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**EqualHousing Opportunities in New York: An Evaluation of  Section 8 Housing Programsin Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse**

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**Chapter1**

**Background**

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Theorigin of the Federal Section 8 housing program can be traced to the nationalresponse to the need for housing during the Great Depression. This chapterchronicles pertinent Federal legislation that prompted the development of themodern-day Section 8 program and the major court cases that further defined it.This chapter also discusses the different programs available under Section 8 andtheir eligibility requirements.

**Legislative/JudicialHistory **

TheU.S. Housing Act of 1937,1as amended, created two rental assistance programs. The first is public housing,which is directly owned and operated by local governments called public housingauthorities.2Thesecond program is the Section 8 tenant-based rent subsidy program (referring tosection 8 of the 1937 act), in which the local housing agencies, which can be apart of a public housing authority or a completely independent nonprofitorganization (called �HAs�3),administering the subsidies contract with private landlords to rent units tolower income households.4Figure 1 shows the ballooning growth of the Section 8 program as compared withpublic housing.

As conceived in the 1930s, publichousing was to provide temporary shelter for poor families as they moved intothe middle class.5 By the early 1960s, however, public housinghad become the home of last resort for a disproportionate number of minorityfamilies, particularly families headed by impoverished black women withchildren.6 Federal spending for urban renewal in themid-1960s razed old homes occupied by blacks, especially in Eastern andMidwestern cities. Instead of dispersing this displaced population to thesuburbs, public housing was constructed, further concentrating blacks, and laterother minorities, in inner-city neighborhoods.7

Throughoutthe 1960s and early 1970s, numerous fair housing laws and policies shaped thefield of public and assisted housing.8Precedent-making court cases soon followed. In 1973 the Second Circuit Court ofAppeals declared that Federal housing programs are obligated to actaffirmatively to promote fair housing. It stated, �Action must be taken tofulfill, as much as possible, the goal of open and integrated residentialhousing patterns and to prevent the increase of segregation in ghettos, ofracial groups whose lack of opportunities the [law] was designed to combat.�9

In1976 the Supreme Court decision *Hills v. Gautreaux*10 established the principle that it is unlawful for public housing either toencourage or perpetuate segregation. Although Federal judges orderedscattered-site public housing, few units were built because of opposition fromlocal residents and lack of Federal funds.11 Instead, *Gautreaux* created whatturned out to be the Section 8 �mobility� program, offering Section 8tenant-based subsidies combined with counseling and assistance to minorityfamilies wishing to move from segregated public housing. By 1997 the *Gautreaux*mobility program had assisted over 7,000 minority families in relocating toareas of lower poverty and minority concentration.

Themost notorious case of resistance to public housing desegregation occurred inYonkers, New York.12 In 1980 the NAACP filed suit on behalfof black residents to end the city�s 40-year practice of systematicsegregation in subsidized housing. In a comprehensive 650-page decision in 1987,*NAACP v. Yonkers Board of Education*,13the Supreme Court found the city of Yonkers guilty of intentional discriminationin the location of federally subsidized housing. Among other fair housingviolations, the Court specifically cited that local officials had refused toseek all of the Section 8 housing certificates for which they qualified despitea pressing need for low-income housing, and that they had limited the use ofSection 8 certificates they did acquire to the black quadrant of the city.14

TheCourt ordered the city of Yonkers to designate sites outside of the high densityminority area for the construction of 200 subsidized housing units and todevelop a long-term plan for the desegregation of subsidized housing. Cityofficials, however, opposed all remedial efforts, and during the summer of 1988,the city incurred $800,000 in fines as a result of contempt of court citationsfor failure to comply. It was not until September 1988, 8 years after theoriginal lawsuit was filed and 2 years after the initial court order, that theCity Council, under financial duress, accepted a plan to build 200 units oneight sites scattered among white neighborhoods in Yonkers.15

TheYonkers litigation gave rise to a related case, *Giddins v. Yonkers HousingAuthority,*16**in which the minority plaintiffschallenged the defendants� failure to provide housing opportunities outsideareas of high poverty and racial concentration. As part of the settlement, amobility counseling program similar to the one created by *Gautreaux* wasestablished to help families with Section 8 subsidies move to better housing.Early reports indicate that the Yonkers scattered-site and Section 8 mobilityprograms are having a very beneficial effect on program participants.17

**What IsSection 8 Housing?**

TheSection 8 program, which is the largest rent subsidy funding source of theFederal Government, provides funds to make up the differencebetween the housing a family can afford and the cost of housing in a specificarea. Section 8 assisted housing programs consist of several components,including rental certificate, rental voucher, moderate and substantialrehabilitation, and new construction. This report covers the rental certificateand rental voucher programs.

Thesetwo programs, sometimes called the �finders-keepers� programs, arepredicated on the premise that the tenant can take his or her subsidy and lookfor a landlord willing to contract with the HA for a portion of the tenant�srent payment.18 The landlord must further agree to anapartment inspection by the local HA, as well as various other Section 8 programrequirements. In some cases the HA is the same agency that administers the localpublic housing program.19

TheSection 8 certificate and voucher rental assistance programs provide housingassistance to about 1.35 million low-income households. Nationally, more thanhalf (54 percent) of the  Section 8 certificate and voucher holders areminority. Thirty-six percent are black, while 15 percent are Latino(�Hispanic�).20 According to the HUD Office of PolicyDevelopment and Research, �Minority and white subsidized households do not endup equally distributed in the same neighborhoods as each other. We do know thatcertificate and voucher holders end up in more integrated neighborhoods thanpublic housing tenants, but there is still a difference in the locations ofwhite and minority certificate and voucher holders.�21

In1993 roughly 87 percent of Section 8 families covered by large urban HAs weresuccessful in signing leases, but 30 percent of these successes were fromfamilies who used their certificate or voucher without moving.22Although this rate of success is an improvement over past efforts,23high success rates merely indicate that more families find *some* form ofeligible housing; they do not necessarily mean that these families found housingof their choice.

**Voucherand Certificate Programs * ***

Section8 certificate and voucher programs both provide subsidies for assistedhouseholds to live in private rental housing of their choice and have similarincome eligibility requirements. However, the programs differ in important ways.

***Section8 Certificates**** *

Thecertificate program places the choice of housing in the hands of the assistedfamily. Under this program, an eligible low-income family is issued aCertificate of Family Participation. The family then locates a suitable dwellingunit either within or outside of the HA�s jurisdiction. If the rent is at orbelow the fair market rent (established annually by HUD) and the unit meetsother program requirements,24 the family and owner can sign a lease for thefamily�s share of the monthly rent. The family pays 30 percent of its�adjusted� monthly income as its share of the rent.25The HA then contracts with the owner for the difference between the family�sshare and the actual rent for the apartment.

***Section8 Vouchers***

TheSection 8 voucher program, while similar to the certificate program, givesassisted families a somewhat greater choice in selecting a rental unit. As withSection 8 certificates, the amount of the subsidy under the voucher program isthe difference between a payment standard for the area, which is based on theaverage fair market rent for a particular size unit, and 30 percent of thefamily�s adjusted monthly income. The voucher program, however, permitsfamilies to choose units with rent above the market rate established for thearea by HUD. If the family rents a unit whose rent exceeds the payment standard,the family must pay the additional amount out of its own pocket, but is free todo so if it wishes to incur the expense to rent a more desirable apartment.

Afamily may also pay less than 30 percent of its adjusted income for rent if itis able to take advantage of the statutorily based �shopper�s incentive�feature.26 This feature allows an assisted household topay less than 30 percent of its adjusted income if it is successful in findingan acceptable unit renting for less than the payment standard. Congress expectedthat the �shopper�s incentive� would constrain rent increases by housingowners since assisted families would have a monetary incentive to obtain themost favorable rents.27This feature, not present in the certificate program, can also act as adisincentive for a family to move to an area of lower racial or povertyconcentration in which the rents are higher.

**EligibilityRequirements**

Inorder to receive assistance through Section 8 an applicant must satisfy twoqualifications: (1) be defined as a �family� and (2) be �verylow-income� in accordance with requirements established by HUD.28

Theterm �family� is defined by the statute and HUD regulations.29Depending on the rules adopted for the operation of the local program, a�family� may consist of one or more individuals, regardless of their bloodor marriage relationship. With respect to the definition of what groups ofpersons constitute a family (i.e., nonsingles), the regulations conferdiscretion on the local HA to provide the definition. That definition must,however, be incorporated in the HA�s Administrative Plan.30

Withrespect to a single person �family,� the HUD regulations include �any�single person. In practice however, most single persons will not be admitted tothe program. Preference is given to families made up of more than one individualunless the single person is elderly, disabled, or meets other criteria.31

Thesecond eligibility requirement concerns the income of the potential recipient.HUD has established a series of maximum income limits for different areas of thecountry. To be eligible, a family�s income cannot exceed the maximum incomepermitted by HUD for the particular area in which the family will be housed.

Differentincome limits are established in accordance with family size within individualcommunities. The amount of these income limits is calculated as 50 percent ofthe median income in the area. For the metropolitan areas reviewed by theAdvisory Committee the income limits, together with the fair market rent limitsfor a two bedroom apartment, are shown in table 1.

| **Table      1****     Section      8 Income Eligibility and Rent Limits**   **Metropolitan      area****50%      of median income*****Fair      market rent****Buffalo$22,000$525Rochester
$24,400

$600
Syracuse$22,250$563   *       For a household of four      ** 2 bedroom, effective 1/7/98      
*Source: Analysis of      Impediments for the Cities of Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse, 1998.*
**Section8 Local Administration  **

IndividualHAs operating under HUD regulations have broad administrative responsibilitiesin managing the Section 8 certificate and voucher programs, including thefollowing:  
-   Determining    the eligibility of applicants.Contracting    with local landlords.Conducting    housing quality inspections. Deciding    who will receive priority or preference.Issuing    rent subsidies to participating property owners.32
Inaddition, HAs are charged with specific civil rights mandates called �CivilRights Related Program Requirements.� These mandates are as follows:
-  Seek    expanded opportunities for assisted families by locating housing outside of    areas of poverty or racial concentration.33 Encourage    owners to make units available, including owners of suitable units located    outside areas of poverty or racial concentration.34Affirmatively    further fair housing goals and comply with equal opportunity requirements.35 Make    efforts to help disabled persons find satisfactory housing.36Explain    the advantages of moving to an area of low-poverty concentration to families    currently living in high-poverty census tracts.37
Afterreceiving their certificate or voucher, families initially have 60 days to finda unit that meets their needs and the program criteria, which includes passingthe HA inspection. In appropriate cases, such as when the family has specialhousing needs that make it difficult to find housing, the HA may extend thesearch period up to 120 days.38HUD has recognized, for example, that it may be appropriate to provide a familywith an extension if it is attempting to find housing in an area of lowerpoverty concentration.39

**LocalDiscretion**

HAshave wide discretion in establishing their own policies and practices. Due tothis latitude, some HA practices may actually work against fair housing. Fourillustrative examples are described below. First, some HAs may make it moredifficult for a family from the city to successfully locate a unit in thesuburbs.40The HA staff may informally refer families who they believe will be bettertenants to certain landlords in certain areas and such referrals are against thedesign of the Section 8 program in that the tenants, not the HA, should selectthe landlord.41 Second, some HAs, including some central-city HAs, may inadvertently �steer�minorities to certain neighborhoods by providing rental listings that consistprimarily of landlords from those areas. This will particularly be true if theHA does not conduct aggressive landlord outreach to broaden the choicesavailable to families, but instead simply lists those landlords who havenotified the HA of apartment openings.

Third,other HAs may underestimate the prevalence of racial discrimination by landlordsin areas of low-minority concentration and may not sufficiently make it clear tominority certificate holders their fair housing rights and what to do in casethey perceive they are being discriminated against. In many jurisdictions theseproblems are exacerbated by the reluctance of some landlords in low-povertyareas to rent to Section 8 certificate holders.42Fourth, a Section 8 subsidy holder must apply for an extension of time orforfeit the subsidy if the holder fails to find a unit within 60 days. It iswithin the HA�s discretion to grant or deny the request.43An HA�s denial may have serious consequences, forcing a tenant either toquickly redirect her search (perhaps to a less desirable neighborhood) or toforfeit the subsidy altogether.

**Section8 and High-Poverty Neighborhoods**

Adisproportionate concentration of minority Section 8 recipients live inneighborhoods with high poverty and minority concentration (see figure 3).While25 percent of blacks and 18 percent of Hispanics live in neighborhoods that aremore than 30 percent poor, only 8 percent of whites live in these neighborhoods.Conversely, more than half of white Section 8 recipients (53 percent) live inlow-poverty neighborhoods, compared with only 28 percent of blacks and 40percent of Hispanics. The Section 8 program is intended to help move low-incomefamilies out of high-poverty areas into areas of less poverty and moreeducational and economic opportunities. Statistics show that minorities, eitherdue to the HA�s administrative practices or other outside barriers, are notgaining the full benefit of Section 8 programs.44

Ashas been shown, local housing authorities are faced with several problems. HAsneed to eliminate administrative practices that create barriers for Section 8recipients in obtaining subsidies and in using them in areas of lower racial andpoverty concentration. Housing authorities also need to act *affirmatively*to promote mobility initiatives that will further racial desegregation anddeconcentration of poverty as mandated by HUD. Finally, HAs  need tomaintain a fair, efficient, and effective program for all participants .

**Conclusion     **

Thisinformation demonstrates the need to examine whether resistance to Section 8housing continues. An examination is also necessary to determine whetheradministrative barriers may be excluding minorities from housing opportunities,and whether racial discrimination in other forms is keeping minorities frommoving out of areas of high poverty and minority concentration.

 

**Endnotes **

 

1U.S. Housing Act of 1937,  42 U.S.C. � 1437 (Supp. 1975).  

2�Public Housing Agency� is defined by statute to include �any State,county, municipality, or other governmental entity or public body (or agency orinstrumentality thereof) which is authorized to engage in or assist in thedevelopment or operation of low-income housing.� 42 U.S.C. � 1437a(b)(6)(1988); *see also* 24 C.F.R. � 5.100 (1997).  

3 *See*24 C.F.R. � 982.4 (1997).

4The two laws that concern rent subsidies are the Housing and CommunityDevelopment Act of 1974, Pub. L. Number 93�383, � 201(a), 88 Stat. 633, 653(codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. �  1437f  (1988 & Supp. V 1993)),which created the Section 8 certificate program, and the Housing and CommunityDevelopment Act of 1997, Pub. L. Number 100�242 � 143, 101 Stat. 1815, 1850(1988) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. � 1437f(o) (Supp. V. 1993)), whichcreated the Section 8 voucher program. In addition to the tenant-based Section 8program, there are also several �project-based� Section 8 variations inwhich the subsidy is attached to a privately owned apartment, usually in amultifamily housing development. Those variations were not included in thisstudy which deals solely with the tenant-based Section 8 certificate and voucherprograms. �Lower income households,� as defined by HUD, are families whoseincomes are at or below 50 percent of the median income for the locality. *See*24 C.F.R. � 982.4 (1997).

5Reynolds Farley and William Frey, �Changes in the Segregation of Whites FromBlacks During the 1980s: Small Steps Toward a More Integrated Society,� *AmericanSociological Review*, vol. 59 (Feb. 23, 1994), p. 24.

6  Ibid., p. 26.
7 A. Bickford and Douglas Massey, �Segregation  in the SecondGhetto,� *Social Forces*, vol. 69 (1991) p. 1011.

8There are five primary laws that protect people against housing discriminationin New York State: (1) title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. �2000d, prohibits discrimination in all federally funded programs; (2) title VIIIof the Civil Rights Act of 1968, 42 U.S.C. � 3601 et. seq. prohibitsdiscrimination in both federally assisted and private housing, and with respectto federally assisted housing, in � 3608, requires that the housing program beadministered in a manner that �affirmatively furthers� fair housing (1988amendments to title VIII add two additional protected classes: families withchildren and persons with disabilities); (3) section 504 of the RehabilitationAct of 1973, 29 U.S.C. � 794 prohibits discrimination against persons withdisabilities in federally assisted programs or activities receiving federalfinancial assistance and further requires that program policies and proceduresbe modified when necessary to �reasonably accommodate� the special need of aperson with disabilities; (4) the New York State Human Rights Law, article 15,includes all the protected classes covered under Federal law and adds �age�and �marital status�; (5) � � 235�f, 236, and 237 of the New York StateReal Property Law broaden the protections for families with children and protectfamilies and individuals from leases that discriminate with respect to bearingor acquiring children, or which attempt to preclude lease renewal based on childbearing.

9 Otero v. New York City Housing Authority, 484 F.2d 1122, 1134 (2dCir.1973).

10 Hills v. Gautreaux, 425 U.S. 284 (1976).

11 Chandler Mittie, �Public Housing Desegregation: What are the Options?�*Housing Policy Debate*, 3:509 (1992), p. 34.

12 Joan Magagna and Brian Hefferman, �City of Yonkers: A Bitterly FoughtCivil Rights Case,� *Trends in Housing* 27 (1988), pp. 1, 9 (hereaftercited as Magagna and Hefferman, �City of Yonkers�).

13 NAACP v. Yonkers Board of Education, 837 F.2d 1181 (2d Cir. 1987), *cert.denied*, 108 S Ct. 2821 (1988).

14 Magagna and Hefferman, �City of Yonkers,�  p. 9.

15* *Douglass Massey and Nancy Denton*, American Apartheid:Segregation and the Making of the Underclass* (Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity Press, 1993), p. 224.

16 Giddins v. Yonkers Housing Authority*,* 856 F.2d 323, 327 (2dCir.1990).

17 *See* Xavier de Sousa Briggs, ed. *Yonkers Revisited: The EarlyImpacts of Scattered-Site Public Housing on Families and Neighborhoods*(TheFord Foundation, July 1997)*.*

18 In 1987 and 1990, Congress expanded housing options for rental assistanceapplicants by enacting statutes that made certificates and vouchers valid inareas other than the jurisdiction of the issuing HA (42 U.S.C. � 1437f(r)).This statutory �portability,� which allows subsidy holders to move anywherein the State or to any contiguous metropolitan statistical area, has beenexpanded by regulation to permit subsidy holders to use their certificates orvouchers anywhere in the United States. In 1992, however, Congress attached arestriction. Subsidy holders are now restricted to the jurisdiction of theissuing HA for the first 12 months after their initial admission to the programif the family was not a resident of that HA�s jurisdiction at the time itapplied for the subsidy (unless agreed otherwise by the issuing HA and the HAfor the area in which the household wishes to reside). After 12 months, subsidyholders are free to use their certificates or vouchers anywhere. *See* 24C.F.R. � 982.353(b)(4), 42 U.S.C. � 1437f(r)(1).

19 That is the case, for example, in Syracuse and Rochester. In other cases,such as Buffalo, the local Section 8 administrator is a separate, not-for-profitagency. In Buffalo the public housing authority administers only the publichousing program.

20 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of PolicyDevelopment and Research, *A Picture of Subsidized Households*(Washington,DC, 1997) p. 19 (hereafter cited as*A Picture of Subsidized Households,*1997).

21 Ibid., p. 5.

22 *A Picture of Subsidized Households,* 1997, p. 12.

23A 1990 study found that 73 percent of participants in large urban HAs succeededin signing leases. S. Kennedy and M. Leger, *Final Comprehensive Report of theFreestanding Housing Voucher Demonstration*(Cambridge, MA: ABT Associates,1990).  

24 Units are acceptable if they meet HUD�s quality standards and have rentsreasonable in comparison with rents for similar units in a given community.Housing agencies are required to verify these conditions.

25 Adjusted monthly income, in general, is reportable income of all householdmembers, excluding earned income of members under age 18, less allowances forcertain expenses such as medical and child care.  

26* *At a minimum, a family must pay 10 percent of its gross income. 

27 For example, if a four member family�s adjusted monthly income is $1,000and the local payment standard is $500 for a rental unit to accommodate thissize family, the Section 8 voucher would be valued at $200 ($500 less 30 percentof the family�s income, or $300). If the family then rents a dwelling unit foran amount higher or lower than $500 per month, the HUD subsidy/voucher amountremains at $200 and the family pays the balance of the rent, even if that amountrepresents more or less than 30 percent of its adjusted income.

28 *See*24 C.F.R. Part 982, Subpart E. Admission to the program forpersons who are �low-income� (i.e., below 80 percent of the median incomefor the area) but who are not �very low-income� (i.e., below 50 percent ofthe median income for the area) is possible in certain circumstances but isquite restricted. *See* � 982.201(b) (1998).

29 24 C.F.R. � 982.201(c) (1998).

30 24 C.F.R. � 982(d)(4)(i) (1998).

31 The regulations provide a selection preference for all families notcomprised of a single individual, unless that single individual is: elderly (62years of age or older); disabled (a physical or mental impairment of long-term durationthat renders the individual unable to engage in gainful activity or a physicalimpairment of long-continued or indefinite duration that substantially impedesthe individual�s ability to live independently and that could be improved bymore suitable living conditions); displaced (either by government action or by aFederally recognized disaster); or the remaining member of a tenant familyparticipating in the Section 8 program, should the family composition changeduring the period of participation. 24 C.F.R. � 982.201(c)(4)(iv) and �5.405(a) (1998).

32 24C.F.R. � 982.303.

33 24C.F.R. � 982.153(b)(3).  

34 24 C.F.R. � 982.153(b)(4); *see also*� 982.54(d)(5).

35 24 C.F.R. � 982.153(b)(5); *see also*� 982.53.

36 24C.F.R. � 982.153(b)(6); s*ee also* � 8.28.

37 24 C.F.R. � 982.301(a)(3).

38 24 C.F.R. � 982.303.

39 HUD Handbook 7420.7, chap. 3 (1979);  *see also* HUD Notice No.94�12 (1994).

40 Historically, even after the 1987 amendments, certificate holders wereoften told that they could use their certificate only within the jurisdiction ofthe issuing agency.  *See*Barbara Sard, *The MassachusettsExperience with Targeted Tenant-Based Rental Assistance,*Geo. J. On FightingPoverty, vol. 16, no. 182, at 24 no. 90 (1993).

41 *See* 42 U.S.C. � 1437f(d)(1)(A) (1988).

42 42 U.S.C. � 1437f(t) (Supp. V 1993) ostensibly prohibits discriminationagainst Section 8 applicants by landlords who already rent to other Section 8tenants. Proposals have recently been made that may eliminate this provision inorder to expand landlord participation. *See* M. Finkel, *Final Report onRecommendations on Ways to Make the Section 8 Program More Acceptable in thePrivate Rental Market* (Cambridge, MA: ABT Associates, 1994), pp. 22�23.Provisions in the FY 1997 and FY 1998 HUD appropriations bills (H.R. 2158 andH.R. 3666, respectively) included provisions suspending the application of thissection.

43 24 C.F.R. � 982.303.

44  *A Picture of Subsidized Households*, 1997.

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