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STATE OF WASHINGTON 

DEPARTMENT OF ECOLOGY 

1N THE MATTER OF APPROVING A 

NEW CONTAMJNANT SOURCE FOR 

ffiP,lNC. 

TO: Ray McGaugh, Plant Manager 

ffiP, inc. 

~P.O. Box 4239 

Pasco, W A 99301 

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ORDER No. 02AQER-5074 

The IBP, inc. (IBP) Pasco facility requested an emission limitation in a submittal dated December 

21, 2001. The plant is located in the Wallula serious particulate non-attainment area. and any 

facility within the area with potential to emit particulate emissions aboVe 70 tons per year is . 

considered a major source. The facility currently has a potential to emit in excess of70 tons per 

year of particulate. To remain below Title V threshold levels the IBP fac1litj/has .tequested 

production limits on blood drying, inedible rendering, and edible rendering, and has proposed a 

particulate limit below~70 tons per year. Since the area may be re-designated within several years, it 

is anticipated that IBP may request a change to particulate emissions limitations from 70 to I 00 · 

tons per year. 

IBP has identified process equipment that was installed at the facility without Notice of 

Construction (NOC) approval, and_ has submitted NOC applications for the equipment. Air 

pollution control has been proposed for facility process equipment. IBP will install a new venturi 

scrubber, a new spray chamber scrubber, a new packed bed scrubber, and a new cyclone. IBP will 

rebuild and modify the existing packed bed scrubber and repiace the existing venturi scrubber. 

The AQP issued NOC approval Order No. DE 94AQ-E159 on July 28, 1994 for the installation of 

the Duske dryer and the 7tb inedible rendering line cooker. IBP reported that the Duske dryer did 

not meet the emission limitation as specified in the NOC approval, and proposes to install a venturi 

scrubber with a wet cyclone filter to control particulate emissions. This approval order both 

rescinds and sueercedes NOC approval Order No. DE 94AQ-E159. 

The purpc)se of this NOC approval order is to: 

I. Require a particulate emission limitation below 70 tons per year. 

2. Rescind and supercede NOC approval Order No. DE 94AQ-E159 for the Duske dryer and 7tb 

inedible rendering line cooker. 

3. Issue an approval order for emission controls and process equipment that were not originally 

permitted under state air quality regulations. 

In relation to the above, the Department of Ecology, State of Washington, pursuant to RCW 

. 70.94.152, RCW 70.94.153, and WAC 173-400-110, makes the foJJowing determinations: 

1. The proposed project if constructed and operated as herein required wiJJ be in accordance 

with applicable rules and regulations as set forth in Chapters 173-400 WAC and 173-460 

W AC, and facility operation will not result in violations to ambient air quality standards. 
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IBP, inc. 

Order No. 02AQER·5074 

Page 2 of 10 

December 6, 2002 

2. The proposed project if constructed and operated as required will provide all known, 

available, and ~asonable methods of emission control, i.e., best availabl~ control 

technology (BACT). 

I. FINDINGS: 

1. LAWS AND REGULATIONS 

The proposal by ffiP to operate a beef processing facility that includes blood drying, edible and 

inedible rendering, and associated processes shall comply with all requirements in: ·. 

1.1 Chapter70.94 Revised Code ofWashington (RCW), Washington Clean Air Act. 

1.2 Chapter 173-400 Washington Administrative Code (WAC), General Regulations for 

Air Pollution Sources. .. 

1.3 Chapter 173-460 WAC, Controls for New Sources of Toxic Air Pollutants. 

Specifically, the ffiP proposal to install new sources of air pollution is regulated under: 

1.4 WAC 173-400-110, New source review (NSR). 

1.5 WAC 173-400-112, Requirements for sources in U:onattainme~t areas. 

1.6 WAC 173-460-040, New source review. 

Al~ state and federal regulations, statutes, and laws referenced in this order are the current version 

upon the date of issuance of this Order. · 

2. ESTIMATED EMISSIONS 

ffiP currently operates a beef processing facility and proposes to permit existing processing 

equipment and add new air pollution controls. Operation of the processing equipment with 

restricted annual production rates and air pollution controls as contained in this Order has the 

potential to prodqce the foUowing estimated annual particulate emissions: 

TABLE 1: ESTIMATED EMISSIONS AND CONTROL EQUIPMENT · 

# Emission points PM10* Control equipment 1 Control equipment 2 

2.1 Raw blood tank 1.24 Spray chamber filter Packed bed 1 

2.2 Blood centrifuge Spray chamber filter Packed bed 1 

2.3 Dry Blood cyclone separators· Spray chamber filter Packed bed 1 

2.4 Blood dryer room air 1 Spray chamber filter Packed bed 1 

2.5 Blood dryer room air 2 Packed bed 1 na 

2.6 Inedible cookers 1-7 Spray chamber filter Packed bed 1 

2.7 Flotation centrifuge Spray chamber filter Packed bed 1 

2.8 Hides centrifuge Spray chamber filter Packed bed 1 

2.9 Flotation skimming tank Spray chamber filter Packed bed 1 

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Order No. 02AQER-5074 December 6, 2002 

2.10 Flotation room air 1 Spray chamber filter Packed bed 1 

2.11 Flotation room air 2 · Packed bed 1 na 

2.12 Hides fleshing tank Spray chamber filter Packed bed 1 

2.13 Inedible rotex screen 3.97 Cyclone & Venturi 1 Packed bed2 

2.14 Inedible hammermilJ Cyclone & Venturi 1 Packed bed 2 

!J 2.15 MiHing room air Packedbed2 na 

2.16 Flotation celJ tanks Venturi 1. Packed bed 2 

2.17 Dupps pressors Venturi 1 Packed bed2 

2.18 Grease centrifuge Venturi 1 Packed bed2 

2.19 Inedible rendering room 1 Venturi 1 Packed bed 2 

2.20 Inedible rendering room 2 Packed bed 2 na 

2.21 Duske dryer 4.10 Venturi 2 . Wet cytlone filter 

2.22 Edible rotex screen 2.47 na na 

2.23 Inedible silo 0.53 na na 

2.24 Packaging vacuum pumps 0.61 Smog Hog ESP na 

2.25 Lo Pro roof airlock 0.61 na na 

2.26 Lo Pro storage bins 0.24 na na · 

2.27 Boilers 2.83 na . na 

2.28 Back-up fire pump• 0.09 na na 

2.29 Spinal vacuum pump 0.16 na na 

2.30 Sani-vacs 0.48 na na 

2.31 Heaters 1.08 na na 

2.32 Propane only heaters 0.13 na na 

2.33 Steam pasteurization cabinet. 1.01 na na 

2.34 Post-pasteurization acid cab 0.12 na na 

2.35 PEC cabinet 1.67 na na 

2.36 Carcass wash acid cabinet 0.79 na na 

2.37 Blood silo 0.10 dust bag filter na 

Total PM10 emissions 22.23 

FUGITIVE EMISSIONS 

2.38 Gel Bone truck Joadout 0.22 tpy estimated 

2.39 Inedible rail loadout 0.42 tpy estimated 

2.40 Inedible truck loadout 1.34 tpy estimat~ .. .I 
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IDP, inc. Page4 of lO 

Order: No. 02AQER.:.5074 December 6, 2002 

2.41 Bloodtruckloadout 0.26 tpy estimated 

2.42 Paved roads 0.35 tpy estimated 

2.43 Salt rail loadout 8.06 tpy estimated 

*All particulate 1s constdered PM10 and 1s measured m tons per year. Process emtsstons only 

counted towards total emissions, fugitive emissions estimated but not counted in total. 

3. BACT 

Washington Administrative Code 173-400-112(2)(b) requires the use of Best Available Control 

Technology (BACT) to control emissions of criteria pollutants. Table 1 identifies each process 

component and work area that will exhaust to air pollution control equipment at the facility. 

Information on the air pollution control equipment that constitutes BACT is provided below. 

3.1 Packed bed scrubber 1 controls particulate emis.sions and odors from rendering, blood, and 

hide processing areas, and exhausts to the ambient air. Spray chamber filter is used upstream 

of packed bed scrubber 1 to reduce particulate emission concentrations to tpe packed bed. 

Packed bed scrubbers 1 and 2 both use a water based liquor utilizing either a 10% solution of 

sodilDJl hypochlorite to oxidize odorants and a 50% solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic) to 

maintain a pH of greater than 8, or chlorine dioxide to maintain a chlorine residual of greater 

than 25 ppmw, and art exhaust air stream temperature of less than 120° F. Scrubber liquor is re- . 

circulated, and makeup water and chemicals are added to maintain volume and operating · 

specifications. 

3.2 Packed bed scrubber 2 (rebuilt) controls particulate emissions and odors from rendering, 

blood, and hide areas, and exhausts to the ambient air. Venturi scrubber 1 is used upstream of 

packed bed scrubber 2 to JFC~uce particulate emission concentrations to the system. The Cyclone 

is used upstream of the venturi scrubber to control particulate emission concentrations from the 

Inedible Rotex Screen and the Inedible Hammennill. 

3.3 The Smog Hog is used to control oil that is discharged from eleven (11) Beach Russ vacuum · 

pumps that are used to evacuate the chambers in the cryovac packaging machines. The Smog 

Hog consists of a reuseable aluminum mesh filter, an ioni'zer section that contains tungsten wires, 

a collecting cell ~ith parallel aluminum plates, and an aluminum mesh after filter. 

3.4 The Duske dryer is vented to venturi scrubber 2 and wet cyclone filter to control 

particulate. The Duske dryer exhaust air will vary between 16,000 and 20,000 scfm. Plant air 

will be. used to balance the flow at 20,000 scfm to venturi scrubber 2 and cool the Duske dryer 

exhaust gases. Immediately downstream from venturi scrubber 2 is second stage 26,000 scfm 

wet cyclone filter. Plant air will be used to supplement the venturi scrubber exhaust to the wet · 

cyclone filter. 

TABLE 2: BEST A VAIT...ABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY FOR PARTICULATE ; 

# Control equipment Air flow Liquor flow Delta P Control effie. 

3.1 Packed bed scrubber 1 42,000 scfm >400gpm <5"WC 95%@ 

SCP Control, Inc RAS-42 >25 ppm Cl 0.5 urn* 

pH>8 

Spray chamber filter 24,000 scfm >250 gpm <3" we 95%@ 

St;P Col'\trot, Inc SC-24 l.um 

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Order No. 02AOER-5074 December 6, 2002 

3.2 Packed- bed scrubber 2 75,000 scfm >700 gpm <5" we 95%@ 

SCP Control, Inc RAS-75 >25 ppmCI 0.5um 

pH>8 

Venturi scrubber I 10,000 scfm >40gpm >4"WC 95%@ 

SCP Control, Inc VS-10 Sum 

Cyclone, high efficiency 2,000 scfm na >5"WC 85%@ 

SCP Control, Inc CS-2.0 Sum 

3.3 Smog Hog SH 50 PE-S-T 2500 to5400 electrostatic precipitator 95% 

United Air Specialists, Inc scfm 

3.4 Duske Dryer VentUri 20,000scfm >80gpm >5 .. WC 95%@ 

scrubber2 Sum 

SCP Control, Inc VS-20 ' .- " "-

Duske Dryer Wet Cyclone 26,000scfm >200gpm <3"WC 95%@ 

filter 0.5um ' . SCP Control, IncWCF~26 

* urn used as the abbreviation for mtcrometer or nncron 

... ··lfiWJ't' 

{)peHtieft ef tft8 JJf9GIS& B'fuipHHJRl i"eRQfild iA tJH& 9f4eF tlJiiJ R9l Fesy.)t in aJB9i8At air Ejt*llity 

emis1ioas of toxie air pollutants (TAP) above acceptak-le 11ource imp~~:t le'I•Js ~as 

cgataiABd iA Chii}Mr 1'78 490 WA€:. 

5. ADDITIONAL FINDINGS 

5.1 Equipment substitutions or replacements shall be reported to Ecology in writing prior to 

installation. A NOC application will be required if equipment substitution or replacement 

results in an increase in production rate or an increase in any air pollutant emission rates. 

5.2 The air f)ow for each individual piece of equipment and process area that is routed to an 

air pollution control device has been identified in-the NOC application.· Any increase in 

air flow above rates identified in this approval Order shall be reported to Ecology fn _ 

writing prior to modification. 

5.3 Particulate emissions from the Duske dryer air po1lution control exhaust stack were 

modeled using TSCREEN, an United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

approved screening model. A particulate matter emission concentration of 0.010 grains 

per dry standard cubic foot (gr/dscf) for the scrubber exhaust stack was modeled and 

found to be well below the limits contained in Chapter 173-470 WAC. It is assumed that 

the impacts from particulate matter generated by packed bed scrubbers I and 2 are 

comparable to the Duske dryer scrubber. Cumulative particulate impacts of these three 

pollution control devices remain below state ambient air quality standards. 

THEREFORE, IT IS ORDERED that the project as described in said Notice of Construction 

and more specifically detailed in plans, specifications and other information submitted to the 

Department of Ecology in reference thereto, is approved for construction, installation and 

operation, provided the following conditions are met: 
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ffiP, inc. Page 6of 10 

Order No. 02AQER-5074 December 6, 2002 

II. APPROVAL CONDITIONS: 

1. OPERATING LIMITATIONS 

1.1 mP has requested voluntary operating limitations under WAC 173-400-091 to restrict 

particulate emissions below 70 tons per year. The Wallula serious non-attainment area may be redesignated. At that time IDP may request a change to particulate emissions limitations from 70 to 

100 tons per year. Rend(!ring and blood drying operations will be limited by restricting finished 

product throughput and hours of operation as follows: 

TABLE 3: OPERATING LIMITATION 

1.1 Operation Hourly Limit Annual Limit Comments 

1.1.1 Blood drying 1600 lbs/hr 5990 tons/yr 10% moisture product 

1.1.2 Edible rendering 13,200 lbs/hr 49,421 tons/yr Gel bone .. 

1.1.3 Inedible rendering 6114lbslhr 22,891 tons/yr Lo pro, crax, tallow 

1.1.4 Blood drying & rendering na 7488 hrs/yr na 

1.2 Each emission unit will be controlled by the air pollution equipll'\ent specified in J'able 1 

unde.r the nnding. . . . 

1.3 Air pollution control equipment will be required to operate under the specifications as 

listed in Table 2 under the findings. ·· 

1.4 All process and fugitive emission points contained in this approval order shall comply 

· with the applicable requirements contained in 1. Laws and Regulations under the 

findings. 

2. . GENERAL PERFORMANCE TESTING REQUIREMENTS 

2.1 Performance Testing - Within 270 days after issuance of this Approval Order ffiP shall 

conduct ilii.tial performance 40 CFR 60 Appendix A Method 5 and Method 202 particulate 

testing and Method 9 visible emission testing for the Duske Dryer exhaust and provide a 

written report within 45 days. 

2.3 Throughput during Testing . - During testing the Duske dryer shall be operated at or near 

rated finish product capacity. Failure to test at or' near rated finish product capacity will 

result in operational limits placed on the Duske dryer based on the production rate during 

the initial perfoimance testing. 

2.4 Performance Test Plan Submittal - A test plan that includes a description of the 

reference test methods shall be submitted for Ecology's approval at least 30 days prior to 

any performance testing. 

2.5 Testing Logistics - The permittee shall provide sampling ports, safe sampling platforms, 

safe access to sampling platforms, and. utilities for sampling and testing. 

2.7 Baseline Operating Parameters - During testing, the following facility baseline operating 

parameters shall be recorded: 

2. 7.1 Duske dryer production rate. 

2 .. 7.2 Duske dryer venturi and wet cyclone filter differential pressures. 

2.7.3 ~us~e dryer.J~u~ and w~t cyclo~ tilt~: ~~~~r- ~ow r •.. 
ffiP, inc. 

Order No. 02AQER-5074 

3. EMISSION LIMITS & TEST METHODS 

Page 7 of 10 

December 6, 2002 

3.1 The particulate matter (PM1o) Method 5 and Method 202 concentration from the packed 

bed scrubber 1, packed bed scrubber 2, Smog hog, and wet cyclone filter exhaust stack 

shall be less than or equal to 0.010 grains of PM1o per dry standard cubic foot. The 

baseline operating parameters recorded during the initial performance testing for the wet 

cyclone filter will be used to establish operating parameters for the air pollution control 

1 systems. 

3.2 Visible emissions shall be no more than 10% opacity as measured by 40 CFR 60 

Appendix A Method 9 from any process emission point at the facility. Visjble emissions 

from fugitive dust sources shall not leave the property boundaries. 

3.3 Od6r frem paelred eeEI sembbeFS 1 aREI2 e:d!aYst gases shall be sentFel1eEll:Jy using a 

wawr 9as8d Jiquor uulizing eitber a 10% solutio:A of sodium b)q)OCbloJ.:ite to oxidia8 

elileFaRts and a 5Q% sol\IUQR of &odium bydl:o;~~;ide (~au&ti~) to mai~~ai:A aFJ of S~Cater 

tban S, or ~blorine dioxide to maintain a cbloJ.:ine residual of greater tban 25 ppmw, and 

m exba:Yst air swam tempeAtw:e of less than 129° R 

3. TES1' METHODS & EMISSION LIMITS .• 

POaUTANT LIMIT TEST METHOD NOTES 

3.1.1 PM1o Front half 0.010 gr/dscf EPA MethodS Filterable PM1o 

3.1.2 PM1o Back half EPA Method 202 Condensable PM10 

3.2.1 Visible emissions 10% opacity EPAMetho(l9 na 

3.3.1 Odor na na Operating limits 

4. O&M MANUAL 

A site-specific O&M manual shall be developed and followed for the non-fugitive process 

emission points contained in this approval order. The O&M manual shall include information on 

all air pollution1controls, monitoring equipment, and any other equipment that has the potential to 

affect emissions to the annosphere. Manufacturer's specifications and operating instructions 

should be included in the O&M manual. The O&M manual shall be updated to reflect any 

modifications of the facility or its operating procedures. The O&M manual shall at a minimum 

include: 

4.1 Normal operating parameters for the process and air pollution control equipment, 

including the most recent baseline operating parameters as identified during perfonnance 

testing. 

4.2 A maintenance schedule for process and air pollution control equipment. 

4.3 Recordkeeping requirements for process and air pollution control equipment as contained 

in Approval Condition 5, MONITORING and RECORDKEEPING. 

4.4 A description of the mon_itoring instrumentation. . 

4.5 Quality assurance procedures for maintaining accuracy of the monitoring equipment. 

IBP shall provide written notification to Ecology of O&M manuaJ completion within 90 days 

. after installation of all the control systems identified in this approval Order. 
IBP, inc. 

Order No. 02AQER-5074 

5. MONITORING and RECORD KEEPING 

Page 8 of 10 

December 6, 2002 

Monitoring instrumentation shall be installed and maintained for accuracy for the air pollution 

control equipment listed in Table 2. At a minimum, monitors shall include differential pressure 

and scrubber liquor flow rates as applicable for all air pollution control equipment. Packed bed 

scn.tbber I and 2·1iquor shall be monitored for temperature, pH (hydrogen ion activity), and 

oxidation reduction activity. All monitoring equipment shall be described in the Operations and 

Maintenance (O&M) manual. 

Specific records shall be kept on-site and made available for inspection by Ecology upon request. 

The records shall be readily accessible, compiled in an organized manner and cover a minimum 

of the most recent 60-months. The records to be kept shall include the following: 

5.1 Annual production records to verify that operating rates remain at or below the 

-restrictions contained in Table 3 of this approval order. "' 

5.2 Air pollution control parameters shall be recorded, including djff.erential pressure and 

scrubber liquor flow rates as applicable for all air pollution control equipment contained 

in this approval order. These parameters shall be recorded at least twice per shift during 

plant operations. 

5.3 Packed bed scrubber liquor parameters for both packed bed S<frubber 1 and 2 shall be 

continuouslymonitored. The scrubber liquor shall be monitored by a temperature gauge, 

hydrogen ion activity (pH) probe, and oxidation reduc~on activity probe (ORP). 

5.4 Nature and details of any upset condition or other situation (date/time, duration, 

cause, etc.) that results in the facility being operated while the air pollution control . 

equipment was not functioning properly, including upsets in scrubber liquor parameters. 

5.5 All performance testing results and reports. 

5.6. O&M manual and maintenance records. 

6. REPORTING 

All ' reports and notifications shall be sent within 30 days following the end of the calendar year 

unless otherwise noted below to: 

6.1 

6.2 

Air Quality Program 

Washington State Department of Ecology 

4601 N. Monroe 

Spokane, W A 99205-1295 

Annual production rates as required in APPROVAL CONDmON 5.1. 

Annual emission invent9ry as required by the Ecology Air Quality Program Registration 

Program. Note: The information requested under 6.1 and 6.2 may be combined and 

submitted in a single report. 

6.3 The results of any performance testing shall be sent to the above address no later than 

45 days following such testing. 

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IBP, inc. 

Order No. 02AQER-5074 

7. SPECIFIC CONDITIONS 

Page 9 of 10 

December 6, 2002 

Fugitive dust control measures have not been prescribed in this order. Failure to maintain 

adequate fugitive dust control wiJJ result in Ecology requiring a fugitive dust control plan 

(FDCP) for all fugitive dust sources at the facility. 

8. GENERAL CONDITIONS 

8.1 Visible Emissions - No visible emissions shall be allowed beyond the property line. 

8.2 • Discontinuing Operations - This approval shall become void if operation of the facility 

is discmitinued for a period of eighteen (18) months. 

8.3 Compliance Assurance Access - Access to the source by EPA or Ecology shall be 

allowed for the purposes of compliance assurance inspections. Failure to allow access is 

grounds for revocation of this Approval Order approving the NOC application. 

8.4 Availability of Approval Order and O&M Manual - Legible copies of this Approval 

Order approving the NOC applications and the O&M manual shall be available to 

employees in direct operation of the facility and its associated air poJlutiori controls and 

be available for review upon request by Ecology. 

8.5 Equipment Operation - Operation of the facility and its associated air pollution 

controls shBil be conducted in compliance with all data and specifications submitted as 

part of the NOC application and in accordance with the O&M manual, unless otherwise 

approved in 'writing by Ecology. Emissions that result from failbre to follow the 

requirements of the O&M manual or manufactu!er's instructions will be considered proof 

that the facility was not properly operated and/01" maintained. 

8.6 · Obligations under Other Laws or Regulations - Nothing in this Approval Order shall 

be construed to relieve mP of its obligations under any local, state or federal laws or 

regulations. 

8.7 Fees - Per WAC 173-400-116, this Approval Order and related regulatory requirements 

have a fee associated for review and issuance. This Approval Order is effective upon 

Ecology's receipt any required fees. 

All plans, speciftcations, and other information submitted to the Department of Ecology relative 

to this project and further documents and any further authorizations or approvals or denials in 

relation thereto shall be kept at the Eastern Regional Office of the Department of Ecology in the 

"Air Quality Controlled Source" files and by such action shall be incorporated herein and made 

a part hereof. 

Nothing in this approval shall be construed as obviating compliance with any requirement of law 

other than those imposed pursuant to the Washington Clean Air Act and the rules and regulations 

thereunder. 

A three-month testing and break-in period is allowed, after any part or portion of this project 

becomes operational, to make any changes or adjustments required to comply with applicable 

rules and regulations pertaining to air quality and conditions of operation imposed herein. 

Thereafter, any violation of such rules and regulations or of the terms of this approval shall be 

subject to the sanctions provided in Chapter 70.94 RCW. 
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mP, inc. Page 10 of 10 

Order No. 02AQER-5074 December 6, 2002 

Authorization may be modified, suspended, or revoked in whole or part for cause including, but 

not limited to, the following: 

1. Violation of any terms or conditions of this auth~rization; 

2. Obtaining this authorization by misrepresentation or failure to disclose fully all relevant facts. 

The provisions of this authorization are severable and, if any provisions of this authorization, or 

applicatio11 of any provisions of this authorization to any circwnstance. is held invalid, the 

application of such provision to their circumstances, and the remainder of this authorization, 

shall not be affected thereby. 

Any person feeling aggrieved by this ORDER may obtain review thereof by application, within 

thirty (30) days of receipt of this ORDER to the Pollution Control Hearings Board, P.O. Box 

40903, Olympia, W A 98504-0903. Concurrently, a copy of the application must pe sent to the 

Department of Ecology, P.O. Box 47600, Olympia, WA 98504-7600 and to the Department of 

Ecology, 4601 N. Monroe, Suite 202, Spokane, WA 99205-1295. These procedures are 

consistent with the provisions of Chapter 43.21B RCW and the rules and regulations adopted 

thereunder. 

DA 1ED at Spokane, Washington, this 6th day of December, 2002. 

PREPARED BY: 

..Q~~ Gregory S. Flibbert, Unit Manager 

Air Quality Program 

DeP,fU1ment of Ecology