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Chapter 5

Conclusions and Implications

In this chapter, we briefly recap some of the key findings of the study, discuss their

implications for transportation policy and outline several questions that have arisen as an

outgrowth of our research. The study focused on part-time workers and their journey to work,

particularly with regard to automobile usage. In general, close similarities in automobile access

were found for part-time workers and full-time workers. However, within specific segments of the

part-time workforce significant issues of transportation access arose, and with them, implications

for policy formulation.

Several issues regarding part-time work identified in the literature were confirmed by

findings from our study. While the data did not allow us to differentiate between voluntary and

involuntary part-time workers, our study confirmed that women dominate the part-time

workforce. In addition to women, the part-time workforce is largely made up of seniors, the

elderly, and teenagers.

The services industry was identified in the literature as the job sector with the fastest

growing number of part-time workers. Our study found that a fifth of all part-time workers are in

this sector, compared to only eight percent of full-time workers who work in the service sector. It

also confirmed earlier findings that income among this group of workers was also among the

lowest. Across all levels of personal income black part-time workers represent the largest

proportion of part-time workers living in households with no automobile.

On average, travel time for part-time workers was shorter than for full-time workers.

However, unmarried women with children took slightly longer to get to work than other part-time
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workers. The literature shows that teenagers have been identified as having limited access to

transportation, constraining their job search. We also found that this is true, since a larger

proportion of teenagers than others walk to work, suggesting that they choose part-time jobs that

may be relatively close to their residences. 

Women

The most significant differences among women in transportation access were reflected in

their racial, marital and family status. A much lower proportion of black female part-time workers

travel to work by automobile compared to other part-time workers. Married women seemed to

have better access to transportation, while unmarried women with children were at the greatest

disadvantage. Single mothers averaged a longer commute than any other segment of the female

workforce. Among the female part-time workforce, single mothers were also the group most

likely to travel by public transit. In 1990, there were 817,212 unmarried women with children

working part-time. Unmarried black female part-time workers with children were found to be

using the automobile at a much lower proportion than other female part-time workers. In

addition, women in lower skilled and lower paying occupations are more likely to travel at nonstandard hours. This raises several important issues that nevertheless were beyond the scope of

this study. Some of the women making Welfare to Work transitions may have a lot in common

with these single mothers. Further understanding of this group will help inform transportation

policy decisions that, in the long run, may help determine the success of welfare reform efforts.

Several questions remain to be addressed. For example, to what extent are those who

might be affected by the new Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) welfare program,

going to have to face similar transportation barriers? How do they cope with child care and
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transportation in their journey to work?

Seniors and the Elderly

This segment of the part-time workforce is an important one as people live longer and

continue to be physically fit to work even after retirement from full-time jobs. From our study, we

know that these part-time workers demonstrate worktrip behavior and have transportation access

similar to the rest of the population. The literature review differentiated between “retained” parttime and secondary part-time jobs. For senior and elderly part-time workers, they seem to be

retained part-time workers to a greater extent, as measured by their presence in high wage jobs

compared to other workers. However, many issues worth further investigation are emerging as

this population grows. For example, what transportation differences exist between male and

female seniors? To what extent is the travel behavior of these workers affected by physical

disabilities? What is the impact of information technology on the ability of these workers to work

from their homes? 

Teenagers

The majority of teenagers combined part-time work and school attendance. Not

surprisingly, they exhibited a unique tendency to depart for work after 12 noon. Teenagers were

also more likely to walk to work, indicating that they worked closer to home. We cannot tell from

the study the extent to which teenagers’ job search or work location is impacted by their access to

automobiles. Since teenagers can learn valuable skills as part-time workers, it is important to ask

the following questions. To what extent does a teen’s access to transportation affect his or her

ability to find suitable jobs? What differences in access exist between teenagers of different

income levels and racial backgrounds? Further investigation of these questions could reveal
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valuable information for transportation policy.

Policy Implications

The most significant policy implication derived from this study is the need to make

automobiles more accessible to workers who otherwise have limited access to private vehicles

because of non-standard hours and possible trip-chaining. For workers living in households with

no automobile, carpooling can be a useful worktrip strategy. Nevertheless, our study showed that

only 6 percent of part-time workers who carpool to work live in households with no private

vehicles. 

When people plan effective carpooling, it is necessary that their departure times be

concentrated around the same time of day. For full-time workers this kind of coordination is

clearly far simpler than for part-time workers, given the more widely dispersed departure times

part-timers experience. One solution might be to encourage employers to support carpooling by

their employees. Also, community-based organizations could be encouraged to develop some

form of transportation plan targeted at part-time workers with limited access to automobiles.

More recently, car dealers around the country have been making donations of used cars to

workers without cars, to assist them in their transportation needs. The federal government may

want to explore ways of encouraging these initiatives or coordinating their programs with

activities such as these.