Glaciers of Asia—

GLACIERS OF INDIA

By Chander P. Vohra

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, JR., and JANE G. FERRIGNO

U. S. G EO LO G I C A L SU RV EY P RO F E SSI O N A L PA P E R 1 3 8 6 –F– 5

CONTENTS III

CONTENTS

A Brief Overview of the State of Glaciers in the Indian Himalaya in the 1970s 

and at the End of the 20th Century, by Chander P. Vohra---------------------------259

Abstract-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------259

Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------259

Early Studies ----------------------------------------------------------------------260

Table 1. Recession of glaciers in the Indian Himalaya--------------------------------260

Studies in the Late 20th Century---------------------------------------------261

Total Number of Glaciers------------------------------------------------------262

Glacier Distribution ---------------------------------------------------------------------262

Figure 1. Sketch map showing the location of glacierized areas 

 of India discussed in the text --------------------------------------------------262

Nun-Barashigri--------------------------------------------------------------------263

Gangotri-Chaukhamba----------------------------------------------------------263

Figure 2. Landsat 2 MSS image of the Nun-Barashigri area with 

 some of the many glaciers outlined------------------------------------------264

Figure 3. Sketch map showing glacierized area of the Chenab 

 and Ravi basins-------------------------------------------------------------------265

Satluj River Basin--------------------------------------------------------265

Figure 4. Landsat 2 MSS image of the Gangotri-Kāmet-Nanda 

 Devi areas of the Indian Himalaya -------------------------------------------266

Inventory from Landsat Imagery ------------------------------------266

Figure 5. Sketch map showing glacierized area of the Ganga basin 

 showing the Gangotri-Chaukhamba, Kāmet, and Nanda 

 Devi areas--------------------------------------------------------------------------267

Table 2. Ice cover determined in the late 1970s from maps of different

 scales as a percentage of the basin--------------------------------------------267

Table 3. Comparison of glacier inventories from maps and Landsat 

 images-------------------------------------------------------------------------------268

Table 4. Percentage reduction or increase in the ablation, accumulation,

 and total area of glaciers --------------------------------------------------------268

Table 5. Comparison of calculation of ablation, accumulation, and

 total area of the Tirung Khad glacier No. 49 between 

 maps, Landsat images, and field work---------------------------------------268

Figure 6. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of India------------269

Table 6. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of India------------270

Figure 7. Sketch map showing glacierized area of the Satluj River basin----------271

Kāmet-------------------------------------------------------------------------------271

Nanda Devi------------------------------------------------------------------------271

Sikkim Himalaya -----------------------------------------------------------------272

Figure 8. Landsat 2 MSS image mosaic of the Sikkim Himalaya -------------------272

Figure 9. Map and ASTER image of the Zemu Glacier area -------------------------273

Eastern Himalaya ----------------------------------------------------------------274

Surge-Type Glaciers----------------------------------------------------------------------274

Conclusions--------------------------------------------------------------------------------274
IV CONTENTS

A Study of Selected Glaciers under the Changing Climate Regime, 

by Syed Iqbal Hasnain, Rajesh Kumar, Safaraz Ahmad, and Shresth Tayal------275

Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------275

Recent Glacier Studies ------------------------------------------------------------------276

Gangotri Glacier -----------------------------------------------------------------276

Figure 10. Location map of Gangotri Glacier and associated glaciers--------------- 277

Figure 11. Photograph of lake formed on Gangotri Glacier near the

 junction with Kirti Bamak Glacier-------------------------------------------- 277

Figure 12. Enlargement of 9 September 2001 ASTER image showing 

 supraglacial lakes on the Gangotri Glacier--------------------------------- 278

Figure 13. Enlargement of 9 September 2001 ASTER image showing 

 position of the terminus of Gangotri Glacier between 

 1780 and 2001-------------------------------------------------------------------- 278

Figure 14. Model showing predicted change in location of the

 equilibrium line altitude for an increase of 3 °C air 

 temperature in the Gangotri Glacier region ------------------------------- 279

Chhota Shigri Glacier and Mass-Balance Measurements----------------280

Figure 15. Sketch and location maps and ASTER image of the

 Chhotta Shigri Glacier ----------------------------------------------------------- 280

Figure 16. Retreat of Chhota Shigri Glacier snout----------------------------------------- 281

Figure 17. Sketch map and Landsat images showing reduction of

 the surface area of the Chhota Shigri Glacier from 1987 

 to 2000---------------------------------------------------------------------282–283

Figure 18. Map of the Chhota Shigri Glacier showing location of

 stakes installed in 2002 and the automatic weather

 station installed during September–October 2003---------------------- 284

Siachen Glacier-------------------------------------------------------------------285

Figure 19. Graphs showing specific net annual mass-balance near

 measurement points averaged against the elevation on 

 Chhota Shigri Glacier for 2002–03 and 2003–04------------------------- 285

Figure 20. Landsat images showing retreat of the terminus of 

 Siachen Glacier from 1978 to 2001------------------------------------------ 286

Glacier Lakes----------------------------------------------------------------------287

Figure 21. Landsat and ASTER images showing increase in the number

 and size of glacier lakes from 1976 to 2001 in the Tista River 

 basin, Sikkim Himalaya--------------------------------------------------------- 288

Conclusions--------------------------------------------------------------------------------288

References Cited--------------------------------------------------------------------------289
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F259

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD 

GLACIERS OF ASIA— 

GLACIERS OF INDIA—A Brief Overview of the State 

of Glaciers in the Indian Himalaya in the 1970s and at the 

End of the 20th Century

By Chander P. Vohra1

Abstract

Himalaya, “the abode of snow,” has many glaciers distributed throughout its higher 

elevations. The  glaciers are commonly clustered in large numbers in areas where many high 

peaks are located and sufficient precipitation occurs. The  first estimate of total ice cover 

was probably made by von Wissman (1959) who stated that 33,200  km2 or 17 percent of the 

Himalaya was ice covered. Few ice-cover estimates for individual river basins were made in the 

initial years of glacier studies. More recent work by Qin (1999) increased the glacierized area of 

the Himalaya to about 35,110 km2. Based on the preliminary inventory by the Geological Survey 

of India (Kaul, 1999), about 8,500 km2 of this ice cover is located in the Indian Himalaya.

Introduction

The study of glaciers in India is very important both from scientific and 

economical perspectives. The  Himalaya contains one of the largest reservoirs 

of snow and ice outside the Polar Regions. The glaciers are a major source of 

fresh water, and all the rivers in northern India are nourished by meltwaters of 

the Himalaya glaciers, thereby affecting the quality of life of millions of people.

As in most parts of the Himalaya, the study of glaciers is handicapped 

by the remoteness of the area, altitude, topography, and debris cover on the 

glaciers, as well as the limited availability of large-scale maps, optimum aerial 

photographs, and high-resolution satellite images.

In 2001, Ravi Shanker, Director General of the Geological Survey of 

India (GSI), stated that glaciology, the study of snow, ice, and glaciers, is in its 

nascent stage in India (Srivastava, 2001); however, glacier observations in India 

actually began in the middle 1800s, and considerable work has been done in 

the last three decades.

[Editors’ note: This manuscript was originally written in 1982 to describe the 

glaciers of India during the late 1970s and early 1980s, the “benchmark” time 

period (1972–1981) for the Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World, 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386-A–K. Because there were 

delays in publishing this chapter, the editors updated the manuscript slightly in 

2006, using material from the Geological Survey of India, and a supplemental 

section — A Study of Selected Glaciers under the Changing Climate Regime, by 

Hasnain and others — was added to provide more current information.]

1

Former Director-General, Geological Survey of India.
F260 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Early Studies

Snow and glaciers in the Himalaya attracted the attention of early 

observers and much was written around 1840–50 about the “line of perpetual 

snows,” beginning with Jack (1844) and von Humbolt (1845). Very few 

glaciers were visited at that time, but one of the popular ones was Pindari 

Glacier2 in the State of Uttar Pradesh (Madden, 1847). Many of the early 

observations of glaciers were made by geographers and cartographers who 

were engaged in triangulation and map making of the Himalaya during the 

19th century. Godwin-Austin (1862), for example, wrote about the glaciers of 

Mustakh Range and the upper Indus River basin. Many observers, including 

geologists, were satisfied with recording the positions of glacier termini and 

the evidence they observed of more extensive past glaciation. One of the 

earliest Indian geologists to write about glaciers in the Himalaya was P.N. Bose 

(1891), who visited Kabru and Pandim Glaciers in the State of Sikkim. Between 

1907 and 1910, the Geological Survey of India initiated a coordinated effort 

to systematize observations of glacier fluctuations, as part of an international 

program to study glaciers (Cotter and Brown, 1907; Bridges, 1908–09).

Kanwar Sain (1946) was the first scientist to investigate the role of snow, 

ice, and glaciers in a comprehensive assessment of the surface water resources 

of the Himalaya. J.E. Church (1947), a celebrated expert in this field, visited 

the Himalaya in 1947 to organize a program of snow surveys for hydrological 

purposes. This program, however, did not flourish (Basu, 1947). In  the 

years between 1910 and 1957, individual studies and observations on some 

of the glaciers continued (Grinlinton, 1912; Auden, 1937). A  second effort 

at glacier observations was organized during the International Geophysical 

Year (1957–58), when many glaciers were revisited and a great deal of 

information regarding glacier fluctuations and their history was gathered 

( Jangpangi, 1958).

This was followed by further glacier studies during the International 

Hydrologic Decade (IHD), 1965–74, and the International Hydrologic 

Programme in 1975. Some results from those observations are listed in table 1. 

Mercer (1975a,  b) prepared a very good review of the status of glaciology in 

India up to 1975, including references and maps.

2

The geographic place-names used in this section conform to the usage authorized for foreign names by 

the U.S. Board on Geographic Names as listed on the GEOnet Names Server (GNS) website: http://earthinfo.nga.mil/gns/html/index.html. The names not listed on the website are shown in italics.

Table 1.—Recession of glaciers in the Indian Himalaya

[Data source: Vohra (1981). Unit: m, meter]

Glacier name Observational 

period

Recession

 (m)

Milam 1849–1957 -1,350

Pindari 1845–1966 -2,840

Shankalpa 1881–1957 -518

Poting 1906–1957 -262

No. 3 in the Arwa valley 1932–1956 -24

Gangotri 1935–1976 -600

Zemu 1909–1965 -440

Barashigri 1940–1963 -1,019

Sonapani 1906–1929 -905
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F261

Studies in the Late 20th Century

Studies begun in the 1970s embraced many aspects of snow and glacier 

phenomena and included glacier mass balance, the pattern of glacier movement, glacier recession/advance, meltwater discharge, ice thickness in glaciers, 

crystal fabrics of ice, the radiation balance of snow and ice surfaces, dating of 

ice by isotopic studies, detailed cartography of glaciers, the study of paleoglaciation, and compilation of glacier inventories. The  studies are described by 

Tewari (1971) and Vohra (1981) and included in unpublished reports of GSI.

The Geological Survey of India organized a glaciology program under 

the direction of the author, and on 4 January 1974, a Glaciology Division was 

established at Lucknow. Other national agencies, such as the Survey of India, 

the Meteorological Department, the Physical Research Laboratory, Indian 

Space Research Organization, and the Bhakra Beas Management Board 

collaborated in this program. Some of the early results were as follows:

1. Mass balance on Gara Glacier in the Sutlej River basin was positive 

from 1974 to 1976, causing previous recession to stop in 1976. 

[The balance years from 1976 to 1980 were negative, but from 

1982 to 1983 were positive (Srivastava, 2001)]. Gangotri Glacier 

receded between the 1930s and the late 1970s, but the rate of 

recession kept decreasing. [Between 1977 and 1991, the recession 

rate increased considerably (Srivastava, 2001)]. Nehnor Glacier 

in the State of Jammu and Kashmir receded in the 1970s and had 

only negative mass-balance years. [The negative mass-balance 

measurements continued from 1976 to 1984 (Srivastava, 2001)]. 

2. The Himalaya can be divided into four distinct areas on the 

basis of precipitation patterns: (a) dominant monsoon precipitation (the Mount Everest region and Sikkim), (b) dominant winter (westerly) precipitation (Ladākh and Spiti areas), 

(c) equal/sub-equal monsoon and winter precipitation (the Ganga 

basin (equal) and Beas basin (subequal)), and (d) rain-shadow 

areas (Vohra, 1981). The  amount of meltwater produced and 

mass-balance characteristics of each glacier vary according to the 

area in which the glacier is found.

3. The ice at the terminus of Nehnor Glacier is less than 400 years old; 

however, ice at the terminus of Chaugme Khampa Glacier is only 

100 years old.

4. Debris cover on the ablation zone of glaciers is ubiquitous 

throughout the Himalaya. As a consequence, the production of 

meltwater decreases, instead of increasing, with the decrease in 

elevation.

5. There are many ice-cored moraines in proglacial areas, and these 

play significant roles in the water balance of the glacierized basins 

of the Himalaya.

6. Precipitation in certain basins increases with elevation within the 

glaciated (sic, glacierized) region — even during the monsoon 

season.

Results of later glacier studies from 1974 to 2000 are found in the 

following description of individual glacier areas, in published and unpublished 

reports of the Geological Survey of India, and in Kaul (1999), Geological 

Survey of India (2001), and Srivastava (2001).
F262 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Total Number of Glaciers

In the 1980s, the author estimated that about 15,000 glaciers occur in 

the Himalaya. Considered high, this estimate was based on the average size 

of glaciers derived from glacier inventories from parts of the Himalaya, and 

from von Wissman’s (1959) estimate of total ice cover. More recent glacierinventory work by Qin (1999), however, determined that there were 18,065 

glaciers in the five drainage basins of the Himalaya, covering 35,110 km2; this 

number was based on analysis of 1975–78 Landsat MSS band 7 and false-color 

(bands 4, 5, 7) images, as well as some aerial photographs. So the author’s 

1980s estimate was actually 20 percent too low. A composite inventory of the 

glaciers of the Himalaya by Kaul (1999), based on a combination of detailed 

and regional assessments, yielded a total of only 5,243 glaciers covering an area 

of about 38,000  km2. Kaul (1999) also reported that about 8,500  km2 of the 

glaciers are located in the Indian Himalaya.

Glacier Distribution

Glaciers are found in all geographic areas of the Himalaya which lie 

above the elevation required to maintain ice. In some areas, they occur in large 

numbers and attain great lengths — measurable in tens of kilometers. Such 

mountain areas in India are the Nun-Barashigri, Gangotri-Chaukhamba, Kāmet 

group, Nanda Devi group, and Kānchenjunga (fig.  1). The  principal glaciers 

of the Indian Himalaya, including their lengths, are: Gangotri, 30  km; Zemu 

(Sikkim Himalaya), 28 km; Mīlam (Nanda Devi area), 19 km; and Kedārnāth

(Gangotri-Chaukhamba area), 14.5 km (fig. 1).

Siachen

Glacier

Gangotri-Chaukhamba Area

NunBarashigri

Area

Chhota Shigri

Glacier

Kamet Area

Nanda Devi Area

Kanchenjunga

Area

Gilgit

River

Indus

River

Indus

River

Nubra River Shyok

River

River

Chenab

Chandra River

Ropa Taiti

River

Satluj

Tirung

B

Khad aspa

Alaknanda

River

Brahmaputra River

Tista River

Bhagirathi River

CHINA

NEPAL BHUTAN

INDIA

BANGLADESH

PAKISTAN

INDIA

Himachal

Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh

Bihar

W. Bengal

Sikkim

Assam

Arunachal Pradesh

N

76oE

80oE

84oE

88oE

92oE

28oN

36oN

32oN

24oN

Kishtwar

Jammu and

Kashmir

250 MILES

0 250 KILOMETERS

0 Scale is approximate

Figure 1.—Sketch map showing the location of glacierized areas of India discussed in the text.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F263

Nun-Barashigri

The southern flank of the Nun-Barashigri range forms the northern 

portion of the Chenab River basin, north and east of Kishtwār; it is one of 

the most highly glacierized areas of the Indian Himalaya (figs. 2, 3). Nearly 

1,000 large and small glaciers drain into the Chenab River. The  northern 

flank of the Nun-Barashigri range also supports many glaciers, which drain 

north into tributaries of the Indus River. Several glaciers are greater than 

10  km in length; two exceed 20  km, and a third is a little less than 20  km. 

Several ice fields, drained by outlet glaciers, occur in the general area around 

Nunkun peak (fig.  2) and also on the mountain itself. Ice fields are formed 

on mountain summits, or slightly lower down, and the highest summits 

protrude through the ice. This geomorphic characteristic is unique to 

this area, and perhaps indicates an earlier erosional surface. The  glaciers 

are fed by both summer (monsoon) and winter (westerly) precipitation. Presently, many cirques and small glacier valleys, especially in the 

eastern part of the range, are ice free, indicating a post-glacierization phase. 

Landsat 1 MSS images of the area (Path 158–Rows 37 and 38), acquired on 

4  September 1972, show the transient snow line at its highest elevation of 

the year. Landsat 2 MSS images were acquired on 10 and 11 September 1976 

(Path  158, and 159–Rows 36 and 37), following a fresh snowfall (fig.  2). 

This late monsoon snow covered the highest points of the main Himalaya 

Range, and was not restricted to a particular elevation as is sometimes 

thought to occur. Figure 3 shows a map of that area, prepared for the preliminary Inventory of Himalayan Glaciers (Kaul, 1999). Based on the preliminary inventory, it is estimated that there are 989 glaciers covering 2,280 km2

in the Chenab basin.

Gangotri-Chaukhamba

Although the Gangotri-Chaukhamba, Kāmet, and Nanda Devi mountain 

groups are adjacent to each other, they are separated by major river valleys 

(figs. 4, 5). The  Gangotri-Chaukhamba area is a cluster of many mountain 

peaks, 6 to 7 km in elevation, from which many large and small glaciers flow. 

Only two glaciers have been studied in this area — the Gangotri and the 

Chaurabari. The most impressive is the Gangotri Glacier, the longest glacier 

in the Indian Himalaya. This is a “complex glacier” type with large tributaries. Its main trunk is 26  km long, and the overall ice surface of Gangotri 

Glacier and its tributaries covers an area of a little more than 200  km2. It is 

estimated to contain about 20  km3 of ice. Its meltwater stream becomes a 

high-volume river after emerging from a sub-glacier tunnel at the glacier 

terminus — the holy “Gaumukh” (cow’s mouth) of Hindu mythology. This 

glacier has been studied since 1817, though only documented since 1886. 

The glacier has been receding since 1935, but the greatest recession occurred 

from 1977 to 1990 (Srivastava, 2001). Since 1990, observations were made 

from 1992 to 1997, and the Gangotri Glacier was in continuous recession 

(Srivastava, 2001). The  river coming from the Gangotri Glacier is called 

Bhāgīrathi River, and it is considered to be the primary source of the Ganga 

(Ganges River). All of the glaciers in the Gangotri-Chaukhamba area receive 

nourishment from the monsoon and westerly winter precipitation. Although 

detailed figures are not available, the total precipitation is only moderate. 
F264 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The valley below the Gaumukh contains abundant evidence of past glacier 

advances. Seventeen kilometers downstream, at a place named Gangotri, a 

glacial pavement begins and extends further downstream; a narrow epigenetic gorge, deeply entrenched into the “pavement,” also begins at this point. 

A  temple is constructed here to mark the location of the glacier terminus 

when Bhagirathi Rishi first discovered this glacier. The date of the visit is lost 

in the maze of mythology, but this previous glacier position may date from the 

beginning of the Holocene Epoch.

N

75°30’E

33°30’N

76°00’E 76°30’E

33°00’N

33°30’N

33°00’N

75°30’E 76°00’E 76°30’E

Nunkun

Peak

Figure 2.—Landsat 2 MSS image of the Nun-Barashigri area with some of the many glaciers outlined. The image was acquired 

after a fresh, late monsoon snowfall. The Landsat MSS image (2159037007625590, 11 September 1976; Path 159–Row 37) 

is from the U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F265

Satluj River Basin

To the north and west of the Gangotri group of peaks flows the Satluj 

River, which originates in Mansrovar Lake. After the Glaciology Division was 

established as part of the Geological Survey of India in 1974, an initial glacier 

inventory was planned for the Baspa river basin, the largest glacier-fed tributary 

of the Satluj basin. The  pilot inventory was conducted using the Guidelines 

of the World Glacier Inventory (Müller and others, 1977, 1978), and was 

followed by studies of other basins in the Satluj basin. Work was then extended 

to other parts of the Himalaya (Kaul, 1999). As a result, a thorough survey 

has been made of part of the Satluj basin and some of the early work and later 

results are described below.

The total ice cover for the Satluj River basin was estimated in the 1940s 

to be about 6,390 km2 or approximately 11 percent of the basin area. The estimates were probably made from the generalized 1:1,000,000-scale maps. There 

are often major differences in the determination of the area of ice cover when 

using maps of different scales. When compared with figures from a later glacier 

inventory in the late 1970s using larger-scale maps, this estimate was found to 

be far too high. A comparison is given in table 2.

Kishtwar

Nunkun Peak

Nun-Barashigri Range

Ladakh,

Jammu and Kashmir

Jammu,

Jammu and Kashmir

Chenab River

Ravi River

Himachal Pradesh

Based upon Survey of India map with the

permission of the Surveyor General of India

© Government of India, Copyright 1998

Scale is approximate 50 MILES

0 50 KILOMETERS

0

GLACIERIZED AREA

BASIN BOUNDARY

SUB-BASIN BOUNDARY

DIRECTION OF RIVER FLOW

EXPLANATION

N

76°E

33°N

Figure 3.—Glacierized area of the Chenab and Ravi basins. From the preliminary “Inventory of the Himalayan 

Glaciers” by the Geological Survey of India (Kaul, 1999).
F266 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

N

Gangotri-Chaukhamba area

Gangotri

Glacier

Kamet

area

Nanda

Devi

area

Milam

Glacier

79°00’E

30°30’N

79°30’E 80°00’E

30°00’N

30°30’N

30°00’N

79°00’E 79°30’E 80°00’E

Figure 4.—Landsat 2 MSS image of the Gangotri-Kāmet-Nanda Devi areas of the Indian Himalaya. The major 

glaciers are demarcated. This area includes the Gangotri Glacier, largest in India. Its meltwater stream, the 

Bhāgīrathi River, is considered to be the main source of the Ganga (Ganges River). The Landsat MSS image 

(2156039007632490, 19 November 1976; Path 156–Row 39) is from the U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data 

Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota.

The glacierization in the Indian part of Satluj River basin is similar to the 

Chinese part. The  four percent figure for ice cover is representative of both 

parts of the basin. The more glacierized tributaries of the Satluj River (table 2) 

also indicate the same differences in ice-cover area determined from maps of 

different scales. Interestingly, the differences resulting from a comparison of 

ice cover on 1:250,000- and 1:50,000-scale maps are relatively minor, however. 

The major difference is in calculations based on the 1:1,000,000-scale maps.

Inventory from Landsat Imagery

Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) images from the late 1970s/early 

1980s were used for compiling a glacier inventory for a part of the Satluj River 

basin and for making a glacier map of some parts of this basin. The results were 

compared with the existing late 1970s inventory for the Baspa Gād and Tirung 

Khad, two tributaries of Satluj River (table 3).

The ice-cover areas match relatively well, the difference being less than 

5 percent. The snowline was easy to delineate on the Landsat images, as were 

the ice margins, except in the case of small ice bodies. Some glaciers, marked 

as tributaries of larger glaciers on the maps, were easily distinguished on the 

images as having independent termini.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F267

Gangotri-Chaukhamba area

Nanda Devi area

Milan

Glacier

Kamet area

Bhagirathi v

Ri er

Himachal

Pradesh

Uttar

Pradesh

CHINA

(Tibet)

NEPAL

INDIA

Indus Basin

Ganga Basin

Tons

River

Satluj River

Kali Ri

r ve

Yamuna

River

Pindar River

Mandakini

River

Alakna

a

nd

River

Ganga River

Yamuna r Rive

Gangotri

Glacier

Based upon Survey of India map with the

permission of the Surveyor General of India

© Government of India, Copyright 1998

50 MILES

0 50 KILOMETERS

0 Scale is approximate

GLACIERIZED AREA

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY

BASIN BOUNDARY

DIRECTION OF RIVER FLOW

EXPLANATION

N

79°E

31°N

Figure 5.—Glacierized area of the Ganga basin showing the Gangotri-Chaukhamba, Kāmet, and Nanda Devi 

glacierized areas based on the preliminary “Inventory of the Himalayan Glaciers” by the Geological Survey of 

India. Modified from Kaul (1999).

Table 2.—Ice cover determined in the late 1970s from maps of different 

scales as a percentage of the basin

[—, no data]

 Basin name

Percent ice cover

1:1,000,000-scale 

map

1:250,000-scale 

map

1:50,000-scale 

map

Satluj River 11

(Total basin)

4

(Indian part of basin)

—

 Satluj River 

tributaries:

Ropa Gād 32 9.3 —

Taiti Gād 37.7 9.7 —

Baspa Gād — 19.3 22.2

Tirung Khad — 13.1 14.7
F268 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The snowline on a Landsat 2 MSS image acquired on 17  August 1977 

(Path 157–Row 38) was used to delineate the boundary between ablation and 

accumulation areas. Because this was lower in elevation than the computed 

equilibrium lines used for the existing late 1970s inventory, some differences 

in the respective glacier ablation and accumulation areas calculated from the 

two sources were inevitable. A comparison is given in table 4; only glaciers on 

which the snowline was well marked are included.

Table 3.—Comparison of glacier inventories from maps and Landsat images in the 

glacierized drainage basins, prepared in the late 1970s/early 1980s

[Unit: km2, square kilometer]

Basin

Total ice cover 

delineated from maps 

(km2)

Total ice cover delineated 

from Landsat images

(km2)

Percentage difference, 

as seen on the 

Landsat images

Baspa Gād 186.97 178.46 4.5

Tirung Khad 69.98 67.08 4.1

Table 4.—Percentage reduction or increase in the ablation, accumulation, and total 

area of glaciers, determined by comparing late 1970s Landsat 2 MSS images with the 

already existing late 1970s inventory

[Abbreviations: MSS, multispectral scanner; km2, square kilometer; %, percent reduction or increase]

River basin Ablation area,

in km2

Accumulation area, 

in km2

Total area,

in km2

Baspa Gād -15.59 (32.1%) +13.43 (16.8%) -2.16 (1.7%)

Tirung Khad -16.69 (53.4%) +11.27 (49.4%) -5.42 (10%)

Table 5.—Comparison of calculation of ablation, accumulation, and total area of the Tirung 

Khad glacier No. 49 between maps (existing late 1970s glacier inventory), Landsat images 

(late 1970s/early 1980s), and field work

[Unit: km2, square kilometer]

Source Ablation area

(km2)

Accumulation area

(km2) Total (km2

)

Existing glacier inventory 14.91 3.00 17.91

Landsat images 1.63 4.31 5.94

Actual field work 2.42 3.09 5.50

1

These figures are probably too high, because proglacial moraines could not be separated from the debriscovered termini when topographic maps were prepared.

The difference in respective accumulation and ablation areas because 

of the lower snowline on the 17  August 1977 Landsat image is obvious. 

The  reduction in the delineation of the ablation area using Landsat imagery 

is marginal in the case of Baspa Gād basin, but it is significant in the case of 

Tirung Khad basin. In all probability, it is a reflection of the erroneous inclusion 

of proglacial moraines within the ablation area of the glaciers in the existing late 

1970s inventory which was compiled primarily from maps. 

Another example from the Tirung Khad glacier No. 49 where field work 

was done is given in table 5. The results from Landsat images and field work are 

similar, except for some differences due to the lower snowline on the Landsat 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F269

images. Modern maps were not available when the inventory was compiled 

for the Spiti River basin. Therefore, the information derived from the Landsat 

images considerably improved the inventory in that area.

In conclusion, Landsat imagery (fig.  6, table  6) and other higher resolution satellite images are very useful for the Himalayan region where modern 

maps are not available, and where aerial photography acquired at the end of 

the ablation season is sparse. Also, it is less time consuming to make an inventory from Landsat images, although the imagery does not provide elevation 

information.

More recent results from the intensive glacier studies in the Satluj River 

basin can be seen in figure 7, taken from Kaul (1999). Other recent unpublished and published glacier reports covering this basin were prepared by GSI 

(Geological Survey of India, 2001; and Srivastava, 2001). 

A B

C D

EXPLANATION

EXCELLENT IMAGE – 0 to 5 percent cloud cover.

GOOD IMAGE – 5 to 10 percent cloud cover.

FAIR TO POOR IMAGE – 10 to 100 percent cloud cover.

USABLE LANDSAT 3 RETURN BEAM VIDICON (RBV)

NOMINAL SCENE CENTER For a Landsat image outside the area of glaciers of India.

≤

> ≤

> <

– Scenes A, B, C, and D

refer to usable RBV subscenes.

–

70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E 100°E

35°N

30°N

25°N

20°N

35°N

30°N

25°N

20°N

70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

Path

160

Row

40

Row

40

Path

160

Path

150

Path

150

Path

140

CHINA

PAKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

INDIA

NEPAL

BHUTAN

BANGLADESH

INDIA

BURMA

THAILAND

Srinagar Rawalpindi

Lahore Chandigarh

Delhi

New Delhi

Lucknow

Bombay

Lhasa

Dhaka

Mandalay

Calcutta Chittagong

500 MILES

0 500 KILOMETERS

0

Scale is approximate

C

Figure 6.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of India. Compare with table 6.
F270 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Table 6.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of India

[EROS, Earth Resources Observation and Science.. Code column indicates usability for glacier studies; see figure 6 for explanation]

Path-Row Nominal scene center

latitude and longitude

Entity number

(USGS EROS

data center)

Date Code

Cloud 

cover

(percent)

Remarks

143–40 28°49′N. 97°57′E. 2143040007631190 06 Nov 76 0

144–40 28°49′N. 96°31′E. 2144040007631290 07 Nov 76 10 State of Arunachal, Pradesh, eastern 

Himalaya. Line drops

145–40 28°49′N. 95°05′E. 1145040007335590 21 Dec 73 10 State of Arunachal, Pradesh, eastern 

Himalaya

146–40 28°49′N. 93°39′E. 2146040007635090 15 Dec 76 10 State of Arunachal, Pradesh, eastern 

Himalaya

146–41 27°23′N. 93°15′E. 2146041007635090 15 Dec 76 20 State of Arunachal, Pradesh, eastern 

Himalaya

147–40 28°49′N. 92°13′E. 2147040007635190 16 Dec 76 5

147–41 27°23′N. 91°49′E. 2147041007700390 03 Jan 77 20

149–41 27°23′N. 88°57′E. 2149041007635390 18 Dec 76 15 Sikkim Himalaya glacier area. Image used 

for figure 8

150–41 27°23′N. 87°31′E. 2150041007635490 19 Dec 76 5 Sikkim Himalaya glacier area. Image used 

for figure 8

155–39 30°15′N. 81°09′E. 2155039007634190 06 Dec 76 5

156–38 31°41′N. 80°09′E. 2156038007632490 19 Nov 76 0

156–39 30°15′N. 79°43′E. 2156039007632490 19 Nov 76 0 Gangotri-Kemet-Nanda-Devi glacier areas; 

image used for figure 4

157–35 35°58′N. 80°00′E. 2157035007632590 20 Nov 76 5

157–36 34°32′N. 79°34′E. 2157036007726590 22 Sep 77 40 Line drops

157–37 33°07′N. 79°08′E. 2157037007632590 20 Nov 76 5

157–38 31°41′N. 78°42′E. 2157038007632590 20 Nov 76 25

157–39 30°15′N. 78°17′E. 2157039007630790 02 Nov 76 0 A few line drops

158–35 35°58′N. 78°34′E. 2158035007630890 03 Nov 76 5 A few line drops

158–36 34°32′N. 78°08′E. 2158036007630890 03 Nov 76 10 Eastern Karakoram Range. A few line drops

158–37 33°07′N. 77°42′E. 2158037007630890 03 Nov 76 5 Eastern Nun-Barashagri Range 

158–38 31°41′N. 77°16′E. 2158038007630890 03 Nov 76 5 A few line drops

159–35 35°58′N. 77°08′E. 2159035007630990 04 Nov 76 5

159–36 34°32′N. 76°42′E. 2159036007630990 04 Nov 76 10 A few line drops

159–37 33°07′N. 76°16′E. 2159037007630990 04 Nov 76 20 Nun-Barashagri glacier area. Line drops

159–37 33°07′N. 76°16′E. 2159037007625590 11 Sep 76 10 Nun-Barashagri glacier area; image used for 

figure 2

160–36 34°32′N. 75°16′E. 2160036007631090 05 Nov 76 20 A few line drops

160–37 33°07′N. 74°49′E. 2160037007631090 05 Nov 76 50
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F271

Kāmet

Kāmet peak is the highest (7,759  m) of the Kāmet group. It supports 

dozens of major glaciers and many smaller ones (figs. 4, 5). All of the glaciers 

drain into the Alaknanda River or other tributaries of the Ganga.

Nanda Devi

The Nanda Devi group is dominated by Nanda Devi peak (7,820  m). 

Several high mountain peaks here form a rim of a large amphitheater — the 

fabled “sanctuary” of the Himalayan mountaineers — drained by Rishi Ganga

through an almost impassable gorge. There are large glaciers within the 

“sanctuary,” and the Milam Glacier drains outward from the northeast part 

into Dhaulīganga River (figs. 4, 5). In  this area, Milam, Poting and Shankalpa

Jammu and Kashmir

Mandi

Based upon Survey of India map with the

permission of the Surveyor General of India

© Government of India, Copyright 1998

CHINA

(Tibet)

INDIA

Uttar Pradesh

Kulu Manikaran

Rampur

Kalpa

Dankhar

Gompa

Uhl River

Beas

River

Manali

T

Sainj N. irthan

River

Salkar

GLACIERISED AREA

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY

STATE BOUNDARY

BASIN BOUNDARY

SUB-BASIN BOUNDARY

DIRECTION OF RIVER FLOW

EXPLANATION

N

78°E

32°N

50 MILES

0 50 KILOMETERS

0 Scale is approximate

Figure 7.—Glacierized area of the Satluj River basin. From the preliminary “Inventory of the Himalayan 

Glaciers” by the Geological Survey of India (Kaul, 1999).
F272 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Glaciers (Shankalpa is east of Dhaulīganga) have been visited and observed by 

scientists of the Geological Survey of India since the 1970s. The  most recent 

findings of GSI are published in Kaul (1999), Geological Survey of India 

(2001), and Srivistava (2001).

Sikkim Himalaya

Sikkim Himalaya, to the east of Nepal, is dominated by the massif of 

Kānchenjunga (8,591 m), the third highest peak in the Himalaya (fig. 8). It is 

located in the northwestern part of the State of Sikkim, along the border with 

Nepal. Zemu Glacier, 28  km long and 41.2  km2 in total surface area (Kaul, 

1999), is the main glacier descending from the massif (fig.  9). The  massif is 

highly glacierized, and many other major and minor glaciers are located on it. 

N

Zemu Glacier

Kanchenjunga

27°N

27°N

89°E

89°E

Figure 8.—Landsat 2 MSS image mosaic of the Sikkim Himalaya dominated by the Kānchenjunga massif, 

the third highest peak in the Himalaya. Many large glaciers are located here, including the 28 km-long Zemu 

Glacier. The Landsat MSS images (2149041007635390, 18 December 1976; Path 149–Row 41 (right); 

and 2150041007635490, 19 December 1976; Path 150–Row 41 (left)) are from the U.S. Geological Survey 

EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F273

Figure 9.—Map and ASTER image 

of the Zemu Glacier area. A, Glacier 

map of the Zemu Basin of the 

Sikkim Himalaya. From the preliminary “Inventory of the Himalayan 

Glaciers” by the Geological Survey 

of India (Kaul, 1999). Zemu Glacier 

is in the lower left. The numbers 

on the glaciers relate to the glacier 

inventory data in Kaul (1999, 

p. 149). B, 27 November 2001 

ASTER image of Zemu Glacier (lat 

27°45′N., long 88°16′E.). The image 

(AST_L1B_00311272001045729_2

0060817160447_7392 hdf) is courtesy of Adina Racoviteanu, Department of Geography and Institute of 

Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado at Boulder.

North Lhonak

Glacier 111

Lhonak

Glacier 109

110 116

117

118 120

121

164

165

160

122

123

124

126

127

128

162 163

129

130

131134

135 136

139

140

144

145

146 147 148

149

143

152 154

155

156

157 158

150

151

153

70

96

17

South Lhonak

Glacier 108 107

Jongsong

Glacier

105

103 102

101

99 100 97

95

94 93 91

90 Changsang

Glacier 89 88 87

86

85

84

83 82

81 80 79 7877

76 Thekhang Glacier

75 74

73 72 71

69

68 67

66

64 65

63

62 Hidden

Glacier61

59 60 58

57

56

54 55

52 53

51 50

49

48 47

Nepal Gap

Glacier 46

45 44

43 42 41 Twin 40

Glacier

37

38

39

36

35

34

33 Zemu Glacier 32

30

29

28

27 26 25

2423 22

21 20

19

18 16

15

14 13

12

11 10

9 8

7 6

5

4

3 2

1

Hema Chhu

Sector

CHINA

(Tibet)

NEPAL INDIA

GLACIERISED AREA–With number

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY

BASIN BOUNDARY

DIRECTION OF RIVER FLOW

EXPLANATION

21

5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

0

Scale is approximate

Based upon Survey of India map with the

permission of the Surveyor General of India

© Government of India, Copyright 1998

N

88°30’E

27°45’N

A

5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 Scale is approximate

N

B
F274 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

This area apparently receives more precipitation than the adjacent Mount 

Everest region to the west, whose glaciers are smaller. The  northern and 

northeastern mountains in the State of Sikkim support relatively few major 

glaciers, although small glaciers do exist. Zemu Glacier and a small glacier in 

northern Sikkim have been studied by the Geological Survey of India and other 

Indian agencies.

Eastern Himalaya

In the Eastern Himalaya, a few large glaciers could be delineated on the 

Landsat 2 MSS image acquired on 3  January 1977 (table  6). The  area covers 

the northern part of the State of Arunachal Pradesh. Smaller glaciers are also 

present in this area, although only scant information is available about them. 

Perhaps the strong monsoon, prevalent in the State of Assam, penetrates to this 

area and provides the requisite nourishment for glacier presence.

Surge-Type Glaciers

Surge-type glaciers are easy to identify on aerial photographs and on 

Landsat images. Glacier surges often leave their characteristic imprint on 

glaciers; contorted medial moraines are the most impressive and useful of 

such characteristics. A  search through the Landsat MSS images indicates that 

surge-type glaciers are rare in the Himalaya,  but common in the Karakoram 

Range. Some Landsat images of the Indian Karakoram show a concentration of 

surge-type glaciers, including glaciers that have surged in the past. The mountains between the Shyok River (up to Saser) and Gilgit River include many 

surge-type glaciers.

Glaciers in the Shyok valley (for example, Chong Kumdan and KichikKumdan Glaciers) are well-known for repeated surge events in this region. 

During their advances, the Shyok River becomes dammed, causing a large 

amount of water to accumulate behind the ephemeral dam, which, in time, 

bursts through the ice dam, producing an outburst flood. The ensuing floods 

ravage the areas downstream. A  huge flood occurred in 1929. More recently, 

in a Landsat 2 MSS image of July 1978, two glaciers appear to have advanced 

into the Shyok River valley but have not yet blocked it. Two large glaciers at the 

head of the river also show surge-type features. Many of the glaciers descending 

from the northwestern part of the high divide between Shyok and Nubra 

drainage basins, including those draining into Kole-Ching Ha (in China), also 

seem to exhibit surge-type characteristics. 

Conclusions

The study of glaciers is important in India,  both scientifically and 

economically. The  meltwater of Indian glaciers affects the quality of life of 

millions of people. The  observation of glaciers in India started in the middle 

1800s, and gradually became more prevalent. In the last 25 to 30 years, many 

intensive glacier studies have been completed.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F275

A Study of Selected Glaciers under the Changing 

Climate Regime

By Syed Iqbal Hasnain,3 Rajesh Kumar,4 Safaraz Ahmad,5

and Shresth Tayal3

Introduction

Low-latitude mountain environments are highly sensitive indicators of 

climate change (Thompson and others, 1995; Broecker, 1997; Beniston and 

Fox, 1996). The  retreat of glaciers corresponding to global trends has been 

significant since the middle of the 19th century (Hastenrath, 1995; Kaser, 

1999); therefore, glaciers have more recently become the subject of intensive 

observation. Several studies in the Himalayan region found that the glaciers 

have retreated considerably during the last two decades (Fujita and others, 

1997, 2001; Kadota and others, 1997, 2000; Ageta and others, 2001; Naithani 

and others, 2001). Several analyses have shown that it is not only increased 

temperature and/or decreased precipitation that are responsible for recession 

of glaciers in lower latitudes, but also changes in humidity (Kaser and Noggler, 

1991; Hastenrath and Kruss, 1992; Kaser, Georges, and Ames, 1996; Kaser 

and Georges, 1997; Kaser, 1999; Wagnon and others, 1999).

The glaciers of the high mountains which are located in low latitudes 

cover a total area estimated at about 2.5 x 103 km2, which corresponds to 0.16 

percent of the total glacier-ice cover of the world (Haeberli and others, 1989). 

Although negligible in area (if all of these glaciers melted tomorrow, eustatic 

sea level would not rise more than about 1 cm), they are nevertheless known 

to be very sensitive components of the environment and deserve attention in 

the context of both global climate change (Kaser, Hastenrath, and Ames, 1996) 

and local and regional water supply.

Mass-balance data are useful in glacier-climate interaction studies. 

The conventional method for mass-balance measurement is normally applied 

to benchmark glaciers having International Commission on Snow and Ice 

(ICSI)-approved attributes (Kaser and others, 2002). However, in rugged 

terrain in remote areas like the Himalaya, remote-sensing techniques are useful 

for understanding regional climate change and its impact on glaciers because 

more areal coverage is available with less effort on the ground. A  rough estimate of the glacier mass balance can be derived from the accumulation area 

ratio (AAR) (Kulkarni, 1992; Sapiano and others, 1998; Ramussen and others, 

1999). The AAR of a glacier is defined as the ratio between the accumulation 

area and the area of the entire glacier, and is determined by using the equilibrium line altitude (ELA) that separates the ablation and accumulation areas on 

a glacier surface.

3

The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi 110003, India

4

B.M. Birla Science and Technology Center, Statue Circle, Prithviraj Road, Jaipur, 302001, Rajasthan India

5

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002 India
F276 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The demand for global fresh water has increased four-fold since 1940, 

due to a growing population, expansion of irrigation of croplands, increasing 

urbanization, and industrialization. In  the Indian subcontinent, snow and 

glacier ice of the Hindu-Kush Himalaya provide a very large percentage of the 

low-land, dry-season flow of the Indus, Ganges (Ganga), and Brahmaputra 

Rivers. The discharge from glaciers helps to maintain year-round continuity in 

water availability to surrounding ecosystems and living habitats. Considering 

Himalayan glaciers as water reserves and effectively managing these mountain water resources could help avoid a future water crisis in coming decades. 

The  glacierized basins in the Himalaya are the primary source of freshwater 

and perennial river flow in the Indian subcontinent.

Recent Glacier Studies

In recent years, new technologies have been applied to the study of 

glaciers in India, in addition to continued field investigations. The  studies 

described in this section have provided valuable information about the effects 

of changing climate on the glaciers. 

Gangotri Glacier

The Gangotri Glacier originates at an elevation of 7,143  m ASL in the 

Chaukhamba group of peaks and extends between 30°42′N. and 31°01′N. 

latitude and between 78°54′E. and 79°18′E. longitude (fig.  10). It terminates 

in a snout about 25  km below at Gaumukh at an elevation of about 4,000  m. 

The  area of ice cover of the Gangotri Glacier is about 250  km2. Gangotri 

Glacier feeds the Bhāgīrathi River and is situated at the transitional zone 

between the eastern and western Himalaya, reflecting the properties of both. 

But this glacier is also vulnerable to the threats posed by climate change and 

associated phenomena. 

A detailed field observation of the Gangotri Glacier, carried out during 

2002 and 2003, revealed that huge amounts of debris were being deposited on 

the glacier surface from adjacent mountains because of an increase in glacier 

erosion. Near the snout, numerous transverse crevasses had developed in the 

glacier due to the steep slope and unloading of stresses. Material was deposited near the snout because of rapid, continuous deglaciation during the past 

few decades. A few ice-dammed lakes were located on the supraglacial surface 

(figs. 11, 12), about 9 km upglacier, near the junction with the tributary glacier, 

Kirti Bamak. The lakes ranged in size from 50 m2 to 150 m2 (estimated during 

the field excursion in July 2002, led by Dr. Rajesh Kumar). The  existence 

of ice-dammed lakes may be due to the low gradient (8–9°) in front of Kirti 

Bamak.

The Terra satellite’s Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission Reflectance 

Radiometer (ASTER) composite image (fig.  13), produced by Jesse Allen 

and available on the U.S. National Air and Space Administration’s (NASA) 

Earth Observatory website [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov], shows how 

the Gangotri Glacier terminus has receded since 1780. The lines showing the 

location of the terminus are approximate. This satellite image reflects a much 

enhanced increase in recession of the terminus of the Gangotri Glacier during 

the last 30 years. Calculations show a recession rate of 3.77 m a–1 for the period 

1780 to 1849, 6.53 m a–1 for the period 1849 to1900, 9.38 m a–1 for the period 

1900 to 1971, and 27.66 m a–1 for the period 1971 to 2001. 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F277

Bhagirathi

Chaukhamba

Satopantha

6,507

6,932 6,803

6,796

6,730

6,044

6,771

6,728

6,512

6,454

6,856

6,666

6,721

6,543

6,578

6,940

6,612

7,075

6,805

6,193

6,914

5,500

5,000

5,000

4,500

4,500

5,000

6,000

5,500

5,500

5,500

6,000

5,500

6,000

5,000

6,000

4,500

5,000

5,500

6,000

4,500

5,000

5,500

4,500

5,500

5,000

4,500

5,000

5,500

5,000

5,000

5,000

5,500 5,000

5,500

Manda

Sri Kailash

Mana Parbat

Raktavarn

Gaumukh

Chaturangi

5,000

Bhirgupant

Meru

Kirti

Kedarnath

Chaukhamba

6,914

5,000

GLACIERIZED AREA

DRAINAGE

LINES OF EQUAL ELEVATION–In

meters above sea level

SUMMIT–Location, name, and

height in meters

EXPLANATION

4,500

5,000

5,000

5,500

30°50’N

79°00’E

N

5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

0 Scale is approximate

INDIA

Delhi

Study Gangotri Area

Figure 10.—Location map of Gangotri Glacier 

and associated glaciers. Modified from Sharma 

and Owen (1996).

Figure 11.—Lake formed on Gangotri 

Glacier (approximate lat 31°N., long 

79°E.) near the junction with Kirti 

Bamak Glacier. The background peak 

is Kedārnāth. Photograph by Dr. Rajesh 

Kumar, July 2002.
F278 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Supraglacial Lakes

Kirti Bamak Glacier

N

5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

0

Scale is approximate

Gangotri Glacier

Figure 12.— Enlargement of 9 September 

2001 ASTER image showing supraglacial 

lakes on the Gangotri Glacier (approximate lat 31°N., long 79°E.). Image I.D. 

AST_LIA:2004126903.

2001

1971

1964

1956

1935

1900

1780 1849

Gangotri Glacier

1 MILE

0 1 KILOMETER

0 Scale is approximate

N

Figure 13.—Enlargement of 9 September 2001 ASTER image 

showing position of the terminus of Gangotri Glacier between 

1780 and 2001 (approximate lat 31°N., long 79°E.). Image 

from Jesse Allen, NASA’s Earth Observatory, based on data 

provided by the ASTER Science Team. Glacier-retreat boundaries courtesy of the U.S. Land Processes Distributed Active 

Archive Center (LP DAAC). Image I.D AST_LIA:2004126903.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F279

Shrinkage of the glaciers is linked to climate change due to decrease 

in winter precipitation, increase in summer precipitation, and atmospheric 

temperature change. Investigations carried out by the Intergovernmental 

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (Watson and others, 1998) concluded that 

the Earth’s average temperature has increased by 0.6 ± 0.2°C during the 20th 

century. The  increase in air temperature is projected to be about +1.4°C to 

+5.8°C by the end of 21st century. The projected increase will impact hydrometeorological processes more vigorously than during the 20th century. 

The  impact of increased temperature and liquid precipitation on glaciers and 

snowfields in the Himalaya is likely to be profound. Recession of snowfields 

and glaciers will impact the long-term, seasonal pattern and the annual availability of freshwater and the hydropower capacity ( Jóhannesson, 1997; Benn 

and others, 2000). Under the projected scenarios of IPCC, the change in ELA 

of the Gangotri Glacier has been computed by Hasnain and others (2004) 

(fig.  14). With an increase in temperature of +3°C the ELA will rise and the 

AAR will decrease from 0.40 to 0.15, indicating a more negative mass balance 

of the Gangotri Glacier during the 21st century.

Using an Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) panchromatic satellite 1D image 

acquired in September 2001, the area of the Gangotri Glacier at the headwaters of the main source of the Ganges river main stem was measured to be 

about 77 km2. This area was 87 km2 on the 1:150,000-scale topographic map 

published by the Survey of India in 1985, implying that the glacier lost about 

12 percent of its area during the intervening 16 years. The average rate of the 

snout recession at Gaumukh was also computed by comparing the snout 

position on the 1985 topographic map and the 2001 panchromatic image. 

The average rate of recession for this period in this location was about 23 m a–1 

(Hasnain and others, 2004).

Present ELA

Predicted ELA for an increase

in 3° C air temperature

Figure 14.—Predicted change in location of the equilibrium line altitude (ELA) for an increase of 3°C air temperature in 

the Gangotri Glacier region.
F280 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Chhota Shigri Glacier and Mass-Balance Measurements

Chhota Shigri Glacier, located between 32°11′–32°17′N. and 77°30′–

77°32′E., extends from 4,000 m ASL to more than 5,600 m ASL (fig. 15). It is 

a valley-type glacier, debris covered in the lower ablation zone and lies in the 

Chandra-Bhāga river basin on the northern ridge of Pir Panjāl Range in the 

Lāhul-Spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh. The  snout was located at 32°17′N., 

77°32′E. in 2003. The glacier is in the monsoon-arid transition zone; therefore, 

it is considered to be a potential indicator of the northern limits of the intensity 

of the monsoon. It is influenced by both the Asian monsoon in the summer 

and the westerlies in the winter. From its snout to the accumulation zone near 

32°12’N

77°32’E

N

77o32’E

32o12’N

Chandra River Chhota Darra

Chhota

Shigri

Glacier

6,250

6,428

5,545

5,575

Sara

Umga Pass

5,200

5,000

4,800

5,538

5,000

4,980

4,400

4,600

5,400

X

4,200

4,000

N

Chhota Shigri

Glacier

CHINA

INDIA

Himachal

Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh

Jammu and Kashmir

Chandra River

Chamba

Keylong

Kulu

Mandi

Rampur

Simla

Panjab

INDIA

Chhota Darra

4,980

BASIN BOUNDARY

CHHOTA SHIGRI GLACIER

LINE OF EQUAL ELEVATION–In meters above sea level

OLD LATERAL MORIANE

ELEVATION–In meters above sea level

EXPLANATION

0

0

Scale is approximate

1 KILOMETER

1 MILE

A B

Figure 15.—A, Sketch and location maps 

of the Chhotta Shigri Glacier. Modified from 

Dobhal and others (1995) and work by authors. 

B, 28 September 2002 ASTER image of 

Chhotta Shigri Glacier. The outline of the glacier 

was digitized manually from the ASTER scene 

(Berthier and others, 2007) and is part of the 

GLIMS Glacier Database. ASTER image (AST_

L1A003:2008978634) courtesy of Adina Racoviteanu, Department of Geography and Institute 

of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of 

Colorado at Boulder.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F281

Sara Umga Pass (4,900  m ASL), Chhota Shigri Glacier is 9  km long and its 

width varies from 0.5 to 1.5 km in the ablation zone to about 4.5 km above the 

equilibrium line (Kumar, 1988). Field studies determined that the equilibrium 

line was at 5,170  m ASL in 2002–03 and in 2003–04 (Wagnon and others, 

2007) — an upward shift since the 1987–89 ELAs, when the equilibrium line 

was at 4,650–4,840 m (Dobhal and others, 1995). Fluctuations in the width of 

the ablation zone are between 0.3 and 1.5 km, and are between 1.5 and 3 km in 

the accumulation zone (Hasnain and others, 1989). The Chhota Shigri Glacier 

drains into the Chandra River. The  total drainage area of the Chhota Shigri 

Glacier basin is about 45 km2, and the glacier occupies about 20 percent of the 

drainage area (Dobhal and others, 1995). Several supraglacial streams have 

formed in the ablation zone; most of them terminate in moulins or crevasses.

The Chhota Shigri Glacier snout has been retreating (fig. 16). The average 

rate of the Chhota Shigri Glacier snout recession was calculated by Kumar and 

Dobhal (1994) to be –7.5  m a–1 from 1970 to 1989. However, this rate has 

increased to –27 m a–1 during the period 1989 to 2000. 

The areal coverage of the Chhota Shigri Glacier has been compared on 

various satellite images (Landsat 5 TM (1989), Satellite Pour l’Observation 

de la Terre (SPOT) (1994), Landsat 7 ETM+ (2000)), and on 1:50,000-scale 

N

EXTENT OF

FOR INDICATED YEAR

CHHOTA SHIGRI GLACIER

1960

1987

1994

2000

EXPLANATION

2 MILES

0 2 KILOMETERS

0

1

1

Figure 16.—Retreat of Chhota Shigri Glacier

snout (approximate lat 32°15′N., long 77°30′E.) 

in the last 40 years mapped from topographic 

maps and satellite images. The 1960 and 1987 

terminus positions are from topographic maps, 

the 1994 position from a SPOT image, and the 

2000 position from a Landsat 7 ETM+ image.
F282 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

topographic maps published in 1960 and 1988. A  digital elevation model 

(DEM) of the Chhota Shigri Glacier was prepared with the contour value 

derived from the topographic map of 1988. A comparative analysis of the planimetric cover of the Chhota Shigri Glacier on the geomorphological map of 1988 

(surveyed in 1987) and the 2000 Landsat image shows that the areal glacier 

coverage decreased about 12 percent in the 13-year interval (fig. 17).

Under the projected scenarios of Watson and others (1998), the ELA 

of the Chhota Shigri Glacier has been computed for a temperature increase of 

+3 °C in the region. The projected AAR of the glacier has also been computed, 

and shows a decrease from 0.40 to 0.10 for a temperature increase of +3 °C. 

This implies that the glacier will be about 80 to 90 percent more vulnerable to 

melting with an increase in temperature of +3 °C. 

The International Commission on Snow and Ice (ICSI) selected Chhota 

Shigri Glacier as a benchmark glacier in the Himalayan region in 2002. An international training course on glacier mass balance was held from 24 September 

N

77°30’E

32°17’N

16’N

15’N

14’N

13’N

32°12’N

31’E 32’E 77°33’E

77°30’E 31’E 32’E 77°33’E

32°17’N

16’N

15’N

14’N

13’N

32°12’N

1 MILE

0 1 KILOMETER

0

A. Survey, 1987

4,000

3,900

3,800

3,700

3,800

3,900

4,000

4,100

4,200

4,300

4,400

4,500

4,600

4,800

4,900

5,000

5,100

5,200

5,300

3,800

3,900

4,000

4,100

4,200

4,300

4,400

4,500

4,600

4,700

4,700

4,800

4,900

5,000

5,100

5,200

5,300

5,400

5,500

ELA based on toposheet,

Survey of India, 1987

ELA observed in 2004

ELA position for a

hypothetical increase of

3 degrees in Atmospheric

Temperature

4,500

4,450

4,550

4,600

4,400

4,350

4,300

4,650

4,700

4,750

4,800

4,850

4,950

4,900

5,000

3,850

4,000

3,900

3,950

SNOW LAKE

SCARPS

ICE FALL

INACTIVE MORAINES

MEDIAL MORAINES

EQUILIBRIUM LINE

LATERAL MORAINE

CREVASSES

GLACIER BOUNDARY

SNOUT

RELIEF ZONE

CIRQUE GLACIER

GLACIER–Covered with boulders and pebbles

MINOR CRACKS AND CREVASSES

EXPLANATION

3,900 LINE OF EQUAL ELEVATION–In meters

Figure 17.—(at left and at right) In the 

process of deglaciation, the surface area 

of the Chhota Shigri Glacier (approximate lat 32°15′N., long 77°30′E.) has 

been reduced about 12 percent in the 

13 years from 1987 to 2000. The area in 

1987 was taken from a 1988 topographic 

map of the Survey of India, surveyed in 

1987 (A). A 9 October 1989 Landsat 5 

TM image (B), shows the glacier near 

the time of the 1987 survey. In 2000, the 

area is shown on a 15 October Landsat 7 

ETM+ image (C).
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F283

to 10  October 2002. It was organized by ICSI, with the Glacier Research 

Group, Jawaharlal Nehru University ( JNU), as local organizers, and technical support from Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) 

(France), Institute of Geography (Austria), Geological Survey of Denmark and 

Greenland (Denmark), Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary 

Geology and Glaciology (Sweden), and Nagoya University ( Japan). As part 

of the training course, stakes were emplaced in the glacier with a steam drill 

(fig. 18). The glacier was revisited in 2003 and 2004 and measurements were 

carried out on the glacier using the stakes as reference points. Also, snow/firn 

pits were dug in the accumulation area of Chhota Shigri Glacier to obtain information on the yearly accumulation of snow. The only recognizable changes in 

the snow stratigraphy between 2002 and 2004 were a few slight differences in 

the size of the firn grains and the addition of a few thin ice layers. The ice layers 

were clear in some places, but contained dirt at other places. Very little change 

in the density profile has been observed at two pits located at elevations of 

5,200 and 5,405 m ASL. A third pit, at an elevation of 5,500 m ASL, showed a 

large variation in the density profile; density increased with depth and reached 

0.86 g cm–3 (glacier ice) at a depth of 300–338 cm (Kumar and others, 2005).

B. Landsat, 1989 C. Landsat, 2000
F284 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The various positions of the terminus between 1984 and 1986 (campaign 

of Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi) were indicative of 

the annual climatic variation on the glacier, and showed three main episodes 

of advance and retreat. Fluctuations of the equilibrium line, observed during 

the same period, support the above observations. The  snout of the glacier 

continued to recede at a rate of 18.7  m a–1 during 1986–88. This retreat was 

accompanied by a negative mass balance of 1.55×106 m3 a–1, observed during 

1987–88 (Nijampurkar and Rao, 1992). 

Figure 18.—Map of the Chhota Shigri Glacier showing location of stakes installed 

in 2002 and the automatic weather station (AWS) installed during September–

October 2003. Modified from Kumar and others (2004).

4,100

4,200

4,300

4,400

4,500

4,800

4,900

5,000

5,200 5,100 5,000

5,100

5,000

5,100

5,200

4,900

4,800

5,100

5,200

5,2005,3005,400 5,500

5,600

5,200

5,200

5,200

Sara

Umga

Pass

Position

of AWS

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

16

17 18

19

20

21

22

15

Base Camp

5,200

5,300 4,800

5,100

5,000

4,900

5,100

4,700

4,600

5,000

5,200

5,000 4,900

10

4,100

GLACIERISED AREA

LINE OF EQUAL ELEVATION–In meters

STAKE POSITION–And number

EXPLANATION

N

77°29’E

32°17’N

30’E 31’E 32’E 77°33’E

16’N

15’N

14’N

13’N

32°12’N

1 MILE

0 1 KILOMETER

0 Scale is approximate
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F285

Our study, based on two years of observations (2002–03 and 2003–04), 

shows a negative mass balance of 5.03×106  m3 a–1 during 2002–03, and 

10.37×106  m3 a–1 during 2003–04 (figs. 19A, B) (Kumar and others, 2005). 

The  negative mass balance nearly doubled in two years and increased more 

than 3- to 6- fold compared with the value in 1987–88, only 15 years before. 

The glacier is becoming considerably thinner at lower altitudes, based on the 

increasing negative net mass balance.

Siachen Glacier

Siachen Glacier (approximately 35°11′N., 77°12′E.), is 78  km long and 

lies in the area claimed by both Pakistan and India, between the Saltoro ridgeline to the west and the main Karakoram Range to the east. The Saltoro ridge 

originates from the Sia Kangri peak, in the Karakoram Range, and the elevation 

ranges from 5,500 m to 7,350 m ASL. The major passes on this ridge are Sia La 

at 6,000 m and Bilafond La at 5,800 m ASL. The Siachen Glacier occupies the 

great Himalayan watershed that demarcates central Asia from the Indian subcontinent and that separates Pakistan from China in this region.

A comparative analysis of Landsat images of the Siachen glacier for the 

years 1978, 1989, and 2001 (fig.  20) clearly reflects a retreat in the terminus 

of the glacier. But a complete determination of the rate of retreat of the glacier 

with proper field validation is still to be carried out. Although a field study 

should be done because of the importance of the glacier and its known retreat, 

the area is under security restrictions and field work is prohibited.

5,600

5,400

5,200

5,000

4,800

4,600

4,400

4,200

-600 -400 -200 0 200

SPECIFIC NET ANNUAL MASS BALANCE, 2002-03

-500 -300 -100 100 300

ELEVATION, IN METERS ABOVE SEA LEVEL

5,600

5,400

5,200

5,000

4,800

4,600

4,400

4,200

-600 -400 -200 0 200

SPECIFIC NET ANNUAL MASS BALANCE, 2003-04

ABLATION OR ACCUMULATION, IN CENTIMETERS PER WATER EQUIVALENT

-500 -300 -100 100 300

ELEVATION, IN METERS ABOVE SEA LEVEL

ABLATION OR ACCUMULATION, IN CENTIMETERS PER WATER EQUIVALENT

Figure 19.—A, Specific net annual mass-balance 

(2002–03) near measurement points averaged 

against the elevation on Chhota Shigri Glacier; 

B, Specific net annual mass-balance (2003–04) 

near measurement points averaged against the 

elevation on Chhota Shigri Glacier. we = water 

equivalent.
F286 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Figure 20.—Retreat of the terminus of Siachen Glacier (approximate lat 35°11′N., long 77°12′E.) from 1978 to 2001. The 1978, 1989, and 2001 terminus positions are shown on Landsat images: 18 July 1978 Landsat 3 MSS image (Path 159–Row 35), 9 October 1989 Landsat 5 TM image (Path 147–Row 36), and the 31 October 2001 Landsat 7 ETM+ image (Path 147–Row 36). 

Landsat, 1978 Landsat, 1989 Landsat, 2001

2001

1978

N

Scale is approximate

0 5 KILOMETERS0 5 MILES
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F287

Glacier Lakes

Glacier movement and interaction with debris cover on glacier surfaces 

results in various glacier-surface features. With high rates of melting, these surface 

features form glacier lakes, both supraglacial and ice-marginal. The  formation 

and disappearance of new supraglacial lakes is a natural phenomenon. But an 

increase in the number and area of supraglacial lakes on the glacier surface can 

be linked with high rates of ice melting or excess downwasting of the glaciers. 

The  coalescing of the small lakes results in large glacier lakes that store huge 

quantities of water and sediment. These glacier lakes can be bounded by the 

terminal moraine of the glacier, forming moraine-dammed or ice-margin lakes.

The glacial moraine boundary consists of soft and loose material. Steep 

lateral moraines with highly unstable  slopes lie against the steep glacier 

tongues. Even minor seismic activity, a landslide, ice calving, or snow and rock 

avalanches can result in the sudden release of huge amounts of water, which 

cause flash floods downstream. These glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs) 

(jökulhlaups) can cause major damage to inhabitants and their infrastructure, 

and to the ecosystem and environment throughout the Himalayan region

Many glacier lakes have developed during the last half century in the 

Himalaya, and their numbers have increased in recent years, likely visual 

evidence of global warming. If the current glacier downwasting trend continues, 

more potentially dangerous moraine-dammed lakes can be expected to develop. 

Therefore, it is important to identify the potential GLOF sites in the Himalaya 

so that necessary preventative action can be taken. For this purpose, an inventory of the glaciers and glacier lakes of Nepal and Bhutan was prepared by 

the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) 

(Mool, Bajracharya, and Joshi, 2001; Mool, Wangda, and others, 2001). Aerial 

photographs and other remote-sensing data were used to identify these sites, 

and the temporal change in area of these lakes was studied using sequential 

images. In 1998, engineering construction was begun to reduce the water level 

in Tso Rolpa, one of the potentially dangerous lakes (see also Morales Arnao, 

1998, p. I67–I71, for mitigation of hazards from moraine-dammed lakes in the 

Cordillera Blanca, Perú). 

Similarly, a number of glacier lake studies have been conducted in the 

Indian part of the Himalaya. The  results showed GLOF-potential sites in the 

Dhaulīganga River in the Ganga headwaters. The  area of the largest glacial 

lake in 1989 was about 0.15 m2; the dimensions of the other small glacier lakes 

ranged from 0.025 to 0.075  km2. Recently, a new assessment of two glacier 

lakes in the Ganga headwater area was conducted using Landsat 1978, Landsat 

1990, and Landsat 2001 images. The results showed that, since 1978, the big 

glacier lake area in Ganga headwaters has increased by about 40 percent, while 

the area of the smaller lakes has increased by only about 13 percent. The study 

indicates that both hydrodynamics and calving are major processes that control 

the glacier-lake expansion (Chikita and others, 1999). In  the Chandra River 

basin, the area of a glacier lake was 0.359 m2 in 1972 and increased to 1.156 m2

in 1996 (Kulkarni, 2003). The  remapping of this lake, using Landsat 1990 

and 2001 images, indicated that the area of the lake has increased about 22 

percent since 1990. Evolution of the glacier lakes in the Tista River headwaters 

are shown in Landsat 1976, Landsat 1990, and ASTER 2001 images (fig. 21). 

These images clearly show an increase in the number and area of the lakes.

All of the above pilot studies suggest the number and areal cover of the 

glacier lakes increased in the last 30–40 years. This is a clear sign of global 

warming and of its impact on glacier lakes. Routine monitoring of the areal 

coverage of potential GLOF lakes is necessary to prevent the destruction of 

downstream property and population. Remotely-sensed data, particularly 

ASTER, can be utilized to monitor these lakes regularly. 
F288 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Conclusions

Remote-sensing techniques are very useful for cataloguing changes in 

glaciers and understanding climate change phenomena. Time-series analysis 

suggests that the summer temperature at an elevation of 4,000  m ASL has 

increased in the last forty years in headwaters of the Chenab and Ganga 

Rivers. Increased air temperatures have resulted in the shrinkage of the Chhota 

Shigri Glacier by about 12 percent in the last 13 years. In  addition, 12 percent 

shrinkage of the main stem of the Gangotri Glacier has occurred in the last 

16 years. This implies a rapid rate of shrinkage of many of the glaciers in the 

Himalaya in recent years. From model results, it was determined that, for an 

increase of +3 °C air temperature, the ELA will move upward about 400 m, and 

the AAR of the Chhota Shigri and Gangotri Glaciers will decrease from 0.4 to 

about 0.10 and 0.15, respectively. The  model thus suggests that, if there is an 

increase of +3 °C air temperature during the summer, 80 to 90 percent of the 

surface area of Chhota Shigri and Gangotri Glaciers will be in the ablation area 

and therefore in the process of melting. This will further increase the meltwater 

discharges, rapid shrinkage, and rapid snout recession already seen at the end of 

the last century. Increases in the size and number of glacier lakes in the Himalaya 

clearly reflect the increasing influence of global climatic changes in the region.

ASTER, 2001

Landsat, 1990

Landsat, 1976

Scale is approximate

0 10 KILOMETERS

0 10 MILES

N

Figure 21.—Increase in the number and size of glacier 

lakes from 1976 to 2001 in the Tista River basin, Sikkim 

Himalaya (approximate lat 27°55′N. long 88°15′E.), 

viewed with Landsat and ASTER images. The Landsat 

images are a 19 December 1976 Landsat 2 MSS image 

(Path 150–Row 41) and a 1990 tile (–46-25) from the 

Global Land Cover Facility Landsat Mosiac. The 2001 

ASTER image is PR1B0000-2001101302.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — INDIA F289

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