLKA 

LEDNIK SAVITISI 

LEDNIK MAILI

4250 

3861 

3559 

4551 

Gora 4780 

Dzhimara

4159 

3947

3553 

2697 

3,000 

4,000 

4,000 

EXPLANATION

A B 

C 

N 

S 

3000

CRESTS OF RIDGES

0 50 100 150 METERS

0 100 200 300 400 500 FEET

3947
F14 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Pamirs, Alai (Alayskiy), and Gissar (Hisor) Ranges (in the 

Republics of Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan )

Studies of the glaciers of the Pamirs, located in eastern Tajikistan (fig. 1), 

were begun during the second half of the 19th century and were initially 

connected with the names of well-known geographers, geologists, and botanists: A.P. and B.A. Fedchenko, I.V. Mushketov, V.F. Oshanin, G.E. GrumGrzhimailo, and V.I. Lipskiy. The  first systematic data on the glaciers of the 

Pamirs were obtained by N.L. Korzhenevskii, who began studying these 

glaciers in 1903, and in 1930, published the first inventory of Central Asian 

glaciers (Korzhenevskii, 1930).

Field studies conducted during the Soviet-German expedition of 1928 

and later during the Tajik-Pamirian expedition of the USSR Academy of 

Sciences (1929-1932) resulted in the compilation of a topographic map of 

the alpine area of the Central Pamirs, a region previously unknown. The expeditions also resulted in the discovery of the highest peak (7,495 m) in the 

USSR — Communism Peak (Pik Kommunizma, now named Pik Imeni Ismail 

Samani) and the describing of numerous glaciers on many Pamirian ranges.

During the Second International Polar Year (1932–1933), the primary 

glaciological studies were concentrated around the area of Fedchenko Glacier 

(Lednik Fedchenko). Here, at an elevation of 4,200 m a.s.l., an observatory 

was constructed and repeated phototheodolite surveys of the Tanymas group 

of glaciers and Lednik Fedchenko were carried out (Russia, Committee of the 

Second International Polar Year, 1936a).

47 ̊E 

42 ̊N 

N 

S 

0 25 MILES

0 25 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

Figure 11.—Part of the 

Eastern Caucasus with the

Djul’tydag range depicted 

on a Landsat 2 MSS image 

taken on 28 August 1976. 

The Landsat 2 MSS image 

2 1 8 1 0 3 1 0 0 7 6 2 4 1 9 0 , 

Path 181–Row 31, is from 

the U.S. Geological Survey, 

EROS Data Center, Sioux 

Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F15

During the post-World War II years, complete aerial photography of the 

area was acquired, and compilation of a large-scale topographic map was 

completed. Using these data, R.D. Zabirov compiled an inventory of glaciers of 

the Pamirs and published it as a monograph (Zabirov, 1955). This inventory 

lists 1,085 glaciers that were each more than 1.5 km in length, covering a total 

area of about 8,041 km2.

Since 1962, the Institute of Geography, the USSR Academy of Sciences 

(now the Russian Academy of Sciences) has been responsible for investigations 

of Pamirian glaciers. From 1968 to 1978, the Institute carried out a series of 

comprehensive field studies connected to the inventorying of glaciers. The new 

glacier inventory of the Pamirs and the Alai Range (Alayskiy Khrebet) was 

compiled on the basis of interpretation of aerial photographs complemented by 

analysis of space images. 

Glaciers are located on nearly all of the Pamirian ranges and occupy 

more than 10 percent of the total surface area at higher elevations. Their sizes 

are varied — from scattered small glaciers to large glacier complexes. Table 6 

contains a list of the largest glaciers of the Pamirs and the Alayskiy Khrebet; 

table 7 presents their distribution based on size. Medium-sized glaciers (more 

than 1 km2 but less than 10 km2) are most common, but large glaciers (more 

than 10 km2 but less than 100 km2) are also numerous, a fact that differentiates 

this area from the glacierization of the Caucasus.

Table 6.—Largest glaciers of the Pamirs and the Gissar (Hisor) and Alai (Alayskiy Khrebet) Ranges

[Units: km, kilometer; m, meter]

Glacier name River basin Area

(km2)

Length

(km)

Elevation of 

the tongue

(m)

Elevation of 

the firn line

(m)

Fedchenko Muksu 651.7 77.0 2,910 4,700

Grumm-Grzhemaylo Bartang 142.9 37.0 3,610 5,080

Zeravshanskiy Zeravshan 132.6 27.8 2,810 4,000

Garmo Obikhingob 114.6 30.4 2,970 4,900

Oktyabr’skiye Karakul’ 88.2 19.0 4,440 5,200

Korzhenevskogo Kyzylsu 73.0 21.5 3,890 5,100

Geograficheskogo Obshchestva Vanj 64.4 24.2 2,580 4,200

Fortambek Muksu 57.3 27.2 2,850 4,170

Lenina Kyzylsu 55.3 13.5 3,760 4,500

Severniy Tanymas Bartang 55.0 18.0 3,790 4,900

Nura Kyzylsu Vostochnaya 54.2 13.8 3,520 4,550

Preobrazhenskogo-Rama Zeravshan 54.0 12.8 2,960 4,080

Bol’shoya Sauk-Dara Muksu 53.0 20.6 4,240 5,470

Uisu Markansu 49.9 13.8 4,390 5,200

 Table 7.—Distribution of glaciers based on their area

[Abbreviations: km2, square kilometer; N, number of glaciers; A, area of glaciers, in square kilometers]

Glaciers

Small

≤1 km2

Medium

≤10 km2

Large

≤100 km2

Largest

>100 km2 Totals

N A N A N A N A N A

Pamirs 5,488 1,559.6 1,151 2,988.5 88 2,036.1 3 909.2 6,730 7,493.4

Qatorkŭhi Hisor/ Hisor Tizmasi 

and Alayskiy Khrebet

3,449 945.6 431 1,008.5 12 249.1 1 132.6 3,893 2,335.8

 Total 8,937 2,505.2 1,582 3,997.0 100 2,285.2 4 1,041.8 10,623 9,829.2
F16 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The nature of the Pamirian glacierization changes from west to east and 

is also affected by elevation. Scattered cirque and small valley glaciers prevail 

in the western part of the mountains. They are gradually replaced eastward by 

larger valley, compound-valley, and lastly, dendritic glaciers. A  Landsat image 

(fig. 12) demonstrates well the narrow valleys, surrounded by sharp crests, 

where valley glaciers occur. Compound-valley glaciers are situated in the upper 

heads of the valleys, and many of the glaciers’ tongues have thick mantles of 

debris (fig. 13).

EXPLANATION

N

S

W E

N

S

W E

ORIENTATION OF

TOTAL GLACIER AREA 

In percent

ORIENTATION OF

TOTAL NUMBER

OF GLACIERS 

In percent PERCENT

0 10 20 30 40

PERCENT

0 10 20 30 40

39 ̊ 00 ́ N

N

S

72 ̊ 30 ́E

38 ̊ 30 ́ N

72 ̊ 00 ́E

39 ̊ 30 ́ N

39 ̊ 00 ́ N

38 ̊ 30 ́ N

39 ̊ 30 ́ N

72 ̊ 00 ́E

72 ̊ 30 ́E

0 10 MILES

0 10 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

Figure 12.—Landsat 2 MSS image of the Central Pamirs acquired on 28 September 1977 and the distribution pattern of the 

area (in blue) and number (in red) of glaciers related to glacier orientation in the Hisor and Alayskiy Ranges (left) and the 

Pamirs. Landsat 2 MSS image 2980-04445 (band 6), Path 163–Row 33, is from the U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Data 

Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198. 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F17

In the Central Pamirs, compound glacier complexes consisting of 

adjoining compound-valley and dendritic glaciers are present. The  largest is 

the Lednik Fedchenko complex. It has 26 tributaries and is illustrated in the 

enlarged part of a Landsat image (fig. 14A) and on the map prepared for the 

World Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources (fig. 14B). Within the area of the satellite image presented in figure 14A, the extent of glacierization in different areas 

is very large — from 60 to 85 percent.

The Zaalayskiy Khrebet lies in northeastern Tajikistan on the border with 

Kyrgyzstan, in the northern portion of the Pamirs. Glacierization of the central 

part of the Zaalayskiy Khrebet (Qatorkŭhi Pasi Oloy (in Tajikistan)) or Chong 

Alay Kyrka Toosu (in Kyrgyzstan), is similar in nature. The similarity in glacierization can be seen in figure 15, where large compound-valley glaciers flow 

from the second highest summit of the Pamirs, Lenin Peak (Pik Lenina).

However, in some areas, the typical glacierization of the Eastern Pamirs is 

quite different from that of the Central Pamirs. Eighty percent of the Eastern 

Pamirs (both numerically and in area) is occupied by small valley glaciers, and 

especially niche glaciers, which were first identified here. They cover the wide 

and gently sloping mountains with a relatively thin layer (some tens of meters) 

of glacier ice (fig. 15); the ice surface is debris free (fig. 16). In  general, East 

Pamirian glacierization has a scattered nature; individual groups of glaciers are 

separated by dozens of kilometers.

Figure 13.—The Lednik Bivachnyy 

surging glacier, tributary of Lednik 

Fedchenko with loops of medial 

moraines.
F18 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The good quality early Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the Pamirs that 

are cloud-free in glacier areas, have minimal snow cover, and have a pixel resolution of 80 m, make it possible to easily interpret the boundaries of Pamirian 

glaciers that have an area >1  km2. Big valley, compound-valley, and dendritic 

glaciers depicted on space images convey a great deal of information. Upper 

boundaries of such glaciers can be well delineated when they are surrounded 

by rock. Debris mantle of varying compactness is clearly seen on the surface of 

glacier tongues, and the linear outlines of medial moraines are highly visible, 

making it possible to determine the tributaries of compound-valley glaciers and 

their relative importance. The most informative images are those taken at the 

beginning of September for the Western and Central Pamirs and those taken at 

the end of August for the Eastern Pamirs.

The Pamirs is a classic area of surge-type glaciers, similar to Alaska (Post, 

1969). About 100 surge-type glaciers are known in the Pamirs, and many 

of them are easily identified on space images. This work was pioneered by 

R. Krimmel of the U.S. Geological Survey on the basis of Landsat imagery 

(Krimmel and others, 1976; Krimmel, 1978), and, soon thereafter, interpretation of Soviet space images made it possible to detect a number of glaciers at 

different stages of a surge cycle (Desinov and others, 1978). The  diagnostic 

features of surge-type glaciers — looped medial moraines (fig. 13), active 

crevassing of the surface, the reduction of surface albedo, and rapid advance of 

39 ̊ N 

39 ̊ N 

EXPLANATION

72 ̊15' E 

N 

S 

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

0 5 10 MILES

DENDRITIC GLACIER

COMPOUND-VALLEY GLACIER

SIMPLE-VALLEY GLACIER

CIRQUE GLACIER

HANGING GLACIER

SLOPE GLACIER

72 ̊15' E

Scale is approximate

A B

Figure 14.—A, Enlargement of part of the Landsat image (fig. 12), showing the Lednik Fedchenko basin; and B, the sketch 

map showing the distribution pattern of morphological types of glaciers in this area.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F19

a large volume of ice beyond the previous position of the terminus (figs. 17 and 

18) — permit one to reliably detect surge-type glaciers on space images and 

to survey them from space. The Salyut–6 astronauts made such observations, 

which permitted them not only to identify a number of new surge-type glaciers 

in the Pamirs, but also to predict the beginning of their next surge.

Very interesting results were obtained by observing a group of glaciers in 

the upper reaches of the Saukdara river on the southern slope of Qatorkŭhi Pasi 

Oloy (fig. 17A), where three large glaciers — Valy, Dzerzhinskogo, and Maliy 

Saukdara — advanced abruptly from 1973 to 1977 (fig. 17B). The  advance 

was first seen in 1973 on Ledniki Dzerzhinskogo and Maliy Saukdara. Their 

surges stopped in 1976 and 1975, respectively. Lednik Valy started advancing in 

1975 and continued into 1977. Changes in the positions of these glaciers were 

clearly visible on Landsat images taken in July 1973 and in September 1977, 

and on some Soviet space images taken annually of this area.

N 

S 

0 25 MILES

0 25 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

A B

Koksai

Pik Lenina

7134

Karadzhilga

Ak-Dzhilga

EXPLANATION

DENDRITIC GLACIER

COMPOUND-VALLEY GLACIER

SIMPLE-VALLEY GLACIER

CIRQUE GLACIER

HANGING GLACIER

MORAINE MATERIAL

SNOW AND FIRN

Qarokul

(lake)

3914

Figure 15.—A, Enlargement of part of the Landsat image of 28 September 1977 (fig. 12) showing the eastern part 

of Zaalayskiy Khrebet (at the top) (Qatorkŭhi Pasi Oloy) and part of the Eastern Pamirs (at the bottom). B, Sketch 

map showing the pattern of morphological types of glaciers in this region.
F20 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Figure 16.—Debris-free slope glaciers of the Eastern Pamirs.

5. May 1976

6. August 1976

7. February 1977

1. 1972

2. 1973

3. 1974

4. 1975

DATES OF SURGES

EXPLANATION

N

S

Lednik Valy 

Lednik Dzerzwinskogo 

Lednik Maliy Saukdara 

A

0 5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

B

Figure 17.—A, Enlargement of part of the Landsat image (fig. 12), showing the upper reaches of the Saukdara river 

(lat ~39°20′N., long 72°50′E.); and B, A sketch map of surges of the Saukdara group of glaciers from 1973 to 1977.

The Gissar Range lies northwest of the Pamirs, in the northwest portion 

of Tajikistan (there called Qatorkŭhi Hisor) and in southeastern Uzbekistan 

(there called Hisor Tizmasi). This mountain range has very few glaciers, and 

will not be discussed further in this chapter. 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F21

The Alai Range (Alayskiy Khrebet) lies to the north of the Pamirs, mainly 

in southern Kyrgyzstan. On the Alayskiy Khrebet, cirque and cirque-valley 

glaciers with areas of 1 to 3  km2 prevail in the mountains; and the upper 

reaches of big valleys contain valley and compound-valley glaciers 5 to 10 km 

in length with areas of 10 to 15  km2. Among them is the Abramov Glacier, 

situated in a representative mountain glacier basin, where detailed glaciological observations were initiated during the IHD. Glacier tongues are debrismantled for one third of their area, which hampers the delineation of their 

boundaries.

For the interpretation of glaciers in the Alayskiy Khrebet, high resolution 

(20–30 m) multispectral photographs were taken from the Soyuz-22 spacecraft on 18  September 1976 and analyzed (Kravtsova and Chaikina, 1980). 

Figure 19 is one of these photographs, showing the western part of the Alayskiy 

Khrebet. For comparison, Landsat images of the same region, obtained on 

10  September 1972 and on 12  July 1973, were also studied. By analyzing 

these images in several spectral bands, it was possible to draw the boundaries 

of glacier tongues and firn basins, distinguish snow-and-firn covered areas 

of glaciers from the bare ice surface, map medial moraines on the glaciers 

and terminal and lateral moraines in the glacier valleys, and to see the largest 

icefalls. Morphological types of glaciers were determined, and a map was 

compiled for the World Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources. Figure 20 shows 

the map of the same area photographed in figure 19. From the space photograph taken from the Soyuz-22 spacecraft, it became possible to detect and 

map approximately four times more glaciers than are shown on conventional 

topographic maps of this region (fig. 20A, B).

Lednik Valy 

Figure 18.—Photograph taken August 1976 of the rapid advance of ice of Lednik Valy caused by its surge.
F22 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Based on these studies in regions of wide-spread glacierization, space 

images can serve as a reliable source of information for (1) identification of 

glaciers that have an area larger than 1 km2, and for (2) detection of surge-type 

glaciers. Multispectral images may also reveal morphological features of certain 

types of glaciers.

Tien Shan (in the Republics of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan)

The Tien Shan trends west to east for nearly 2,500 km, 1,200 km of which 

lies in the Republics of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan (both Soviet Socialist 

Republics within the Former Soviet Union). The  orographic features of the 

Tien Shan make it possible to subdivide the range into 4 parts: Northern, 

Western, Central, and Eastern. The  Eastern part is within China (see the 

Glaciers of China portion of this chapter). Distribution of glaciers within 

the Former Soviet Tien Shan is shown in table  8; it was compiled from data 

in the Glacier Inventory of the USSR and used in the World Atlas of Snow 

and Ice Resources. Glacierization of the Central Tien Shan is discussed 

here with special reference to the two glacier groups, Piks Pobedy and KhanTengri (Khan Tägiri in Kazakhstan, Kan-Too in Kyrgystan), and also Khrebet 

Ak-shyyrak, because these regions are covered by good Landsat images. 

39 ̊30' N 

71 ̊ E 

71 ̊ E 

39 ̊30' N

N 

S 

0 25 MILES

0 25 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

Figure 19.—Part of the photograph taken by a cosmonaut on the Soyuz-22 spacecraft, showing the western part 

of the Khrebet Alayskiy on 18 September 1976. 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F23

39 ̊30’ N

Kyzylsu

Daroot-Korgon

A B

39 ̊30’ N

71 ̊00’ E

71 ̊00’ E

Lednik Oshanina

Muksu

Kara-Myk

Jayilgan

4,627

Surkhob

Lednik Ihagazy

Lednik Fortambek

Lednik Byrs

Lednik 

Khadyrsha

Lednik 

Garmo

Lednik 

Sugran

Lednik Kyzylsu

5,900

5,127

5,259 Lednik

Abramov

Led. Ishtansaldy

Lednik 

Yamdykul’ Lednik Archabashi

Sokh

COMPOUND-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

SIMPLE-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

HOLLOW BASIN 

 GLACIER 

CRESTS OF RANGES

ELEVATION

EXPLANATION

CIRQUE-VALLEY 

 GLACIER 

CIRQUE GLACIER 

SLOPE GLACIER

RIVERS AND STREAMS

4,627 DIRECTION OF FLOW

N

S

Figure 20.—Morphological types of glaciers in the 

western part of Khrebet Alayskiy delineated from space 

photographs and images. The inset maps: A, the 

glaciers of this part of the Khrebet Alayskiy shown on a 

topographic map; and B, the four times greater number 

on the map compiled from space images.

Table 8.—Distribution of Tien Shan glaciers in various river or lake basins

[Data from Vinogradov and others (1980). Unit: km2, square kilometer]

Name of river or lake basin Number of 

glaciers

Glazierized area 

(km2)

Average area of 

individual glaciers

(km2)

Syr Darya 2,441 1,658.0 0.7

Assa 48 42.0 0.9

Talas 162 117.3 0.7

Chu 790 722.9 0.9

Ili 583 751.6 1.3

Ozero Issyk-Kul’ (Lake) 631 636.4 1.0

Ozero Chatyr-Kël’ (Lake) 3 2.8 0.9

Taushkan Darya 372 674.7 1.8

Aksu 1,317 2,646.0 2.0

Total Tien Shan 6,347 7,251.7 1.14
F24 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

[Recent work includes Dyurgerov and others, 1995; Kuzmichenok and 

Chaohai, 1995; Vilesov and Uvarov, 2001; Solomina and others, 2004; Aizen 

and others, 2006, 2007; Kotlyakov, 2006; Narama and others, 2006; Aizen and 

Kuzmichenok, 2007; and Bolch, 2007.]

Piks Pobedy and Khan-Tengri in Central Tien Shan

The largest glacier complex in the Tien Shan is situated in the area of Piks 

Pobedy and Khan-Tengri. P.P. Semenov was the first scientist to travel there in 

1856 to 1857 (Semenov, 1858), and he discovered the large glaciers. The first 

glaciological map of this region was compiled by G. Merzbacher (1905) in the 

1900s. During the Second International Polar Year, a glaciological expedition 

headed by S.V. Kalesnik worked in the Central Tien Shan (Kalesnik, 1937). 

From 1929 to 1934, a topographical survey of this region was undertaken and 

surveys of the largest Tien Shan glaciers were carried out. During the course of 

topographical surveys from 1941 to 1943, the highest summit of the Tien Shan, 

Pik Pobedy was discovered. Subsequent aerial photography of the Tien Shan 

has revealed the dynamics of its glacierization.

The Landsat image in figure 21 shows the general nature of Tien Shan 

glacierization: latitudinal extension of ranges and valleys bounded by the high 

mountain range, Khrebet Meridional’niy. The Former Soviet Union part of the 

Tien Shan region contains 704 glaciers which cover an area of 1,697.5  km2. 

Large compound-valley and dendritic glaciers with numerous tributaries are 

widespread; their termini are often debris-mantled (table  9). As can be seen 

in table 10, the major part of the area is covered by large valley glaciers, all of 

which can be easily seen on space images.

42 ̊ N 

42 ̊ N 

80 ̊ E 

80 ̊ E N 

0 10 20 MILES S 

0 10 20 KILOMETERS 

EXPLANATION

Lednik Semënova 

Lednik Mushketova

Lednik Severniy Engil’chek 

1

2

3

Lednik Yuzhniy Engil’chek

Ozero Mertsbakhera 

Lednik Kaindy

4

5

6

Lednik Cuyukup

Kahn Tägiri / Kan-Too

Pik Pobedy

7

8

9

1

2 3 

4 5 

7 6

8 

9 

Figure 21.—Part of a Landsat 2 

MSS image of the Pobedy and Khan 

Tägiri/Kan-Too peak region taken on 

16 October 1976. The Landsat image, 

2158031007629090, Path 158–Row 31, 

is from the U.S. Geological Survey, 

EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 

57198.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F25

Similar to the Pamirs, one can easily distinguish on space images the large, 

primarily linear features on the surface of the large glaciers — medial moraines, 

zones of large crevasses, and other features. Accuracy in the delineation of 

glacier boundaries depends on the time of the survey. For example, it is easy 

to detect the features on the Landsat image of 18  September 1973 (fig. 22), 

because the image was obtained at the end of the ablation period. However, it is 

difficult to distinguish these features on the Landsat image of 16 October 1976 

(fig. 21), because the upper heads of glaciers and abutting slopes were already 

covered by a fresh snowfall.

Surging glaciers can be distinguished by the contorted loops of medial 

moraines. Such loops were visible on the Lednik Mushketova, whose surge was 

observed in 1956 and 1957. By August 1957, the glacier tongue had advanced 

nearly 5  km in one year, and its surface became covered by a dense network 

of crevasses for several kilometers. Since then, the glacier has been retreating. 

Lednik Kaindy advanced 1,300 m between 1943 and 1960. Variations on this 

scale for relatively small time intervals can be measured on repeated space 

images.

Figure 22 presents part of a Landsat image (fig. 22A) an aerial photograph 

(fig. 22B), and a map (fig. 22C) compiled from them of Ledniki Severniy and 

Yuzhniy Engil’chek, and Ozero Mertsbakhera (lake). The  lake is situated at 

an elevation of about 3,400 m a.s.l., and at high water level it has an area of 

4.5 km2, a length of about 4 km, an average width of 1 km, and an approximate 

volume of 200×106 m3. The  bottom of the lake is composed of lacustrine 

sediments. The  lake was created by the retreat of Lednik Severniy Engil’chek 

and the filling of the mouth of this glacier valley with melting water and ice 

Table 9.—Largest glaciers in the Tien Shan

[Units: km, kilometer; m, meter]

Glacier name River Basin Length

(km)

Total area, 

including 

tributaries 

(km2)

Debriscovered 

area

(km2)

Elevation 

of the 

terminus 

(m)

Elevation 

of the 

firn line

(m)

GLACIERIZED AREA OF POBEDY AND KHAN TÄGIRI/KAN-TOO PEAKS

Yuzhniy Engil’chek Engil’chek 60.5 567.2 25.2 2,800 4,500

Severniy Engil’chek Engil’chek 32.8 181.2 37.6 3,400 4,550

Kaindy Sarydzhaz 19.0 84.1 11.0 3,400 4,440

Mushketova Adyr Ter 20.5 68.7 — 3,440 4,150

Semënova Sarydzhaz 20.2 56.6 0.9 3,340 4,200

KHREBET AK-SHYYRAK

Petrova Kumtor 11.3 69.8 1.9 3,730 4,270

Severniy Karasay Karasay 12.2 49.2 1.2 3,800 4,160

Kaindy Kaindy 8.0 24.3 1.1 3,850 4,200

Table 10.—Distribution of glaciers in two regions of the Central Tien Shan based on their area

[Abbreviations: km2, square kilometer; N, number of glaciers; A, total area, in square kilometers]

Region

<1 km2 1.0–4.9 km2 5.0–9.9 km2 10.0–49.9 km2 >50 km2 Total

N A N A N A N A N A N A

Pobedy and Khan 

Tägiri/Kan-Too peaks

429 176.5 209 445.6 46 308.0 16 339.2 4 428.2 704 1,697.5

Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak 78 28.1 52 113.2 13 94.2 6 130.1 1 69.8 150 435.4
F26 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

0 5 10 KILOMETERS 

0 5 10 MILES 

Lednik 

Lednik 

Yuzhniy 

Severniy

Engil’chek 

Engil’chek 

Ozero Mertsbakhera

GLACIER

 BOUNDARIES

CRESTS OF 

 RANGES 

ICE DIVIDES 

DEBRIS ON ICE 

LAKES AND 

 ICEBERGS

EXPLANATION

A 

B 

C 

COMPOUND-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

SIMPLE-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

HOLLOW BASIN 

 GLACIER

CIRQUE-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

CIRQUE GLACIER

HANGING GLACIER

SLOPE GLACIER

flowing down Lednik Yuzhniy Engil’chek (Zabirov and Bakov, 1981). The flow 

of this ice, with its distinctive medial moraine, can be clearly seen on the 

Landsat image as it turns into the valley of Lednik Severniy Engil’chek. Ozero 

Mertsbakhera reaches its maximum dimensions by the end of the ablation 

period. Glacier outburst floods (jökulhlaups) from the lake occur annually, 

sometimes twice a year, and usually in the summer (Kotlyakov, 1997), similar 

to Alaska (Post and Mayo, 1971). The Landsat image in figure 22A shows the 

lake after the jökulhlaup.

Figure 22.—A, Enlargement of part of a Landsat 1 MSS image 

taken on 18 September 1973. Compare with figure 21 for location. B, Aerial photograph; and C, Map of the Ledniki Severniy

and Yuzhniy Engil’chek basin and the Ozero Mertsbakhera. 

The map was compiled from the Landsat image and the aerial 

photograph. The Landsat 1 MSS image 1159031007326190, 

Path 159–Row 31, is from the U.S. Geological Survey, EROS 

Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F27

Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak in Central Tien Shan

Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak consists of three parallel mountain ranges trending 

northeast-southwest. One hundred and fifty glaciers, covering an area of 

435.4  km2 are situated here. The  extent of the glacierization of the massif is 

very high — 46 percent. [Editors’ note: Recent work by Aizen and others 

(2006) suggests that this massif has 178 glaciers with a total area of 371.6 km2.]

The first information on this region was obtained by A.V. Kaulbars in 

1869 (Kaulbars, 1874). Instrumental topographical surveys were undertaken here from 1911 to 1913. The inventory by N.L. Korzhenevskiy (1930) 

contains data on 29 glaciers of Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak. During the Second IPY, 

the entire region encompassed by the massif was explored, and the termini 

of some glaciers were surveyed by phototheodolite. In  the second half of the 

1940s, the glaciers of this region were studied by G.A. Avsiuk (1952), and, in 

the 1950s, a comprehensive investigation of the massif were undertaken by the 

Tien Shan geographical station. These efforts served as the basis for a monograph on the glaciers of Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak (Bondarev, 1963) and a publication by Zabirov and Knizhnikov (1962). The  entire region was covered by 

aerial photography in 1943 and again in 1977. [Editors’ note: also in 1995]

The part of the Landsat 1 MSS image shown in figure 23A shows the deep 

longitudinal valley between the Severniy (northern) and Sredniy (central) 

mountain ranges, where the largest glacier of the massif exists — Lednik 

Petrova (table 9). The glaciers of the Karasay system are situated between the 

Sredniy (central) and Yuzhniy (southern) mountain ranges in the western part 

of the massif. Glaciers of the Kaindy river basin lie in the eastern part of the 

massif. The western slopes of Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak are nearly completely buried 

under ice and firn; 32.5 percent of the glacierized area is confined to the slopes 

that have northern and western exposures (fig. 23C).

Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak contains many types of glaciers (fig. 23B), from 

hanging to compound-valley. Flat summit glaciers occur on plateau-like crests 

of ranges. One of them is evident on the satellite image (fig. 23A). Seven 

compound-valley glaciers occupy more than 45 percent of the entire glacierized area. Glaciers with an area of more than 5 km2

 cover 67.5 percent of the 

glacierized area, although their number makes up only 13.4 percent of the total 

number of glaciers (see table 10). The shapes of these glaciers are evident on 

space images if they lie on rocky slopes. However, if the upper reaches of large 

glaciers merge with flat firn areas, it is practically impossible to distinguish 

between them.

Several surge-type glaciers have been identified in Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak. 

Among them, Lednik Severniy Karasay is of the greatest interest. It advanced 

at the beginning of the 20th century, creating a push moraine and a dammed 

lake. At the end of the 1940s, it actively retreated (Avsiuk, 1952), but by 1958 

it had advanced 920 to 1,000 m, forming a push moraine up to 45 m high and 

about 150 m wide. L.G. Bondarev (1963) dates this surge as occurring from 

1955 to 1956. Based on aerial photographs (fig. 24), the glacier began to retreat 

again in 1957. The  Landsat  1 MSS image of 18  September 1973 (fig. 23A) 

shows that this retreat has continued. [Recent work includes Khromova and 

others (2003).]

Analysis of space images of the Tien Shan region testifies to their usefulness in studies of the general nature of glacierization of large mountain 

massifs and glacier complexes. Landsat MSS images are most useful for 

mapping glaciers at scales of 1:1,000,000 and less, and are most valuable for 

poorly studied mountain-glacier areas. Because of the repetitive nature of the 

Landsat satellite coverages, Landsat images are useful for monitoring potential natural hazards, such as glacier surges and outbursts (jökulhlaups) from 

dammed lakes. Higher pixel resolution and more recent Landsat spacecraft 
F28 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

0 10 20 30 40 PERCENT

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

0 5 10 MILES

EXPLANATION

COMPOUND-VALLEY GLACIER

SIMPLE-VALLEY GLACIER

CIRQUE GLACIER

HANGING GLACIER

FLAT SUMMIT GLACIER

ORIENTATION OF TOTAL GLACIER AREA−In percent

ORIENTATION OF TOTAL NUMBER OF GLACIERS−In percent

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

LEDNIK CHOMOY 

LEDNIK BEZYMYANNIY 

FLAT SUMMIT GLACIER

LEDNIK PETROVA 

LEDNIK DAVYDOV

LEDNIK SEVERNIY KARASAY 

LEDNIK YUZHNIY KARASAY

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 5 MILES

Scale is approximate

A

N

S

W E

C

2

3

4

1

5

6

7

Irtash

N

S

B

Figure 23.— (above) A, Enlargement of part of 

a Landsat 1 MSS image of Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak 

(lat 41°50′N., long 78°20′E.) taken on 18 September 1973. B, Map of the morphological types of 

glaciers; and C, Distribution pattern of the area 

(blue) and the number of glaciers (red) along the 

Khrebet Ak-Shyyrak.

Figure 24.—Aerial photograph of

Lednik Severniy Karasay in Khrebet 

Ak-Shyyrak.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F29

[for example, Landsat  3 return beam vidicon (RBV, 28m), Landsats 4, 

5, and 7 thematic mapper (TM, 28 m), and Landsat  7 ETM+ panchromatic  (15 m), and other satellite images such as the Advanced Spaceborne 

Thermal Emission Radiometer (ASTER), which acquires multispectral stereoscopic images (15 m) used for the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space 

(GLIMS) Program] will, of course, produce data at larger scales. None of that 

data were available in this earlier phase of study, which was focused on the 

Landsat baseline period (1972–1981).

Altay (Russia and Kazakhstan)

Studies of the glaciers of Altay were initiated by V.V. Sapozhnikov (1901, 

1911), who discovered about 150 glaciers during his several expeditions from 

1895 to 1911. Following this, explorers turned their attention to studying 

the former glacierization of Altay. Aerial photographs of Altay taken in the 

1940s and 1950s were important in the study of present-day glaciers, and 

led to the compilation of new maps that were used as the basis of the Glacier 

Inventory. The  leading role in glaciological studies of the Altay belongs to 

Tomsk University. A great contribution was made by the pioneer of the Tomsk 

glaciological school, Professor M.V. Tronov, who wrote monographs on Altay 

(Tronov, 1949, 1954). A new phase of investigations began in the Altay region 

in 1971, when the first space surveys were performed from the first Soviet 

orbital space station, Salyut–1.

There are 1,499 glaciers in the Altay with a total area of more than 

900  km2 and a volume of approximately 57  km3 of ice. More than 80 

percent of the glaciers are concentrated on the highest ranges of Altay, rising 

4,400 m a.s.l. — on Katunskiy Khrebet (Qatyn Zhotasy in Kazakhstan), 

Yuzhno-Chuyskiy Khrebet, and Severo-Chuyskiy Khrebet (fig. 25) — and 

also on the southern Altay. Glaciers occur mainly on slopes with northern or 

southern exposures because of latitudinal extension and asymmetry of the 

ranges, whose southern slopes are steep and northern slopes have flattened 

areas. In addition, more snow is concentrated on leeward slopes with northern 

and northeastern exposures due to the dominant transport of air masses from 

the south and southwest in the Altay.

In Altay, small glaciers prevail. Sixty-three percent of the glaciers are either 

cirque or hanging glaciers. Cirque-valley and valley glaciers are mainly concentrated in the central parts of glacier clusters, and occupy 57 percent of the total 

glacierized area of the Altay. There are only 15 glaciers with an area greater than 

5  km2 (table  11). The  mean ice thickness of large valley glaciers in the Altay 

varies from 120 to 150 m.

0 20 KILOMETERS

0 20 MILES

10

10

87 ̊ E

50 ̊ N

N

S

W E

SQUARE KILOMETERS

0 150

GLACIERS

0 200

ORIENTATION OF THE TOTAL 

 GLACIER AREA−In square 

 kilometers

ORIENTATION OF THE TOTAL 

 NUMBER OF GLACIERS

EXPLANATION

N

S

Severo-Chuyskiy 

Khrebet

Gora Belukha

Katunskiy Khrebet Yuzhno-Chuyskiy 

 Khrebet

Argut

Chuya

Katun’

Figure 25.—Glaciers in the main mountain-glacier areas of the Altay — on the Katunskiy, Severo-Chuyskiy, and 

Yuzhno-Chuyskiy Khrebet, and the distribution pattern of the area (blue) and the number (red) of glaciers.
F30 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Space observations of Altay were first undertaken onboard the Salyut–1 

space station on 14 June 1971 under conditions of 20 percent cloudiness, when 

glaciers were still covered by seasonal snow. Despite these problems, images 

taken from the space station were later successfully used for delineation of 

glacier boundaries (fig. 26). Comparison of these Salyut–1 images with those 

from Landsat 2, taken less than one month later in the season, on 11 July 1977 

(fig. 27A), illustrates convincingly the seasonal changes of glacier landscapes.

Characteristics of the exposure and morphology of the glaciers on 

Katunskiy Khrebet are evident on the Landsat 2 MSS image taken on 11 July 

1977 (fig. 27A). This image illustrates the dominant cirque glaciers, curved 

crests of ranges, and cirques with numerous cirque lakes in the western part of 

the range, and the Gora Belukha with its cluster of predominant valley glaciers 

in the central part of the range. Differences in the morphology of Katunskiy 

Khrebet glaciers are well demonstrated on maps of surface morphology and 

morphological types of glaciers (fig. 27B, C) compiled for the World Atlas of 

Snow and Ice Resources from cartographic data, and also on images from the 

Soviet space station, Salyut–1 (fig. 26).

Three glaciers, Ledniki Bratjev Tronovykh, Akkemskiy, and Mensu, were 

easily distinguished by white tongues against the dark background of glacier 

valleys in the images taken from the Salyut–1 space station, but they had a dark 

tone on the Landsat images and blended in with the appearance of the glacier 

valleys. This is due to the fact that by the middle of July when the Landsat 

image was taken, the hot summer weather had caused the snow on the glacier 

tongues’ surfaces to melt, and the dark, debris-covered glacier termini became 

visible. The ablation area of these glaciers and the snow-covered accumulation 

area were easily distinguished and, in some places, the firn line was clearly seen. 

Therefore, although a quick glance at the 11 July 1977 Landsat 2 MSS image 

produces the impression of a very small area of glaciers because only the white 

tone of their accumulation areas is visible, this is an erroneous assumption.

Table 11.—Largest glaciers in the Russian Altay

[Units: km, kilometer; m, meter]

Name of glacier Name of river basin Area

(km2)

Length

(km)

Elevation of 

glacier terminus 

(m)

Elevation of 

equilibrium line

(m)

Bol’shoy Taldurinskiy Taldura 28.2 7.5 2,450 2,950

Alakhinskiy Akalakha 19.2 6.0 2,395 3,000

Sofiyskiy Ak-Kol 17.6 7.9 2,620 2,950

Bol’shoy Maashey Maashey 16.0 8.2 2,200 2,990

Mensu (Sapozhnikova) Iedygem 13.2 10.5 2,120 2,800

Bol’shoy Berel’skiy Belaya-Berel’ 12.2 10.4 1,985 3,120

Maliy Berel’skiy Belaya-Berel’ 8.9 8.3 2,100 2,810

Bratjev Tronovykh Kochurla 8.6 10.5 2,050 2,750

Katunskiy (Geblera) Katun’ 8.5 8.5 1,970 2,800

Akkemskiy (Rodzevicha) Akkem 8.5 7.8 2,200 3,000

Yadrintsev Karaoyuk 8.0 4.8 2,650 3,080

Ukokskiy Akalakha 7.1 4.0 2,610 3,050

Leviy Karagem Karagem 6.6 4.0 2,375 3,760

Leviy Aktru Aktru 5.2 6.5 2,500 3,050

Korumdu Eshtykol 5.0 4.2 2,235 2,950
GLACIERS OF ASIA — RUSSIA F31

86 ̊ 30 ́E

49 ̊ 50 ́N

AREA WITH TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

AREA WITH SATELLITE PHOTOGRAPH

LEDNIK MYUSHTUAYRY

LEDNIK RODZEVICHA 

LEDNIK SAPOZHNIKOVA

EXPLANATION

A

B

1

2 3

1

2

3

0 40 MILES

0 40 KILOMETERS

1

2

3

Figure 26.—A, Image of the central Altay with the Gora Belukha glacier group taken from the 

Salyut–1 space station on 14 June 1971; and B, Comparison of the delineation of the glacier 

boundaries shown on topographic maps and derived from the space image.
F32 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Comparison of the greatly enlarged part of the Landsat image of the 

Bish-Irdu glacier group with the cartographic presentation of these glaciers 

(fig. 28) furnishes an excellent example of the genuine relationship between 

the map and the Landsat image depiction of glacierization. This figure also 

shows the Aktru glaciers, well known in glaciology, that have been studied for 

a long time by glaciologists of Tomsk University (Tronov, 1949, 1954) [More 

recent work includes Galakhov and others (1987).]

87 ̊ 30 ́E

49 ̊ 50 ́N

A

C

0 20 MILES

0 20 KILOMETERS

B

EXPLANATION

CIRQUE-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

HANGING GLACIER

SLOPE GLACIER

SIMPLE-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

HOLLOW BASIN 

 GLACIER

Lednik Sapozhnikova

Lednik

Rodzevicha

Lednik

Myushtuayry

Lednik

Katunskiy

Lednik

Bol’shoy

Berel’skiy

Gora 

Belukha

4506

Lednik Sapozhnikova

Lednik

Rodzevicha

Lednik

Katunskiy

Lednik

Bol’shoy

Berel’skiy

Gora 

Belukha

4506

Lednik

Myushtuayry

EXPLANATION

GLACIER LOCATION 

MORAINE MATERIAL

SNOW AND FIRN

Figure 27.—A, Part of a Landsat 2 MSS image of Katunskiy Khrebet taken on 11 July 1977; B, Map of surface 

morphology; and C, Morphological types of glaciers in this region. Landsat image is from the U.S. Geological Survey, 

EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F33

2

3

4

1

5

0 1 2 KILOMETERS

0 1 2 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

0 5 10 MILES

A

C

N

S

B

1

2

3

4

5

COMPOUND VALLEY CLACIERS−Lednik Bol’shoy Maashey

HOLLOW BASIN GLACIER−Lednik Leviy Karagem

VALLEY GLACIER−Lednik Tsentralniy Karagem

VALLEY GLACIER−Lednik Praviy Karagem

VALLEY GLACIER−Lednik Abiloyuk

GLACIER BOUNDARY

FIRN BASIN BOUNDARY

ICE SURFACE

GLACIER SURFACE−Covered with 

 snow and firn

FIRN LINE

CREVASSES IN ICE

ICE CLIFF

ICE SHEAR

OGIVES

DEBRIS ON GLACIER

GLACIAL DEPOSITS−Of the middle 

 of the 19th century

CRESTS OF MORAINES

ROCK OUTCROP

EXPLANATION

TYPES OF GLACIERS

87 ̊ 40 ́E

49 ̊ 00 ́ N

Scale is approximate

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 5 MILES

Scale is approximate

Figure 28.— A, Part of the Landsat 2 MSS image taken on 11 July 1977 of the Bish-Irdu glacier complex in 

the Severo-Chuyskiy Khrebet; B, enlarged portion of the image; and C, depiction of this region on a map. 

The white arrows show Aktru glaciers. Landsat image is from the U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Data 

Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
F34 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Ural Mountains (Ural’skiye Gory)

The Ural Mountains are a typical region of small glaciers. Glaciers extend 

over a distance of more than 500  km — from latitude 63°53′N. to latitude 

68°40′N. The  glaciers are situated in the Polar, Subpolar, and Northern Urals

in groups confined to the highest and most dissected parts of the mountains. 

The Polar Urals rise for 1,000 to 1,200 m, with the highest point at 1,499 m; 

the Subpolar Urals have elevations of 1,300 to 1,400 m; with the highest 

point at 1,894 m; the Northern Urals seldom exceed 1,000 m, and the highest 

summit, Gora Telpoziz, rises to 1,617 m a.s.l.

The first glaciers were discovered in the Ural Mountains in 1929. They were 

again observed during the Second IPY and the International Geophysical Year; 

the studies continued during the IHD. Glaciers situated in the Telpoziz mountain 

range and discovered quite recently (Dolgushin and Osipova, 1979) were identified on the space image of the Northern Urals (fig. 29). Now, regular observations 

are made and aerial and ground stereophoto-surveys have been conducted.

The majority of the glaciers, 91 of the 143, are situated in the Polar Urals

and cover 20.8  km2 of the total glacierized area of 28.7  km2. Nearly all the 

glaciers lie on the western side of the Ural Mountains, facing the moisturebearing air masses; however, they are all situated on the eastern slopes of 

individual ranges (fig. 30B), where snow is concentrated by wind transport. 

The area of present-day glaciers coincides exactly with the zone of maximum 

snowcover in the mountains (Troitskiy and others, 1966).

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 5 MILES

Scale is approximate

Gora 

Telpoziz

Figure 29.—Enlargement of a Landsat 1 MSS image of the Northern Urals 

acquired on 25 June 1973. The Gora 

Telpoziz glacier (lat 63°55′N., long 

59°11′E.) is circled. The Landsat 1 

MSS image 1182014007317590, 

Path 182–Row 14, is from the U.S. 

Geological Survey, EROS Data 

Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F35

Recent glacierization in the Polar Urals is represented by cirque and niche 

glaciers. Only two of them — IGAN and MGU glaciers — have an area more 

than 1 km2. More than 60 percent of the glaciers have an area of 0.1 to 0.6 km2; 

about one third of them do not exceed 0.1 km2 (fig. 30A).

Understandably, space images that have coarse resolution are not useful 

for studies of such small glaciers. And the available Landsat  1, 2 and 3 MSS 

images are not useful because of the unfavorable time of their acquisition — 

at the beginning of March, when all of the Ural Mountains were covered with 

snow. It is possible to identify the main mountain ranges and waterbodies on 

these images, however. The  cirques of certain glaciers are visible too, but the 

glaciers themselves are covered with snow and long shadows from the near-by 

ranges and summits (fig. 31).

The end of August is the most suitable time for surveys of the glaciers of 

the Ural Mountains. At  this time, it is possible to identify the largest cirque 

glaciers on images of 1:1,000,000 scale. However, for the correct interpretation 

of niche glaciers that greatly resemble snow patches, better resolution, largerscale images are needed. These images would depict the details of the structure 

of the cirque glaciers, similar to that shown in figure 32 of Lednik Obrucheva.

N

S

W E

PERCENT

0 10 20 30 40

66 ̊ E

68 ̊ N

A

B

Longot"yëgan

Shchuch’ya

Kara

Usa

Bol’shoy

Khadyta

Sob’

SIZE OF GLACIER IN 

SQUARE KILOMETERS 

 LESS THAN 0.1 

 0.1 AND GREATER

EXPLANATION

ORIENTATION OF TOTAL

 GLACIER AREA−In percent

ORIENTATION OF TOTAL

 NUMBER OF GLACIERS−In percent

Figure 30.—A, Distribution pattern of 

glaciers in the Polar Urals; and B, Distribution of the glaciers by area (blue) and 

number (red) related to orientation.
F36 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

66 ̊E

67 ̊30 ́N

66 ̊E 67 ̊30 ́N

N

S

1

2

Scale is approximate

0 5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

BOL’SHOY KHADYTA RIVER VALLEY

LEDNIK OBRUCHEVA

EXPLANATION

1

2

0 1,500 FEET

0 500 METERS

500 1,000

400

450

500

550

600

425

475

525

1968

1953

1953

1968

0

+5

+5

-10

-20

FIRN 

SNOW

ICE 

DEBRIS ON ICE

500 LINES OF EQUAL ELEVATION–In 

 meters above sea level

CREVASSES

0

1968

+5

FIRN LINE−For the indicated year

LINE OF EQUAL CHANGE IN 

 SURFACE ELEVATION–In meters

EXPLANATION EXPLANATION

B C

A

Figure 32.—A, Aerial photograph taken 

on 30 July 1953 of Lednik Obrucheva; 

B, Morphology of the surface; and C, 

Changes of the surface elevation of the 

Lednik Obrucheva in the Polar Urals.

0 1,500 FEET

0 500 METERS

500 1,000

400

450

500

550

600

425

475

525

1968

1953

1953

1968

0

+5

+5

-10

-20

FIRN 

SNOW

ICE 

DEBRIS ON ICE

500 LINES OF EQUAL ELEVATION–In 

 meters above sea level

CREVASSES

0

1968

+5

FIRN LINE−For the indicated year

LINE OF EQUAL CHANGE IN 

 SURFACE ELEVATION–In meters

EXPLANATION EXPLANATION

B C

A

Figure 31.—Enlargement of a Landsat 1 MSS image of part of the Polar Urals acquired on 6 March 

1973. Landsat 1 MSS image 1179012007306590, Path 179–Row 12, is from the U.S. Geological 

Survey, EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F37

The Byrranga Mountains (Gory Byrranga) in Northern Russia

The Gory Byrranga are situated on the Poluostrov Taymyr (peninsula) in 

central northern Russia. Glaciers extend over the most northern and highest 

part of the mountains between latitudes 75° and 76°N. and longitudes 106° 

and 111°E. The  largest glaciers are concentrated within an area of 400  km2. 

The area of the largest glacier is 4.3 km2, and its length is approximately 3.8 km.

The first glaciers were discovered in Gory Byrranga in 1949. In the 1950s, 

the region was covered by aerial photography and soon the first maps of the 

glaciers were made. According to the glacier inventory of Gory Byrranga, the 

region has 96 glaciers, which occupy 30.5 km2 (fig. 33B). Among them, there 

are 29 valley glaciers, 23 cirque, and 15 niche glaciers (USSR Academy of 

Sciences, 1965-1983). They have various orientations (fig. 33C).

There were not many Landsat 1, 2, or 3 MSS images of the Gory Byrranga 

area acquired. One of the few is shown in figure 33A. In  this Landsat image, 

acquired on 26  July 1973 during the ablation period, the glacierized area 

lies near the edge of the image and is only partially visible. In  the mountains 

there are traces of new snowfall, and because of this it was impossible to identify all of the glaciers in the image, although they could likely be seen under 

better conditions. A characteristic of the Gory Byrranga glaciers is their small 

accumulation areas which occupy broadened cirques.

Figure 33.—A, Landsat 1 MSS image acquired 26 July 1973, showing the distribution 

of glaciers in the Gory Byrranga in the region near lat 76°N., long 108°E.; B, Sketch of 

glacier location; and C, Distribution pattern of glacier orientation in the Gory Byrranga. 

Landsat 1 MSS image 1159006007320790, Path 159–Row 6, is from the U.S. Geological 

Survey, EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.

A C

1

2

3

4

5

B

N

S

W E

PERCENT

0 5 10 15 20

ORIENTATION OF TOTAL

 GLACIER AREA−In percent

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 5 MILES

Scale is approximate

EXPLANATION

1

2

3

4

5

GLACIER NAME

 AND LOCATION

Neozhidanniy

Severniy

Toll’

Yuzhniy

Etalon

RANGE 

PLATEAU

EXPLANATION
F38 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Northeastern Siberia

Over the vast territory of Northeastern Siberia, glaciers are situated in 

widely separated areas: Khrebet Suntar-Khayata, the Khrebet Cherskogo, and 

Koryakskoye Nagor’ye (upland). Khrebet Suntar-Khayata is situated near one of 

the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere — Oymyakan settlement. The first 

mention of the permanent snow on the summits of Khrebet Suntar-Khayata was 

made by I.D. Chersky as early as the late 19th century. However, glaciers were not 

found in that area until 1939. The scale of glacierization was estimated only after 

aerial photographic surveys were carried out in the 1940s (USSR Academy of 

Sciences, 1965–1983). The  first comprehensive work on the Suntar-Khayata 

glaciers was published by L.L. Berman (1947). About 20 glaciers were described 

during geological surveys at the beginning of the IGY; and during the IGY, one of 

the eleven Soviet glaciological stations was located here (Koreisha, 1963).

According to the data of the USSR Glacier Inventory, Khrebet Suntar-Khayata 

has 208 glaciers with a total area of 201.6 km2 (fig. 34A). Similar to the Khrebet 

Cherskogo, nearly all of the glaciers have a northern exposure (fig. 34B, C). More 

than half of the total glacierized area is found in valley glaciers. Small glaciers with 

an area less than 1 km2 prevail (table 12). On a Landsat 1 MSS image of 26 July 

1973, it was possible to identify only one glacier that had an area of 4.4  km2; 

glaciers of smaller dimensions were difficult to distinguish.

The ability to identify the small isolated glaciers that characterize northeastern Siberia depends primarily on the time of the surveys. However, very few 

Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images were acquired of the glacierized regions of Siberia 

and, of these, very few were acquired during the optimum time for observing the 

glaciers, usually in early to mid-August. As a result, the Landsat 1, 2 and 3 MSS 

images have very limited usefulness in this region. For example, figure 35 shows 

a comparison of two enlarged Landsat images, one acquired on 2  July 1975 

(fig. 35A) and the other on 26 August 1975 (fig. 35B); they both show the highest 

point of the Koryakskoye upland, at 2,115 m high. On the 2 July 1975 image, the 

glaciers are masked by the mantle of seasonal snow that is still present. And on 

the 26 August 1975 image, the boundaries of the glaciers are difficult to delineate. 

Unfortunately, there is no ideal Landsat image of this area.

N

S

W E

PERCENT

0 10 20 30 40

141 ̊ E

62 ̊ N

A C

0 10 MILES

0 10 KILOMETERS

N

S

W E

B

Del’kyu

Gora Palatka

EXPLANATION

COMPOUND-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

SIMPLE-VALLEY 

 GLACIER

CIRQUE-VALLEY 

 GLACIER 

CIRQUE GLACIER 

HANGING GLACIER 

CRESTS OF RANGES 

ORIENTATION OF TOTAL

 GLACIER AREA−In percent

ORIENTATION OF TOTAL

 NUMBER OF GLACIERS−In percent

Figure 34.—A, Distribution of glaciers over 

Khrebet Suntar- Khayata; B, Distribution 

patterns of the number (red) and area 

(blue) of glaciers relating to the orientation 

in Khrebet Suntar-Khayata; and C, Khrebet 

Cherskogo.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F39

Space images are very helpful in studies of aufeis (also called naled’ or icing).

Aufeis is a sheet-like mass of layered ice that forms from successive flows of ground 

water during freezing temperatures. In  addition to showing the geographic location of aufeis, space images can reveal some of their structural elements: large faults, 

zones of intense crevassing, ring structures, and local depressions. The best time of 

image acquisition for analyzing aufeis is during the first weeks after the disappearance of snow cover. Using images larger than 1:500,000 scale, it is possible to study 

the morphology and geological changes in aufeis; images larger than 1:1,000,000-

scale can be used to map large aufeis areas (fig. 36) and to study their variability 

from year to year. [See also Williams (1986, p. 536, fig. 9–24), who delineated four 

icing remnants on a 1:1,000,000-scale, 4 August 1973, Landsat 1 MSS image (1377-

21112-6) of northeastern Alaska in the Sagavanirktok River area and environs.]

Table 12.—Distribution of glaciers in the Khrebet Suntar-Khayata based on their size

[Unit: km2, square kilometer]

Indices <0.5

(km2)

0.6–1.0

(km2)

1.1–2.0

(km2)

2.1–3.0

(km2)

>3.0

(km2)

Number of glaciers 87 68 27 14 12

Percentage 41.8 32.7 13.0 6.7 5.8

Total area of glaciers (km2) 20.4 50.2 39.8 37.3 53.9

Percentage 10.2 24.9 19.7 18.5 26.7

0 10 KILOMETERS

0 10 MILES

Scale is approximate

C

B, August 26, 1975

A, July 2, 1975

0 10 KILOMETERS

0 10 MILES

Scale is approximate

0 10 KILOMETERS

0 10 MILES

Scale is approximate

C

B, August 26, 1975

Figure 35.—Enlargements of two Landsat 2 

MSS images of the Koryakskoye highland, 

northeastern Siberia (centered approximately on lat 62°N., long 171°E.), taken on A, 

2 July 1975; and B, 26 August 1975; and C, 

distribution of glaciers in the highest part of 

the Koryakskoye highland. Landsat images 

2101017007518390, 2 July 1975; Path 101–

Row 17, and 2102017007523890, 26 August 

1975; Path 102–Row 17, are from the U.S. 

Geological Survey, EROS Data Center, Sioux 

Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
F40 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Kamchatka

The Kamchatka region is located on the far eastern side of the Former 

Soviet Union (fig. 1). The presence of ice fields and firn fields on the volcanoes of 

Kamchatka has been known since the 18th century, and their characteristics had 

been noted by the end of the 19th century (Bogdanovich, 1899). Studies of the 

glaciers of Kamchatka began in the 20th century, and in the 1950s a general map 

of the glacierization of Kamchatka was compiled from available cartographic data 

(Ivan’kov, 1958). Later, glaciological investigations of Kamchatka were undertaken 

by the Institute of Volcanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Inventories and interpretation of aerial photographs of the Kamchatka 

Peninsula revealed 405 glaciers that are greater than 0.1  km2 in area; these 

glaciers have a total area of 874  km2 (Vinogradov, 1968). The  majority of 

glaciers are situated in the craters or calderas of, or on the flanks of, volcanoes, 

giving rise to the following specific morphological types (fig. 37):

Ice belts (fig. 37A) are confined to the highest and most active volcanoes. 

Snow and ice accumulate on steep (less than 30°), dissected slopes of the 

volcano, while glacier tongues drain the lower part of the ice belt.

Crater glaciers (fig. 37B) are located in the craters of dead, dormant, or 

active volcanoes (during their quiescent stage). Well-pronounced, ring-like 

crests of craters contribute to the identification of such glaciers on Vulkan 

Mutnovskaya Sopka (fig. 38). 

Caldera glaciers are situated in calderas of large volcanoes. Usually they 

do not spill over the caldera rims containing them, and they have short outlet 

tongues.

Less than 0.5

0.5 to less than 1.0

1.0 to less than 1.5

1.5 to less than 2.0

2.0 to less than 2.5

2.5 to less than 3.0

3.0 to less than 3.5

3.5 and greater

0

0

250 MILES

250 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

RELATIVE ICE CAPACITY, IN PERCENT

Zhigansk

Yakutsk

Ust’-Maya

Verkoyansk

Zyryanka

Oymyakon

Nizhnekolymsk

Anadyr’

Magadan

Gizhiga

East Siberian Sea

Chukchi Sea

Anadyrskiy 

Zaliv

Zaliv 

Shelikhova

Indigirka

Lena

Lena

Maya

Aldan

Yana

Aldan

ad An yr’

150°E

65°N

150°E

65°N

Figure 36.—Distribution of aufeis areas in 

northeastern Siberia.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F41

Figure 37.— Morphological types of present-day glaciers in the volcanic regions of 

Kamchatka: A, Ice belt on Vulkan Klyuchevskaya Sopka; B, Crater glaciers on Vulkan 

Mutnovskaya Sopka; C, A star-like glacier on Vulkan Kronotskaya Sopka; D, Barranco 

glaciers on Vulkan Zhupanovskaya; E, Caldera-valley glaciers on Vulkan Dal’niy Ploskiy; 

and F, Atrio-valley glaciers on Vulkan Avachinskaya Sopka.

Figure 38.—Aerial photograph of glaciers in the crater and on the slopes of Vulkan Mutnovskaya Sopka 

(see fig. 37B).

A. Ice Belts B. Crater Glaciers C. Star-Like Glaciers

D. Barranco Glaciers E. Caldera-Valley Glaciers F. Atrio-Valley Glaciers

Volcanic 

Material

Main Ice 

Body

Outlet 

Glaciers

Crater Rim
F42 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Star-like glaciers (fig. 37C) are situated in the near-summit area of dead or 

dormant volcanoes and have irregular boundaries and outlet tongues, mainly 

on slopes that have a northern exposure.

Barranco glaciers (fig. 37D) spread over recently active or dormant 

volcanoes. They are confined to the medial and upper parts of barrancos 

(steep slopes), and are usually on northern slopes. They are nourished by 

snow-avalanches.

Caldera-valley glaciers (fig. 37E) have their accumulation area in the 

caldera of volcanoes. They have long tongues. They are confined to the late 

Holocene calderas of dead, dormant, and active volcanoes; surge-type glaciers 

may be encountered among them.

Atrio-valley glaciers (fig. 37F) have their accumulation areas in large atrio

(central parts) of calderas and ablation areas on the slopes of a volcanic somma. 

Glacier tongues drain the atrio in the form of ice-falls of several hundred 

meters.

Unfortunately, it is very difficult to identify Kamchatka glaciers on 

the available Landsat  1, 2, and 3 MSS images. Not many images have been 

acquired and most are cloudy or snow-covered. However, interpretation of 

snow-covered images can be of great interest, as they may reveal the impacts of 

present volcanism on glaciers. Kamchatka glaciers in the areas of active volcanism — on the Kluchevskaya and Avachinskaya group of volcanoes — differ 

greatly from glaciers occupying areas of Quarternary volcanism (Khrebet 

Sredinnyy) or non-volcanic areas (Kronotskiy Poluostrov) (Vinogradov, 

1975). The morphology of these glaciers is also very different (Vinogradov and 

Glazyrin, 1979).

In areas of active volcanism, glaciers are mantled by the products (especially tephra) of volcanic eruptions. The  thickness of the pyroclastic mantle 

increases from the equilibrium line to the glacier termini, and in certain areas it 

reaches 1 m thick. This mantle favors reduced ablation of ice and is seen more 

often than bare ice at the termini of glaciers. Because of this, it is difficult to 

identify glacier boundaries in volcanic areas from space images.

Russian Arctic4

The Russian Arctic consists of numerous islands and archipelagos north 

of mainland Russia, in the Barents and Kara Seas. This section highlights the 

glacierization on three of the more significant archipelagos — Franz Josef 

Land, Severnaya Zemlya, and Novaya Zemlya.

Franz Josef Land (Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa)

This polar archipelago, whose existence was predicted by the Russian 

geographer N. Schilling (Schilling, 1865), was discovered in 1873 by the 

Austro-Hungarian Expedition of J. Payer and K. Weyprecht (Payer, 1876). By 

the time F. Nansen wintered there in 1895–1896 (Nansen, 1897), the general 

nature of glacierization of the archipelago had been determined. In  1931, the 

Swedish-Norwegian Expedition of H. Ahlmann (Ahlmann, 1933) undertook a phototheodolite survey of glacierized coasts of George Land (Ostrov 

Zemlya Georga). The  present-day map of Franz Josef Land was compiled 

from aerial photography taken during 1952–1953. The  map served as the 

basis for compiling the glacier inventory of the archipelago (USSR, Academy 

of Sciences, 1965 [1965–1983], Katalog lednikov SSSR, vol. 3, part 1), which, 

4

See also companion section in this part of the chapter, The Glaciers of the Russian High Arctic.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F43

together with a monograph based on studies of Franz Josef Land during the 

IGY-IGC (Grosswald and others, 1973), is the main source of information on 

the glaciers of the archipelago.

Based on the nature of the glacierization, Franz Josef Land is subdivided 

into three regions: western, central, and eastern (fig. 39). In  all parts of the 

archipelago, ice-cap complexes prevail (table 13). Present-day glaciers occur on 

56 islands of Franz Josef Land. Glaciers cover approximately 85 percent of the 

archipelago. Their mean thickness is about 180 m, their area is 13,738.8 km2, 

and their total ice volume is approximately 2,500 km3. Glaciers cover 1,570 km, 

or approximately 60 percent of the total length of the 2,255 km coast line.

B2

B1

C1

C2

A

B3

EXPLANATION

ICE FREE AREA

GLACERIZED REGION BOUNDARY

GLACERIZED SUBREGION BOUNDARY

AREA SHOWN IN FIGURE 40

80°N

80°N

50°E 60°E

60°E

50°E

N

0 50 KILOMETERS

0 50 MILES

Figure 39.—Glacierized regions of Franz Josef Land: A, western region; B, central region (1, 2, 3 — southern, 

central and northern areas); C, eastern region (1, 2 — southern and northern areas). The non-glacierized 

areas are shown in grey. The coverage of the Landsat image used for figure 40 is shown. See table 13 for 

glacierized areas.

Table 13.—The area of glaciers in Franz Josef Land

[Unit: km2, square kilometer]

Areas and subareas Ice-cap complexes

(km2)

Ice domes

(km2)

Other glaciers

(km2)

Total glacier area 

(km2)

Western region 3,085.3 3.0 17.9 3,106.2

Central region

Southern area 1,266.1 8.4 12.4 1,286.9

Central area 2,782.3 4.6 17.3 2,804.2

Northern area 640.9 0.6 2.9 644.4

Eastern region

Southern area 3,739.9 — 14.4 3,754.3

Northern area 2,109.5 30.1 3.2 2,142.8

Total archipelago 13,624.0 46.7 68.1 13,738.8
F44 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Ice caps on islands, valley outlet glaciers, and small glaciers are the main 

morphological types of glaciers in Franz Josef Land. They make up four 

morphogenetic glacier complexes: (a) ice-cap complexes (these prevail in 

the eastern area), (b) ice-cap-transition complexes, (c) transition-piedmont 

complexes (these two complexes prevail in the central area), (d) ice plateau 

complexes (prevail in the western area). The  amount of glacierization in the 

eastern and southeastern parts of archipelago and on isolated islands is, as a 

rule, higher than in the western and northwestern areas.

The Landsat 3 MSS image shown in figure 40 includes only the smallest, 

most western part of the archipelago. Because the image was acquired in winter, 

it is impossible to determine the equilibrium line on the glaciers, although the 

margins of glaciers on the land and their contact with sea ice can be traced 

quite distinctly. Ice divides can be seen well, and, in the majority of cases, outlet 

glaciers that have rough topography and zones of crevasses are easily identified.

Severnaya Zemlya

Severnaya Zemlya was discovered by a Russian Expedition in 1913 

(Starokadomskiy and Barr, 1977) that mapped the eastern coast of the 

archipelago. The  first map of the islands was compiled in 1930–1932 by 

the expedition of G.A. Ushakov and N.N. Urvantsev (Anonymous, 1933), 

who determined the extent of glaciers on the archipelago by means of overland traverses. During the summer of 1931, an international expedition on 

board the Republic of Germany’s LZ-127 airship Graf Zeppelin carried out 

aerial photography within the central part of the archipelago (Penck, 1931). 

A 1:400,000-scale map was compiled and published from these data, depicting 

some of the glaciers (Berson, 1933). For some areas, 1:25,000-scale maps 

50°E

80°N

80°N

N

0 25 MILES

0 25 KILOMETERS

Figure 40.—Landsat 3 MSS image 

of the western part of Franz Josef 

Land acquired on 24 March 1978. 

The Landsat image 30019-10411 

(3222001007808390), Path 222–

Row 1, is from the U.S. Geological 

Survey, EROS Data Center, Sioux 

Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F45

were compiled. The  map used for the compilation of glacier inventories 

(USSR, Academy of Sciences, 1981 [1965–1983], Katalog Lednikov SSSR, 

v. 10, iss. 1, pt. 1) was prepared from aerial photography acquired during the 

1950s. Since 1962, glaciological expeditions from the Arctic and Antarctic 

Institute have been working on Severnaya Zemlya. A glaciological station was 

constructed on Lednik Vavilova in 1974 ( Jania and Hagen, 1996).

Glaciers occupy 49.8 percent (18,325  km2) (fig. 41, table  14) of the 

36,788  km2 total area of the archipelago. The  average thickness of glaciers is 

300 m, and the ice volume is about 5,500 km3. Severnaya Zemlya contains 17 

glacier complexes (occupying nearly 94 percent of the total glacierized area), 

16 isolated ice domes, and 46 mountain glaciers. The  extent of glacierization 

increases from south to north: on Ostrov Bol’shevik (island), glaciers cover 

31 percent of the area; on Ostrov Oktyabr’skoy Revolutsii, glaciers occupy 58 

percent of the area; and on Ostrov Komsomolets, glaciers occupy 68.5 percent 

Ostrov

Komsomolets

Ostrov

 Oktyabr’skoy

 Revolyutsii

Ostrov

Pioner

Ostrov

Shmidta

80°N

100°E

Ostrov Bol’shevik

N

EXPLANATION

Ice free areas

Area shown in figure 42 

Numbers denote glaciers

0 50 KILOMETERS

0 50 MILES

1

2

26

25

24

23 22

21 20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

10

8

9

11

7

6

5 4

3

2

Figure 41.—Glacierization of Severnaya Zemlya. Location of the Landsat 3 MSS image used 

for figure 42 is shown.

Table 14.—The area of glaciers on Severnaya 

Zemlya

[Unit: km2, square kilometer]

Island

Glacier 

numbers 

on fig. 41

Area

(km2)

Shmidta 1 438.5

Komsomolets 2–8 6,171.6

Bol’shoy Isvestnyakoviy 9–10 6.1

Pioner 11 254.0

Oktyabr’skoy 

Revolyutsii

12–18 7,945.8

Bol’shevik 19–26 3,509.0

Total archipelago 18,325.0
F46 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

of the area. The  length of glacierized coasts on these three islands makes up 

1.6, 13.2 and 35.3 percent, respectively, and on Ostrov Shmidta, 96.1 percent of 

the total length of the coast line is glacierized.

The Landsat 1 MSS image used for figure 42 was taken in July — a favorable time; however, its interpretation was hampered by the spotty snow cover 

in the central part of Ostrov Bol’shevik. The  newly fallen snow graphically 

emphasizes the hydrological network and geological structure, but at the same 

time obscures the margins of the glaciers. The  sea ice in Proliv Shokal’skogo 

(strait), between Ostrova Bol’shevik and Oktyabr’skoy Revolutsii, is another 

source of difficulty, making it impossible to delineate the termini of small tidewater glaciers. The snow also makes it impossible to determine the equilibrium 

line of glaciers; ablation areas can only be seen on some of the outlet glaciers 

draining the ice cap on Ostrov Komsomolets.

Figure 42.—Landsat 1 MSS image of the northern part of Severnaya Zemlya taken on 28 July 1973. 

The Landsat image 1362-07383 (1189001007320190), Path 189–Row 1, is from the U.S. Geological 

Survey, EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.

96°E

96°E

80°N

80°N

N

0 25 MILES

0 25 KILOMETERS
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F47

Novaya Zemlya 

Although the mapping of the coastal area of Novaya Zemlya was 

accomplished as early as the 19th century, the first map with a schematic 

presentation of glaciers on Ostrov Severniy, the large northern island, was 

compiled by V.A. Rusanov in 1910. In  1913, the glaciers were mapped by an 

expedition led by G.Ya. Sedov (Chizhov and others, 1968). In  the 1920s and 

1930s, ground surveys were done by an Arctic Research Institute expedition. 

Some glaciers on western coasts were mapped by the Norwegian expedition 

to Novaya Zemlya in 1921 (Holtedahl, 1924, 1928, 1930). The  glaciers of 

the eastern coasts were surveyed by means of aerial photography acquired in 

1931, during the flight of the Republic of Germany’s LZ-127 Graf Zeppelin 

airship (Penck, 1931). A map based on these aerial photographs was published 

in the proceedings of the expedition (Berson, 1933). A more recent map was 

compiled in the 1950s from subsequent aerial photography. This map served 

as the basis for the Glacier Inventory of the archipelago (USSR, Academy of 

Sciences, 1978 [1965–1983], Katalog Lednikov SSSR, v. 3, pt. 2). The inventory and a monograph, based on studies during the IGY-IGC (Chizhov and 

others, 1968), are the main sources of information on the glaciers of Novaya 

Zemlya.

The total area of glacierization on Novaya Zemlya is 24,413  km2, the 

largest glacierized area in the Russian Arctic, and the ice volume is estimated 

to be about 6,800 km3. All of the known types of glaciers exist here. The submeridional position of Novaya Zemlya produces a gradual increase in extent 

of glacierization from south to north and makes it possible to distinguish four 

areas based on the type of glacier located in each area: small glaciers, mountain 

glaciers, transitional glaciers, and ice caps (fig. 43, table 15).

The prevailing western transport of moisture-laden Atlantic air masses 

produces large areas of glacierization along the coast of the Barents Sea. Here, 

the amount of glacierization is 1.5 times greater, and the equilibrium line lies 

200 m lower than on the coast of the Kara Sea. The  ice divide is also shifted 

eastward in the direction of the Kara Sea.

The Landsat  1 MSS image shown in figure 44 characterizes the central 

part of the ice cap on Ostrov Severniy of Novaya Zemlya. The  system of 

outlet glaciers reaching the sea can be seen well. The margin of the ice cap is 

very distinct. On the western coast, it is sometimes difficult to determine 

the position of glacier termini in the sea because of the presence of fast ice. 

The  Landsat  1 MSS image spectacularly demonstrates the asymmetry of the 

ice-cap regime that has been induced climatically. The  area of ablation in the 

Kara Sea basin is much larger than in the Barents Sea basin. 

Conclusions

The preceding discussion has shown that Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images 

have been used successfully in some areas to study the glaciers of the Former 

Soviet Union. In  other areas, due to the small size of the glaciers, the spatial 

resolution of the satellite scanner, or the time of image acquistion, the images 

are less useful. Table 16 and figure 45 list the optimum Landsat images of the 

Former Soviet Union that were acquired during the decadal Landsat baseline 

period (1972–1981).
F48 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Acknowledgments

We want to gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following 

scientists to this part of the chapter, who assisted in the analysis of space images 

and/or photographs, aerial photographs, and in the preparation of scientific illustrations and maps of the glacierized regions indicated in parentheses after their 

names: V.G. Loseva (Caucasus and Altay), K.P. Rototayev and N.M. Zverkova 

(Caucasus), V.I. Kravtsova and N.F. Chaikina (Altay), and M.M. Koreisha 

(Siberia).

Figure 43.—Glacierization of Novaya Zemlya. 

The types of glaciers in each area are: A–ice caps, 

B–transitional, C–mountain glaciers, D–small 

glaciers. The image area shown on figure 44 is 

indicated.

0 50 100 KILOMETERS

0 50 100 MILES

EXPLANATION

A

B

C

D

56°E

66°E

56°E

74°N

76°N

74°N

N

Ice-free areas

Internal areas of the ice cap

External areas of the ice cap

Other glaciers

Drainage divides

Boundaries of glacierized areas

Boundary of the Severniy ice 

cap

Area shown in figure 44
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F49

Table 15.—The glaciers on Novaya Zemlya

[Unit: km2, square kilometer]

Glacier type Number of 

glaciers

Total area 

(km2) Glacier type Number of glaciers

Total area 

(km2)

AREA OF ICE CAPS AREA OF MOUNTAIN GLACIERS

Ice cap 1 18,911.3 Mountain 393 1,263.1

Mountain 73 300.1 Small 417 119.4

Small 611 398.9 Total 810 1,382.5

 Total 685 19,610.3 AREA OF SMALL GLACIERS

AREA OF TRANSITIONAL GLACIERIZATION Small 771 204.4

Transitional forms 8 2,866.1 EXTENT OF GLACIERIZATION (A) AND LENGTH 

OF GLACIER FRONTS (B), IN PERCENT

Mountain 94 296.1 Glacierization zone A B

Small 208 53.6 Ice cap 65.8 14.1

 Total 310 3,215.8 Transitional 41.5 2.0

Mountain 11.0 —

Small glaciers 2.0 —

62°E

60°E

60°E

62°E

64°E

66°E

64°E

66°E

76°N

75°N

75°N

76°N

N

0 25 MILES

0 25 KILOMETERS

Figure 44.—Landsat 1 MSS image of the 

central part of Novozemel’skiy ice cap

taken on 23 July 1973. Landsat image 

1365-07574 (1192006007320490), 

Path 192–Row 6, is from the U.S., 

Geological Survey, EROS Data Center, 

Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
F50 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Path–row Nominal scene-center

latitude and longitude

Landsat 

identification 

number

Date Code Cloud cover 

(percent) Remarks

CAUCASUS

180–31 41°40′N. 48°56′E. 2180031007620490 22 Jul 76 30

180–32 40°14′N. 48°26′E. 2180032007620490 22 Jul 76 30

181–31 41°40′N. 47°30′E. 2181031007624190 28 Aug 76 0

182–30 43°05′N. 46°36′E. 2182030007819580 14 Jul 78 50

182–31 41°40′N. 46°04′E. 2182031007819590 14 Jul 78 20

183–30 43°05′N. 45°10′E. 2183030007723790 25 Aug 77 0 Gora Kazbek

183–31 41°40′N. 44°38′E. 2183031007723790 25 Aug 77 0

184–30 43°05′N. 43°44′E. 2184030007725690 13 Sep 77 15 Gora Kazbek

185–30 43°05′N. 42°18′E. 2185030007619190 09 Jul 76 15 Gora El’bruz

186–29 44°30′N. 41°24′E. 3186029008018090 28 Jun 80 10

186–30 41°40′N. 40°20′E. 2186030007718690 05 Jul 77 70

187–29 44°30′N. 39°58′E. 3187029008122090 08 Aug 81 10

PAMIRS AND ALAYSKIY KHREBET

162–32 40°14′N. 74°15′E. 1162032007227090 26 Sep 72 0 Fresh snow

162–33 38°49′N. 73°46′E. 1162033007225290 08 Sep 72 10

162–34 37°24′N. 73°18′E. 2162034007622290 09 Aug 76 0

163–32 40°14′N. 72°49′E. 2163032007526490 21 Sep 75 35 Fresh snow

163–33 38°49′N. 72°20′E. 2163033007727190 28 Sep 77 0 Lednik Fedshenko

163–34 37°24′N. 71°52′E. 2163034007622390 10 Aug 76 5

164–32 40°14′N. 71°23′E. 2164032007720090 19 Jul 77 15

164–33 38°49′N. 70°54′E. 2164033007225490 10 Sep 72 20

165–32 40°14′N. 69°57′E. 2165032007521290 31 Jul 75 0

165–33 38°49′N. 69°28′E. 2165033007526690 23 Sep 75 5

166–32 40°14′N. 68°31′E. 1166032007227490 30 Sep 72 0

166–33 38°49′N. 68°02′E. 2166033007720290 21 Jul 77 5

TIEN SHAN

158–30 43°05′N. 81°01′E. 2158030007723090 18 Aug 77 0

158–31 41°40′N. 80°30′E. 2158031007629090 16 Oct 76 0

158–31 41°40′N. 80°30′E. 2158031007723090 18 Aug 77 0

159–30 43°05′N. 79°35′E. 2159030007522490 12 Aug 75 0

159–31 41°40′N. 79°04′E. 2159031007522490 12 Aug 75 0

159–31 41°40′N. 79°04′E. 1159031007326190 18 Sep 73 0

160–30 43°05′N. 78°09′E. 2160030007522590 13 Aug 75 0

160–31 41°40′N. 77°37′E. 2160031007522590 13 Aug 75 0

160–32 40°14′N. 77°07′E. 2160032007522590 13 Aug 75 0

161–30 43°05′N. 76°43′E. 2161030007622190 08 Aug 76 0

161–31 41°40′N. 76°11′E. 1161031007225190 07 Sep 72 10

161–32 40°14′N. 75°41′E. 2161032007529890 25 Oct 75 5 Snow

162–30 43°05′N. 75°17′E. 2162030007727090 27 Sep 77 0

Table 16.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of glaciers of the Former Soviet Union

[Code column indicates usability for glacier studies; see figure 45 for explanation]
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F51

Table 16.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of glaciers of the Former Soviet Union—Continued

[Code column indicates usability for glacier studies; see figure 45 for explanation]

Path–row Nominal scene-center

latitude and longitude

Landsat 

identification 

number

Date Code Cloud cover 

(percent) Remarks

162–31 41°40′N. 74°45′E. 2162031007727090 27 Sep 77 15

162–32 40°14′N. 74°15′E. 1162032007227090 26 Sep 72 0 Snow

163–30 43°05′N. 73°51′E. 2163030007723590 23 Aug 77 0

163–31 41°40′N. 73°19′E. 2163031007522890 16 Aug 75 0

164–30 43°05′N. 72°25′E. 2164030007723690 24 Aug 77 0

164–31 41°40′N. 71°53′E. 2164031007720090 19 Jul 77 20

165–31 41°40′N. 70°27′E. 2165031007723790 25 Aug 77 0

ZHONGGHAR ALATAŪ ZHOTASY

158–29 44°30′N. 81°34′E. 2158029007723090 18 Aug 77 0

159–29 44°30′N. 80°08′E. 2159029007723190 19 Aug 77 10

160–29 44°30′N. 78°42′E. 2160029007522590 13 Aug 75 0

RUSSIAN ALTAY

155–25 50°09′N. 88°17′E. 1155025007224590 01 Sep 72 0

155–26 48°44′N. 87°38′E. 1155026007224590 01 Sep 72 0

156–25 50°09′N. 86°50′E. 1156025007405590 24 Feb 74 NA Snow

157–25 50°09′N. 85°24′E. 3157025007922890 16 Aug 79 0

157–26 48°44′N. 84°46′E. 3157026007922890 16 Aug 79 0

SAŪYR ZHOTASY

156–27 47°20′N. 85°35′E. 2156027007518590 04 Jul 75 0

156–27 47°20′N. 85°35′E. 2156027007621690 03 Aug 76 10

KUZNETSKIY ALATAU

156–21 55°45′N. 89°47′E. No image

156–22 54°22′N. 88°59′E. 2156022007619890 16 Jul 76 35

157–21 55°45′N. 88°21′E. 3157021007921090 29 Jul 79 0

157–22 54°22′N. 87°33′E. 3157022007921090 29 Jul 79 0

SAYAN MOUNTAINS

148–23 52°58′N. 99°42′E. 1148023007330490 31 Oct 73 0 Snow

149–22 54°22′N. 99°01′E. 3149022007820790 26 Jul 78 10

150–22 54°22′N. 97°35′E. 215022007516190 10 Jun 75 35 Cloudy and Snow

150–23 52°58′N. 96°50′E. 215023007516190 10 Jun 75 50 Cloudy and Snow

KHREBET KODAR

137–20 57°08′N. 117°53′E. No usable image

138–20 57°08′N. 116°27′E. No usable image

GORA KHIBINY

202–12 67°59′N. 34°24′E. No image

203–12 67°59′N. 32°58′E. No usable image

URAL MOUNTAINS

179–12 67°59′N. 67°23′E. 1179012007306590 06 Mar 73 10

179–13 66°40′N. 65°45′E. 1179013007306590 06 Mar 73 20

179–14 65°20′N. 64°16′E. 1179014007306590 06 Mar 73 20

180–12 67°59′N. 65°57′E. No image
F52 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Path–row Nominal scene-center

latitude and longitude

Landsat 

identification 

number

Date Code Cloud cover 

(percent) Remarks

180–13 66°40′N. 64°19′E. 1180013007317490 23 Jun 73 60

180–14 65°20′N. 62°50′E. 1180014007322890 16 Aug 73 0

180–15 63°59′N. 61°29′E. 1180015007322890 16 Aug 73 0

180–16 62°38′N. 60°16′E. 1180016007322890 16 Aug 73 0

181–12 67°59′N. 64°31′E. 1181012007317590 24 Jun 73 70

181–13 66°40′N. 62°52′E. 1181013007317590 24 Jun 73 60

181–14 65°20′N. 61°24′E. 1181014007317590 24 Jun 73 70

181–15 63°59′N. 60°03′E. 1181015007317590 24 Jun 73 90

182–14 65°20′N. 59°58′E. 1182014007317690 25 Jun 73 0

182–15 63°59′N. 58°37′E. 1182015007317690 25 Jun 73 10

PLATO PUTORANA

157–12 67°59′N. 98°56′E. 1157012007324190 29 Aug 73 50

157–13 66°40′N. 97°18′E. 1157013007324190 29 Aug 73 40

158–11 69°17′N. 99°19′E. 1158011007324290 30 Aug 73 10

158–12 67°59′N. 97°30′E. 1158012007324290 30 Aug 73 40

158–13 66°40′N. 95°52′E. 1158013007324290 30 Aug 73 40

159–11 69°17′N. 93°53′E. 1159011007320790 26 Jul 73 20 Snow

159–12 67°59′N. 96°04′E. No usable image

159–13 66°40′N. 94°26′E. No usable image

160–11 69°17′N. 96°27′E. No usable image

160–12 67°59′N. 94°38′E. 1160012007322690 14 Aug 73 40 Not seen

160–13 66°40′N. 93°00′E. 1160013007322690 14 Aug 73 20 Not seen

161–11 69°17′N. 95°01′E. No image

161–12 67°59′N. 93°12′E. 1161012007322790 15 Aug 73 30

161–13 66°40′N. 91°34′E. 1161013007322790 15 Aug 73 30

162–11 69°17′N. 93°35′E. No image

162–12 67°59′N. 91°46′E. No image

163–11 69°17′N. 92°09′E. No image

164–11 69°17′N. 90°43′E. No image

GORY BYRRANGA

158–6 75°25′N. 112°39′E. 1158006007320690 25 Jul 73 10

159–6 75°25′N. 111°13′E. 1159006007320790 26 Jul 73 60

160–6 75°25′N. 109°47′E. No image

161–6 75°25′N. 108°21′E. No image

162–6 75°25′N. 106°55′E. No image

163–6 75°25′N. 105°29′E. No usable image

164–6 75°25′N. 104°03′E. No usable image

KHREBET ORULGAN

135–13 66°40′N. 128°51′E. No image

135–14 65°20′N. 127°22′E. No image

Table 16.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of glaciers of the Former Soviet Union—Continued

[Code column indicates usability for glacier studies; see figure 45 for explanation]
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F53

Table 16.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of glaciers of the Former Soviet Union—Continued

[Code column indicates usability for glacier studies; see figure 45 for explanation]

Path–row Nominal scene-center

latitude and longitude

Landsat 

identification 

number

Date Code Cloud cover 

(percent) Remarks

136–12 67°59′N. 129°03′E. 1136012007323890 26 Aug 73 70

136–13 66°40′N. 127°25′E. 1136013007323890 26 Aug 73 80

136–14 65°20′N. 125°56′E. 1136014007323890 26 Aug 73 20

137–12 67°59′N. 127°37′E. 1137012007323990 26 Aug 73 70

137–13 66°40′N. 125°59′E. 1137013007314990 29 May 73 20 Snow

KHREBET SUNTAR–KHAYATA

122–16 62°38′N. 143°27′E. 1122016007230290 28 Oct 72 0 Snow

122–17 61°16′N. 142°19′E. 1122017007230290 28 Oct 72 0 Snow

123–16 62°38′N. 142°01′E. 1123016007220790 26 Jul 72 50 Not seen

123–17 61°16′N. 140°53′E. 1123017007220790 26 Jul 72 20 Not seen

124–16 62°38′N. 140°35′E. 1124016007228690 12 Oct 72 20 Snow

124–17 61°16′N. 139°27′E. 1124017007228690 12 Oct 72 20 Not seen

125–16 62°38′N. 139°09′E. 1125016007319190 10 Jul 73 40 Not seen

125–17 61°16′N. 138°01′E. 1125017007324590 02 Sep 73 20 Not seen

KHREBET CHERSKOGO

122–14 65°20′N. 146°01′E. 1122014007230290 28 Oct 72 0 Snow

123–13 66°40′N. 146°04′E. 1123013007308190 22 Mar 73 0 Snow

123–14 65°20′N. 144°35′E. 1123014007308190 22 Mar 73 0 Snow

124–13 66°40′N. 144°38′E. 1124013007228690 12 Oct 72 20 Snow

124–14 65°20′N. 143°09′E. 1124014007228690 12 Oct 72 30 Snow

125–13 66°40′N. 143°12′E. 1125013007319190 10 Jul 73 40 Not seen

125–14 65°20′N. 141°43′E. 1125014007319190 10 Jul 73 30 Not seen

126–13 66°40′N. 141°46′E. 1126013007308490 25 Mar 73 0 Snow

126–14 65°20′N. 140°17′E. 1126014007308490 25 Mar 73 0 Snow

127–13 66°40′N. 140°20′E. 1127013007308590 26 Mar 73 0 Snow

127–14 65°20′N. 138°51′E. 1127014007308590 26 Mar 73 0 Snow

128–12 67°59′N. 140°32′E. 1128012007225490 10 Sep 72 15 Snow

128–13 66°40′N. 138°54′E. 1128013007225490 10 Sep 72 20 Snow

128–14 65°20′N. 137°25′E. 1128014007321290 31 Jul 73 70

129–12 67°59′N. 139°06′E. 1129012007227390 29 Sep 72 60 Snow

129–13 66°40′N. 137°27′E. 1129013007227390 29 Sep 72 20 Snow

130–12 67°59′N. 137°40′E. 1130012007307090 11 Mar 73 0 Snow

KORYAKSKOYE NAGOR’YE (UPLAND)

101–16 62°38′N. 173°34′E. 1101016007426990 26 Sep 74 30 Snow

101–17 61°16′N. 172°26′E. 1101017007322090 08 Aug 73 70

101–17 61°16′N. 172°26′E. 2101017007518390 02 Jul 75 20

102–16 62°38N. 172°08′E. 1102016007421690 04 Aug 74 30

102–17 61°16′N. 171°00′E. 1102017007421690 04 Aug 74 30

102–17 61°16′N. 171°00′E. 2102017007523890 26 Aug 75 30

103–17 61°16′N. 169°34′E. 1103017007409190 01 Apr 74 0 Snow
F54 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Table 16.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of glaciers of the Former Soviet Union—Continued

[Code column indicates usability for glacier studies; see figure 45 for explanation]

Path–row Nominal scene-center

latitude and longitude

Landsat 

identification 

number

Date Code Cloud cover 

(percent) Remarks

KAMCHATKA

106–20 57°08′N. 162°21′E. 2106020007524290 30 Aug 75 50

106–21 55°45′N. 161°30′E. 2106021007609390 02 Apr 76 60 Snow

107–19 58°31′N. 161°49′E. No usable image

107–20 57°08′N. 160°55′E. No image

107–21 55°45′N. 160°04′E. 1107021007331690 12 Nov 73 0 Snow

107–22 54°22′N. 159°16′E. 1107022007302890 28 Jan 73 50 Snow

107–23 52°58′N. 158°31′E. 1107023007225090 06 Sep 72 70

107–24 51°34′N. 157°48′E. 1107024007232290 17 Nov 72 20 Snow

108–19 58°31′N. 160°23′E. No usable image

108–20 57°08′N. 159°29′E. 1108020007304890 17 Feb 73 0 Snow

108–21 55°45′N. 158°38′E. 1108021007225290 08 Sep 72 80

108–21 55°45′N. 158°38′E. 1108021007304890 17 Feb 73 0 Snow

108–22 54°22′N. 157°50′E. 1108022007225290 08 Sep 72 80

108–22 54°22′N. 157°50′E. 1108022007304890 17 Feb 73 30 Snow

108–23 52°58′N. 157°05′E. 1108023007225290 08 Sep 72 10

108–24 51°34′N. 156°22′E. 1108024007225290 08 Sep 72 10

109–19 58°31′N. 158°57′E. No image

109–20 57°08′N. 158°03′E. 3109020007923390 21 Aug 79 70

109–21 55°45′N. 157°12′E. 3109021007923390 21 Aug 79 80

109–22 54°22′N. 156°24′E. 3109022007923390 21 Aug 79 50

FRANZ JOSEF LAND

210–1 80°01′N. 65°28′E. No image

211–1 80°01′N. 64°02′E. No image

212–1 80°01′N. 62°35′E. No image

213–1 80°01′N. 61°09′E. No image

214–1 80°01′N. 59°43′E. No image

215–1 80°01′N. 58°17′E. No image

216–1 80°01′N. 56°51′E. No image

217–1 80°01′N. 55°25′E. No image

218–1 80°01′N. 53°59′E. No image

219–1 80°01′N. 52°33′E. No image

220–1 80°01′N. 51°07′E. 3220001197813790 17 May 78 90

221–1 80°01′N. 49°41′E. No image.

222–1 80°01′N. 48°15′E. No image

223–1 80°01′N. 46°49′E. No image

224–1 80°01′N. 45°23′E. No image

225–1 80°01′N. 43°57′E. 3225001197817690 25 Jun 78 60
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F55

Table 16.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of glaciers of the Former Soviet Union—Continued

[Code column indicates usability for glacier studies; see figure 45 for explanation]

Path–row Nominal scene-center

latitude and longitude

Landsat 

identification 

number

Date Code Cloud cover 

(percent) Remarks

SEVERNAYA ZEMLYA

171–3 78°29′N. 107°59′E. 1171003197412490 04 May 74 80

172–3 78°29′N. 106°33′E. No image

173–3 78°29′N. 105°07′E. No image

174–3 78°29′N. 103°40′E. No image

175–2 79°19′N. 108°29′E. 1175002197320690 25 Jul 73 10

175–3 78°29′N. 102°14′E. 1175003197320690 25 Jul 73 10 Line drops

176–2 79°19′N. 107°03′E. 1176002197320690 25 Jul 73 10

176–3 78°29′N. 100°48′E. 1176003197320690 25 Jul 73 0

177–2 79°19′N. 105°37′E. No image

177–3 78°29′N. 99°22′E. 1177003197322590 13 Aug 73 70

178–2 79°19′N. 104°11′E. No image

178–3 78°29′N. 97°56′E. No image

179–2 79°19′N. 102°45′E. No image

179–3 78°29′N. 96°30′E. No image

180–2 79°19′N. 101°19′E. 1180002197519290 11 Jul 75 60 Line drops

180–3 78°29′N. 95°04′E. No image

181–2 79°19′N. 99°53′E. No image

182–2 79°19′N. 98°27′E. No image

183–2 79°19′N. 97°01′E. No image

184–2 79°19′N. 95°35′E. 2184002197610190 10 Apr 76 10 Snowy

185–1 80°01′N. 101°19′E. No image

185–2 79°19′N. 94°09′E. No image

186–1 80°01′N. 99°53′E. No image

186–2 79°19′N. 92°43′E. No image

187–1 80°01′N. 98°27′E. No image

187–2 79°19′N. 91°17′E. No image

188–1 80°01′N. 97°01′E. 1188001197320190 20 Jul 73 40

189–1 80°01′N. 95°35′E. 1189001197320190 20 Jul 73 40

190–1 80°01′N. 94°09′E. No image

191–1 80°01′N. 92°43′E. 1191001197520390 22 Jul 75 10 Line drops

192–1 80°01′N. 91°17′E. No image

193–1 80°01′N. 89°51′E. No image
F56 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Path 150

Path

160

Path 170

Path 180

Row

20

Row

10

Row

20

Row

10

Path

150

Path

190

Path

200

Path

210

Path

220

5°E 10°E 15°E 20°E 130°E 140°E 150°E

50°E 120°E

55°E 60°E 65°E 105°E

60°E

100°E

100°E

80°E 95°E

80°E

85°E

70°N

65°N

65°N

60°N

60°N

75°N

55°N

70°E 90°E

110°E

30°E

70°E 75°E 90°E

EXCELLENT IMAGE – 0 to 5 percent cloud cover.

GOOD IMAGE – 5 to 10 percent cloud cover.

FAIR TO POOR IMAGE – 10 to 100 percent cloud cover.

≤

> ≤

> <

NO USABLE IMAGE

NO IMAGE

NOMINAL SCENE CENTER – For a Landsat image

outside the area of glaciers of the former Soviet Union.

EXPLANATION

70°N

Franz Josef Land

Svalbard

Novaya

Severnaya

Zemlya

Gor

Khibiny

a

Ural

Mountains

Gory

Byrranga

Plato

Putorana

Zemlya

Ostrov

Victoriya

Ufa

Tyumen

Noril`sk

Syktyvkar

Sverdlovsk

Arkangel'sk

Murmansk

Figure 45.—Index map of the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the Former Soviet Union.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F57

Magadan

Yakutsk

Blagoveshchensk

Row

20

Path

140

Path

170

Path 130

Path

120

Path

110

Path 100

Row

10

Row 10

Row

20

Path 130

Path

120

Path

110

Path 100

Path 170

Path 140

Path 150

Path 160

Path

150

Path

160

90°E 100°E 110°E 120°E 130°E 140°E 150°E 160°E 170°E 180° 170°W 160°W

65°N

60°N

55°N

50°N

120°E 125°E 130°E 135°E 140°E 145°E 150°E 155°E 160°E 165°E

65°N

60°N

50°N

EXCELLENT IMAGE – 0 to 5 percent cloud cover.

GOOD IMAGE – 5 to 10 percent cloud cover.

FAIR TO POOR IMAGE – 10 to 100 percent cloud cover.

≤

> ≤

> <

EXPLANATION

55°N

70°N

NO USABLE IMAGE

NO IMAGE

NOMINAL SCENE CENTER – For a Landsat image

outside the area of glaciers of the former Soviet Union.

Gory

Byrranga

Ostrova

De-Longa

Khrebet

Orulgan

Khrebet

Cherskogo

Khrebet

Suntar-Khayata

Khrebet

Kodar

Kamchatka

Koryakskoye

Nagor’ye

Figure 45.—Index map of the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the Former Soviet Union. (Continued)
F58 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Path

160

Path

Path

190

Path

180

Path

170

150

Row

30

Row

30

Path

Path

150

170

Path

160

Path

190

Path

180

Row 20

Row 20

PAKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

IRAN

IRAQ

TURKMENISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

TAJIKISTAN CHINA

RUSSIA

MONGOLIA

TURKEY

GEORGIA

AZERBAIJAN

Caspian

Sea

TIEN SHAN

KAZAKHSTAN

ARM.

ALTAY

CAUCASUS

PAMIRS

KYRGYSTAN

KUZNETSKIY ALATAU

SAYAN

ZAUYR

ZHONGGHAR ALATAU

50°E 55°E 60°E 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E

35°E 40°E 45°E 50°E 55°E 60°E 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E 100°E

55°N

50°N

45°N

40°N

35°N

50°N

45°N

40°N

35°N

EXPLANATION

EXCELLENT IMAGE – 0 to 5 percent cloud cover.

GOOD IMAGE – 5 to 10 percent cloud cover.

FAIR TO POOR IMAGE – 10 to 100 percent cloud cover.

≤

> ≤

> <

NO IMAGE.

NOMINAL SCENE CENTER For a Landsat image outside the area of glaciers

of the former Soviet Union.

–

45°E

Omsk

Almaty

Tashkent

Tehran Baghdad

Moscow

Ufa

Perm' Sverdlovsk

Chelyabinsk Novosibirsk

Urumqi

Figure 45.—Index map of the optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the Former Soviet Union. (Continued)
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F59

Fluctuations of Glaciers of the Central 

Caucasus and Gora El’brus, with a Section 

on the Glaciological Disaster in North Osetiya1

By V.M. Kotlyakov2, O.V. Rototaeva2, and G.A. Nosenko2

Introduction

The volcanic massif of Gora El’brus in the central Caucasus has 16 large 

glaciers and 9 smaller, peripheral ones (figs. 46, 47, 48). The  largest glaciers 

are: Lednik Bol’shoy Azau (10.2  km long, 19.6  km2 in area) on the southern 

slope and the vast Dzhikiugankez Floe on the northern slope formed by two 

glaciers, Ledniki Birdzhalychiran and Chungurchatchiran, that cover a total area 

of 27.8 km2. At present, the total area of glaciers on Gora El’brus is 125.2 km2

(Zolotarev and Khar’kovets, 2000).

Glacier observations began here in the middle of the 19th century. 

The  first instrumental survey of glaciers was done by military topographers 

from 1887 to 1890; a map at a scale of 1:42,000 was compiled. During the 

International Geophysical Year, an expedition of the Department of Geography 

of Moscow University compiled a detailed map of the entire massif at a scale 

of 1:10,000; it was based on phototheodolite surveys and aerial photography. 

Repeated surveys were done in 1981, 1987, and 1997.

Glacier retreat has been a continuous general trend for the El’brus massif 

for more than 150 years, although the rate of retreat has not been constant 

(table 17). During the first century of observations (1850–1957), the average 

annual retreat of all glaciers, including area and length, was slightly greater 

during the first 37 years (1850–1887) than during the following 70 years. 

During the 70-year period (1887-1957), glaciers on the northern slope of 

El’brus retreated more than 600 m; those on the southern slope retreated more 

than 1,100 m, and glaciers in the western sector decreased in length by at least 

300–400 m (Kravtsova and Loseva, 1968). Small advances of glacier termini 

were recorded during the period 1910 to 1914 and at the end of the 1920s. 

During the subsequent 30-year period, 1957–1987, there was an increase 

in winter precipitation, and summer temperatures remained close to the norm; 

this caused the average annual retreat of El’brus glaciers to slow by 1.2 times. 

One exception, however, was the continued dramatic retreat of Lednik Bol’shoy 

Azau (see table 17). This was because a great mass of stagnant ice that was at 

the terminus of the glacier in 1959 melted and had completely disappeared 

by 1969. If one subtracts the melting of the stagnant ice, the retreat of the 

glacier terminus was only about 350 m. The  tongues of Dzhikiugankez Floe 

exhibited the greatest rate of retreat during this time (see the measurements 

of the Ledniki Birdzhalychiran and Chungurchatchiran in table 17). In contrast 

to the general retreat of Lednik Bol’shoy Azau during this period, other 

glaciers, including Ledniki Kukurtli, Bityuktyube, Ullu-kam, Ulluchiran, and 

Ullumalienderku, were temporarily advancing. 

During the following decade (1987 to 1997), aerial photography of 

Moscow State University (MSU) documented the advance of 8 glaciers out 

of the 16 (Zolotarev and Khar’kovets, 2000) and the other 8 showed much 

slower retreat. To determine the glacial fluctuation from 1997 to 2004, the 

locations of glacier termini on large-scale aerial photographs taken in 1987 
F60 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

N

0

0 2 KILOMETERS

2 MILES

Scale is approximate

1

1

Lednik

Ullumalienderku

Lednik

Birdzhalychiran

Lednik

Kukurtli

Lednik

Karachaul

Lednik

Ullukol

Lednik

Mikel’chiran

Lednik

Irikchat

Lednik

Irik

Lednik

Terskol

Lednik

Garabashi

Lednik

Maliy Azau

Lednik

Bityuktyube

Lednik

Ulluchiran

Lednik

Chungurchatchiran

N

0

0 2 KILOMETERS

2 MILES

Scale is approximate

Lednik Irik

Lednik Terskol

Lednik

Maliy

Azau

Figure 46.—Image of Gora El’brus (lat 43°21′N., long 42°26′E.) and its 

glaciers taken on 25 August 2002. Image from the International Space 

Station. Mission ISS005, Roll E., Frame 11193.

Figure 47.—ASTER Image of the glaciers on the southern slope of Gora 

El’brus taken on 15 September 2001. Compare with Figures 46 and 48. 

ASTER image AST_LIB.003:2004260219.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F61

N

0

0 5 KILOMETERS

5 MILES

Scale is approximate

Figure 48.—Map of the glaciers of Gora 

El’brus (lat 43°21′N., long 42°26′E.). 

From the World Atlas of Ice and Snow 

Resources (Kotlyakov, 1997).

Table 17.—Changes in the position of the termini of El’brus glaciers during different periods of observation

[Unit: m a-1, meters per year]

Name of glacier

1850–18871 1887–19572 1957–19872 1987–19973 1987–2001/044

37 years 70 years 30 years 10 years 15 years

Bol’shoy Azau -550 -1,130 -1,150 -150 -300

Maliy Azau -410 -637 -200 0 -70

Garabashi -290 -1225 -70 0, -20 -50 right

Terskol -430 -675 -60 0 -80 left

Irik -270 -1,162 -355 -60 -75

Irikchat -470 -750 -250 -170 -180, -200

Chungurchatchiran -110 -925 -590 -200, +160 -165

Birdzhalychiran -1,440 -850 -845 +90 -260

Mikel’chiran -510 -525 -165 0 -130

Ullumalienderku -460 -175 -120 +100 0

Ullukol -380 -620 -205 -50 -50

Karachaul -270 -275 -30 0, +3 -150

Ulluchiran -240 -1,225 -220 +100 0

Bityuktyube -80 -500 -20 +130 0

Kukurtli -190 -275 +110 -90 -100

Ullu-Kam -430 -320 +40 0 0

Average velocity of termini 

retreat (m a–1)

-11 -10.1 -8.6 -1.2 -6.5

1

Kravtsova and Loseva (1968). 2Zolotarev (1997). 3Zolotarev and Khar’kovets (2000). 4Nosenko and Rototaeva (this study).
F62 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

were compared with those on space images from ASTER in 2001 and 2004, 

and with digital camera images from the International Space Station (ISS) in 

2002. The ASTER images, having a picture element (pixel) resolution of 15 m 

in three spectral ranges (Band 1, 0.52–0.60 μm; Band 2, 0.63 –0.69 mm; and 

Band 3, 0.78–0.86 mm), were transformed to the WGS-84 projection. They 

are quite accurate for interpreting the boundaries of most large- and medium 

sized glaciers and for determining the conditions of the glacial surfaces based 

on differences in spectral reflectance in their accumulation and ablation areas. 

For more accurate identification of the position of the termini, very distinct 

perspective images from the ISS, with a pixel resolution of 5 m, as well as 2004 

photographs taken from a helicopter supplied by the Moscow Institute of 

Electrical Engineering (MIEE), were used. 

The difference between data obtained by MSU for the period 1987 to 

1998 and our data for 1987 to 2001/2004 is very evident. From 1987 to 1997, 

conditions were very favorable for the existence of glaciers on Gora El’brus and 

in the whole Caucasus region. Lednik Garabashi had positive mass balances 

during 6 of the 10 years; and for 3 years there were slightly negative mass 

balances. The period from 1997 to 2001/2004 included the anomalous years 

of 1998 to 2001, in which rapid melting of glaciers occurred throughout the 

entire Caucasus and there was a great loss of ice on El’brus glaciers (Rototaeva 

and others, 2003). As a result, almost all of the El’brus glaciers retreated from 

1987 to 2002, and the ones which had been advancing until 1997 had retreated 

approximately to their 1987 positions by 2002 (see table  17). Substantial 

melting occurred on Dzhikiugankez Floe. Part of the terminus of Lednik 

Chungurchatchiran lost an area of 100×60 m of ice, and the neighboring Lednik 

Birdzhalychiran changed its shape completely. The central part of the terminus 

preserved features of the former flow and retreated only slightly, but the right 

and the left parts of the tongue retreated 260–300 m. The  marginal zone of 

the right side of the tongue melted most rapidly, and many lakes formed in the 

recessional moraines; some of the lakes were as long as 400 to 500 m (fig. 49).

Aerial photographs and space images have made it possible to identify 

surging glaciers and individual glacier surges on El’brus. Historically, many 

accounts exist of surge-like occurrences observed during field investigations. 

In  1849, G. Abikh discovered an intrusion of Lednik Bol’shoy Azau into a 

100-years-old pine forest; broken pine trees and ice debris were piled together 

before a high glacier front. It was probably a glacier surge, a conclusion made 

more likely by later observations. In 1911, H. Burmester documented another 

surge of Lednik Bol’shoy Azau. The front of the tongue had a steep slope, there 

was strong fissuring of the lower icefall, and there was swelling of the glacier 

surface between 2,600 and 2,700 m. By 1920, the glacier had advanced by 

50 m. In the 1970s, Lednik Bol’shoy Azau advanced again, this time by 120 m; 

the greatest rates of terminus advance were noted in 1975, 1977, and 1979 

— up to 34 m a-1 (Panov, 1993). In addition, the height of the glacier surface 

increased by 8.5 m, and the tongue acquired the form of a drop (Martyshev, 

1980). The interval between each of these three surges of Lednik Bol’shoy Azau

was approximately 60 years.

Recently, Lednik Bol’shoy Azau has been continually retreating; however, 

one more surge has been noted. On aerial photographs taken in 1987, it can be 

seen that the glacier surface in the lower part of the icefall expanded, swelled, 

and acquired a convex form (fig. 50). A series of wide ogives shows that the ice 

is pushed through the narrowest gap in sections. A kinematic wave is traveling 

down the glacier, and a “new” tongue has started to advance on the surface of 

the tongue covered by a continuous mantle cover. Its frontal part is dissected 

by a dense network of oblique and arc-like fissures that illustrate the strong 

ice pressure.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F63

In the following years, the advancing white tongue became more 

noticeable, and, during 1991, the “new” tongue advanced by 40 m; its surface 

in some places became higher by 10–12 m (Zolotarev, 1997). In  addition, 

the new ice was separated from the old ice by a pressure ridge up to 5 m high. 

Similar ramparts on the tongue’s surface had been noted during previous 

surges — in 1973, as well as 1956. Finally, on a 2002 image from the ISS, the 

white tongue extends even farther and has become narrower (see fig. 50).

This change in the longitudinal profile of the glacier is typical of surging 

ice; it is caused by the pulsation as well as the great decrease in the thickness 

and volume of the tongue in the first few years after advance begins — in this 

case, from 1987 until 1991. Later, the glacier became 4–5 times slower and a 

great volume of stagnant ice formed on the rapidly melting tongue (Seinova 

and Zolotarev, 2001).

N

0

0 1 KILOMETER

1 MILE

Scale is approximate

Figure 49.—Part of the 25 August 2002 International Space Station image (fig. 46) enlarged 

to show the lake-moraine complex near the terminus of the retreating Lednik Birdzhalytchiran, 

Gora El’brus (in the center). Lednick Chungurchatchiran is to the right.
F64 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

N

1957

1987

1990

2002

0

0 1 KILOMETER

1 MILE

Scale is approximate

0

0 1 KILOMETER

1 MILE

Scale is approximate

0

0 1 KILOMETER

1 MILE

Scale is approximate

0

0 0.25 KILOMETERS

0.25 MILES

Scale is approximate

Figure 50.—Aerial and space photographs of Lednik Bol’shoy Azau, Gora El’brus, showing changes in the terminus shape and 

position. 1957 and 1987 scenes are aerial photographs, the 1990 image was photographed from a helicopter on 20 August, 

and the 2002 image was taken from the International Space Station. See figure 48 for location.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F65

Obviously, such surges of ice occur on the glacier regularly and are caused 

by ice being constricted in the rock gap of Bol’shoy Azau. Huge amounts of 

ice from two glacier flow directions enter the narrowest part of the gap at an 

elevation of 3,200 m, and the release of stress results in pulsations.

Other glaciers of the El’brus complex are also notable  for 

unstable  dynamics. A  1987 survey noted a kinematic wave at the very end of 

Lednik Ullumalienderku; the terminus showed considerable cracking (fig. 51). 

The  height of its front had increased by 40 m in comparison to its height in 

1957, although during this period the glacier terminus retreated by 150 m. 

At  the beginning of the 1970s, Lednik Terskol was advancing (Martyshev, 

1983). In  1980, a surge of the right side of Lednik Ulluchiran took place. Its 

surface rose by 20–25 m and was dissected by fissures, and its terminus had a 

steep front that had advanced by 150–200 m. Its shape became like a “paw,” a 

characteristic of other surge-type glaciers (Voloditcheva and others, 1983; 

Voitkovsky and others, 1989).

Figure 51.—Aerial photograph (1987) of the terminus of Lednik Ullumalienderku, 

Gora El’brus, during a surge event. See figure 46 for location.

N

0

0 0.5 KILOMETER

0.5 MILE

Scale is approximate
F66 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Pulsations are also characteristic of the Kukurtli glacier complex on 

the western slope of El’brus (fig. 52). Lednik Maliy Kukurtli (part of glacier 

No. 316) experienced a large surge in the 1960s. In 1981, a sheer high front of a 

small revived glacier (No. 317), dissected by large fissures, advanced and overhung the left moraine of the Kukurtli tongue, and, in the following 1 to 2 years, 

it reached the edge of the main glacier. In 2002, glacier No. 317 was completely 

backed by moraine and showed no signs of activity at all.

A surge of the main Lednik Kukurtli (no. 318) took place at the beginning 

of the 1980s. By 1983, the glacier had advanced 60 to 100 m. The  surface 

near its terminus rose by 30–40 m; along a distance of 1.5 km, the ice volume 

increased by 7.2×106 m3. Farther up the glacier, 2  km from the end of the 

tongue, the surface lowered by 5 to 10 m (Vinnikov and Labutina, 1987). 

Space images acquired from 2002 to 2004 show that the glacier terminus has 

retreated approximately 100 m since 1987, but this retreat cannot be accurately 

measured because the entire glacier terminus was buried under the moraine 

(see fig. 52).

The shape of Lednik Kukurtli favors its periodic pulsations. Its vast firn 

fields are positioned so that orographic uplift of moisture-laden air masses 

bring frequent periods of precipitation; as a result, great amounts of snow accumulate. The glacier tongue is separated from the firn area by a lava escarpment 

and a 500-m icefall. The large amounts of firn and ice that accumulate on the 

steep stepped slopes are periodically pushed through the icefall towards the 

long tongue.

Measurements made on space images of the El’brus glaciers and of 65 other 

glaciers of the Central Caucasus showed considerable retreat of almost all large 

glaciers from 1987 to 2001/2004 (fig. 53, table 18). The tongues of the following 

glaciers retreated the most: Karaugom (almost 600 m) (fig. 54); Shaurtu, 

Rtsyvashki, and Midagrabin (about 300 m); Skhelda and Bashil’ (more than 

200 m); and Tseya and Skazka (160 m). In addition, Lednik Ailama — the former 

tributary of Lednik Dykh-Su — became detached and isolated; it was separated 

from the tongue of the main glacier by large amounts of stagnant ice (figs. 53, 55).

Fluctuations of even adjacent glaciers are not always synchronous, 

however, and sometimes can have an opposite sign. It depends on characteristics of morphology, exposure, type of nourishment of a glacier, its 

internal dynamics, and so forth. Thus, for example, the largest glacier of the 

Caucasus — Bezengi — continues to retreat, whereas the adjacent Lednik 

Mizhirgichiran continues to advance, bulldozing a push moraine before it 

(figs. 53, 56).

Glaciological Disaster in North Osetiya

On 20 September 2002, a disaster took place in the Genaldon river valley 

of North Osetiya, north of Gora Kazbek (lat 42°42′N., long 44°31′E.). Huge 

masses of ice, water, and debris burst from the head of the valley, rushed swiftly 

16  km down the valley, sweeping everything before it, shearing off forest, 

and scraping off unconsolidated deposits on slopes up to a height of 100 m. 

The  ice and water-saturated debris avalanche (jökulhlaup) was stopped by 

a transverse ridge of Skalistyy Khrebet just before the river entered a narrow 

gap. The  entire bottom of Karmadon basin was under glacial debris about 

4  km long, 60 m thick on the average, and in some places up to 130 m (fig. 

57, 58A, 58B). Downstream in the gap, a water-saturated mudflow, including 

ice debris, caused further destruction along 17 more kilometers. Several recreation sites were destroyed, a tunnel on a highway was blocked, and the Nizhni 

Karmadon settlement was completely demolished. More than 100 people died. 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F67

1981

317

317

2004

316

318

318

GLACIER NUMBER

EXPLANATION

318318

00

1 KILOMETER

1 MILE

Scale is approximate

00

1 KILOMETER

1 MILE

Scale is approximate

N N

Figure 52.—Photographs (1981 and 2004) of the Lednik Kukurtli, Gora El’brus. The 1981 image is an aerial photograph; the July 2004 photograph was taken from a helicopter by I.V. Galushkin, Info Terra. Numbers refer to discussion in the text on p. F66. See figure 46 for location.
F68 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

7 GLACIER NUMBER–Listed in table 18

EXPLANATION N

0

0 5 KILOMETERS

5 MILES

Scale is approximate

Figure 53.—ASTER image taken on 15 September 2001, showing glaciers of 

the central Caucasus (approximate lat 43°N., long 43°E.). Numbers correlate with 

glaciers listed in table 18. ASTER image AST_LIB.003: 2004260219.

Table 18.—Changes in the position of glacier termini from 1987 to 2001/04 in the Tcherek River basin

[Abbreviations: km, kilometer; masl, meters above sea level; m, meter]

Name of glacier Morphological type

(of glacier) Exposure Length(km)

Area

(km2)

Height of terminus

(masl)

The highest 

point

(masl)

Change of length

(m)

1 Bezengi Compound-valley NE 17.6 36.2 2,080 5,050 -190

2 Misses Hanging corrie NW 1.9 1.1 2,980 4,070 0

3 No. 32 Corrie-valley NW 3.1 1.4 2,720 4,650 -90

4 Mizhirgitchiran Compound-valley N 8.8 9.9 2,380 4,670 150

5 Ukyu Corrie-valley NE 2.4 1.6 3,260 3,740 -80

6 Ulluazna Compound-valley NE 7.0 6.0 2,600 4,760 0

7 Dykh-su Compound-valley E, NE 13.3 34 2,070 5,150 -200

8 Khrumkol Valley SE 5.6 7.2 3,060 5,150 0

9 Tyutyun Valley SE 5.0 2.8 2,540 3,850 -180
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F69

N

0

0 3 KILOMETERS

3 MILES

Scale is approximate

Figure 54.—Image taken from the 

International Space Station in 2002, 

showing the retreating Lednik Karaugom (lat 42°48′N., long 43°44′E.). 

Note that cirques of tributary glaciers 

are becoming partially ice free.

N

Figure 55.—Aerial photograph taken in July 2004 of the terminus of Lednik Ailama (top right) 

and the stagnant terminus of Lednik Dykh-su (approximate lat 43°N., long 43°E.) covered with 

debris. This area is also shown on figure 53. Lednik Dykh-su is number 7. Photograph was 

taken from a helicopter by I.V. Galushkin, Info Terra.
F70 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Figure 56.—Photograph taken in August 2003 of the advancing front of Lednik Mizhirgitchiran (approximate 

lat 43°N., long 43°E.) taken by Yu.G. Iljitchev. See glacier number 4 on figure 53.

Figure 57.—Oblique aerial photograph of avalanche debris in the Karmadon basin caused by the 

20 September 2002 catastrophic collapse of the Lednik Kolka. The view is looking north toward 

the narrow gorge in Skalistyy Khrebet that halted the avalanche. Photograph from the Geological 

Survey of North Osetiya.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F71

In  a tributary valley near the Saniba settlement, the glacier avalanche debris 

dammed the valley, forming a lake; its level continued to increase during the 

month after the glacial outburst flood (jökulhlaup) (fig. 59).

Lednik Kolka, a surge-type glacier noted for its historical record of repeated 

surges, had caused the disaster. Previous surges took place in 1835, 1902, and 

1969 at intervals of about 70 years. The surge of 1902 ended in a similar glacial 

outburst flood that traveled 9 km, but it was not as destructive. In 1969/1970, a 

surge occurred that followed the “typical” scenario, the tongue advanced 4 km 

during a three month period without disastrous aftereffects. The  glacier was 

studied in detail for many years by expeditions of the Institute of Geography, 

Russian Academy of Science (IGRAS) (Rototaev and others, 1983).

In contrast with earlier surges, only 32 years passed between the 1970 

surge and the 2002 disaster. Interestingly, the glacier left its cirque completely, 

so that its bed became completely empty. In the empty glacial cirque (fig. 60) 

there was a cloud of vapor and gas with a strong smell of hydrogen sulphide 

for many days. An icy scarp was detected on the right margin of the glacier 

cirque — a steep rocky slope with hanging glaciers. In  addition, a large part 

of the firn-ice fields under the ridge crest had disappeared. It was first thought 

that a great fall of ice, which struck the glacier and made it collapse, was the 

N

A B

Figure 58.—Two ASTER images of the Genaldon river valley, scene of the Lednik Kolka disaster. 

The distance from Gora Dzhimara to Skalistyy Khrebet is about 18 km. A, Section of the 22 July 

2001 image taken before the disaster. ASTER image AST_LIB. 003: 2003583778. B, Annotated 

27 September 2002 image taken after the 2002 disaster, showing locations of the Lednik Kolka

terminus after earlier surges. ASTER image AST_LIA. 003:2008557907.
F72 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

cause of the disaster. However, evidence and photographs of mountaineer 

witnesses showed that the unusually active destruction of ice and rock on the 

slope had already begun in summer, and by the beginning of September, this 

ice scarp had already been completely formed.

To investigate the causes, mechanism, and possible aftereffects of the 

September 2002 destructive process, many data sources were used, including 

multispectral Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission Radiometer (ASTER) 

images from the Terra spacecraft, images taken with a digital camera on the 

International Space Station (ISS), and observations from aerial and surface 

investigations of the glacier region, made by an expedition of IGRAS in the 

summer of 2003 (Kotlyakov, Kerimov, and others, 2004; Nosenko and others, 

2004).

Structural features of a surge-type glacier preparing for a surge can be 

identified from space. These features include an increase in glacier thickness, 

a change in the glacier’s surface structure, the appearance of new characteristic 

fissure fields, and changes in the position of the glacier terminus. Lednik Kolka 

is 3  km long and completely covered by moraine, so it was thought that the 

picture element (pixel) resolution of available ASTER images (15 m) taken 

a year before the disaster would not be sufficient to identify these pre-surge 

features (see fig. 58a). However, even on an ISS image with 5-m pixel resolution taken a month before the surge (13  August 2002), they are definitely 

absent (fig. 61). That means that the glacier had not yet accumulated critical 

mass and had not reached the threshold of a surge by the “classical” method.

Figure 59.—Oblique aerial photograph taken on 21 September 2002, looking southwest at the avalanche debris saturated 

with water. The debris flowed into a tributary valley near the settlement of Saniba and a dammed lake is beginning to form. 

Photograph from the Geological Survey of North Osetiya.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F73

Lednik Kolka is situated in a region where earthquakes occur often. It is in 

a fault zone of large fractures where movement of separate blocks is possible. 

Summer earthquakes which preceded the disaster were especially strong on 

14  July and 22  August, and probably triggered the beginning of unusual ice, 

snow, and rock falls in the head wall of the glacier cirque. Both sporting groups 

and an ASTER image of 18  July 2002 confirmed that it was possible to see 

black patches of rock on snow-covered slopes where snowfall had occurred. 

The earthquakes caused not only the increase of falls, but probably the destruction of the internal structure of the glacier and its connection with the bed as 

well. Over time, these falls increased the mass of the glacier, considerably overloading its upper part, and increasing stress to the maximum throughout the 

whole body of ice.

From the very beginning, it was obvious that such a swift and extensive 

outburst of the glacier could occur only as the result of accumulation of a very 

great amount of water under the glacier, which “catastrophically separated” the 

glacier from its bed (Anonymous, 2002; Kotlyakov, Rototaeva, and others, 

2004). Space images showed that there was a strong outburst of water, ice, and 

debris from the right margin of Lednik Kolka which moved over the moraine 

of Lednik Maili and down the right slope of the valley. This was confirmed by 

photography from a helicopter and surface observations. The  surface structure of Lednik Maili itself did not change very much, but there are some welldefined traces of flooding on the upper edge of the flow, which had passed 

over ice (fig. 62). Talus on the slope under the tongue of Lednik Maili was not 

significantly disturbed.

Figure 60.—Oblique aerial photograph taken on 24 September 2002, looking south at the 

mountain crest in the source region of Lednik Kolka. Rock outcrops are visible where the 

former snow and ice cover has slid onto the glacier below. Meltwater and fumeroles are 

present. Photograph from the Geological Survey of North Osetiya.
F74 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Water accumulation in the glacier basin had increased in volume during 

preceding years not only due to anomalous melting (Lebedeva and Rototaeva, 

2005), but probably by volcanic activity as well. Evidence of volcanic activity 

included gas emission, actively collapsing slope, and the appearance of fumaroles on the cirque wall (see fig. 60). The  volcanic activity created special 

thermal conditions under the glacier that caused additional melting and accumulation of water. Analysis of the chemical composition of snow, ice, and 

water in the Kolka cirque proved that the hydrothermal factor played a role in 

the disaster. In Genaldon, the presence of a near-surface magma chamber was 

shown by two independent geophysical methods; its appearance in 2002 was 

also proven by analysis of thermal infrared space imagery from NOAA satellites 

(Gurbanov and others, 2004; Kornienko and others, 2004).

The large amount of water formed many lakes after the disaster. They 

even appeared in the floor of the cirque after the glacier surge (figs. 63, 64). 

The size of the main lake, identified on an ASTER image of 6 October 2002, 

was 300×80 m (Popovnin and others, 2003). Our surface observations in 

Figure 61.—International Space Station 

image taken on 13 August 2002 of Lednik 

Maili (white tongue in center) and Lednik 

Kolka (dark, debris-covered tongue on 

left). Although it is a month before the 

disaster, there is no visible evidence 

of the coming event. Mission ISS005, 

Roll E, Frame 9691.

N

Figure 62.—Oblique aerial photograph 

taken September 2002, looking south 

at the empty cirque of Lednik Kolka (on 

right) after the disaster. Lednik Maili is on 

the left. Gora Dzhimara (4,780 m) is in 

the background on the right. Photograph 

from the Geological Survey of North 

Osetiya.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F75

2003 showed that the margins of the lake were composed of unconsolidated 

material; in June 2003, its size decreased to 150×50 m (fig. 65), and by the end 

of September 2003, the lake had disappeared completely.

The debris in Karmadon basin, deposited by the debris avalanche, was 

completely saturated with water, and chains of lakes appeared immediately 

along its margins (see fig. 59). The  largest one — the dammed Sanibanskoe 

Lake — can be seen well on all space images. It began to fill immediately after 

the disaster, and in a month, more than 3 million cubic meters of water had 

accumulated in the lake, with a maximum depth of 40 m (Chernomorets, 2005).

The  avalanche debris gradually melted and was eroded by the river (fig. 66). 

The  lake slowly drained, but at  the beginning of September 2003, the appearance of the lake had changed very little. By late September 2003, however, only a 

small part of the lake remained.

Figure 63.—International Space Station 

image taken on 19 October 2002, looking 

south at Gora Kasbek volcanic massif 

and the cirques of Ledniki Maili and 

Kolka. Lakes are forming in the empty 

bed of Lednik Kolka and rock outcrops 

are visible on the valley wall. Mission 

ISS005, Roll E., Frame 17830.

Figure 64.—Enlarged and rotated 

section of 27 September 2002 ASTER 

image (fig. 58B). Arrows show the lakes 

in the empty bed of Lednik Kolka. It is 

also possible to see the traces of the 

mudflow on the surface of Lednik Maili. 

Compare with figure 63.
F76 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

In conclusion, the combined analysis of space, aerial, and surface 

photography made it possible to determine the causes and probable scenario 

of the September 2002 disaster (Rototaeva and others, 2005). The  surge 

of Lednik Kolka was brought about prematurely and was much larger 

than previous surges because of a combination of factors. These were the 

unstable dynamic state of the surging glacier, significant accumulation of englacial and subglacial water, collapses of ice and rock which created an overload in 

the upper part of the glacier, and the growing activity of endogenous processes 

in the region of Gora Kazbek.

Figure 65.— (at left) Terrestrial photograph taken on 28 June 2003 of one of 

the lakes in the Kolka bed dammed by 

a combination of ice and debris. Photograph by O.V. Rototaeva.

Figure 66.— (below) Oblique aerial 

photograph taken on September 2003, 

looking southeast at the collapsing 

avalanche debris in Karmadon basin and 

the dammed lake near Saniba settlement 

one year after the disaster. Compare with 

figure 59. Photograph by G.A. Nosenko.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F77

Investigations of the Fluctuations of Surge-Type 

Glaciers in the Pamirs based on Observations 

from Space 

By V.M. Kotlyakov,2 G.B. Osipova,2 and D.G. Tsvetkov2

Introduction

Recently, investigations on glacier fluctuations in the Pamirs were 

carried out at the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences 

(IGRAS). A  variety of space imagery was analyzed, including: (1)  photographs from 1972 to 1991 (up to 13 repeated surveys) at a scale of 1:200,000–

1:270,000 taken with the KFA-1000 camera from Russian Resurs-F1 satellites 

at a resolution of about 5 m, (2)  Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission 

Radiometer (ASTER) images acquired from 2001 to 2004 from the Terra satellite, with a pixel resolution of 15 m, and (3) images taken from 2001 to 2004 

by astronauts with a hand-operated digital camera from the International Space 

Station (ISS). Using this imagery, as well as historical data (aerial photographic 

surveys, topographic maps, surface observations, etc.), the following work 

was accomplished: (1)  compilation of an inventory of surging glaciers of the 

Pamirs; (2) monitoring of the dynamics of large compound glaciers; (3) estimation of the present-day status of two surge-type glaciers, Ledniki Medvezhiy 

and Geograficheskogo Obshchestva; and (4)  investigation of fluctuations of 

“normal” non-surging glaciers in the Eastern Pamirs. This paper summarizes 

the main results of these investigations.

Compilation of an Inventory of Surging Glaciers of 

the Pamirs

In 1997, compilation of the Inventory of Surging Glaciers of the Pamirs 

was finished (Osipova and others, 1998). It was the first complete catalogue 

of unstable  glaciers of a large mountain region. The  Inventory was based on 

stereoscopic interpretation of space photographs of 1972 to 1991. To identify 

surge-type glaciers and assign them to a group, a set of criteria was developed, 

including both direct (rapid changes of the form and structure of the glacier 

surface) and indirect criteria. Regular movement of surge-type glaciers and 

their interactions with the surrounding environment were considered. All 

glaciers that showed dynamic instability were subdivided into three groups. 

Glaciers with one or more observed surges were assigned to the first group. 

The  second group consisted of glaciers with indications of periodic activity 

which could be rather confidently classified as “surging,” Glaciers with some 

indication of recent unstable dynamics were assigned to the third group.

The analysis identified 630 glaciers in the Pamirs that showed indications 

of instability at the beginning of the 1990s (table  19). Results indicated that 

between 1960 and the middle of the 1990s, 17 large-scale surges occurred in 

the Pamirs. By comparing 1991 space photographs with a 2003 ASTER image, 

the surges of three more glaciers were detected after the Inventory of Surging 

Glaciers had been compiled (table 20).
F78 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Table 19.—The number of surge-type glaciers in the large river basins 

of the Pamirs

River basin Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Surkhob 1 2 —

Kyzylsu 5 23 21

Muksu 30 60 47

Obikhingob 5 26 22

Vanj 4 17 19

Yazgulem 2 20 22

Bartang 1 38 60

Murghob — 4 54

Gunt — 7 57

Panj (headwaters and eastern 

[right] confluents) — 2 44

Qarokŭl 1 6 14

Markansu 1 7 4

Eastern Kyzylsu 1 3 —

Total 51 215 364

Table 20.—The largest observed surges of the glaciers of the Pamirs from 1960 to 2003

[Unit: km, kilometer]

No. Glacier name River basin Latitude and longitude 

of center of the tongue 

Area

(km2)

Length

(km)

Years of the 

surges or intervals 

when recorded

Movement

of tongue 

(km)

1 Gando- Dorofeeva Obikhingob 38°54′N. 71°45′E. 22.0 44.6 1985–1991 1

(8.5)

2 Vanchdara Obikhingob 38°45′N. 71°57′E. 11.5 9.5 1977–1980 2.5

3 No. 88 (Vaizirek, west) Obikhingob 38°58′N. 71°18′E. 4.5 7.6 1975–1980 2.2

4 Petra Pervogo Obikhingob 39°00′N. 71°25′E. 12.2 10.5 1976–1980 1

(?)

5 Burs Obikhingob 38°42′N. 71°48′E. 6.9 5.3 1991–2003 3.6

6 Sytargi Muksu 38°41′N. 71°46′E. 5.8 5.1 1991–2003 1.0

7 Byrs Muksu 39°03′N. 71°45′E. 9.9 11.8 1981–1983 1.3

8 Shini-Bini Muksu 38°59′N. 71°50′E. 16.4 10.3 1959–1961

about 1991

1.5

9 Sugran Muksu 38°56′N. 71°44′E. 47.1 22.0 1976–1980 1

(5.0)

10 Oshanina (Muzgazy) Muksu 39°03′N. 71°30′E. 15.6 10.7 1961 (1962)

1983–1984

7.5

11 Valy Muksu 39°18′N. 72°45′E. 11.9 7.6 1975–1977 1.3

12 Dzerzhinskogo Muksu 39°17′N. 72°49′E. 19.0 14.9 1972–1976 1.2

13 Maliy Saukdara Muksu 39°16′N. 72°51′E. 23.5 14.3 1972–1975 2.8

14 Shapak Muksu 39°02′N. 71°50′E. 13.7 8.0 1991–2003 1.0

15 Bivachniy Muksu 38°56′N. 72°10′E. 61.2 29.6 1975–1978 1(6.0)

16 Medvezhiy Vanj 38°40′N. 72°12′E. 25.3 15.8 1963

1973

1988–1989

1.8

1.9

1.1

17 Ravak Vanj 38°38′N. 72°04′E. 1.9 4.1 1967 0.2+

collapse

18 Didal’ Surkhob 38°59′N. 70°43′E. 1.5 4.9 1974 2.2+

collapse

19 Lenina

(Eastern part)

Kyzylsu 38°25′N. 72°56′E. 12.4 9.6 1969–1970 1.1

20 Oktyabr’skiy Qarokŭl (lake) 39°15′N. 73°00′E. 88.2 12.7 1985–1990 3.3

1

Internal surges.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F79

Surge-type glaciers are situated mainly in high mountain groups of the 

Central Pamirs near the junction of Akademii Nauk Khrebet (range) with 

Khrebet Petra Pervogo, Darvozskiy Khrebet (Qatorkŭhi Darvoz) and Vanjskiy 

Khrebet (Qatorkŭhi Vanj) (fig. 67), and in the central part of Zaalayskiy Khrebet

(Qatorkŭhi Pasi Oloy in Tajikistan, Chong Alay Kyrka Toosu in Kyrgyzstan) 

(fig. 68). Surges on some of the glaciers are internal and occur only within 

the glacier itself; they do not cause the stagnant morphological tongue to 

advance. These so-called “internal” surges occurred on Ledniki Gando, Garmo, 

Bivachniy, Petra Pervogo, and other glaciers. However, in the Pamirs there are 

many surge-type glaciers whose tongues advance along ice-free valleys with 

velocities of up to 100 m d–1 during surge events; examples are the Ledniki 

Medvezhiy, Byrs, Muzgazy, Vanchdara, and other glaciers. Surges of the Lednik 

Medvezhiy in 1963 and 1973 caused disastrous aftereffects connected with 

outburst floods (jökulhlaups) from the lake dammed by the glacier. Also, 

surges of glaciers whose tongues break off and form a water-ice-debris surge 

can travel down valley with a high velocity and cause catastrophic damage. 

Such surges have occurred on the Ledniki Ravak and Didal’.

7

14

8

9

1

15

2

5

6

16

17

A

C

B

N

72°E

39°N

72°E

39°N

0

0 10 KILOMETERS

10 MILES

Scale is approximate

Figure 67.—KFA-1000 photograph taken in 1973 from a Resurs-F1 satellite showing surge-type 

glaciers in the Central Pamirs. The numbers of the glaciers correspond to the numbers in table 20. 

The largest glaciers of the Pamirs are: A, Lednik Fedchenko; B, Lednik Garmo; and C, Lednik 

Geograficheskogo Obshchestva.
F80 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Investigation of the Fluctuation Regime of 

Compound Glaciers

The Institute of Geography has developed methods of monitoring 

fluctuations of compound surge-type mountain glaciers from space (Osipova 

and Tsvetkov, 2000, 2002b). For many years, analysis of the dynamic regime 

of glaciers was done using data on the velocity of ice movement and changes in 

glacier morphology. The  velocity of ice movement was measured by pseudoparallax using space photography. The method has been improved so that it is 

now possible to determine the shift of identical contour points on photographs 

of different dates with an accuracy of 5–10 m. As a result of stereoscopic interpretation of space images, sketch maps reflecting the status of the glaciers and 

the morphology of their surfaces were compiled for the dates of each survey.

By performing joint analyses on a series of successive velocity profiles and 

morphological sketch maps, the main features of the glacial systems’ dynamic 

regimes were identified. This, in turn, allowed for an assessment of the character of interaction of their main components. Remote investigations of the 

dynamics of several compound, surge-type glaciers were conducted over a 

long time interval. Results indicate that the role of mutual damming of tributary glaciers and the main trunk glacier at different stages of their evolution is 

a determining factor in dynamic instability of glaciers (Osipova and Tsvetko, 

2002b). Several examples follow.

20

19

11

12

13

N

39°20’N

39°20’N

0

0 5 KILOMETERS

5 MILES

Scale is approximate

73°E

73°E

Figure 68.—KFA-1000 photograph taken in 1985 

from a Resurs-F1 satellite showing surge-type 

glaciers in the central part of Zaalayskiy Khrebet 

(Qatorkŭhi Pasi Oloy in Tajikistan, Chong Alay Kyrka 

Toosu in Kyrgyzstan). The numbers of the glaciers 

correspond to the numbers in table 20.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F81

The most detailed investigations of change were carried out on Lednik 

Oktyabr’skiye for an extended period (Osipova and Tsvetkov, 2002a). The last 

strong surge of this glacier occurred in the mid-1930s, and its aftereffects are 

easily seen on 1946 aerial photography (fig. 69A). After 1946, activity gradually increased on the upper part of the tongue, the lower part of the tongue 

wasted away, and tributaries in the lower course of the glacier advanced into the 

valley of the main trunk (fig. 69B–69C). Toward the end of the recovery stage 

(1978), the cross section of the glacier tongue was approximately one third 

narrower (figs. 69D and 70). As a result, a region with considerable longitudinal compression formed a higher ice “dam.” In the following years, the release 

of the accumulated stresses took place, and during 1988–1990, active ice 

advanced over this “dam,” cut or stretched tongues of tributary glaciers on the 

lower course of the glacier, advanced 3 km down the valley, and reached within 

0.3 km of the maximum tongue extent in the prior advance (figs. 69F, G, and 

70) (1990). Average ice velocity from 1988 to 1990 was 1.6 km a–1 (fig. 71), 

but at the surge peak it was considerably higher.

Figure 69.—Morphology of the lower part of Lednik 

Oktyabr’skiye from 1946 to 1990.

EXPLANATION

OUTLINE OF GLACIER

GLACIER NUMBER–According

to the Inventory of Glaciers of the USSR

POINTS OF LONGITUDINAL PROFILE–With

indication of kilometers from conventional “zero”

MEDIAL MORAINE

MORAINE COVER–On ice and stagnant ice under moraine

MORAINE RIDGE–Extent of previous surges

EXTENT OF GLACIER TONGUE–According to the aerial survey of 1946

ICE DIVIDES

276

1

A. 1946

N

0

0 5 KILOMETERS

5 MILES

B. 1966

C. 1972

D. 1978

E. 1985

F. 1988

G. 1990

0

3

2

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16

4

1

285 283

282 281 280 278

277 276 279
F82 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

1

4

5

7

1972-73

2 1975-76

3 1978-79

1979-80

1983-85

6 1985-88

1988-90

7

6

1,5 4 2

3

EXPLANATION

0 5 10 15

VELOCITY (Vr)(ma ) -1

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE (L)(km)

1978, Pre-surge

N

73°E

73°E

39°20’N

1990, Post-surge

0

0 5 KILOMETERS

5 MILES Scale is approximate

Figure 70.—Photographs from space of Lednik Oktyabr’skiye. The photographs of 1978 (pre- surge) and 1990 

(post-surge) were taken by the KFA-1000 camera (1000-mm lens) from the Resurs-F1 satellites.

Figure 71.—Graph of the velocity (Vr) of the ice 

movement along longitudinal profile L of Lednik 

Oktyabr’skiye, showing the stage of recovery 

(1972–1985) and the surge (1985–1990). 

The location of the longitudinal profile is shown 

on figure 69A.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F83

The impact of glacier tributaries and the main glacier trunk on each other 

during surges was investigated on Lednik Bivachniy, the largest, western tributary of Lednik Fedchenko. Figure 72 shows the change of the surface structure 

of Lednik Bivachniy from 1973 to 2001 in the region of the confluence of Lednik 

Moskovskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta (abbreviated MGU) (Moscow State 

University), the large western (left) tributary. During this time period, two 

surges of Lednik Bivachniy occurred — one between 1975 and 1977 and the 

other probably in the late 1990s (Desinov and others, 2001).

Lednik MGU continuously advanced into the valley of Lednik Bivachniy 

with rather constant velocity. By 1973, the ice of Lednik MGU had formed a 

“bulge,” displacing the ice of the main trunk of Lednik Bivachniy to the opposite 

side of the valley and acting as a dam to Lednik Bivachniy (fig. 72A). As a result, 

a compression zone formed behind the dam in Lednik Bivachniy and, in 1976–

1977, the release of accumulated stresses caused a sharp increase in ice movement, increasing in velocity by almost an order of magnitude — a surge event. 

As a result of the rapid movement of ice in the main trunk of Lednik Bivachniy, the 

noticeable ice bulge of the Lednik MGU tongue was transported 3.5  km downstream from the place of its confluence (fig. 72B). After this surge, the tongue of 

Lednik Bivachniy became dormant and Lednik MGU started to advance into the 

main valley again. By 1990, a new “bulge” had formed in the region of the confluence of the two glaciers, and the situation was analogous to the one in 1973.

On figure 72C, it can be seen that Lednik Bivachniy experienced one more 

surge not long before 2001. It developed according to the same scenario, and the 

bulge formed by Lednik MGU in 1990 moved downstream, taking the place of 

the bulge of the previous surge. The bulge from the previous surge in turn moved 

considerably farther down-valley and became heavily covered with debris.

A 1973 B 1980 C 2001

A

A

A

B

B

1 1 1

2

2 N

2

0

0 5 KILOMETERS

5 MILES

Scale is approximate

0

0 5 KILOMETERS

5 MILES

Scale is approximate

0

0 5 KILOMETERS

5 MILES

Scale is approximate

Figure 72.—Photographs of Lednik Bivachniy (1) (approximate lat 39°N., long 72°E.) and Lednik Moscow State University 

(MGU) (2). A, 1973, pre-surge; B, 1980, post-surge; and C, 2001 soon after the successive surge. On the photographs, A is 

the bulge formed before the 1976–1977 surge; B is the bulge formed before the late 1990s surge. A and B were taken by the 

KFA-1000 camera of a Resurs F-1 satellite. C was imaged from the International Space Station with an 80-cm lens.
F84 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

As a result of such periodicity, several bulges of Lednik MGU can be seen 

on the main trunk of Lednik Bivachniy, transported during successive surges. 

On figure 72, the bulges of Lednik MGU are identified by letters: A is the bulge 

formed before the surge of 1976–1977; B is the bulge formed before the surge 

of the late 1990s.

At present, the surges of Lednik Bivachniy are internal — despite high 

internal ice velocity (over 1,200 m a–1), the surge events have taken place 

within the limits of the glacier. However, it has been reported that, at the beginning of the past century, the surges of Lednik Bivachniy activated the lower part 

of Lednik Fedchenko (Osipova and Tsvetkov, 1999).

On figure 73, three images from space show the condition of the complex 

system of Ledniki Gando-Dorofeeva: (A) before the 1989–1990 surge, 

(B) during the surge, and (C) after the surge. After a previous surge of this 

glacier at the end of the 1950s, there was degradation — the main trunk of 

the glacier was covered with debris, and the main tributary, Lednik Dorofeeva,

A 1985

B 1990

C 2003

N

1

2

0

0 5 KILOMETERS

5 MILES

Scale is approximate

Figure 73.—Images from space of the GandoDorofeeva glacier system (approximate lat 

38°55′N., long 71°45′E.) before, during, and after 

the 1989–1990 surge. A, August 1985 on the eve 

of the surge. B, September 1990 in the midst of the 

surge. C, 23 August 2003 after the surge. 1, Lednik 

Gando, 2, Lednik Dorofeeva. A and B are photographs from the KFA-1000 camera on the ResursF1 satellite series. C is an Advanced Spaceborne 

Thermal Emission Radiometer (ASTER) image 

from the Terra satellite. 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F85

separated. At the beginning of the 1980s, Lednik Dorofeeva became active again 

and its terminus advanced and became dammed by ice from the main trunk. 

As a result of strong longitudinal compression, the width and thickness of the 

lower part of the Lednik Dorofeeva tongue increased considerably, testifying to 

its critical state (fig. 73A).

On the space photograph of 1990 (fig. 73B), the Ledniki Gando-Dorofeeva

system is in the midst of a large surge event. In  1989–1990, ice velocity was 

1.4  km a–1 in the middle part of the tongue of Lednik Gando, and by 1991, 

the active ice front had advanced by 8 km. And, judging by velocity curves and 

the surface condition of the glacier, the surge was not over yet (Osipova and 

Tsvetkov, 2001).

A 2003 space survey (fig. 73C) documented the Ledniki Gando system 

after the surge. The  total advance of the dynamic terminus was 9.5  km; 

however, the lower 1.5 km of the tongue was not affected. Therefore, the surge 

of this glacier, and that of some of the other compound glaciers observed by us 

(Ledniki Bivachnyy, Sugran, and others), is considered an internal surge.

This analysis shows the effectiveness of repeated space surveys (especially 

those acquired over a period of many years) for monitoring fluctuations of 

large compound glaciers. No other method makes it possible to observe the 

entire area, to repeat investigations with short time intervals, and to provide 

the opportunity for any investigator to make simple, accurate stereoscopic 

measurements, especially of ice velocity.

The State of Surging Glaciers — Ledniki Medvezhiy 

and Geograficheskogo Obshchestva

Data acquired by Earth-orbiting satellites make it possible to investigate 

potentially catastrophic natural hazards and associated phenomena that could 

not be studied otherwise. At  present, several satellites are orbiting the Earth, 

carrying a variety of remote sensors which can provide solutions to various 

scientific problems and practical needs in conjunction with well-planned 

programs. One such program, “Uragan”, was planned jointly by the Institute 

of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Russian “Energiya” 

Space Rocket Corporation, and is being carried out on the International Space 

Station (ISS). Visual-instrumental observations are being made, and digital 

images are being acquired by astronauts to study changes in the geographical 

environment, including natural disasters. In particular, Ledniki Medvezhiy and 

Geograficheskogo Obshchestva, situated near each other in the upper course 

of the Vanj river, are objects of constant observation and photography from the 

ISS (see fig. 67).

Lednik Medvezhiy (approximate lat 38°40′N., long 72°12′E.) is a typical 

surge-type glacier. Scientists of the Institute of Geography carried out annual 

surface investigations on this glacier from 1963 to 1987. From 1988 to 1991, 

observations were made based on multiple repeat aerial photography surveys. 

These investigations made it possible to comprehensively study the evolution 

of the glacier during its three surges (1963, 1973, and 1989) and its two stages 

of recovery (Dolgoushin and Osipova, 1982; Osipova and Tsvetkov, 1991; 

Kotlyakov and others, 1997). As a result of these multi-year investigations, the 

method of forecasting glacier surges based on monitoring the changes in the surface 

altitude and ice movement was developed (Dolgoushin and Osipova, 1975).

Figure 74A, B, and C are parts of three of the eight aerial photographs 

taken of Lednik Medvezhiy during its surge in 1988–1989. At that time, investigations were based on photogrammetric analysis of aerial photographs and 

comparison of successive topographic maps of the glacier. At the beginning of 
F86 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

A

June 21, 1988

B

March 23, 1989

C

October 3, 1989

N

D

July 9, 2001

0

0 2 KILOMETERS

2 MILES

Scale is approximate

1

1

Figure 74.—The tongue of Lednik Medvezhiy (approximate lat 38°40′N., 

long 72°12′E.) during the surge of 1988 to 1989, and in 2001. Aerial 

photographs: A, 21 June 1988; B, 23 March 1989; C, 3 October 1989; 

D, an image from the International Space Station on 9 July 2001 with a 

digital camera with a 80-cm lens.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F87

the movement, the glacier terminus was situated at a distance of 1.2  km from 

the Abdukagor river (fig. 74A). Between the surveys of 21 June and 13 September 

1988, it advanced 20–40 m. Figure 74B shows that the terminus of the tongue 

advanced 200 m more during winter, and the tongue assumed the shape typical 

of advance; it was fringed by a marginal fracture (a black line on the background of 

snow-covered slopes). The maximum rapid movement — up to 70 m d–1 — was 

measured by aerial pseudoparallax on surveys of 20 and 22 June 1989. The end of 

the surge occurred abruptly in July, and on an image of 3 October 1989 (fig. 74C), 

the surface structure of the tongue already had an “after-surge” appearance 

(Kotlyakov and others, 1997).

From 1996 to 2000, astronauts of the Russian Mir Orbital Space Station 

watched the dynamics of the glacier with the aid of binoculars. In  February 

2001, astronauts of the ISS transmitted information of renewed activity of the 

glacier — a distinct dark boundary fringing its snow-covered tongue. Such a 

boundary, as was seen on figure 74B, is a marginal fracture, and testifies to the 

fact that the glacier is in a state of rapid movement. Since that time, constant 

observations and images using hand-operated digital cameras were made 

from the ISS to track the condition of the glacier and to forecast a possible 

surge event.

Conclusions of the visual observations of the astronauts were passed to 

government officials of Tajikistan. Scientists from Glavtadjikgidromet, the 

Department of Hydrometeorology in Tajikistan, made surface observations on 

the glacier from 22 to 29 June 2001 and determined that, in comparison with 

2000, the tongue had advanced by 450 to 500 m, but was still 200 to 250 m 

from the channel of the Abdukagor river. More than a week of observations 

determined velocity of the glacier — it was equal to 10–15 cm d–1. Based on 

this, it was concluded that the glacier’s advance was nearly complete, and the 

Abdukagor river would not be dammed.

By comparing these findings with previous investigations, we estimated 

that the peak of the glacier’s activity occurred in May and early June. The first 

successful images (without cloud cover obscuring the tongue) were received 

from the ISS from a digital camera with 80-cm lens (pixel resolution of ~10 m) 

at the end of May and at the beginning of July (fig. 74D). By comparing ISS 

images taken from then ( July 2001) until 2003, it was determined that during 

the two years, the glacier terminus advanced less than 100 m. However, during 

all this time, the structure of its surface, smooth alternating white and dark 

ramparts (ogives?), remained unchanged. But the most significant fact is that 

the tongue’s movement from 2001 to 2003 was not as large or as destructive as 

during previous surges. For example, compare the structure of the surface and 

the overall morphology of the tongue on figs. 74C and D.

We concluded that a strong microsurge most likely took place on Lednik 

Medvezhiy in 2000–2001. As a result, the glacier front advanced down valley. 

It did not meet resistance from deposits of stagnant ice that were remnants of 

the former surge, because they had melted by this time. However, interpretations of ISS images indicated that the surface in the upper course of the surging 

part of the glacier (in the area below the icefall) did not lower. Therefore, it 

is likely that the glacier’s state is critical, and in the near future, the next, and 

possibly major, surge of Lednik Medvezhiy will take place.

Lednik (Russkogo) Geograficheskogo Obshchestva, abbreviated RGO 

(lat 38°45′N., long 72°07′E.), is one of the six largest glaciers of the Pamirs. 

At the beginning of the 20th century, traces of its recent surge were detected — 

the tongue of the glacier had moved to the Abdukagor river valley and crossed 

it, and on the valley sides, the outline of a dammed lake was preserved (fig. 75). 

When the next surge of the glacier takes place, a dammed lake might reform, 

and its outburst flood may cause large-scale damage downstream in the Vanj 

river valley.
F88 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Therefore, the increasing activity of Lednik RGO tongue, detected in 

August–October 2002 with surface and helicopter surveys (fig. 76), drew the 

attention of scientists of the Institute of Geography (Kotlyakov and others, 

2003). Analysis of ISS images and helicopter photographs detected a recent 

mudflow on Lednik RGO in the region of the confluence of the main flows 

of Numbers 96 and 97 glaciers (figs. 75, 77). Previously, such large-scale 

mudflows had not been observed on the glaciers of the Pamirs, although 

large-scale mudflows are common in other glacierized mountain regions.

Later, 2003 ASTER images and photographs taken from a helicopter 

with a hand-held camera were analyzed. It was determined that the glacier’s 

terminus had started to degrade, and that the activity of the glacier had 

decreased. It was also found that the source of the mudflow was the slopes 

of the upper course of the left tributary — Number 96C glacier, 2.5-3  km 

southwest of Khrebet Garmo. The mudflow had traveled about 7-8 km, and it 

covered an area of about 10 km2.

Whatever the cause of the mudflow, it could have had two major impacts 

on the glacier. On the one hand, it could have caused a dynamic impact that 

traveled down the glacier and increased activity at the Lednik RGO terminus. 

However, this probably did not happen, because no changes were found in the 

surface structure of the glacier either at the location of the mudflow or below it. 

Garmo

6,602

96c

96

96a

96b

107

100

97 97a

98

99

110

0

1

3

0

2

4

6

8

5

10

12

14

16

4,000

4,000

3,600 3,600

3,000

3,200

Vanj

3,100

0

0 5 KILOMETERS

5 MILES

x

72°07’30”E

72°07’30”E

38°45’N 38°45’N

N

96

2

EXPLANATION

6,602

GLACIER LOCATION AND NUMBER–According to

“Inventory of Glaciers of the USSR”

LINE OF EQUAL ELEVATION–In meters, contour interval 200 meters

ANCIENT TERMINAL-FLANK MORAINE

RECONSTRUCTED 1916 DAMMED LAKE

VELOCITY PROFILES–With distance

from conventional 0, in kilometers

SEPTEMBER 2002 MUDFLOW–On

the surface of the glacier

ELEVATION–In meters

MAIN RIDGES

FIRN LINE

RECONSTRUCTED OUTLINE–Of glacier’s 1916 terminus

3,200

x

Figure 75.—Sketch map of the Lednik Geograficheskogo Obschestva (RGO Glacier) basin 

showing glaciers, the reconstructed outline of the glacier’s terminus in 1916, a reconstructed 

dammed lake in 1916, locations of velocity profiles, and a mudflow on the surface of the 

glacier in September 2002.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F89

Most probably, the mudflow caused a change in ablation conditions. By covering 

the surface, the resulting decrease of ablation could have locally increased the 

thickness of the glacier, and eventually advanced its terminus.

In both of the examples cited here, data acquired from space images and 

photography provided invaluable help in scientifically observing and monitoring the evolution of surge-type glaciers and in forecasting catastrophic surge 

events. The  space imagery periodicity, type, availability, and processing capabilities all affect the ability of scientists to perform regional- and global-scale 

glaciological monitoring.

Figure 76.—Aerial photograph taken on 13 October 2002 of the terminus of Lednik RGO, looking northeast. Longitudinal 

fissures and outcrops of ice are observed along the edges of the tongue and in other places. The transverse profile of 

the glacier is convex. Collapsed pieces of ice can be seen at the foot of the steep terminus of the tongue. Photo taken 

by Prof. Zh. F. Shneider. 
F90 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Investigations of the Fluctuations of “Normal” 

Non-Surging Glaciers in the Eastern Pamirs 

The Eastern Pamirs is the most continental part of the Pamirs. The  area is 

characterized by high elevation, low dissection of relief, low values of accumulation 

and ablation, and few changes in the glaciers from year to year.

To estimate the contemporary evolution of the glacierization of the 

Eastern Pamirs, extensive data from remote monitoring of fluctuations of 

glaciers' termini were used (Osipova and Tsvetkov, 2000). The  shifts of 

termini of more than 160 glaciers in different parts of the Eastern Pamirs were 

measured by stereocomparator and the pseudoparallax method on images 

and photographs from space acquired between 1972 and 2001 (fig. 78). 

In  optimum circumstances, data for three time intervals were obtained and 

analyzed: 1972–1980, 1980–1990, and 1990–2001.

A 2001

B 2002

Figure 77.—International Space Station images of Lednik RGO 

(lat 38°45′N., long 72°07′E.) taken on A, 25 June 2001 and B, 30September 

2002. On the second image, a mudflow is visible that post-dated the 2001 

image. Compare with figure 75 for scale.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F91

All investigated glaciers either retreated or were stationary. The  greatest 

retreat velocities, up to or more than 20 m a–1, were registered on tongues of 

large compound glaciers having termini that ended at low elevations. With a 

decrease in glacier size and an increase in the elevation of the glacier termini, 

ice retreat velocity decreased. Valley glaciers with areas from 2 to 5 km2 correspond to the retreat value averaged by all investigated glaciers. An increase in 

the area of moraine cover on glacier tongues was documented everywhere.

The total results of the measurements are given in table  21. From this 

table we can see that the average retreat velocity (V1) during the second time 

interval increased on an average of about 1.5 times. The minimum increase of 

1.2 times was measured at Zaalayskiy Khrebet (Qatorkŭhi Pasi Oloy/Chong 

Alay Kyrka Toosu), the maximum — a two-fold increase — was measured on 

the western slope of Khrebet Sarykol’skiy. Average retreat velocity of 30 glaciers 

of Khrebet Zulumart from 1990 to 2001 was 14 percent less than on the same 

glaciers during the previous interval.

Figure 78.—Landsat image of the Eastern Pamirs where glacier-retreat measurements 

listed in table 21 were made.

II

Kara-Kul

I

IV

III

N

73° 30’E

39°N

73° 30’E

39°N

0

0 25 KILOMETERS

25 MILES Scale is approximate
F92 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Table 21.—Retreat velocity of the termini of glaciers of the Eastern Pamirs from 1972 to 2001

[Retreat velocity (V1) shown in meters per year (m a–1)]

Region

1972–1980 1980–1990 1990–2001

V1

(m a–1)

Number of 

glaciers

V1

(m a–1)

Number of 

glaciers

V1

(m a–1)

Number of 

glaciers

I Khrebet Zulumart -4.4 49 -6.5 51 -6.0 30

 Western slope — — — — — —

 Eastern slope -3.0 11 -5.8 12 — —

II Zaalayskiy Khrebet -5.5 8 -6.8 8 — —

III Khrebet Sarykol’skiy, western slope -1.3 5 -2.6 19 — —

IV Khrebet Muzkol — — -5.0 9 — —

V Severo-Alichursky Khrebet, northern slope -1.3 7 -2.5 7 — —

Eastern Pamirs as a whole — 80 — 106 -6.0 30

On Lednik Severniy Zulumart (lat 39°06′N., long 72°50′E., length 11.6 km, 

area 29.1 km2, according to data for 1966) investigations of fluctuations of its 

area and terminus location were carried out for several years on the basis of 

comparison of an aerial photographic survey of 1946, imagery and photography of 1972, 1978, 1990 (KFA-1000 camera on the Resurs-F1 satellite) and 

ASTER imagery of 2001. Results are presented on figure 79 and in table 22.

1946

1972

1978

1990

2001

Prior extent of adjacent

glacier, date unspecified

EXPLANATION

RETREAT OF GLACIER TERMINUS,

YEARS OBSERVED

Lake

N

Figure 79.—Sketch map showing the retreat 

of the terminus of Lednik Severniy Zulumart

(Eastern Pamirs) (lat 39°06′N., long 72°50′E.) 

based on interpretation of a 1946 aerial 

photograph and 1972, 1978, 1990, and 2001 

space images and photographs.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F93

From 1946 until 2001, the glacier retreated with approximately the same 

average velocity — 18 m a–1 — and shortened by 1.0 km (10 percent). During 

the same time period, the area of the tongue decreased by 1.0 km2, 3 percent 

of the initial area of the entire glacier. By 2001, a proglacial lake had formed in 

front of its terminus. Detailed stereoscopic interpretation of the structure and 

morphology of the surface of the firn area of Lednik Severniy Zulumart did not 

reveal any substantial change of boundaries in its upper area during the entire 

55 years of remote observations. Later studies compared the changes in glacier 

extent using historical data and ASTER imagery (Khromova and others, 2006).

Investigations of glacier fluctuations carried out in several areas have 

shown that there is a real possibility of replacing labor-intensive field measurements with remote observations based on simple stereomeasurements of largescale images obtained at intervals of 5–10 years, as well as using other remote 

sensing tools and methods.

Table 22.—Retreat of the terminus and decrease in the area of the tongue of Lednik 

Severniy Zulumart from 1946 to 2001

[Abbreviations: m, meter; m a-1, meters per year; km2, square kilometer] 

Intervals between surveys 1946–1972 1972–1978 1978–1990 1990–2001 1946–2001

Retreat of terminus (m) -500 -100 -200 -200 -1,000

Retreat velocity (m a–1) -19 -17 -18 -18 -18

Change of area (km2) -0.5 -0.1 -0.2 -0.2 -1.0
F94 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

5

Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1ER, U.K.

6

School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle NE1 7RU, U.K.

7

U.S. Government publications require that official geographic place-names for foreign countries be used 

to the greatest extent possible. In the Glaciology of the Russian High Arctic section, the use of geographic 

place-names is based on the U.S. Board on Geographic Names (BGN) website: http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/

html/index.html. The website lists some conventional names for the areas such as Franz Josef Land, Barents 

and Kara Seas, and Wrangel Island. All other names will be introduced in the text by the common English 

equivalent with the Russian name in parenthesis. The Russian placename will then be used throughout the 

text. Names not listed in the BGN website will be shown in italics. 

The Glaciology of the Russian High Arctic from 

Landsat Imagery 

By J.A. Dowdeswell,5 E.K. Dowdeswell,5 M. Williams,6 

and A.F. Glazovskii2

Abstract

The Russian High Arctic archipelagos of Franz Josef Land (Zemlya 

Frantsa-Iosifa), Severnaya Zemlya, and Novaya Zemlya, fringing the Barents 

and Kara (Karaskoye) Seas, contain more than 56,000 km2 of glaciers and ice 

caps, or about 10 percent of the Earth’s ice outside Antarctica and Greenland. 

In  the Russian Far East, ice covering an area of less than 100  km2 occurs 

in the DeLong7 archipelago (Ostrova De-Longa), east of the ice-free New 

Siberian Islands (Novosibirskiye Ostrova). Relatively little is known about 

the glaciology of some of these islands. However, Landsat satellite imagery 

has provided a valuable descriptive and interpretative tool for acquiring baseline glaciological data, despite problems of cloud cover which restrict the 

number of high-quality images available. Drainage basins are a basic unit for 

glaciological measurements, and for modeling ice dynamics and responses 

to climate change. Ice divides throughout the Russian High Arctic have been 

mapped from Landsat imagery to define catchment basin geometry. Major 

ice-cap outlet glaciers have been identified from Landsat data, and sources 

and magnitudes of iceberg production have been investigated. The  largest 

icebergs observed were more than 2 km long at the Znamenity Glacier (Lednik 

Znamenityy), located on Vilchek Land (Zemlya Vil’cheka) in the Franz Josef 

Land archipelago, and more than 4  km long off the Matusevich Ice Shelf 

(Lednik Matusevicha) in Severnaya Zemlya. Fringing ice shelves were also 

identified from Landsat imagery of Franz Josef Land. Relatively few surge-type 

glaciers are present in the Russian High Arctic, but looped medial moraines 

indicate that a number of ice-cap outlets in Novaya Zemlya, and possibly 

Severnaya Zemlya, are of surge-type. Summer Landsat imagery displays 

marked zones of different brightness which are interpreted to represent, with 

increasing altitude, bare ice, slush, and snow. Some low-elevation ice caps in 

Franz Josef Land in particular may be undergoing rapid decay, with little or 

no net accumulation even at their crests. This decay is probably related to the 

termination of the cold “Little Ice Age” in the Eurasian Arctic about 100 years 

ago, combined with recent warming.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F95

Introduction

Glaciers and ice caps are present on the islands of the Russian High 

Arctic between latitudes 73° and 82°N., and longitudes 36° and 158°E., 

providing a high latitude west-east transect of about 2,000 km across Eurasia 

(fig. 80) (Sharp, 1956). These ice masses have a total glacierized area of 

more than 56,000  km2 (Kotlyakov and others, this volume), which represents about 10 percent of the Earth’s ice cover other than Greenland and 

Antarctica (Meier, 1984; Dyurgerov and Meier, 1997; Dowdeswell and 

Hagen, 2004). The  three large archipelagos — Franz Josef Land, Novaya 

Zemlya and Severnaya Zemlya — account for more than 99 percent of this 

ice. Small isolated islands, for example Victoria Island (Ostrov Viktoriya) in 

the west and Ostrova De-Longa in the far east of the Eurasian High Arctic, 

contain ice caps up to only a few tens of square kilometers in areal extent 

(Govorukha, 1964; Verkulich and others, 1992).

In a companion paper, Kotlyakov and others (this chapter) describe 

the distribution and dimensions of the ice masses within the Russian High 

Arctic. This paper describes briefly what is known about the glaciology of 

the archipelagos and islands in the Russian Arctic sector, and demonstrates 

the utility of Landsat satellite imagery for studying the glaciers and ice caps in 

this remote and little-known region of the Arctic. The  topics discussed here 

have been investigated in other glacierized regions using Landsat imagery 

(for example, Bindschadler and others, 2001); they include: (1)  ice-surface 

topography, and in particular the definition of ice divides and drainage basins; 

(2)  ice dynamics; and (3)  snow-and-ice facies, with their implications for 

glacier mass balance.

The Russian High Arctic is cloud-covered for many days each year, which 

substantially impacts the acquisition of usable visible-band satellite imagery. 

Marshall and others (1994) analyzed cloud-cover statistics for a number of 

Landsat path-rows over each of the main ice-covered areas of the Eurasian 

Arctic sector, including Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya and Severnaya 

Zemlya (fig. 81). They showed that, in general, very few high-quality images 

with low cloud cover are available for the Russian High Arctic. The  probability of obtaining relatively cloud-free scenes is greatest for Novaya Zemlya 

(fig. 81A). Cloud-free images of Franz Josef Land are most likely to be obtained 

in May (fig. 81B), whereas July is the optimum month for Novaya Zemlya 

(fig. 81C), and September imagery is of uniformly poor quality, except for 

some opportunities in Severnaya Zemlya (fig. 81D).

Glaciological Background

The following section describes general glacier characterisitics, 

including meteorological conditions, for each of the three primary archipelagos in the Russian High Arctic — Franz Joseph Land, Severnaya Zemlya, 

and Novaya Zemlya. Only one percent of the glacierized Russian High Arctic 

lies outside these archipelagos; however, these small glacierized islands are 

also discussed here.
F96 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD Ostrov Bennetta Novaya

Zemlya

20°E

40°E

Svalbard

Figure 85

Severnaya

Zemlya

Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa

(Franz Josef Land)

Figure 82

Ostrov

Ushakova

60°E

80°E

Figure

83

R U S S I A

120°E

140°E

Barents

Se

a

160°E

180° 70°N 75°N 80°N 85°N

100°E

0°

Karskoye

More

(Kara Sea)

More Laptevykh

(Laptev Sea)

NovosibirskiyeOstrova

OstrovaDe-Longa

OstrovVrangelya

OstrovBennetta

148°E

76°N

156°E

OstrovZhokhova

Ostrov Genriyetta

Ostrov Zhannetta

Arctic Ocea

n

152°E

EXPLANATION

LOCATION OF ICE MASS

0 50 KILOMETERS0 50 MILES

0 500 KILOMETERS0 500 MILES

Figure 80.—Map of the Russian High Arctic showing the major ice-covered archipelagos of Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and Severnaya Zemlya, together with the smaller glacierized islands further east (inset).
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F97

20°E

40°E

60°E

80°E

120°E

75°N

80°N

85°N

100°E

0°

Novaya

Zemlya

Severnaya

Zemlya

Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa

(Franz Josef Land)

Ostrov

Ushakova

R U S S I A

Barents

Sea

Karskoye

More

(Kara Sea)

20°E

40°E

60°E

80°E

120°E

75°N

80°N

85°N

100°E

0°

Novaya

Zemlya

Severnaya

Zemlya

Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa

(Franz Josef Land)

Ostrov

Ushakova

R U S S I A

Barents

Sea

Karskoye

More

(Kara Sea)

Arctic

Ocean

20°E

40°E

60°E

80°E

120°E

75°N

80°N

85°N

100°E

0°

Novaya

Zemlya

Severnaya

Zemlya

Ostrov

Ushakova

R U S S I A

Barents

Sea

Karskoye

More

(Kara Sea)

20°E

40°E

60°E

80°E

120°E

75°N

80°N

85°N

100°E

0°

Novaya

Zemlya

Severnaya

Zemlya

Ostrov

Ushakova

R U S S I A

Barents

Sea

Karskoye

More

(Kara Sea)

Arctic

Ocean

Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa

(Franz Josef Land)

Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa

(Franz Josef Land)

Arctic

Ocean

Arctic

Ocean

EXPLANATION

0 300 KILOMETERS

0 300 MILES <5

5 to <15

15 to <25

25 to <35

≥35

CLOUD COVER,

IN PERCENT

TOTAL MSS IMAGES

ACQUIRED DURING

JULY, 1983-92

15

5

LANDSAT IMAGE

SCENE (WRS-2)

EXPLANATION

0 300 KILOMETERS

0 300 MILES <5

5 to <15

15 to <25

25 to <35

≥35

CLOUD COVER,

IN PERCENT

TOTAL MSS IMAGES

ACQUIRED DURING

SEPTEMBER, 1983-92

15

5

LANDSAT IMAGE

SCENE (WRS-2)

EXPLANATION

0 300 KILOMETERS

0 300 MILES <5

5 to <15

15 to <25

25 to <35

≥35

CLOUD COVER,

IN PERCENT

TOTAL MSS IMAGES

ACQUIRED DURING

APRIL - SEPTEMBER,

1983-92

100

50 LANDSAT IMAGE

SCENE (WRS-2)

EXPLANATION

0 300 KILOMETERS

0 300 MILES <5

5 to <15

15 to <25

25 to <35

≥35

CLOUD COVER,

IN PERCENT

TOTAL MSS IMAGES

ACQUIRED DURING

MAY, 1983-92

15

LANDSAT IMAGE

SCENE (WRS-2)

A B

C D

Figure 81.—Diagrams showing the effects of cloud cover on Landsat image quality for selected Path–Rows in the Russian 

High Arctic, including Franz Josef Land (Path 203–Row 001, Path 197–Row 001), Novaya Zemlya (Path 178–Row 007) and 

Severnaya Zemlya (Path 174–Row 001, Path 170–Row 002, Path 161–Row 003): A, April to September; B, May; C, July; 

and D, September. Modified from Marshall and others (1994).
F98 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Franz Josef Land

Glacier ice covers about 13,700  km2 or 85 percent of the Franz Josef Land 

archipelago, and glaciers reach tidewater along approximately 60 percent of the 

coast (fig. 82). Relatively little is known about these ice masses (cf. Grosswald 

and Krenke, 1962; Grosswald and others, 1973; Sin’kevich and others, 1991; 

Dowdeswell, Gorman, and others, 1994; Dowdeswell, Glazovskii, and Macheret, 

1995; Dowdeswell, Gorman, Glazovskii, and others, 1996). Mean annual temperature in Franz Josef Land is about −12 to −13 °C and mean July temperature is 

approximately 0 to 1 °C (Dowdeswell, 1995). Precipitation is about 0.3–0.5 m a–1

(ice equivalent), and is greatest in the southeast part of the archipelago, because 

of the direction of the prevailing moisture-bearing winds. The  highest point in 

Franz Josef Land is 670 m, but many glaciers and ice caps have extensive areas at 

relatively low elevations (Dowdeswell, Gorman, and others, 1994).

Glacier mass balance is generally negative (mean of −0.26 m a–1), according 

to field measurements linked to meteorological data for the period 1930–59 

(Grosswald and Krenke, 1962). The  modern equilibrium line altitude (ELA) 

is at about 300 m above sea level, based on an analysis of aerial photographs of 

the archipelago acquired in the 1950s. According to these studies, the ELA 

varies relatively little across Franz Josef Land (Grosswald and others, 1973). 

The  summits of a number of smaller ice caps lie below 300 m, and these ice 

masses appear to be downwasting rapidly (Grosswald and Krenke, 1962; 

Dowdeswell, 1995). Many glaciers also show evidence of retreat during the 

present century from a “Little Ice Age” maximum position (Miller and others, 

1992). This retreat applies particularly to tidewater glaciers, where mass is lost 

by significant iceberg calving as well as by melting (Grosswald and Krenke, 1962; 

Dowdeswell, Gorman, and others, 1994).

Severnaya Zemlya

The archipelago of Severnaya Zemlya is made up of four main islands: 

Komsomolets, Pioneer (Pioner), October Revolution (Oktyabr’skoy 

Revolyutsii), and Bol’shevik Islands, together with several smaller islands 

(fig. 83). Approximately 50 percent of the 36,800  km2 archipelago is glacierized (Kotlyakov and others, this chapter). The  largest ice mass is the Academy 

of Sciences Ice Cap (Lednik Akademii Nauk) on Ostrov Komsomolets, which 

has an area of 5,575 km2 (Dowdeswell and others, 2002) (fig. 84). Floating ice 

shelves are fed from several of the ice caps on Severnaya Zemlya; the best-documented example is the Matusevich Ice Shelf on Ostrov Oktyabr’skoy Revolyutsii, 

which has an area of about 200 km2 and a surface slope of less than 0.2° near its 

margin (Govorukha, 1988a; Dowdeswell, Gorman, and others, 1994; Williams 

and Dowdeswell, 2001).

Mean annual temperature recorded at Fëdorova at the northern tip of the 

Taymyr Peninsula (Poluostrov Taymyr), about 40 km south of Severnaya Zemlya, 

is approximately −15 °C, and mean July temperature is about 1.5 °C (Dowdeswell, 

1995). Precipitation is about 0.25–0.3 m a–1 (ice equivalent). Mass-balance data 

for the Vavilov Ice Cap (Lednik Vavilova) (Barkov and others, 1992), a 1,820 km2

ice cap on Ostrov Oktyabr’skoy Revolyutsii, show that the mean net balance was 

slightly negative between 1974 and 1988 (−0.03 m a–1 water equivalent), but that 

there was significant interannual variability about this value (standard deviation 

±0.36 m a–1). The equilibrium line altitude (ELA) varies from more than 600 m in 

southeastern Severnaya Zemlya, to about 300 m on Ostrov Komsomolets, to 200 m 

or less on Schmidt Island (Ostrov Shmidta) in the northwest (Govorukha, 1970), 

suggesting a moisture source and precipitation gradient from the southeast.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F99

OstrovViktoriya

37°E 50°E 54°E 58°E 52°E 56°E 60°E 62°E 64°E 66°E

80°10’N

OstrovYeva-Liv

Ostrov ZemlyaAleksandry

80°05’N

81°00’N80°20’N81°40’N80°40’N80°00’N81°20’N

LednikKropotkina

Ostrov ZemlyaGeorga

Figure 96

Figure 93

Figure 97

OstrovKetlitsa

OstrovSalsberi

OstrovTsiglera

Ostrov

Dzheksona

OstrovChampa

OstrovGallya

Figure 89-B Figure 90

ZemlyaVil’cheka

LednikZnamenityy

OstrovGreem-Bell

Arctic Ocean

EXPLANATION

LOCATION OF ICE MASS

0 50 KILOMETERS0 50 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS0 5 MILES

79°40’N

Figure 82.—Map of the Franz Josef Land archipelago showing the distribution of ice masses. The locations of Landsat images in subsequent figures are shown as boxes.
F100 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Figure 84

Ostrov

Oktyabr’skoy

Revolyutsii

More Laptevykh

(Laptev Sea)

Karskoye More

(Kara Sea)

Ostrov

Pioner

Lednik

Pioner

Lednik

Vavilova

Lednik

Karpinskogo

Figure 89-A

Lednik

Akademii

Nauk

Ostrov

Komsomolets

Lednik

Al’banova

Lednik

Rusanova

Lednik

Matusevicha

Ostrov

Schmidt

Ostrov

Ushakova

Lednik

Universitetskiy

Lednik

Semënova

TyanShanskogo

Lednik

Leningradskiy

Lednik

Kropotkina

Ostrov

Bol’shevik

Figure 91

92°E 96°E 100°E

81°N

80°N

79°N

78°N

78°E 79°E 80°E 81°E

104°E

81°N

0 25 KILOMETERS

0 25 MILES

EXPLANATION

LOCATION OF ICE MASS

0 50 KILOMETERS

0 50 MILES

Figure 83.—Map of the islands of Severnaya Zemlya showing the distribution of ice masses. The locations of Landsat 

images in subsequent figures are shown as boxes.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F101

The oxygen-isotope and melt-layer records in deep ice cores (550–760 m 

deep) from the Ledniki Vavilova and Akademii Nauk indicate that temperatures 

have risen markedly in the last 120–140 years (Vaikmyae and Punning, 1984; 

Kotlyakov and others, 1989, 1990), but interpretation of the older parts of each core 

is hampered by poor chronological control associated with strong surface melting 

(Tarussov, 1992). Analysis of aerial photographs of the archipelago, acquired since 

the 1930s, shows a general retreat of glacier margins, interpreted to be linked to the 

termination of the “Little Ice Age,” as indicated in the ice-core record. A loss of about 

500 km2 of ice-covered area in Severnaya Zemlya between 1931- 84 was reported by 

Govorukha and others (1987), although Koryakin (1986) suggests that this may be 

an over-estimate resulting from errors in interpretation of aerial photographs. 

0 50 KILOMETERS

0 50 MILES

N

Figure 84.—Landsat false-color Multispectral Scanner (MSS) image of the ice caps in northern Severnaya Zemlya 

(located in fig. 83). The 185 x 185 km full scene was acquired on 22 July 1975. It shows the zones of melting on several 

ice caps. The 5,575 km2 Lednik Akademii Nauk is the largest in the archipelago. The grayish zones closest to the icecap margins are interpreted to represent bare glacier ice. The upper, white regions are snow-covered ice, and the thin 

blue/gray zone separating them is interpreted as a slush zone. A summer cover of shorefast sea ice is present around 

the islands.
F102 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Novaya Zemlya

About 24,400 km2 or 30 percent of the two major islands making up Novaya 

Zemlya is ice covered (fig. 85), with the larger proportion on the northern island 

(Kotlyakov and others, this volume). There appears to be little recent glaciological information available on Novaya Zemlya, perhaps reflecting its role as a 

major site for nuclear weapons testing (Lamb, 1991). Mean annual temperature 

on the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya is -9 °C, with a July mean of 2 °C; on the 

milder west coast, the July mean is 6.5 °C. Precipitation is also higher on the west 

coast, reflecting the influence of relatively moist westerly air masses derived from 

the Norwegian Sea. The  late summer snowline elevation decreases toward the 

north; the elevation is about 600 m near Matochkin Shar, the strait separating 

the main islands (fig. 85), it falls to 450 m at about lat 75°N., and is at 325 m in 

the northernmost part of Novaya Zemlya (McCauley, 1958). The  equilibrium 

line is about 200 m lower on the western Barents Sea margin than on the eastern 

Kara Sea side of the islands. Calculations of net mass balance for the ice cover on 

Novaya Zemlya, based on empirical relationships between temperature, accumulation, and ablation, suggest that the net balance has been negative, by a mean of 

about 0.16 m a-1, for most years since the 1920s (Chizhov and Koryakin, 1962). 

Measurements on a number of glaciers, some of which drain the central ice field 

on the north island, indicate that ice masses shrank by about 2–3 percent between 

the 1930s and the 1950s, and some tidewater glaciers retreated by up to 7  km 

(Chizhov and Koryakin, 1962; Chizhov and others, 1968). Zeeberg (2001) and 

Zeeberg and Forman (2001) also report that most of the 20th century glacier 

retreat in northern Novaya Zemlya was complete by the 1950s, with slower 

retreat since that time.

Other Glacierized Islands in the Russian High Arctic

Less than 1 percent of the glacierized area in the Russian High Arctic occurs 

outside Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, and Novaya Zemlya (fig. 80). Ostrov 

Viktoriya, between Svalbard and Franz Josef Land at 80°N., 37°E., is the westernmost island in the Russian Arctic and lies only about 60 km east of the 99 percent 

ice covered Norwegian island of Kvitøya (Bamber and Dowdeswell, 1990). 

The 11 km2 ice cap on Ostrov Viktoriya has a maximum elevation of 110 m. It has 

a consistently negative mass balance; its entire surface exhibits summer melting, 

and old glacier ice is exposed at the surface (Govorukha, 1964, 1988b). 

Ushakov Island (Ostrov Ushakova), with a completely glacierized surface of 

325 km2, is located between Franz Josef Land and Severnaya Zemlya at lat 81°N., 

long 79.5°E. (fig. 80). The  ice cap has a negative mass balance, but retains a 

zone of net accumulation above an equilibrium line at 200–250 m in altitude 

(Govorukha, 1988b). It has a maximum ice thickness of almost 300 m, measured 

from radio-echo sounding (Bogorodskii and Federov, 1971).

In the Asian Far East sector of the Russian High Arctic, ice masses totaling 

about 60  km2 occur on Ostrova De-Longa, located northeast of the ice-free 

Novosibirskiye Ostrova between lat 76–77°N. and long 149–158°E. (fig. 80). 

On Ostrova De-Longa, the largest ice mass is the Tollya Ice Cap on Bennett 

Island (Ostrov Bennetta), with an area of about 55  km2, a maximum elevation 

of 380 m, and a firn line at about 180 m. Smaller ice masses occur on Henrietta 

Island (Ostrov Genriyetta) and Jeanette Island (Ostrov Zhannetta), with areas 

of 6 and 0.4  km2, respectively (Bazheva, 1981; Verkulich and others, 1992). 

Mass balance investigations on Ostrov Bennetta in 1986–87 showed net losses 

on each of the four ice masses and, combined with meteorological data for 

the previous 30 years, suggested negative balances for about 70 percent of this 

period (Verkulich and others, 1992). Wrangel Island (Ostrov Vrangelya), at 

71°N., 180°E., contains a few semi-permanent snow patches but no glaciers.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F103

Proliv Matochkin Shar

Guba

Mityushikha

Zaliv

Nordenshel’da

50°E

Figure 95

Barents Sea

Karskoye More

(Kara Sea)

Figure 88 76°N

56°E 62°E 68°E

74°N

72°N

70°N

EXPLANATION

LOCATION OF ICE MASS

0 100 KILOMETERS

0 100 MILES

Figure 85.—Map of Novaya Zemlya showing the distribution of ice masses. The locations of Landsat images 

in subsequent figures are shown as boxes.
F104 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Glaciological Investigation of Russian High Arctic 

Ice Masses from Landsat Imagery

Landsat imagery has been used effectively to better define the Russian 

High Arctic ice masses. It has been used to determine ice-surface topography, 

delineating ice divides and drainage basins. Secondly, it has been effective in 

identifying the ice dynamics of the outlet glaciers, icebergs, and floating ice 

shelves, and in locating surge-type glaciers. Thirdly, snow and ice facies visible 

on glacier surfaces have provided information on snow- and equilibrium-line 

positions, and have been used as proxy indicators of mass balance.

Ice-Surface Topography

Drainage basin geometry is a basic unit for glaciological studies of large 

ice masses. Neighboring drainage basins within ice caps can display varying 

dynamic behavior (for example, Dowdeswell, 1986a). Glaciological measurement programs and modeling studies need to take into account this morphological and dynamic variability. The identification and mapping of ice divides 

and drainage basins therefore represents an important prerequisite to the planning and execution of detailed glaciological investigations on the relatively little 

known ice caps of the Russian High Arctic. 

Drainage basins on large ice masses, and the ice divides that define their 

boundaries, can be identified using evidence derived from satellite remote 

sensing. By contrast, field-survey methods cannot usually provide sufficient 

spatial coverage for such investigations. On the large ice sheets of Antarctica 

and Greenland, satellite radar altimetry can yield topographic data of high 

absolute accuracy in order to identify drainage basins. For ice caps of less than 

a few thousand square kilometers in area, such as those in the Russian High 

Arctic, the 18-km diameter footprint of the radar altimeter of the ERS series 

is large relative to the size of the ice mass; therefore, data from this source are 

of limited use for topographic mapping of these smaller ice caps. However, 

satellite imagery from both the visible and near-infrared instruments aboard 

Landsat, along with high-resolution data from Russian satellite photographic 

cameras (for example, KFA-1000, KATE-200), SPOT, ASTER, and from the 

ERS synthetic aperture radar (SAR), can be used to define ice divides and 

drainage basins on smaller ice caps (Martin and Sanderson, 1980; Dowdeswell 

and McIntyre, 1987; Williams and others, 1991; Dowdeswell, Rees, and 

Diament, 1994).

The results of satellite image identification of ice divides for the Franz 

Josef Land archipelago are shown in figure 86. About 915 km of ice divides are 

mapped from the available imagery (Dowdeswell, Glazovskii, and Macheret, 

1995). The map does not necessarily show all of the major ice divides in the 

archipelago, but only those that could be identified from the available Landsat, 

Russian, and ERS-1 SAR satellite imagery. It was possible to map drainage 

basins in greater detail on some of the Franz Josef Land ice caps which were 

more heavily dissected by bedrock outcrops, especially where nunataks 

(isolated bedrock outcrops exposed above the general ice cover) acted as basin 

margins.

There is, in general, an inverse relationship between ice-cap size and the 

ability to plot basin boundaries from rock outcrops. The  largest ice masses 

in the Franz Josef Land archipelago, on Vilchek (Vil’cheka) and Graham Bell 

(Greem-Bell) islands (figs. 82, 86), have very few nunataks; therefore, basin 

extent can, for the most part, be mapped only from the identification of ice 

divides on satellite imagery, as illustrated on the satellite image of the Hall 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F105

Island (Ostrov Gallya) ice cap in figure 87. By contrast, the ice caps on islands 

such as Salisbury (Solsberi), Champ (Champa), and Jackson (Dzheksona) 

can be subdivided extensively on the basis of large numbers of nunataks. On a 

few ice caps, particularly those on Ostrova Greem-Bell and Eva-Liv (Yeva-Liv) 

(fig. 86), few ice divides were identified, probably because these ice masses 

have a particularly well-defined shape with a single summit, rather than having 

elongate crests with similar summit elevations extending for a number of kilometers, such as George Land (Ostrov Zemlya Georga), where the crest extends 

for tens of kilometers (fig. 86).

Similar analyses of the locations of ice-cap divides and drainage basins 

have been conducted for the archipelagos of Severnaya Zemlya and Novaya 

Zemlya (for example, Williams and Dowdeswell, 2001). On the northern 

island of Novaya Zemlya (fig. 85), the position of the major ice divide separating ice flowing west to the Barents Sea and east to the Kara Sea is shown 

in figure 88. The  ice ridges between the drainage basins of individual outlet 

glaciers ending in tidewater can also be seen. The outlet glaciers generally have 

less smooth surfaces than the intervening ridges.

Ice Dynamics 

Landsat imagery has been used to determine the ice dynamics of Russian 

High Arctic outlet glaciers, icebergs, and floating ice shelves, or ice tongues. 

It has also been valuable in identifying surge-type glaciers in the region. 

Outlet Glaciers and Icebergs

 Examination of Landsat imagery of many of the larger ice caps in the 

Russian High Arctic archipelagos shows that they are composed of a number 

of clearly identifiable drainage basins which are likely to behave as dynamically distinct entities (for example, Dowdeswell and others, 2002). Marked 

80°00’N

80°20’N

80°40’N

81°00’N

81°20’N

81°40’N

79°40’N

50°E

56°E

46°E

48°E 52°E 54°E

58°E

64°E

66°E

62°E

60°E

N

Ostrov

Dzheksona

Ostrov

Yeva-Liv

Ostrov

Solsberi Ostrov Zemlya

Georga

Ostrov

Champa

Ostrov Gallya

Zemlya

Vil’cheka

Ostrov

Greem-Bell

0 50 KILOMETERS

0 50 MILES

EXPLANATION

LOCATION OF ICE DIVIDE

Figure 86.—Map of the ice divides on 

the ice caps of Franz Josef Land, shown 

on a georeferenced mosaic of Landsat TM images from Path 199–Rows 001 

and 002, acquired on 25 July 1986. From 

Williams (2003).
F106 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

differences in the behavior of individual drainage basins within Arctic ice 

caps have been demonstrated previously for the two largest ice caps on 

Nordaustlandet in the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard, west of Franz 

Josef Land (Dowdeswell, 1986a; Dowdeswell and Collin, 1990; Dowdeswell 

and others, 1999, 2008), and for the Devon Island Ice Cap in Arctic Canada 

(Dowdeswell and others, 2004; Burgess and others, 2005). 

A number of the ice caps and drainage basins on Franz Josef Land, 

Severnaya Zemlya, and Novaya Zemlya have outlet glaciers which appear to have 

relatively rapid flow speeds and significant production of large tabular icebergs. 

Landsat images of the seaward margins of several outlet glaciers are shown 

58°E

80°20’N

80°20’N

58°E

0 10 KILOMETERS

0 10 MILES

N

Figure 87.—An example of the major ice divides on the Ostrov Gallya ice cap in Franz Josef Land. 

The digitally enhanced Landsat TM sub-scene is from Path 197–Row 001, acquired on 1 August 1988. 

Ostrov Gallya is located in figure 82. 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F107

in figure 89. Each image shows linear boundaries, delineating ice-flow units 

from different parts of the upper drainage basin. In each case, the outlet glacier 

or ice stream appears on Landsat imagery to be the site of iceberg production 

(Dowdeswell and others, 2002). Close to several of the tidewater ice margins, 

transverse and sometimes chaotic crevassing is observed on the satellite imagery. 

The transverse crevasses indicate longitudinal tension at the unconfined ice cliffs 

at the glacier terminus (Hodgkins and Dowdeswell, 1994), and provide fractures 

along which iceberg calving takes place. The fast-flowing ice streams within the 

Lednik Akademii Nauk on Severnaya Zemlya can be clearly identified using both 

Landsat imagery and synthetic aperture radar interferometry (Dowdeswell and 

Figure 88.—Digitally-enhanced Landsat TM sub-scene of the major ice divide running along the northeastsouthwest trending spine of Novaya Zemlya. Outlet glaciers descending from the central divide to end in 

tidewater are shown on both sides of the island. The TM image is from Path 178–Row 006, acquired on 6 July 

1986. It is located in figure 85.

64°E

76°N

N

0 10 KILOMETERS

0 10 MILES

76°N

64°E
F108 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

others, 1999); these ice streams produce large numbers of tabular icebergs (up to 

1.7 km in length and about 2 km2 in area) and a total flux of about 0.5 km3 a–1

(Dowdeswell and others, 2002).

Several authors, including Sandford (1955), Voevodin (1972), 

and Abramov (1992), have reported the occurrence of tabular icebergs 

in Franz Josef Land waters, and icebergs in the Barents Sea which are 

inferred to be derived from the ice caps of Franz Josef Land. The  calving 

of tabular icebergs from several low-gradient margins of ice caps on Franz 

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 5 MILES

B

A

EXPLANATION

EXAMPLE OF LARGE ICEBERG – Embedded

within sea ice.

Figure 89.—Landsat TM images of icebergproducing outlet glaciers draining ice caps in the 

Russian High Arctic. The sea is usually covered 

by sea ice a meter or two thick in these images, 

and many icebergs (some larger bergs arrowed) 

can be seen embedded within this ice, which is 

often shorefast. A, Outlet glaciers and tabular 

icebergs from Severnaya Zemlya (located in 

figure 83). The scene is from Path 164–Row 003, 

acquired on 26 August 1988. B, Outlet glacier 

of the Zemlya Vil'cheka ice cap in Franz Josef 

Land (located in figure 82). The scene is from 

Path 197–Row 001, acquired on 1 August 1988.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F109

Josef Land has also been observed on Landsat imagery. The largest tabular 

icebergs observed on available satellite scenes are found offshore of Lednik 

Znamenityy, on Zemlya Vil’cheka (fig. 90). The  icebergs appear to have 

smooth upper surfaces and are up to about 2 km in length and about 3 km2

in area. Tabular icebergs longer than 200 m have also been observed on 

Landsat TM imagery, offshore of other drainage basins of Zemlya Vil’cheka, 

and offshore of Ostrova Zemlya Georga, Ziegler (Tsiglera), Solsberi, and 

Gallya in Franz Josef Land (fig. 82). Upon examination of photographic 

N

A

C

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 5 MILES

B

D

Figure 90.—Four georeferenced and edge-enhanced subscenes of Landsat 

images of the Lednik Znamenityy on Zemlya Vil'cheka, Franz Josef Land (located 

in figure 82) showing large numbers of tabular icebergs. The tabular icebergs 

calved from this outlet glacier are among the largest produced in Franz Josef Land. 

The large iceberg in image B is >1.9 km in length. A, MSS image, of 8 May 1983 

(Path 197–Row 001). B, TM scene of 25 July 1986 (Path 199–Row 001). C, TM 

scene of 8 August 1987 (Path 196–Row 001) and D, TM scene of 1 August 1988 

(Path 197–Row 001) (From Williams, 2003).
F110 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

products from the Russian KATE-200 satellite camera system, the 

largest tabular iceberg observed in Franz Josef Land was 2.3  km in length 

(Dowdeswell, Gorman, Macheret and others, 1996).

Floating Ice Shelves or Ice Tongues 

Ice shelves have been noted only infrequently in the little-known Eurasian 

Arctic sector, and the largest northern hemisphere ice shelf is the Ward Hunt 

off Ellesmere Island, Canada ( Jeffries, 1987, 2002). Three ice shelves have, 

nonetheless, been reported from the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago (Dibner, 

1955; Zinger and Koryakin, 1965; Govorukha, 1988a). These occur on 

Ostrova Komsomolets and Oktyabr’skoy Revolyutsii (fig. 83). The  largest, 

the Lednik Matusevicha, is illustrated on the Landsat image in figure 91. 

N

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 5 MILES

Lednik

Avsyuk

Lednik

No. 17

Lednik

Rusanova

Lednik

Zhuravlev

Lednik Khodov

Zaliv

Skazochnaya

Zaliv Krasivaya

Lednik

Skazochnyye

Lednik

Polyarnikov

Lednik

AANII

Lednik

Karpinskogo

Lednik Issledovateley

Lednik

Matusevicha
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F111

This ice shelf is about 200  km2 in area, with a surface slope of less than 0.2° 

near its margin (Govorukha, 1988a). Although this feature is referred to as 

an ice shelf, according to the definition of Armstrong and others (1966), 

it is similar to a floating ice tongue. Ice-surface profiles of (1) the Lednik 

Matusevicha and its drainage basin, and (2) an outlet glacier of the Lednik 

Akademii Nauk, on Ostrov Komsomolets, are given in figure 92. The marginal 9- and 

4-km elevations of these profiles, respectively, represent floating ice shelves. 

Williams and Dowdeswell (2001) measured terminus fluctuations and the drift 

of icebergs calved from Lednik Matusevicha using Landsat and earlier imagery. 

Between 1931 and 1994, the floating margin of the ice shelf underwent at least 

2 cycles of retreat followed by advance. Most icebergs calved from the ice shelf 

remain trapped within the adjacent fjord for 10 to 20 years.

There is some controversy in the early Russian literature as to the occurrence of ice shelves in Franz Josef Land. Spizharskiy (1936), Shumskiy 

(1949), and Govorukha (1968) each suggest that some small ice shelves 

may be present, whereas Grosswald and others (1973) argue that none exist. 

Evidence in support of either case is ambiguous, although Govorukha (1968) 

states specifically that an ice shelf is present in the northeast of Ostrov Zemlya 

Georga (fig. 82).

A number of ice caps with smooth and apparently very low surface gradients at their seaward margins were observed on Landsat Thematic Mapper 

(TM) and Multispectral Scanner (MSS) satellite imagery of Franz Josef Land 

(fig. 93) (Dowdeswell, Gorman, and others, 1994). These areas are often 

associated with the production of relatively large tabular icebergs. The  areas 

are dynamically part of the parent ice mass and have a marked break of slope 

at their inner margins. Most, although not all, of the low gradient margins 

are located in relatively protected embayments, rather than along sections 

of open coastline, and there is often relatively deep water offshore. These flat 

features account for 315 km2 or 2.3 percent of the total area of the ice caps in 

the archipelago and the largest of these low gradient areas is 45 km2 (fig. 94). 

Figure 91.— (at left) Annotated Landsat TM band 3 subscene of the Lednik 

Matusevicha on Ostrov Oktyabr'skoy 

Revolyutsii, Severnaya Zemlya (located 

in figure 83). The ice shelf is composed 

of units derived from outlet glaciers of the 

Rusanova (west) and Karpinskogo (east) 

ice caps. Tabular icebergs up to about 

4 km long are being calved from the 

ice-shelf margin. The Landsat TM subscene was acquired on 26 August 1988 

from Path 164–Row 003. From Williams 

(2003).

Lednik Matusevicha

Ostrov Komsomolets ice shelf

0

100

200

300

400

500

0 5 10 15 20

DISTANCE, IN KILOMETERS

ELEVATION, IN METERS

Figure 92.—Ice-surface profiles from two ice shelves 

and their parent drainage basins on Severnaya Zemlya, 

derived from analysis of Russian aerial photographs from 

the 1950s. The Lednik Matusevicha is imaged in figure 

91, and the smaller ice shelf on Ostrov Komsomolets is 

fed by an eastern outlet of the Lednik Akademii Nauk. 

Modified from Dowdeswell, Gorman, and others (1994)
F112 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Ostrov Zemlya Georga

Ice Cap

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 5 MILES

Zaliv Geografov

IS

A

B

IS

C

D

E F

IS

INTERPRETED AS POSSIBLE ICE SHELVES

ICE RIDGES OR CAPS – Separating flat marginal areas

INDICATES EXAMPLE OF TABULAR ICEBERG

IS at A, C, and E

B, D, and F

EXPLANATION

Figure 93.—Landsat TM image of three flat ice-marginal glacier termini on the ice cap on Ostrov Zemlya Georga, 

western Franz Josef Land (located in figure 82). IS denotes ice shelves. Ice ridges or caps separate the flat marginal 

areas. Tabular icebergs (examples arrowed) can be seen in the sea beyond the ice shelf margins among sea-ice floes. 

The scene is from Path 199–Row 002, acquired on 25 July 1986.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F113

Ostrov ZemlyaAleksandry

Ostrov Zemlya Georga

Ostrov Salsberi

Ostrov Gallya

ZemlyaVil’cheka

50°E 54°E 58°E 52°E 56°E 60°E 62°E 64°E 66°E

Arctic Ocean

0 50 KILOMETERS0 50 MILES

81°00’N80°20’N81°40’N80°40’N80°00’N81°20’N79°40’N

48°E 46°E 44°E

EXPLANATION

LOCATION OF ICE MASSAREA OF LOW SURFACE

GRADIENT

Figure 94.—Map of the ice caps on Franz Josef Land, with marginal areas of low surface gradient shaded dark blue. Some of these ice-cap margins may be floating or near to full buoyancy. (Modified from Dowdeswell, Gorman, and others, 1994.)
F114 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

They make up a total of 175  km or 6 percent of the ice-ocean interface from 

which iceberg calving takes place. Ice-surface profiles, derived from analysis of 

vertical aerial photographs, show slopes of 0.5° on these features, as compared 

with 3.5–5° slopes on other ice caps in Franz Josef Land.

At least some of these smooth, low-gradient features at the margins of 

Franz Josef Land ice caps are likely to be floating ice shelves (Dowdeswell, 

Gorman, and others, 1994). They have ice surface gradients similar to gradients on the known ice shelves on Severnaya Zemlya (fig. 92). There is no 

requirement for deep water to occur beneath these features, but they must be 

buoyant over a significant part of their base. They provide one of the modern 

sources of tabular icebergs to both the eastern Barents Sea and to the Eurasian 

Basin of the Arctic Ocean (Dowdeswell, Gorman, and others, 1994).

Surge-Type Glaciers

Landsat imagery of the Russian High Arctic archipelagos has been 

examined for the presence of surge-type glaciers within the 56,000  km2 of 

glacierized land. Ice-surface features and rapid changes in ice extent, sometimes easily identified on Landsat imagery, have been used to identify a large 

number of surge-type glaciers in the Svalbard archipelago to the west of Franz 

Josef Land (fig. 80). These features include looped medial moraines and highly 

crevassed ice surfaces, together with the rapid advance of the glacier terminus 

in a time series of images (for example, Meier and Post, 1969; Dowdeswell, 

1986b; Liestøl, 1993; Kotlyakov and others, this chapter). 

Landsat imagery covering more than 95 percent of the ice masses in the 

Russian High Arctic contains only very limited evidence of glacier surging 

(Dowdeswell and Williams, 1997). On Novaya Zemlya, three surge-type 

glaciers were identified using ice-surface characteristics. Two of these glaciers 

are located in the Nordenskiöld Bay (Zaliv Nordenshel’da) area on the west 

side of Novaya Zemlya (fig. 85), and are illustrated in the Landsat subscene in 

figure 95. The  more northerly of these surge-type glaciers is heavily crevassed, 

as well as having a diagnostic looped medial moraine; it is inferred to be in the 

active phase of the surge cycle. A recent comprehensive analysis of Landsat and 

ASTER images of Novaya Zemlya has shown the presence of more than 30 

glaciers of likely surge-type (Grant and others, 2009). On Severnaya Zemlya, two 

outlet glaciers of the Karpinsky Ice Cap (Lednik Karpinskogo) (fig. 83) also have 

looped medial moraines, suggesting past surge activity. On Franz Josef Land, 

no ice-surface features indicative of surging have been identified from Landsat 

imagery. It is concluded from these observations that there are only very small 

numbers of surge-type glaciers in this region (Dowdeswell and Williams, 1997). 

However, having incomplete coverage of the Russian High Arctic ice masses 

during times of the year most suitable for the identification of specific ice-surface 

features, and having time series of images for only a few Landsat Path–Rows, 

there may be more yet unidentified surge-type glaciers in this region.

The relative scarcity of identified surge-type glaciers in the Russian High 

Arctic provides a significant contrast with neighboring Svalbard (Liestøl, 

1993), where more than 35 percent of ice masses are considered to be of 

surge-type (Hamilton and Dowdeswell, 1996). It is possible that the generally negative mass balances reported for Russian High Arctic ice masses since 

the end of the cold “Little Ice Age,” about 100 years ago, have resulted in some 

glaciers switching from surge-type to non-surge type behavior. In  Svalbard, it 

has been shown that some glaciers no longer surge; their consistently negative 

mass balance means they are thinning, their vertical temperature gradients 

are increasing, and basal melting is being replaced by a cold bed without the 

active hydrological system necessary for fast flow (Dowdeswell, Hodgkins, and 

others, 1995).
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F115

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 5 MILES

EXPLANATION

LOCATION OF LOOPED MORAINES – Indicating

surge activity

Figure 95.—Digitally enhanced Landsat TM image of the outlet glaciers entering Zaliv Nordenshel'da, 

Novaya Zemlya (located in figure 85). Note the looped moraines (arrowed) indicating surge activity. 

The image is from Path 178–Row 007, acquired on 6 July 1986.

Snow-and-Ice Facies and Glacier Mass Balance

The patterns of snow-and-ice facies on the surfaces of glaciers (Benson, 

1962) have been used in a number of satellite studies (1) to provide information on snow- and equilibrium-line positions, and (2) as proxy indicators of 

mass balance (for example, Williams and others, 1991). Late summer satellite images are required, and time series of observations can be constructed 

either within a given year, to monitor the up-glacier retreat of the transient 

snow-line, or for successive years, at the end of each melt season (for example, 

Dowdeswell and Drewry, 1989).

Three examples of the complexity of the spectral response associated 

with summer Landsat  TM images of the Russian High Arctic are illustrated 

in figures 84, 96, and 97. A  full 185-by-185  km Landsat  TM image of the 
F116 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 3 MILES

Figure 96.—Digitally enhanced Landsat TM sub-scene showing the snow-and-ice facies on a summer image of the 

Lednik Kropotkina on Ostrov Zemlya Aleksandry, Franz Josef Land (Path 199–Row 001, acquired on 25 July 1986). 

The image is located in figure 82.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F117

Figure 97.—Landsat TM sub-scene of Ostrov Ketlitsa, Franz Josef Land (Path 199–Row 001, 

25 July 1986) (located in figure 82). The two ice caps have bare ice exposed over most of their 

surface. The two insets are interpretations of the primary stratification exposed at the surface 

of each ice cap.

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 5 MILES
F118 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

northern part of Severnaya Zemlya, acquired during summer, shows a series of 

several spectral zones ranging from bare ice at the margin, through a thin slush 

zone, to snow on the crest of the main ice caps (fig. 84).

A second image (fig. 96) shows a TM sub-scene of the 120 km2 Kropotkin 

Ice Cap (Lednik Kropotkina) on Alexandra Land (Ostrov Zemlya Aleksandry) 

in the Franz Josef Land archipelago. The detail in this image shows a large spectral variability within zones and the generally transitional nature of the boundaries between them. The surface of the ice cap is clearly not smooth, and snow 

remains in hollows close to sea level even in summer. The blue-colored slush 

zone, above the bare ice zone, appears to have a series of lineaments within 

it which extend in some cases down into the bare ice facies. These are interpreted as supraglacial drainage channels, which have been observed on glaciers 

in Franz Josef Land and eastern Svalbard (Rees and others, 1995). Two small 

supraglacial ponds are also observed. The ice cap appears to have two domes. 

The larger one has a continuous covering of snow at this stage of the summer 

melt season, but the lower one, to the south, appears to be composed largely 

of bare ice (fig. 96). This pattern may indicate that either accumulation is by 

superimposed ice only, or that net mass loss is taking place even at the crest of 

this smaller ice cap.

The image of the two small ice caps on Koettlitz Island (Ostrov Ketlitsa) 

(fig. 97), in western Franz Josef Land, illustrates an application of Landsat data 

to the problem of glacier response to climate change. The south and north ice 

caps cover a total of about 40  km2 and have crests at 160 m and 50 m above 

sea level, respectively. The TM image was acquired on 25 July 1986, relatively 

early in the melt season, and yet the winter snow has almost completely disappeared from both ice caps to reveal ice. In the smaller (north) ice cap, ice structures assumed to represent primary depositional stratification are exposed 

right up to the summit, indicating that there is net mass loss over the entire ice 

cap (fig. 97). The northern margin of the larger (south) ice cap also contains 

primary structures or foliation which are clearly truncated (cf. Hambrey, 1975; 

Hambrey and Müller, 1978). This pattern suggests that thinning and retreat 

of this larger ice cap is also taking place. It is likely that most ice caps with 

summit elevations below about 150–200 m in the archipelago are in a state 

of strong negative balance, probably as a result of the warming experienced in 

the Eurasian High Arctic at the termination of the “Little Ice Age” and through 

modern warming.

Conclusions

Landsat digital and photographic products have provided important 

insights into several aspects of the morphology and dynamics of the relatively 

little-known glaciers and ice caps in the Russian High Arctic. This is so, despite 

the fact that this part of the Eurasian Arctic sector is most severely affected by 

cloud-cover problems (Marshall and others, 1994). Landsat imagery has been 

used at both a synoptic scale and at a more detailed level, through the selective 

digital enhancement of sub-scenes, to further our understanding of the surface 

topography, ice dynamics, and mass balance of the more than 56,000 km2 of ice 

masses in the Russian Arctic archipelagos. Analysis of the imagery has demonstrated, for example, that these ice masses produce the largest icebergs in the 

Eurasian Arctic and that small ice caps are likely to be in negative net balance 

in response to recent climate change (ACIA, 2004). Information derived from 

these investigations has been incorporated in numerical models testing the 

sensitivity of Russian High Arctic ice masses to both future and past climate 

change (Glazovskii and others, 1996; Siegert and Dowdeswell, 1995).
GLACIERS OF ASIA — FORMER SOVIET UNION F119

Acknowledgments

Funding was provided through U.K. NERC Grants 

GR3/8507 and GR3/9958, INTASGrant 1010-CT93-

0006, the John Ellerman Foundation, Conoco Phillips, 

and the Newton Trust. The  Royal Society provided financial support for satellite image purchase and for collaborative meetings in Cambridge and Moscow with Russian 

colleagues. This is a contribution to the European Science 

Foundation program on the Quaternary Environment of 

the Eurasian North (QUEEN).

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