Glaciers of Asia—

GLACIERS OF AFGHANISTAN

By John F. Shroder, Jr., and Michael P. Bishop

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, JR., and JANE G. FERRIGNO

U. S. G EO LO G I C A L SU RV EY P RO F E SSI O N A L PA P E R 1 3 8 6 –F– 3

CONTENTS III

CONTENTS

Abstract----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------167

Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------167

Figure 1. Index map of Afghanistan showing the location of major

 geographic features mentioned in text -----------------------------------------168

Occurrence of Glaciers --------------------------------------------------------------------------169

Figure 2. Map of Afghanistan showing the three main drainage basins --------------- 170

Table 1. Glacierized drainage basins in Afghanistan ------------------------------------ 171

Figure 3. Photograph showing terminus of debris-covered Qādzī Deh

 Glacier joined by Ye Safed Glacier---------------------------------------------- 173

Figure 4. Photograph showing argillite-covered glacier ice on the

 Qādzī Deh Glacier below Noshaq peak--------------------------------------- 173

Figure 5. Landsat 3 return beam vidicon satellite image showing glacierized 

 areas extending from Tajikistan and Ab-i-Panj river in the 

 Wākhān valley to Tirich Mir peak in Pakistan ------------------------------ 174

Mapping of Glaciers------------------------------------------------------------------------------175

Table 2. Glacier information contained in scientific and mountain-

 climbing publications on Afghanistan-----------------------------------------176

Satellite Imagery in the 1970s ---------------------------------------------------------177

Photographic Prints...................................................................................... 177

Figure 6. Index map of Landsat 1, 2, and 3 satellite imagery, drainage basins, 

 and large-scale maps of glacierized areas of Afghanistan------------------ 178

Figure 7. Map of optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of 

 Afghanistan ----------------------------------------------------------179

Table 3. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of 

 Afghanistan ---------------------------------------------------180–181

Digital Analyses............................................................................................. 181

Satellite Imagery since the 1970s -----------------------------------------------------182

Case Studies of Glaciers-----------------------------------------------------------------182

Kūh-e Bābā...................................................................................................... 183

Figure 8. Topographic map of Fūlādī valley and central Kūh-e Bābā range----------- 184

Figure 9. View northwest from eastern end moraine toward large moraine 

 loop above the village of Burghasūn ----------------------------------185

Figure 10. Photograph of Fūlādī Glacier taken in July 1978 ------------------------------ 185

Figure 11. Stereoscopic pair of Landsat 1 images of the Kūh-e Bābā area-------------- 186

Figure 12. Stereoscopic pair of ASTER images of Kūh-e Bābā area--------------------- 186

Mīr Samīr........................................................................................................ 187

Figure 13. Topographic map of Mīr Samīr (Mērsmer) area in the central 

 Hindu Kush----------------------------------------------------------------------- 187

Kūh-e Bandakā............................................................................................... 188

Figure 14. Stereoscopic pair of ASTER images of Mīr Samīr area----------------------- 189

Figure 15. Stereoscopic pair of Landsat 1 and 2 images of the Bandakā massif------- 189

Figure 16. Planimetric map of the Bandakā massif ---------------------------------------- 190

Keshnīkhān Glacier........................................................................................ 191

Wākhān Pamir Glaciers................................................................................ 191

Figure 17. Planimetric map of Keshnīkhān Glacier----------------------------------192

Figure 18. Landsat 1 MSS image of Keshnīkhān Glacier area taken 12 July 1973 ----193

Figure 19. Stereoscopic pair of ASTER images of Keshnīkhān Glacier ----------------- 193

Figure 20. Landsat 3 RBV image of the central Wākhān Pamir ---------------------194

Figure 21. Topographic map of south-central part of the Wākhān Pamir -----------195

Conclusions ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------196

Acknowledgments--------------------------------------------------------------------------------196

References Cited ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------197

GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F167

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD 

GLACIERS OF ASIA— 

SELECTED GLACIERS OF AFGHANISTAN

By John F. Shroder, Jr.,1 and Michael P. Bishop1

Abstract

The Hindu Kush mountains of Afghanistan range in elevation from more than 

7,000 meters in the east, where most of the glaciers occur, to less than 500 m in the arid west. 

More than 3,000 small glaciers, with an estimated area of 2,700 km2, provide vital water 

resources to the region, especially for irrigation. The  glaciers are concentrated in the highest 

parts of the three main drainage basins in the country: (1) the Afghan-Iranian plateau endorheic 

basin, (2)  the Indus basin, and (3)  the glacier-dominant Turkistan endorheic basin. Most 

glaciers occur on north-facing slopes that are shaded by mountain peaks, and on east and 

southeast slopes that are shaded by monsoon clouds. Frequent snow avalanches, coupled with 

widespread stagnation or retreat, have produced numerous debris-covered ice and rock glaciers. 

Limited verification of analyses from older Landsat and some ASTER imagery is provided by 

Russian and United States 1:100,000- and 1:50,000-scale topographic maps, compiled from 

vertical aerial photographs acquired during the late 1950s, and by several large-scale glacier maps 

made in the 1960s and 1970s. Transparent image overlays, false-color enlargements, a few digital 

analyses, and stereoscopic satellite images were used in a limited analytical fashion to analyze 

typical glaciers in the region, including the small Fūlādī Glacier2 in the Kūh-e-Bābā, the glaciologically assessed ice masses of Mir Samir, the high Sakhi Glacier on Kūh-e-Bandakā, the extensively analyzed Keshnīkhān Glacier and the long, debris-covered Qādzī Deh Glacier in the western 

Wākhān area, and the precisely mapped Zemestan and Northern and Southern Issīk Glaciers in the 

Afghan Pamirs.

Introduction

The high elevation and remote mountains of Afghanistan (fig.  1) have 

been traversed for millennia by caravans, explorers, and scientific expeditions; 

yet little detailed information is readily available regarding the terrain, ice, 

and snow in these mountains. Study of glaciers in such difficult and inaccessible country necessitates the use of satellite imagery. Fortunately, high-quality 

imagery, topographic maps, and ground photographs are available for limited 

verification of satellite analyses in some areas. This report provides glacier 

information based on these data sources, and also includes a general review of 

the limited literature covering Afghanistan’s glaciers.

The glaciers of Afghanistan provide an important, but variable (5–25 

percent) part of the meltwater used for critical irrigation through the summer 

dry season (Levedeva and Larin, 1991); however, the amount of meltwater 

provided is expected to decline as much as 14 percent if temperatures increase 

as little as 1 °C because of global warming (Levedeva, 1997). Shroder (1980, 

1989a) initiated a glacier inventory to provide better information for waterresource analysis and development. The unstable military situation in the late 

1

Department of Geography and Geology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182

2

The geographic place-names used in this section conform to the usage authorized for foreign names by 

the U.S. Board on Geographic Names as listed on the GEOnet Names Server (GNS) website: http://earthinfo.nga.mil/gns/html/index.html. The names not verified or not listed on the website are shown in italics.
F168 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

0 100 MILES0 100 KILOMETERS

62°E

38°N

36°N

32°N

34°N

30°N

64°E

66°E

68°E 70°E

72°E

74°E

38°N

36°N

32°N

34°N

30°N

62°E 64°E 66°E 68°E 70°E 72°E 74°E

Helmand Rūd

 Rūd

Arghandāb Rūd

Farāh

Āmū Daryā

Harārūd

Daryā -ye Morghāb

Daryā-ye Panj Badakshan

Vakhan

(Wakhan Corridor)

Herat

Kabul

Hindu Kush

Jalalabad

Kuh-e Bandaka

Kuh-e Baba

Pamirs

Noshaq Tirich Mir

Kandahar

Figure 1.—Index map of Afghanistan showing the location of major geographic features mentioned in text — Hindu Kush, the Pamirs, Wākhān corridor, Badakshān, Daryā-ye Panj (river), Tirich Mir, Kūh-e-Bandakā and Kūh-e Bābā.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F169

1970s disrupted the field-based effort, however, and forced the use of satellite 

imagery to accomplish the inventory. Early results were given to the U.S. 

Geological Survey in the early 1980s but they were not published. Then the 

ensuing two decades of ongoing war and religious and political upheaval, and 

the subsequent presence of western military forces further disrupted efforts 

to study glaciers in Afghanistan. The  addition of seven years of catastrophic 

drought, starting in the late 1990s, and the related expansion of trafficking in 

drought-tolerant opium poppies, coupled with post-war reconstruction efforts, 

gave renewed impetus for water-resource assessments, a glacier inventory, and 

an analysis of glacier-related hazards. Water resources and the potential problems from ongoing climate change are viewed as critical to future political 

stability, with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)-

supported Global Land Ice Measurements from Space (GLIMS) Project 

[http://www.glims.org] and the U.S. Geological Survey tasked to provide additional baseline information for better predictive and reconstruction capabilities 

in Afghanistan (Shroder, 2004).

Occurrence of Glaciers

The mountains of Afghanistan generally decline in elevation from more 

than 7,000  meters (m) in the east to less than 500  m on the Iranian border. 

Several thousand small glaciers occur in the rugged alpine topography of the 

central and northeast Hindu Kush and in the Pamirs of eastern Afghanistan, 

with a total area estimated at approximately 2,700 km2. In  the central part 

of the country, three major basins meet: (1)  in the Turkistan endorheic 

basin (does not drain to the sea), drainage is north or west into the Aral Sea 

basin between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan; (2)  in the Afghan-Iran plateau 

endorheic basin, drainage is south or west, and (3)  in the Indus (exorheic) 

basin, drainage is to the east or south into Pakistan and thence to the Indian 

Ocean (fig.  2). Delineation and letter/numeral designation of the drainage 

basins of Afghanistan was originally done according to the revised guidelines 

of the Temporary Technical Secretariat (Müller, 1978) of the World Glacier 

Inventory (Shroder, 1980). The  three main basins are subdivided into 77 

smaller ones, of which 25 are glacierized (contain glaciers) (fig.  2) (Shroder, 

1980). Nineteen of the glacierized basins have more than 75 percent of the 

total ice mass of Afghanistan (table 1) and drain into the Turkistan endorheic 

system, whereas the Afghan-Iran plateau basin has only seven small glaciers in 

one small drainage area.

A variety of snowline or equilibrium line altitudes (ELA) was determined 

in Afghanistan during the 1960s and 1970s. General altitudes in subtropical high 

Asia was first distinguished by von Wissman (1960); Grötzbach and Rathjens 

(1969) refined this work for much of the central and western Hindu Kush. 

Grötzbach and Hillebrandt (1964) and Gilbert and others (1969) contributed 

some detailed work in the central Hindu Kush; Desio (1975) extended these 

analyses to the north into the Pamirs of the Badakhshān region. In  general, 

however, the glaciers of northern Badakhshān are the most poorly known in 

Afghanistan. Braslau (1972) and Patzelt (1978) provided additional ELA data 

for the Wākhān corridor. Porter (1985) first used Landsat imagery to determine 

the extent of late Pleistocene glaciers in Afghanistan, but not modern ice.

During the war years of the 1980s, snow cover mapping of Afghanistan’s 

mountains was undertaken by Soviet scientists (Tsarev and others, 1986; 

Kravtsova, 1990) by using satellite imagery and field measurements to assess 

seasonal snow distribution and depth, dynamics of the snow boundary, seasonal 

snow-lines, and dates of formation, melting, and duration of snow cover. 
F170 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

T

U

R

K

E

S

T

A

N

E

N

D

O

R

H

E I C

B

A

S I N

I N

D

U

S

B

A

S I N

A

F

G

H

A

N - I R

A

N

P

L

A

T

E

A

U

E

N

D

O

R

H

E I C

B

A

S I N

62°E

38°N

36°N

32°N

34°N

30°N

64°E

66°E

68°E 70°E

72°E

74°E

38°N

36°N

32°N

34°N

30°N

62°E 64°E 66°E 68°E 70°E 72°E 74°E

AF5X0GI

AF5X00G1

AF5X0F2

AF5X0F1 A AF5X00H2 F AF5X0G11

AF5X00H A

AF5X00H1

AF5X00G2

AF5W0A4

AF5Q112

AF5W0A522

AF5W0A523

AF5W0A

AF5W00C

AF5W0A5 A

AF5W0A4

AF5W0A51 A

AF5W0A43 AF5W0521

AF5W0A22

AF5W0A3

AF5W0A2

AF5W0A1

AF5W00A

AF5X0H101

AF5W0A21

AF5W0A42

AF5W0A41

AF5W00B

AF5Q1012

AF5Q1213

AF5Q121

AF5Q1212 A

AF5A0222

AF5A0221

AF5XA022 A

S

AF5X00E

AF5XA0212 A

AF5XA4AF5XA021 A

AF5XA04

AF5XA03

AF5X031 A

AF5X032

AF5XA4

AF5XA4009

AF5XA422 A F5XA412 AF5X

AF5XA423 AF5 A42

AF5XA401

AF5XA42 AF

AF5XA42 A

AF5X0F

AF5X0F

AF5Q1211

AF5Q1221

AF5Q1222

AF5Q122

AF5Q12

AF5Q1011

AF5Q1013

AF5W00BI

AF5X0G21

AF5X0G22

AF5X0HI

AFXA0211

RIVERMAJOR DRAINAGE DIVIDEINTERMEDIATE DRAINAGE DIVIDE

EXPLANA

MINOR DRAINAGE DIVIDEGLACIERIZED AREA–Each dot  represents about 10 glaciers

TION

0 100 MILES0 100 KILOMETERS

Figure 2.—Map of Afghanistan showing the three main drainage basins, the detailed delineation of 77 smaller drainage basins according to Temporary Technical Secretariat (TTS) for World Glacier Inventory (Müller and others, 1977; Müller, 1978) guidelines, and the generalized glacierized areas. Each dot represents about 10 glaciers (see table 1).
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F171

Maximum snow storage accumulation was mapped, and indices of snow-pack 

instability were compiled (Tsarev, 1988). After the Soviet departure from 

the country in 1989, efforts continued during the following decade to assess 

and map at a small scale the climatic characteristics of the snow cover and 

avalanche regimes in Afghanistan (Kravtsova and Tsarev, 1997). Morphology, 

climate, mass exchange, and runoff of glaciers in Afghanistan were also studied 

(Lebedeva and Larin, 1991), and predictions were made regarding glacier 

conditions and runoff under the influence of global warming in the early 21st 

century (Lebedeva, 1997). For the World Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources 

(Kotlyakov, 1997; Kotlyakov and Lebedeva, 1998), ice of the Hindu Kush was 

mapped, at the very generalized scale of 1:5,000,000, in terms of such parameters as ice water-volume equivalent, temperature, precipitation, glacier regime, 

river runoff, avalanche activity, and late Pleistocene glaciation.

Snowline contours for glaciers of the central Hindu Kush and the Wākhān 

corridor range in elevation from 4,600  m to 5,200  m, with the highest values 

at the northeast and southwest ends of the ranges, where precipitation is less. 

Table 1.—Glacierized drainage basins in Afghanistan

[Code letters and numbers identify individual drainage basins delineated on the basis of Temporary 

Technical Secretariat (TTS) for World Glacier Inventory guidelines (Müller, 1978; Shroder, 1980). 

The number of glaciers in parentheses are minimum counts made from inadequate maps, 

satellite imagery, or from both sources. Other numbers are more precise counts made from 

1:100,000-scale maps. All total counts include a few ice-cored rock glaciers or 

debris-covered glaciers in which little or no surface ice is exposed]

Basins Code Number of glaciers

TURKESTAN ENDORHERIC DRAINAGES AF5X

Vardūj A031 (199)

Monjān A0321 (220)

Upper Kowkcheh A032 (57)

Yakhshendar (Anjumān) A0322 (141)

Darang A4003 6

Kulab A4005 104

Sabz A4006 54

Jaway A4007 113

Maynay A4008 91

Yarhk A4009 65

Shīveh A401 (137)

Chakmaktin Kol A412 (80)

Upper Ab-Panj A42 (275)

Pāmīr A422 174

Wākhān A423 (381)

Khānābād (Taliqan) A0211 (183)

Chal Bangi A0212 (60)

Andarāb A0221 80

Surkh Ab A0222 73

INDUS RIVER BASIN DRAINAGES AF5Q

‘Alīshang - ‘Alīngār 1211 178

Ghowr Band - Panshir 1212 262

Pīch 1221 (100)

Katīgal 1222 (103)

Upper Kabul 121 (13)

AFGHAN-IRANIAN PLATEAU DRAINAGES AF5W

Upper Helmand A4 7
F172 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The  lowest snowline values occur on the north-facing slopes, and presumably 

also to the north into the high Badakhshān Pamirs. The  low ELA contours 

also form a prominent dip at the Sālang pass area, north of Kabul in the central 

Hindu Kush, where precipitation is highest in the country. This increase in 

the amount of snow is the result of the concentration of precipitation in the 

narrowest part of the range through which westerly storms pass, and also 

because monsoon precipitation sometimes influences the area (Sivall, 1977).

Glaciers in Afghanistan are generally small because the climatic snowline 

is above many peaks, and glaciers form only where ablation is retarded in 

shaded areas (Grötzbach and Rathjens, 1969). This produces a strong northerly glacierization in much of the central Hindu Kush; toward the Wākhān 

corridor in the northeast this tendency is less strong. Breckle and Frey (1976b) 

noticed relatively strong glacierization facing the east and southeast near the 

Pakistan border, where summer monsoon weather from India produces clouds 

that provide shade and slow melt. This part of Afghanistan is the site of the 

intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) in summer, and is regularly influenced 

by monsoon precipitation (Sivall, 1977; Shroder, 1989b). The  cloudiness to 

the southeast, especially over the glaciers in Pakistan, obscures much of the 

satellite imagery taken in late summer near the end of the ablation season.

Most of the glaciers of Afghanistan are mountain or valley glaciers that occur in 

cirques or simple basins. The higher peak areas have some compound basins. 

Nourishment is generally by avalanche, with the result that ice fronts are extensively debris-covered. Although there has been little study of glacier terminus 

activity, the large amount of debris cover gives the appearance of widespread 

stagnation, equilibrium, or retreat. In general, retreat is thought to be dominant 

throughout much of the Himalayan chain (Mayewski and Jeschke, 1979) and 

the Hindu Kush (Shroder, 1980).

Numerous rock glaciers (Grötzbach, 1965; Shroder and Giardino, 1978) 

occur in Afghanistan; the most common are tongue-shaped and spatulate 

types, although many lobate valley-wall types also occur. Many have glaciers at 

their heads and water-filled kettle depressions lower down. Internal ice movement produces a steep rubble front at the angle of repose that is characteristic 

of rock glaciers. Outbursts of water from some of these rock glaciers or from 

moraines have been reported and these may be related to water-pressure 

induced movement (Scott and Cheverst, 1968). Grötzbach (oral commun., 

1978) observed ice lenses, interspersed with open-matrix rock fragments in 

which water could be trapped, in some rock glaciers in the Hindu Kush. Many 

observations elsewhere indicate a relation between movement of some rock 

glaciers and internal water (Shroder and Giardino, 1978). Analyses of rock 

glaciers in Afghanistan with satellite imagery have produced few results. This 

is largely because, even with ground-based observations, there is as yet little 

agreement on the differences between rock glaciers, ice-cored moraines, some 

types of landslides, or boulder streams (Giardino and others, 1987). In  addition, many of these landforms show only minor topographic variation, which 

makes differentiation with satellite imagery especially difficult.

The longest and largest glaciers in Afghanistan are located in the narrowest 

part of the entrance to the Wākhān corridor, along the north-facing left bank 

of the Daryā-ye Panj. In  that area, the mountains on the Afghanistan-Pakistan 

border are more than 6,000 m high and at least 15 of the north-flowing glaciers 

are more than 10  km long. Several of these are also the largest in area and, 

although precise measures are not yet possible, the largest of these glaciers are 

about 75 to 100 km2 in surface area. For example, from Noshaq peak (7,492 m), 

a subsidiary peak of the great Tirich Mir in Pakistan, Qādzī Deh Glacier flows 

more than 14  km down to an elevation of about 3,580  m (fig.  3). More than 

half of the lower part of this glacier is covered extensively with black slate and 

argillite fragments (fig.  4) derived from the Wakhan Formation (Buchroithner, 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F173

Figure 3.—(at left) Terminus of debris-covered

Qādzī Deh Glacier in background; joined by Ye 

Safed Glacier entering on the far right (east). 

The varicolored Rakhe Kuchek Glacier in the 

foreground is covered in part by light-colored, 

probably granitic debris, and in part by dark argillite from the peak Kharposhte Yakhi (5,698 m) 

from which the photograph was taken. See figure 5 

for location. Photograph by B. Ehmann.

Figure 4.—(below) Argillite-covered glacier ice 

at an elevation of about 5,075 m on the Qādzī 

Deh Glacier below Noshaq peak (7,492 m). See 

figure 5 for location. Photograph by B. Ehmann.
F174 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

1978), or the Wakhan Slates (Desio, 1975). This large quantity of supraglacier 

debris is provided by profuse avalanches across the weak and friable rocks that 

make climbing here so hazardous (B. Ehmann, verbal communication, after the 

Noshaq expedition, 1978). This supraglacier debris cover produces the anomalous, nearly black glacier surfaces that are so prominent on the satellite imagery 

(fig. 5). The lack of contrast between buried ice and surrounding slopes adds to 

the uncertainty of determining the true size of some of these glaciers. 

N

0 5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

AFGHANIST

PAKIST

AN

AN

36 ̊30’N

72 ̊00’E

Kuh-e-Mandras peak 

(6,631 meters)

Kuh-e-Keshnikhan peak 

(6,755 meters)

Noshaq peak 

(7,492 meters)

Location 

of figure 4

Point of origin and 

direction of view 

for figure 3

Location 

of figure 4

Point of origin and 

direction of view 

for figure 3

Noshaq peak

(7,492 meters)

AFGHANIST

PAKIST

AN

AN

Kuh-e-Keshnikhan peak 

(6,755 meters)

Kuh-e-Mandras peak 

(6,631 meters)

AFGHANIST

PAKIST

AN

AN

Kuh-e-Mandras peak 

(6,631 meters)

Kuh-e-Keshnikhan peak 

(6,755 meters)

Noshaq peak 

(7,492 meters)

Tirich Mir

Location 

of figure 4

Point of origin and 

direction of view 

for figure 3
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F175

In addition to the authors mentioned previously, other observations and 

studies of Afghanistan glaciers have been made (table 2). Detailed field study 

was done only by Gilbert and others (1969), Grötzbach and Rathjens (1969), 

and Patzelt (1978). Minor field data were provided by Grötzbach (1964), 

Braslau (1972), Breckle and Frey (1976b), and Desio (1975). First, von 

Wissman (1960), then Maksimov and Perugina (1975) worked mainly from 

maps, and Shroder (1980) used maps, satellite imagery, and field observations 

to initiate a glacier inventory following Temporary Technical Secretariat for 

World Glacier Inventory guidelines (Müller and others, 1977; Müller, 1978). 

The  needs of this inventory led directly to computer processing of satellite 

digital data of the Keshnīkhān Glacier, at the mouth of the Wākhān corridor 

(Braslau and Bussom, 1978a,  b). Numerous other minor observations of 

glaciers and useful photographs and planimetric maps have been produced by 

various scientists and mountaineers (table 2).

Mapping of Glaciers

Detailed maps do not exist for most of the glaciers in Afghanistan 

because of poor accessibility and an unstable  military and political climate. 

Fortunately, reasonably high-quality topographic maps exist for the entire 

country, although they are difficult to obtain. These maps were produced 

in the late 1950s, using stereographic, vertical aerial photography that 

was flown to produce the maps (Glicken, 1960; Anonymous, 1960). 

The southern two-thirds of the country was officially mapped by the United 

States and the northern one-third by the former Soviet Union (Reiner, 

1966), although both countries subsequently made their own complete maps 

of the entire country clandestinely. Maps of the country were produced at 

scales of 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 1:200,000, and 1:250,000. Nearly complete 

sets of all scales are housed in the Afghanistan collection at the University 

of Nebraska at Omaha, and also in the scholarly map collections of various 

British, German, and Russian institutions. Although several problems of 

incompatibility exist between the American and Russian maps (Shroder, 

1980), glaciers are shown reasonably well at 1:100,000-scale, as they existed 

in 1958–59, when the aerial photographs were acquired. Considerably 

greater detail is presented on the 1:50,000 series, the old Soviet versions 

of which are now more generally available. The  original vertical aerial 

photographs were restricted but are now reported to be available in Kabul, 

Afghanistan. For a short time in the 1960s, photomosaics and a few stereoscopic pairs were available, and a few photomosaics of the glacierized areas 

are held by scientists today (Breckle and Frey, 1976b).

In spite of the political changes in recent years, obtaining maps in 

Afghanistan remains difficult. Consequently, some agencies have implemented more transparent means of accessing topographic data (Shroder, 

2004). The  Afghanistan Information Management Service (AIMS) and the 

Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit were set up with backing from 

the United Nations and the U.S. Agency for International Development 

(USAID) to help with this initiative. AIMS is actively producing highquality, GIS-based maps at many scales, and is generating Landsat-based 

terrain maps with a variety of GIS overlays. Most significantly for the 

glacier inventory, all of the old Soviet-era topographic maps at 1:50,000-

scale have been scanned, overlain with Roman alphabet conversions of 

the former Cyrillic characters, and made available for reconstruction and 

assessment efforts.

Figure 5.—(at left) Landsat 3 return 

beam vidicon (RBV) satellite image 

showing glacierized areas extending from Tajikistan and Ab-i-Panj river 

in the Wākhān valley in the north to 

Tirich Mir peak (7,706 m) in Pakistan 

on the extreme south. (See figure 6 

for location.) The large glacier flowing 

from center to right is the Darband and 

Udren system. The large and complex 

glacier system in the lower right third of 

the image is the upper and lower Tirich 

glaciers. All these large glacier systems 

originate on the Pakistan side of the 

Tirich Mir massif. International border 

is approximate. The Landsat 3 image 

(30553–05112, Subscene B; 9 September 1979; Path 163–Row 35) is from 

the U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Data 

Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
F176 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Table 2.—Glacier information contained in scientific and mountain-climbing (mountaineering) 

publications on Afghanistan

Report Planimetric 

maps

Useful 

photographs 

or topographic 

diagrams

Minor 

observations 

of glaciers

Detailed 

analyses 

of glaciers

Detailed 

maps 

of glaciers

Digital 

satellite 

maps

Moraines and 

geomorphology

Austrian scientific expedition in the 

Wakhan (1970, 1972)

X

Bartolami (1972, 1973) X X

Biel and Wala, (1972, 1973) X X X

Braslau (1972) X X X

Braslau and Bussom (1978a) X

Braslau and Bussom (1978b) X X

Breckle and Frey (1976a) X

Breckle and Frey (1976b) X X X

Chwascinski (1966) X X

Desio (1962) X

Desio (1975) X X X X

Diemberger (1966) X X X

Dozier (1970) X X X

Dunsheath and Baillie (1961) X X

Exploration Pamir 75 (1978a, b) X

Frey (1967, 1968) X X

Giger (1972, 1973) X

Gilbert and others (1969) X X X X X

Grötzbach (1964) X X

Grötzbach (1965) X X X

Grötzbach and Hillebrandt (1964) X X

Grötzbach and Rathjens (1969) X X X X

Heiss (1972, 1973) X X

Kick (1969) X

Klaer (1969) X X

Lister (1969) X

Maksimov and Perugina (1975) X X

Naumann (1974) X

Newby (1958) X X

North (1970) X X X

Patzelt (1978) X X X X

Paytubi (1972, 1973) X

Rathjens (1978) X X

Schweizer (1969) X

Scott and Cheverst (1968) X

Scott (1972, 1973) X

Shroder (1980) X

Shroder and Guardino (1978) X X

Shroder and others (1978)

Sidorov (1960)

von Wissman (1960) X

Wala (1971) X

Wala (1973) X X X

Wala (1976a, b; 1977) X X
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F177

Many of the glacierized areas occur in northeastern Afghanistan, along 

the high mountain borders with Pakistan and China. The Russians had trouble 

taking aerial photographs close to these borders and clouds obscured much 

of the landscape as well, so only planimetric maps produced by mountain 

climbers (mountaineers) were easily available for some of these border areas 

for many years. The  comprehensive work of Wala (1971; 1973; 1976a,  b; 

1977) was the best source of information for many years, but several other 

scientists and mountaineers also contributed (table  2). Mapping of some 

glaciers in these areas was accomplished with imagery from the Landsat 

3 return beam vidicon (RBV) sensor, because of its 30-m picture element 

(pixel) resolution and optical clarity, although even on these images many of 

the debris-covered small glaciers are difficult to discern. [Editors’ note: Some 

of the Landsat 3 RBV images are archived by the author. The U.S. Geological 

Survey’s EROS Data Center (EDC) no longer provides copies of Landsat 3 

RBV images. EDC has permanently sequestered these historically important 

images, so they are no longer available for analysis in either digital or film 

formats.]

Only three high-quality, large-scale maps exist that show glaciers well in 

parts of Afghanistan. These are the excellent maps, by Kostka and his students 

(The Austrian Scientific Expedition in the Wakhan 1970, 1972; Exploration 

Pamir 75, 1978a,  b), of the Keshnīkhān Glacier group near the west end of 

the Wākhān corridor as it was in 1970, and of the Afghan Pamir group in the 

central Wākhān as it was in 1975 (fig. 6). These maps show detailed moraine 

configurations, transient snowlines, accurate topography, and other important 

glacier landforms. The  great detail of these maps at scales of 1:25,000 and 

1:50,000 makes them excellent sources for verification of analyses of Landsat 

and other satellite imagery. The  glaciological study by Gilbert and others 

(1969) of the Mīr Samīr glaciers is also useful, although the maps are far less 

precise than the Austrian examples.

Satellite Imagery in the 1970s

The lack of historical information, together with ongoing military and 

insurgent activities, increases the value of remote-sensing studies of the glaciers 

of Afghanistan. Satellite imagery represents the best available tool for constant 

and selective monitoring of glaciers (fig.  7, table  3). Of the two basic types 

of imagery available of Afghanistan during the 1970s, the greater resolution 

of the Landsat 3 RBV imagery (30-m pixels) offered more information than 

the Landsat 1, 2, and 3  multispectral scanner (MSS) (79-m pixels) imagery. 

However, few RBV images were acquired, and those are no longer available [see 

Editors’ note in previous section].

Photographic Prints

Standard black-and-white and false-color composite prints of Landsat 

1, 2, and 3 MSS imagery at a scale of 1:250,000 were used photogrammetrically in several preliminary studies for this project. P. Hearty first compared 

small-scale imagery of glaciers in northern Badakhshān with the Russian-made 

topographic maps and noted considerable differences. The  apparent general 

retreat of glaciers was suspected to be partly an artifact of problems with 

scale and the absence of confirmatory field observations. T. Shipley photographically enlarged film positives of false-color composite images to a scale 

of about 1:175,000 and established mutual registration points for overlay with 

various topographic maps and the glacier maps of Kostka (Exploration Pamir 

75, 1978a,  b). Shipley thought he detected a slight advance of glacier fronts 

between the 1972 imagery and Kostka’s field survey in 1975.
F178 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD N 0 100 MILES 0 100 KILOMETERS 38 ̊N 36 ̊N

34 ̊N

74 ̊E 66 ̊E 68 ̊E 70 ̊E 72 ̊E

72

00

E

161-034 163-034 164-033 164-034 162-034

164-035 163-035

163-036 164-036 165-036 166-036

161 162 163 164 165 166

034035036

LARGE SCALE MAP LOCATIONS–A, B, and CRIVERMAJOR DRAINAGE DIVIDEINTERMEDIATE DRAINAGE DIVIDEMINOR DRAINAGE DIVIDEDRAINAGE BASIN DESIGNATION

EXPLANATION

Location of map 

within Afghanistan

Approximate location of figure 5

ORBITAL PATH

ORBITAL ROW

AF5Q1212

A

Figure 6.—Index map of Landsat 1, 2, and 3 satellite imagery, drainage basins, and large-scale maps of glacierized areas of Afghanistan. Satellite images are listed by Path–Row numbers and keyed to table 3. Large-scale maps are listed by letters keyed to references: A – Gilbert and others, 1969; B – Austrian Scientific Expedition in the Wakhan 1970, 1972; C – Exploration Pamir 75, 1978a, b.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F179

Srinagar

Kandahar

Herat

Peshawar

Islamabad

Rawalpindi

Kabul

Mazar-E Sharif

AFGHANISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

UZBEKISTAN TAJIKISTAN

CHINA

PAKISTAN

INDIA

IRAN

75°E

75°E 70°E

70°E 65°E

65°E

60°E

60°E

35°N

35°N

200 MILES

200 KILOMETERS 0

0

A B

C D

EXPLANATION

EXCELLENT IMAGE – 0 to 5 percent cloud cover.GOOD IMAGE – 5 to 10 percent cloud cover.

FAIR TO POOR IMAGE – 10 to 100 percent cloud cover.USABLE LANDSAT 3 RETURN BEAM VIDICON (RBV)NOMINAL SCENE CENTER For a Landsat image outside the area of glaciers of Afghanistan.

≤

> ≤

> <

– Scenes A, B, C, and D

refer to usable RBV subscenes.

–

A B

C

B

C C D

Row

35 Row

35

Path

165

Path

165

Path

170

Path

170

Path

160

Path

160

Row

38 Row

38

D

C D

Figure 7.—Map of optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Afghanistan.
F180 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Table 3.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Afghanistan

[Code column indicates usability for glacier studies; see figure 7 for explanation]

Path-Row Actual scene center

(latitude and logitude)

Landsat identification number 

(9-10 digits) or entity 

identification number (16 digits)1

Date

Solar elevation 

angle

 (in degrees)

Code Remarks

161–34 37°31′N. 74°41′E. 2564–04522

(2161034007622190)

08 Aug 76 53 No band 4

161–34 37°24′N. 74°34′E. 2924–04370

(2161034007721590)

03 Aug 77 51 Good in Afghanistan. 

Clouds to north

161–34 37°06′N. 74°00′E. 30515–04595

Subscene C

02 Aug 79 55 Landsat 3 RBV image, 

archived by author

162–34 37°21′N. 73°13′E. 1047–05171

(1162034007225290)

08 Sep 72 50 Few clouds

162–34 37°28′N. 73°12′E. 2565–04580

(2162034007622290)

09 Aug 76 53 Excellent in Afghanistan

162–34 37°24′N. 73°08′E. 2601–04570

(2162034007625890)

14 Sep 76 45 Few clouds

162–34 37°35′N. 73°44′E. 30516–05053

Subscene B

03 Aug 79 55 Landsat 3 RBV image, 

archived by author

162–34 37°01′N. 72°33′E. 30516–05053

Subscene C

03 Aug 79 55 Landsat 3 RBV image, 

archived by author

162–34 36°52′N. 73°30′E. 30516–05053

Subscene D

03 Aug 79 55 Landsat 3 RBV image, 

archived by author

163–34 37°32′N. 71°38′E. 1354–05231

(1163034007319390)

12 Jul 73 60 Preceding winter snow

163–34 37°30′N. 71°47′E. 2566–05034

(2163034007622390)

10 Aug 76 53

163–34 37°31′N. 71°46′E. 2584–05031

(2163034007624190)

28 Aug 76 49

163–34 37°12′N. 71°08′E. 30553–05105

Subscene C

09 Sep 79 48 Landsat 3 RBV image, 

archived by author

163–34 37°04′N. 72°04′E. 30553–05105

Subscene D

09 Sep 79 48 Landsat 3 RBV image, 

archived by author

163–35 36°05′N. 71°11′E. 1354–05233

(1163035007319390)

12 Jul 73 61 Excellent in Afghanistan

163–35 34°04′N. 71°19′E. 2566–05041

(2163035007622390)

10 Aug 76 53 Excellent in Afghanistan

163–35 36°07′N. 71°19′E. 2980–04454

(2163035007727190)

28 Sep 77 39 Shadows too large in 

cirques

163–35 36°29′N. 70°55′E. 30553–05112

Subscene A

09 Sep 79 48 Landsat 3 RBV image, 

archived by author

163–35 36°21′N. 71°50′E. 30553–05112

Subscene B

09 Sep 79 48 Few clouds. Landsat 3 

RBV image, archived 

by author

163–35 35°46′N. 70°42′E. 30553–05112

Subscene C

09 Sep 79 48 Landsat 3 RBV image, 

archived by author

163–36 34°39′N. 70°44′E. 1354–05240

(1163036007319390)

12 Jul 73 61 Clouds and old snow

163–36 34°38′N. 70°53′E. 2566–05043

(2163036007622390)

10 Aug 76 53 Cloud cover

163–36 34°39′N. 70°53′E. 2584–05040

(2163036007624190)

28 Aug 76 50 Cloud cover

163–36 34°33′N. 70°49′E. 2926–04991

(2163036007721790)

05 Aug 77 51 Cloud cover

164–33 38°53′N. 70°53′E. 1049–05281

(1164033007225490)

10 Sep 72 48 Excellent in Afghanistan
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F181

Digital Analyses

Several different digital analyses of the various glacierized areas in 

Afghanistan were made in the 1970s, using computer-compatible tapes 

(CCTs). Following these initial analyses (Shroder and others, 1978), a full 

research program to perform a satellite glacier inventory of Afghanistan 

was initiated. To further develop the methodology, several areas outside 

Afghanistan were selected by Rundquist (1978), in consultation with Fritz 

Müller, a Swiss glaciologist. Braslau and Bussom (1978a,  b) worked on the 

Keshnīkhān Glacier because of the initial experimentation there, and because of 

Kostka’s excellent base map (The Austrian Scientific Expedition in the Wakhan 

1970, 1972). In their analyses, the Keshnīkhān Glacier was classified according 

to 11 symbols, each representing some number of pixel radiance values. 

Path-Row Actual scene center

(latitude and logitude)

Landsat identification number 

(9-10 digits) or entity 

identification number (16 digits)1

Date

Solar elevation 

angle

 (in degrees)

Code Remarks

164–33 38°49′N. 70°47′E. 2531–05100

(2164033007618890)

06 Jul 76 57 Preceding winter snow

164–33 38°48′N. 70°45′E. 2909–04544

(2164033007720090)

19 Jul 77 53 Good in Afghanistan

164–33 38°30′N. 71°07′E. 30554–05161

Subscene D

10 Sep 79 47 Landsat 3 RBV image, 

archived by author

164–34 37°28′N. 70°24′E. 1049–05283

(1164034007225490)

10 Sep 72 49

164–34 37°31′N. 70°21′E. 2567–05092

(2164034007622490)

11 Aug 76 52

164–34 37°30′N. 70°18′E. 2585–05085

(2164034007624290)

29 Aug 76 49

164–34 37°23′N. 70°17′E. 2909–04550

(2164034007720090)

19 Jul 77 53 Preceding winter snow

164–34 37°33′N. 70°20′E. 2963–04520

(2164034007725490)

11 Sep 77 43

164–35 36°02′N. 69°56′E. 1049–05290

(1164035007225490)

10 Sep 72 50 Few clouds

164–35 36°02′N. 70°01′E. 1067–05290

(1164035007227290)

28 Sep 72 45 Marginal. New snow

164–35 36°07′N. 69°53′E. 2963–04523

(2164035007725490)

11 Sep 77 44 Good in band 7 only

164–36 34°36′N. 69°29′E. 1049–05292

(1164036007225490)

10 Sep 72 51 Few clouds

164–36 34°36′N. 69°34′E. 1067–05292

(1164036007227290)

28 Sep 72 46 Marginal. New snow

164–36 34°40′N. 69°26′E. 2963–04525

(2164036007725490)

11 Sep 77 44 Marginal. Clouds, band 

7 only

165–36 34°39′N. 67°55′E. 1410–05343

(1165036007324990)

06 Sep 73 51

165–36 34°39′N. 67°59′E. 2982–04573

(2165036007727390)

30 Sep 77 40

166–36 34°35′N. 66°42′E. 1069–05405

(1166036007227490)

30 Sep 72 45 Few clouds

Table 3.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images of the glaciers of Afghanistan—Continued

[Code column indicates usability for glacier studies; see figure 7 for explanation]
F182 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Radiance thresholds for each of the four bands were constantly adjusted 

until the computer output and the Kostka map bore a close resemblance to 

one another. At one point, in response to collegial criticism of the technique, 

Bussom manually rectified a computer printout to remove the skewed distortion of the image in order to demonstrate the close geometric registration 

possible between the two. Finally, a random sample of about 14 percent of the 

pixels was tested, using multivariate linear discriminate analysis to derive the 

percentage of pixels correctly classified within each band. About 90 percent 

accuracy was typically achieved. Results of the Keshnīkhān Glacier analysis 

was significant because the glacier is similar to the majority of glaciers in 

Afghanistan, and the successful computer mapping indicates the feasibility of 

monitoring other nearby glaciers where field-based observations have not been 

made or where adequate maps do not exist.

The preliminary success with digital analyses of CCTs were misleading in 

some cases, however, and a number of problems emerged:

1. The  techniques and equipment were expensive, time consuming, 

and prone to operator error when the level of complexity eclipsed 

realistic interpretations.

2. The  original hand-colored thresholding techniques of 25 years ago 

were inexpensive and made the technology easily available, but 

were too time-consuming to be of much real use, and are now 

outmoded technology. 

3. The  Landsat CCTs commonly deteriorated in storage (degaussed) 

over a few years if not periodically copied, and several of the 

Afghanistan tapes purchased in 1977–78 were unusable by the 

mid-1980s.

Nevertheless, thresholding done by skilled operators using the equipment 

available at many universities (Rundquist, 1978; Rundquist and Samson, 1980; 

Rundquist and others, 1980) indicated a potential for using satellite data for 

carrying out glacier inventories by applying more modern technologies.

Satellite Imagery since the 1970s

A plethora of new satellite images of Afghanistan have become available 

since the 1970s; these include SPOT (Satellite Pour l’Observation de la 

Terre), TM (Landsat Thematic Mapper), and ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne, 

Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer), some of which were also used 

in this study. As the USGS-designated GLIMS Regional Center for Southwest 

Asia (Afghanistan and Pakistan), the University of Nebraska at Omaha is 

undertaking regional glacier inventories of the Hindu Kush and western 

Himalaya, along with glacier-change detection with these satellite-image 

resources. The  acquisition of terrabytes of high-resolution (15-m) stereographic data is enabling production of digital elevation models (DEMs) of 

these mountain regions with the ASTER system in the GLIMS project, and is 

allowing unprecedented glacier assessments (Bishop and others, 2000; Kieffer 

and others, 2000).

Case Studies of Glaciers

Five areas of Afghanistan were selected as most representative of the 

variations in size, character, altitude, and radiance values of the glaciers. Small 

glaciers of the Kūh-e-Bābā are the westernmost in the country. The Mīr Samīr 
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F183

region has a number of small glaciers that were studied glaciologically and 

mapped planimetrically by a British team in 1965 (Gilbert and others, 1969). 

Kūh-e-Bandakā has glaciers of small and intermediate size, with a general 

character typical of the central Hindu Kush. Glaciers at the entrance to the 

Wākhān corridor are either small, as in the case of the Keshnīkhān, or large, 

and atypically dark colored, as in the case of the Qādzī Deh Glacier. Glaciers 

in the Wākhān Pamirs are noteworthy because of their considerable volume, in 

spite of the area having the lowest annual precipitation in the high mountains 

of Afghanistan.

Kūh-e-Bābā

Most of the glaciers of the more habitable parts of Afghanistan are small 

remnants of the larger Pleistocene ice masses. They are difficult to detect on 

the small-scale satellite imagery and are easily confused with clouds and 

rocks of high reflectivity. Also, the pixel resolution of the older imagery was 

commonly insufficient to detect what could be significant changes in small 

glaciers. However, these smaller ice masses are as important to the local 

economies as are the larger glaciers. They are essential sources of late summer 

irrigation water, and considerable human effort is required at high altitudes 

each spring to maintain the makeshift diversion dams and ditches to exploit 

this water. At  lower elevations, entire villages turn out to repair the irrigation 

structures along the major snow- and glacier-fed larger rivers.

A total of 18 small glaciers occur in the Kūh-e-Bābā range of central 

Afghanistan, averaging about 0.5 km2 in area, and all have northern exposures 

(Shroder and Giardino, 1978). The  range of the lowest elevation of exposed 

glacial ice is 4,075–4,657  m, with an average of 4,365  m. All of the glaciers 

terminate in large, tongue-shaped boulder deposits that can be variously classified as debris-covered glaciers, ice-cored moraines, or ice-cored rock glaciers, 

depending upon certain fine distinctions made between relative activity or 

inactivity, steep fronts or gentle fronts, and general surface morphologic differences. The lower altitude range of these rocky termini is 3,850–4,600 m, with 

an average of 4,232 m. In the late Pleistocene, these glaciers are believed to have 

terminated at elevations as low as 2,600 m near Burghasūn, in the Fūlādī valley 

above Bāmyān (figs. 8 and 9).

During July 1978, Fūlādī Glacier was visited by the senior author (fig. 10), 

and it had reduced in surface area by about 20 to 25 percent since the 1959 

aerial photographs. Mean annual precipitation at Fūlādī Glacier is about 

600 mm, and the climatic snowline is about 5,100 m (Grötzbach and Rathjens, 

1969). This snowline is well above the tops of all the surrounding peaks except 

Fūlādī peak (5,150  m), so Fūlādī Glacier only survives in the shadow of the 

cirque walls on the northern exposures. It receives maximum exposure to Sun 

during midsummer. A  negative mass balance on this glacier is evident based 

on the location of the transient snowline high in the cirque close to the bergschrund, the concave-up cross profile of the ice surface, and the extensive till 

cover on the margins of the ice.

Low-altitude aerial reconnaissance of the Kūh-e-Bābā in 1977 and topographic maps revealed 35 boulder deposits that do not have surficial ice 

exposed at their heads. Three have large kettle-like lakes on them, and many 

have major springs, all indicating the presence of buried ice. Twenty nine of 

these rock-glacier-like features face north, four face east, and one each faces 

south and west. The lower elevation range is 3,650–4,425 m, with an average 

of 4,078 m.
F184 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Analysis and monitoring with early satellite imagery of these small ice 

glaciers (fig.  11) and buried-ice glaciers or rock glaciers was difficult, and 

results were ambiguous for the following reasons:

•	 Retreat of the Fūlādī Glacier in 20 years was only a few partial MSS 

pixels in size and thus difficult to detect or compare with newer, 

higher resolution ASTER imagery.

•	 Strong shadows in the cirques obscured the ice or mimicked small 

water bodies in certain places.

•	 Debris cover commonly masked the buried ice.

•	 Tills, talus, and fractured source bedrock all appeared to have 

similar radiance values and thus were difficult to distinguish.

•	 Clouds and rocks of high reflectivity mimicked ice and snow.

0 5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

N

Fuladi

Burghasun

Contour interval 50 meters

ICE CORED MORAINE 

AND ROCK GLACIERS

GLACIER ICE 

EXPLANATION

MORAINE LOOP 

Kuh-e Fuladi

Kuh-e Fuladi

Kuh-e Baba

Figure 8.—Topographic map of Fūlādī valley and central Kūh-e Bābā range. Fūlādī Glacier is 0.6 km directly north of Fūlādī

peak. The largest moraines emanate mainly from the western valley between Ābtowgak and Bādkhūr peaks; the eastern valley 

between Bādkhūr and Bāldārghanak peaks produced the smaller set of moraine loops. Geographic place-names on map may 

be variant.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F185

Figure 9.— View northwest from eastern end moraine toward large moraine loop above the village 

of Burghasūn. Compare with figure 8 for location, about 9 km north of Fūlādī peak. Photograph by 

J.F. Shroder, Jr.

Figure 10.— Fūlādī Glacier in July 1978. At this time, the transient snow line was close to or at the base of the 

steep firn slopes and the bergschrund below the large rock tower on the shoulder of Fūlādī peak. See figure 8 

for location. The rocks of this area are granitic intrusions of early Tertiary age. Photograph by J.F. Shroder, Jr.
F186 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Nevertheless, satellite imagery of an area like the Fūlādī valley can be useful, 

especially in stereoscopy. In  comparison with the topographic map (fig.  8), the 

stereoscopic views of figure 12 enable better determinations of ice, moraine, lakes, 

and other features merely because of their topographic location. The older French 

satellites (for example, SPOT) and the newer ASTER imagery have provided a 

regular source of stereoscopic imagery that facilitates analysis of high mountain 

areas and glaciers. Careful comparison of the 1973 MSS imagery (fig.  11) with 

the ASTER stereopair (fig. 12) reveals that Fūlādī Glacier has continued to downwaste so that it is highly incised inside its curvilinear terminal moraine. A small lake 

inside the moraine in 1973 was not observed in 1978 or 2003.

N

0 10 MILES

0 10 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

34 ̊40’N

67 ̊40’E

Figure 11.—Stereoscopic pair of Landsat 1 images of the Kūh-e Bābā area. Arrow designates Fūlādī Glacier. Compare with 

figure 12, and with figure 8 for location. Landsat 1 MSS images (west, Landsat 1 MSS image 1069–05405, band 5; 30 September 1972; Path 166–Row 36; east, Landsat 1 MSS image 1410–05343, band 5; 6 September 1973; Path 165–Row 36) are 

from the U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198. [Editors’ note: Use stereoscope for viewing.]

N

0 3 MILES

0 3 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

34 ̊40’N

67 ̊38’E

Figure 12.—Stereoscopic pair of ASTER images of Kūh-e Bābā area. White arrow points to Fūlādī 

Glacier. North is to the right. Compare with figure 11. ASTER Scene AST_L1B-003_10022003061744_ 

10162003100406; 2 October 2003. [Editors’ note: Use stereoscope for viewing.]
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F187

Mīr Samīr

The East Glacier (Yakhchaal-i-Sherq) and West Glacier (Yakhchaal-i-Gharb), 

below the north face of Mīr Samīr peak (5,809 m) in the central Hindu Kush 

(fig. 13), were first assessed glaciologically by a British team in 1965 (Gilbert 

and others, 1969). They studied snow accumulation, ablation, meltwater 

discharge, lichenometry, micrometeorological heat balance, and other glaciologic characteristics. Their simple planimetric maps of ice distribution and 

N

35 ̊36’N

70 ̊11’E

0 2 MILES

0

1

1 2 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

5809

5809 PEAK LOCATION AND ALTITUDE–In

meters above sea level. 

NORTH GLACIERS 1-5

SOUTH GLACIER 

SOUTHEAST GLACIERS 1-5

SOUTHWEST GLACIERS 1-3

EAST GLACIER - Yakhchaal-i-Sherq 

WEST GLACIER - Yakhchaal-i-Gharb 

N1 - N5

S

SE1 - SE5

SW1 - SW3

E

W

EXPLANATION

Figure 13.—Topographic map of Mīr Samīr (Mērsmēr) area in the central Hindu Kush (source: 

U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) U.S. Army Topographic command; compiled in 1970 from 

Afghanistan, 1:100,000, Ministry of Mines, Fairchild Aerial Surveys, Sheets 505A & 505C, 

1967 [surveyed 1957–59, reliability fair]. Map not field checked.
F188 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

lichen zones on the moraine allow a comparison with satellite imagery for 

change detection. Gilbert and others (1969) estimated that the East Glacier 

measured about 1  km2 and the West Glacier measured about 0.5  km2. These 

small glaciers could not be assessed with much precision with the early 

Landsat imagery but are clearly shown on the new 15-m resolution ASTER 

imagery. The five new images, obtained in the past two years between July and 

November, show the Mīr Samīr glaciers quite clearly. The  ASTER image of 

12 November 2002 is noteworthy because no new snow appears to have fallen 

so late in the melt season before winter amelioration began again (fig.  14). 

It is also possible that any earlier light snowfall could have already melted away 

by the time this scene was taken (Kravtsova, 1990). Two small linear proglacial lakes at the western margin of the main part of West Glacier, both about 

60–100 m long and 75 m apart in 1965, by 2002 had fused into one rounded 

lake about 30 m in diameter. The 2002 imagery also showed that East Glacier 

has a new proglacial lake, measuring about 60  m long and 15  m wide, which 

did not exist 40 years ago. Additional lakes have also appeared around Southeast 

Glaciers 3 and 4 (fig. 14).

Comparison between the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) topographic 

map (fig.  13), made from the 1957–59 aerial photographs, and the British 

map of 1965 (Gilbert and others, 1969), indicates that the two maps were 

likely based upon the same source materials (Glicken, 1960; Reiner, 1966), 

although the British modified contours and glacier size and location according 

to their field observations. A  number of possibly significant differences are 

visible through time. The North Glacier (N1), between East and West Glaciers, 

is prominent on the DOD map (1957-59) but minuscule on the British map 

(1965) and is only a minor snowfield on the 2002 ASTER imagery. Numerous 

other similar diminutions and changes in glaciers and lakes in the region 

are visible

Kūh-e-Bandakā

The Kūh-e-Bandakā (Bandakhor in some usages) group of mountains of 

the central Hindu Kush consists of several nearly parallel peaks and high ridges 

of Precambrian metamorphic rocks (fig.  15). These mountains are basically 

fault slivers isolated by strike-slip shear where the edge of the colliding Indian 

and Asian plates changes direction from northeast-southwest to north-south. 

This massif is directly astride the earthquake zone of highest frequency and 

magnitude in Afghanistan, and the several small- and few large-magnitude 

seismic events that occur there every few years may contribute a significant 

portion of snow avalanche and debris load to local glaciers.

The Bandakā massif is characterized by six major peaks that are more 

than 6,000 m in elevation and many others almost as high (fig. 16). The northfacing slopes of the main peak of Bandakā (6,843  m) are small and therefore 

its glaciers are smaller than those on the lower peak, Bandakā Sakhī (6,414 m), 

4 km to the north. Sakhī peak has a large cirque and steep snowfield which is 

the source of avalanches on the north side that generate the Sakhī Glacier — 

the largest ice mass in the area. Comparison of the 1959 map (fig. 16) with the 

satellite imagery of the early 1970s (fig.  15) shows about 0.5  km of apparent 

retreat of the exposed ice front.

Meltwater from the Sakhī Glacier flows into the Jay river, which passes 

through several moraine areas and into two 1- to 2-km-long, flat-floored and 

boulder-covered, intermittent lake beds (Scott and Cheverst, 1968) before 

joining the main Darreh-ye Sakhī (river), which comes from another valley to 

the west.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F189

N

0 2 MILES

0

1

1 2 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

70 ̊11’E

35 ̊36’N

Figure 15.—Stereoscopic pair of Landsat 1 and 2 images of the Bandakā massif. The westernmost glacierized range on the left bank of the Daryā-ye Kowkcheh (Kokcha river) has 

peaks up to 5,862 m in elevation. Features to the east of the river may be compared with the 

map of figure 16. Landsat 1 and 2 MSS images (west, Landsat 1 MSS image 1049–05290, 

band 5; 10 August 1972; Path 164–Row 35; east, Landsat 2 MSS image 2566–05041, band 

5; 10 August 1976; Path 163–Row 35) are from the U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Data 

Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198. [Editors’ note: Use stereoscope for viewing.]

N

0 10 MILES

0

5

5 10 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

36 ̊10’N

70 ̊50’E

Darya-ye 

Kowkcheh

 ̄

Figure 14.—Stereoscopic pair of 

ASTER images of Mīr Samīr area. 

North is to the left. The image 

portrays the same area as figure 

13. ASTER scene AST_L1B_003_

08172004061706_083020041222

36; 17 August 2004. [Editors’ note: 

Use stereoscope for viewing.]
F190 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The Sakhī river has its origin in glaciers and glacial lakes at the head of a 

south-facing, 4-km-wide, compound cirque basin below the peak, Kūh-e-Sari 

Darreh-ye-Jow Khām (5,880  m). Hawdze Sakhī (figs. 15 and 16) is a 3-kmlong lake impounded behind a probable moraine dam; the Sakhī river passes 

through the moraine to re-emerge 1.5 km below.

In addition to several medium-sized glaciers around the Bandakā massif, 

there are also a large number of ice-cored moraines and rock glaciers in all the 

mountain ranges in the area. These features are covered with rock fragments 

that have nearly the same radiance values as the surrounding slopes. The result 

36 ̊10’N

36 ̊15’N

36 ̊20’N

36 ̊05’N

36 ̊00’N

36 ̊10’N

36 ̊15’N

36 ̊20’N

36 ̊05’N

36 ̊00’N

70 ̊50’E 70 ̊55’E 71 ̊00’E

70 ̊45’E 70 ̊50’E 70 ̊55’E

0 5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

MAJOR PEAKS

 1. Koh-i-Sari

 Darra-i-Jockham 

 (5,880 meters)

 2. Koh-i-Ka Safed 

 (6,192 meters)

 3. Koh-i-Bandaka Sakhi 

 (6,414 meters)

 4. Koh-i-Bandaka North 

 (>6,700 meters,

 <6,750 meters)

 5. Koh-i-Bandaka 

 (6,843 meters)

 6. Koh-i-Bandaka Tawika 

 (6,271 meters)

 7. Koh-i-Bandaka Uris (Surkhi) 

 (6,171 meters)

RIDGES AND DRAINAGE DIVIDES 

RIVER 

GLACIER 

MORAINE OR ROCK GLACIER 

INTERMITTENT LAKE 

MAJOR DIAMICTON DEPOSIT 

DEPRESSION 

LAKE 

LAPIS LAZULI MINE 

DIVISION BETWEEN AMERICAN 

 AND RUSSIAN MAP SOURCES 

DRAINAGE BASIN CODE–Refer to 

 table 1

EXPLANATION

N

Figure 16.—Planimetric map of the 

Bandakā massif oriented to cover 

the eastern two-thirds of figure 15. 

The extreme northeast corner of the 

map was taken from a Soviet-made 

topographic map, and the glaciers 

are not clearly differentiated from 

moraines. Most of the glaciers on 

this map are in the AF5X032 Upper 

Daryā-ye Kowkcheh (Kokcha) drainage basin, except for a small part of 

the AF5X031 Warduj drainage basin 

on the east (table 1 and fig. 2). Names 

on map may be variant names.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F191

is that differentiation on the satellite images can be difficult unless collateral 

information is available, such as stereoscopic overlap (fig.  15), high-quality 

topographic maps, or digital analyses in selected cases.

The Dasht Parghish diamicton deposit, at an elevation of 2,750–3,250 m, 

sits astride the Monjān river and is prominent on maps and satellite imagery 

(fig.  12). Several large depressions up to 1.5  km long are evident, and 

suggest that the deposit may be a remnant end moraine produced by a major 

Pleistocene glacier from the Monjān or Dorāh valleys. Alternatively, the 

deposit may be a fault- or landslide-generated mass, inasmuch as it is located 

directly across a major strike-slip fault zone in an area of high seismic activity.

Keshnīkhān Glacier

The Keshnīkhān Glacier, at the western end of the Wākhān corridor, was 

chosen for inclusion here because it has been extensively studied (Braslau, 

1972; The Austrian Scientific Expedition in the Wakhan 1970, 1972; Braslau 

and Bussom, 1978a, b; and Shroder and others, 1978), and because it is similar 

to the majority of glaciers in Afghanistan. It is a relatively small, steep ice mass, 

15 km2 in area and 4 km long (fig. 17). Braslau (1972) was impressed with the 

continuous belt of morainic material from 2,600 m elevation near the Daryā-ye 

Panj river valley, all the way up to the ice front — a vertical range of almost 

2,000 m. There is, however, a major break in slope in this long moraine at about 

3,600 m elevation, the place chosen by the Russian cartographers to delineate 

the terminus of the glacier ice/moraine mass, although they set the elevation 

at about 3,460 m. The actual stagnant terminus occurred at about 4,400 m in 

1970 and the transient snowline was at 5,000  m. The  actual equilibrium line 

altitude (ELA) at that time was estimated to be about 5,100–5,200  m. Based 

on elevation, a small ablation zone, and other general glacial characteristics, the 

glacier was judged to be receding (Braslau, 1972).

The original Landsat MSS imagery of 1973 was assessed in detail by 

Braslau and Bussom (1978a, b), as noted above in the section on “Digital analyses.” Therefore, the 12 July 1973 image (fig. 18) is included for comparison 

to the ASTER image of 31  August 2000 (fig.  19). Because of the additional 

month and a half of melt season between the two scenes, the variance between 

the obvious transient snowlines is not viewed as significant of long-term 

trends. Nonetheless, a comparison of the approximate ELA on the 1970 image 

(fig.  17) with the ELA on the 2000 ASTER image (fig.  19) shows the likely 

uphill movement of the ELA on the left (western) side and a new emergence of 

medial moraine-producing rocks on the right (east).

Wākhān Pamir Glaciers

The part of the Pamirs in the middle of the Wākhān panhandle of 

Afghanistan has nine peaks in the central part of the range that are more than 

6,000  m high. The  most areally extensive glaciers of Afghanistan occur there 

because of the large size and general high altitude of the massif, in spite of a 

mean annual precipitation of less than 100  mm (Lalande and others, 1974). 

Glacial meltwater from the Wākhān Pamir Mountains feeds the Pāmīr, 

Wākhān, and Daryā-ye Panj tributaries which flow into the major Amu Darya 

river of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, and its Garagum (Karakum) canal outtake 

into Turkmenistan. The  core of the range is light-colored granitic rocks of 

Late Cretaceous-Tertiary age, with peripheral rocks of the Wakhan Formation 

(Buchroithner, 1978). Most of the large moraines therefore are composed of 

light-colored granitic rocks (fig. 20).
F192 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Figure 17.—Planimetric map of Keshnīkhān Glacier adapted from Austrian Scientific 

Expedition in the Wakhan 1970 (1972). The approximate terminus of 1970 was delineated by Braslau (oral commun., 1977) and was only a few hundred meters below 

exposed ice. Compare with figure 5 for location. Names on map may be variant 

names.

Keshnikhan River

MAJOR PEAK, NAME, AND 

ALTITUDE–In meters above sea level

APPROXIMATE ALTITUDE OF 

MORAINE–In meters above sea level 

EXPLANATION

N

36 ̊34’N

71 ̊51’E

36 ̊34’N

71 ̊51’E

0 2 MILES

0

1

1 2 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

STREAM

ICE/ROCK CONTACT

1960 TERMINUS (?)

APPROXIMATE EQUILIBRIUM 

LINE–1970

MORAINE BOUNDARY 

MORAINE–Partially ice cored 

DEBRIS-COVERED ICE TO 

1970 TERMINUS

3,500

3,600

3,700

3,800

3,900

4,000

4,100

4,200

4,300

4,400

5,150

Koh-i-Auar 

6,183

Koh-i-Keshnikhan 

6,755

Koh-i-Wark 5,922

Koh-i-

 Tokhan 

 5,180

Koh-i-Qalat 

5,508

KESHNIKHAN GLACIER

WEST AUAR 

GLACIER

EAST 

QALAT 

GLACIER
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F193

Figure 18.—Landsat MSS image of

Keshnīkhān Glacier area (approximate 

lat 36°35'N., long 71°52'E.) taken 12 July 

1973. The Ab-i-Panj river is in the upper left. 

Compare with figures 5, 17, and 19.

Figure 19.—Stereoscopic pair of ASTER images of Keshnīkhān Glacier (approximate 

lat 36°35'N., long 71°52'E.) and environs. Compare with figures 5, 17, and 18. North is to 

the right. ASTER scene AST_L1B-003_08312000062611_ 09182003202055; 31 August 

2000. [Editors’ note: Use stereoscope for viewing.]

N

36 ̊38’N

71 ̊52’E

0 2 MILES

0

1

1 2 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

0 3 MILES

0

1

1 3 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

2

2

N
F194 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The three main glaciers of interest occur on the south side of the range 

at the head of the Issīk valley. The  Northern and Southern Issīk Glaciers and 

Zemestan Glacier are surrounded on three sides by six of the highest peaks in 

the area (more than 6,000  m in elevation). Maps of the glacier termini made 

by Russian topographers from 1960 vertical aerial photographs appear to 

be based on an average between clean ice, debris-covered ice, and ice-free 

moraine; but these are actually an inaccurate representation of the real fronts, 

as indicated by the detailed mapping by Kostka and coworkers (Exploration 

Pamir 75, 1978a, b) (fig. 21). The work of Patzelt (1978) and his support team 

on the Southern Issīk Glacier shows two lateral moraines produced by shortlived prior advances — one in the 19th century (ca. 1850), and one in the 

early 20th century (ca. 1920). The ice has since retreated from both moraines. 

N

37 ̊05’N

73 ̊15’E

0 5 MILES

0 5 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

Western Bay

Tibat Glacier

Til Bay

Glacier

Zemestan Glacier

South Issik

Glacier

North Issik 

Glacier

Figure 20.—Landsat 3 RBV image of the central Wākhān Pamir. Compare with figure 21. The Landsat 3 RBV image (30534–05053, subscene D; 21 August 1979; Path 162–Row 34) is from the U.S. 

Geological Survey, EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. 57198.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F195

The younger moraine closely corresponds to the glacier front as mapped by the 

Russian topographers, but this is probably just fortuitous as none of their other 

determinations coincide. Several other glaciers in the area also reached their 

maxima within the last century and have not retreated since, apparently due 

to the slow response time of the ice masses rather than to any climatic control. 

Lichens and desert varnish have not developed on these moraines and no other 

older moraines occur below them, so a clear differentiation can be made based 

on color and radiance between glacierized and unglaciated terrain. 

The transient snowlines at various sites on the three glaciers in August 

1975 ranged from 4,800–5,420  m, with a mean of about 5,100  m. The  lower 

snowlines occurred in north-facing cirques and the higher occurred on southern 

aspects (fig. 21). In general, the glaciers of the Issīk valley seem to be retreating 

or downwasting somewhat, as is so common throughout Afghanistan.

N

37 ̊10’N

73 ̊10’E

0 2 MILES

0 2 KILOMETERS

Scale is approximate

PEAK AND ALTITUDE–In meters

above sea level

GLACIER FLOW DIRECTION

NON-GLACIER

DEBRIS-COVERED ICE

STREAM

VALLEY MARGINS

AVERAGE HEIGHT OF TRANSIENT 

SNOWLINES–In meters above sea level

TRANSIENT SNOWLINE–Early 

to mid-August, 1975

LOWER LIMIT OF GLACIERS IN 

1960–According to topographic maps 

made by U.S.S.R.

EXPLANATION

Figure 21.—Topographic map of south-central part of the Wākhān Pamir. After 

Exploration Pamir 75 (1978b). The map covers part of the area of figure 20.
F196 SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

The glaciers of the Issīk valley were analyzed by several remote sensing 

students using a variety of transparency-overlay and digital techniques. 

The  students reported various observations of glacier advance or retreat. 

But these academic studies illustrate the potential pitfalls of using satellite 

imagery without proper controls. Apparent glacier movements were created by 

almost undetectable differences in scale and unrectified geometric differences 

between imagery and map overlays, by differences in Russian and Austrian 

maps, by problems in distinguishing parts of some glaciers from snow fields, 

clouds, or old moraines, and by seasonal variability. Ultimately, visual comparisons at the same scales of early imagery (for example, Landsat 1 MSS image 

1047–05171; 08 September 1972; Path 162–Row 34) with later RBV material 

(fig. 20) showed little significant change in the Issīk valley.

Conclusions

Glaciers in Afghanistan are generally small and debris covered and have 

been retreating or down wasting for a long time; however, only limited recent 

change in the glaciers of the higher, colder northeast has been observed in our 

limited comparisons of the earlier MSS to later ASTER imagery. Some new 

meltwater lakes may pose a threat from glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs), 

but in general, their small size and considerable incisement inside high moraine 

walls reduces hazard potential. Nevertheless, without a thorough assessment using high resolution ASTER imagery and new digital elevation models 

(DEMs), considerable uncertainty exists about the possibility for future 

GLOFs.

Difficulties posed by the rough terrain and the ongoing insurgent 

activities have limited available information and access to the glaciers of 

Afghanistan; therefore, satellite imagery is extremely valuable in conducting 

glacier inventories. The  generally small size and dark debris cover of many 

of the ice masses make interpretation of small-scale imagery difficult, but 

stereoscopic and higher resolution imagery provides the additional information needed in such cases. Renewed inventory and assessment of the glaciers 

of Afghanistan as a part of the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space 

(GLIMS) Project is continuing to allow detailed investigation of the characteristics of the glaciers of the country; in this project, the authors maintain the 

USGS- and NASA-supported Regional Center for Southwest Asia.

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgment is made to the late Fritz Müller, Swiss glaciologist 

and Director, Temporary Technical Secretariat for World Glacier Inventory, 

Department of Geography, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), 

Zürich, Switzerland, who first encouraged the senior author to pursue this 

work over thirty years ago. Numerous colleagues and students at the University 

of Nebraska at Omaha contributed to this effort, especially J. Olsenholler. 

B. Ehmann contributed photographs and information about glaciers of 

the Noshaq peak area taken during the 1978 expedition. In  Afghanistan, 

J. Summers and his fine staff of the Afghan-American Educational Commission 

assisted during the 1970s. Many thanks go to all the Afghan friends who aided 

this project. We are especially grateful to Lutfullah Safi, who gave unstintingly 

of himself through many decades of field work. Finally, we must thank and 

remember our field counterpart, Alam Malabar Nuristani.
GLACIERS OF ASIA — AFGHANISTAN F197

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