Qualitative Pathway-Initiated Risk Assessment for the Movement of Mature 

Green ‘Sharwil’ Avocado, Persea americana Mill. from Hawaii into 

Continental United States

A Pathway-Initiated Risk Assessment

August, 2011

Agency Contact:

Nicanor J. Liquido

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory-Pacific

300 Ala Moana Blvd.

Honolulu, HI 96850
Rev 1 20110830 Page 2 of 92

Executive Summary

This risk assessment examines the risks associated with the movement of avocado (Persea 

americana cv. Sharwil) into the continental United States. A list of avocado pests in Hawaii was 

prepared based on (1) documents submitted by the Hawaiian Department of Agriculture (HDOA)

(2) United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service (APHIS) records of intercepted pests, and (3) scientific literature. The commodity was 

not found to be a potential weed. Quarantine pests that were identified to the species level, and 

found likely to follow the pathway, were qualitatively analyzed using the methodology described 

in the USDA-APHIS Guidelines 5.02. The information allowed APHIS to determine the 

Consequences of Introduction and the Likelihood of Introduction, in addition to estimating the 

Baseline Pest Risk Potential of each pest before mitigation.

Information on pests associated with avocado in Hawaii revealed that eleven quarantine insect 

pests could be introduced into the continental United States via this pathway; one species is 

rated High risk, and the remaining ten rated Medium risk.

Insect Pest with High unmitigated risk potential:

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Insect Pests with Medium unmitigated risk potential:

Ceroplastes rubens Maskell (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

Coccus viridis (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

Cryptoblabes gnidiella Millière (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Beardsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Planococcus minor (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

All of these quarantine pests pose phytosanitary risks to American agriculture. Port-of-entry

inspections, as a sole mitigative measure, are considered insufficient to safeguard U.S. agriculture 

from the pest given High risk rating; additional phytosanitary measures are necessary in order to 

reduce risks to acceptable levels. 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 3 of 92

Table of Contents

Executive Summary...................................................................................................................... 2

I. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 4

II. Risk Assessment...................................................................................................................... 4

2.1 Initiating Event: Proposed Action....................................................................................4

2.2 Assessment of Weediness Potential of Persea americana ................................................5

2.3 Previous Risk Assessment, Current Status and Pest Interceptions, and Decision 

History for Persea americana from Hawaii ........................................................................5

2.4 Pest Categorization – Identification of Quarantine Pests and Quarantine Pests 

likely to Follow the Pathway ................................................................................................9

2.5 Consequences of Introduction ..........................................................................................33

2.6 Introduction Potential ......................................................................................................65

2.7 Conclusion – Pest Risk Potential and Pests Requiring Phytosanitary Measures .......70

III. Authors, Reviewers and Contributors .............................................................................. 72

IV. Literature Cited................................................................................................................... 73
Rev 1 20110830 Page 4 of 92

I. Introduction

This document was prepared by the Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory of the 

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology, USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), in response to a request to evaluate the 

risks associated with the importation of commercially produced mature green ‘Sharwil’ 

(hereinafter, Sharwil) avocado, Persea americana Mill from Hawaii into the continental United 

States.

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) provides guidance for conducting pest risk 

analyses. The methods used here are consistent with guidelines provided by the IPPC, 

specifically the International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) on ‘Pest Risk 

Analysis for Quarantine Pests, Including Analysis of Environmental Risks and Living Modified 

Organisms’ (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #11). The use of biological and phytosanitary terms is consistent 

with the ‘Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms and the Compendium of Phytosanitary Terms’ (IPPC, 

2009: ISPM #5). 

Three stages of pest risk analysis are described in international standards: Stage 1, Initiation, 

Stage 2, Risk Assessment, and Stage 3, Risk Management. This document satisfies the 

requirements of Stages 1 and 2.

This is a qualitative risk analysis; estimates of risk are expressed in terms of High, Medium, and 

Low pest risk potentials based on the combined ratings for specified risk elements (PPQ, 2000)

related to the probability and consequences of importing this commodity from Hawaii. For the 

purposes of this assessment High, Medium, and Low probabilities will be defined as:

High: More likely to occur than not to occur

Medium: As likely to occur as not to occur

Low: Less likely to occur than not to occur

The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest depends on the risk posed by that 

pest. Identification of appropriate sanitary and phytosanitary measures to mitigate the risk, if any, 

for this pest is undertaken as part of Stage 3 (Risk Management). Other than listing possible 

mitigation options for the pests of concern, we did not discuss risk management in this document.

II. Risk Assessment

2.1 Initiating Event: Proposed Action

This commodity-based, pathway-initiated risk assessment is in response to a request for USDA 

authorization to allow movement of mature green Sharwil avocado, Persea Americana, from 

Hawaii into northern-tier states of the continental United States during winter months. The 

movement of mature green Sharwil avocado grown in the Hawaiian Islands is a potential 

pathway for the introduction of plant pests. Title 7 of the Code of Federal Regulations 318, Part 

13 (7CFR § 318.13) provides regulatory authority for the movement of fruits and vegetables 

from Hawaii into the continental United States.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 5 of 92

2.2 Assessment of Weediness Potential of Persea americana

This step is important to the initiation phase of the assessment process because if the species 

considered for importation poses a risk as a weed pest, then a “pest-initiated” pest risk 

assessment may be initiated. If the species to be imported passes the weediness screening, the 

pathway-initiated pest risk assessment continues. The results of the weediness screening for 

Persea americana did not prompt a pest-initiated risk assessment, because it is not considered a 

weed in the continental United States.

Table 1. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Avocado

Commodity: Fruits of Persea americana Mill. cv. Sharwil

Phase 1: Consider whether the genus is new to or not widely prevalent in the United States

(exclude plants grown under USDA permit in approved containment facilities). 

Persea americana is grown in California and Florida in the continental United States 

(USDA NRCS, 2005).

Phase 2: Answer Yes or No to the following questions:

No Geographic Atlas of World Weeds (Holm et al., 1979)

No World’s Worst Weeds (Holm et al., 1977) or World Weeds: Natural 

Histories and Distribution (Holm et al., 1997)

No Report of the Technical committee to Evaluate Noxious Weeds: Exotic 

weeds for Federal Noxious Weed Act (Gunn & Ritchie, 1982).

No Economically Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977)

No Weed Science Society of America List (WSSA, 1989)

No Are there any literature references indicating weediness (e.g., 

AGRICOLA, CAB, Biological Abstracts, AGRIS; search on “species 

name” combined with “weed”)

Phase 3: Conclusion

Persea species are not listed as common weeds anywhere in the world. There are no other plants 

in this genus that are important weeds that already occur in the United States; as a result, the risk 

assessment proceeds (PPQ, 2000).

2.3 Previous Risk Assessment, Current Status and Pest Interceptions, and Decision History 

for Persea americana from Hawaii

Hawaiian avocado growers have long maintained a strong interest in gaining access to mainland 

U.S. markets. The major difficulty in this strategy has been overcoming the quarantine 

restrictions that require phytosanitary treatment of fruit against potential infestations by fruit flies. 

The fruit flies of concern are established in Hawaii but not on the mainland, and would be 

serious pests of significant economic consequences if they were to be introduced. 

In 1985, when regulatory initiatives were initially undertaken by APHIS for shipping Sharwil to 

the mainland, the fruit flies of concern were the so-called “Trifly complex”: the Mediterranean 

fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata), the oriental fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis), and the melon fly
Rev 1 20110830 Page 6 of 92

(Bactrocera curcubitae). The Malaysian fruit fly (Bactrocera latifrons), with established 

populations in Hawaii, has not been recorded to infest avocado. 

Prior to 1985, APHIS allowed the export of avocado from Hawaii to the mainland under two 

quarantine treatment options. The first option was fumigation with methyl bromide for fruit flies 

and inspection for other pests (T-101-c-1; https://manuals.cphst.org/TIndex/index.cfm). The 

treatment with methyl bromide gas was problematic because it caused fruit pitting and 

discoloration and 3-4 day reduction in shelf-life. The second option was fumigation at a lower 

dose combined with refrigeration for seven days (T-108-a; 

https://manuals.cphst.org/TIndex/index.cfm). The combined fumigation and refrigeration proved 

less damaging to the fruit, but resulted in significant reduction of shelf-life due to days held in 

refrigeration. Growers judged both treatments impractical.

ARS Research in 1983 (Armstrong et al., 1983) showed that Sharwil avocado was resistant to 

infestation by the Trifly complex when harvested, handled, packed, and shipped under specific 

conditions. Based on this research conclusion, APHIS proposed a program in 1985 that would 

allow Sharwil export to the mainland U.S. without any conventional quarantine treatment, 

following specific harvesting, handling, and shipping requirements. The proposal met serious 

criticism and negative feedback from stakeholders on the mainland, mainly due to the absence of

precedent and the general lack of regulatory experience with such a program. As a result, 

APHIS revised the proposal to allow shipment only to Alaska (7 CFR 318 - FR Doc. 86-27875); 

the idea was to develop regulatory experience and to demonstrate the program’s effectiveness to 

further justify the movement of Sharwil to the contiguous 48 States. 

Shipments to Alaska began in 1987. The regulations were adjusted slightly in 1988 to reflect 

certain changes in procedures based on the initial experiences. After two shipping seasons and 

total movement of 35 metric tons of fresh fruit to Alaska, APHIS, with supporting data from 

ARS (Armstrong, 1991), again proposed allowing movement of Sharwil to the mainland in 1989 

(7 CFR 318 - FR Doc. 89-5192). 

The initiative again met strong opposition, but was ultimately finalized in September 1990 (7 

CFR 318 - FR Doc. 90-22571). By February 1992, APHIS inspectors found oriental fruit fly 

larvae in mature green Sharwil avocados attached to the tree. Subsequent investigations revealed 

additional infestations in fruit that would have met the requirements specified in the regulations 

for interstate shipment (Liquido et al., 1995). 

APHIS responded with an interim rule that immediately revoked the Sharwil program (7 CFR 

318 - FR Doc. 93-26570), and reverted back to only allowing shipment without treatment to 

Alaska and requiring fumigation or fumigation with refrigeration for fruit destined to the 

mainland. 

Currently, commercial shipments of avocado from Hawaii, including Sharwil, may be shipped to 

Alaska without treatment if harvested, handled, and shipped according to the conditions specified 

in 7 CFR 318.13-21.

Commercial shipments of avocado from Hawaii (including Sharwil) may be shipped to the 

contiguous 48 States, Guam, and Puerto Rico if treated by either one of the following treatment 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 7 of 92

schedules in the APHIS Treatment Manual: T-101-c-1 fumigation treatment; T-108-a combined 

fumigation and cold treatment; and T-107-a cold treatment 

(https://manuals.cphst.org/TIndex/index.cfm). 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 8 of 92

Table 2. Interception on Persea americana from Hawaii, as reported in the AQAS Pest ID

database from 1985 to August 2011 (PestID, 2011).

Organism Host County Imported As Where 

Intercepted

Number of 

Interceptions

Acarina Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Baggage 1

Aleyrodidae Persea 

americana Hawaii Leaf Baggage 1

Bactrocera 

cucurbitae

Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Baggage 11

Bactrocera dorsalis Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Baggage 221

Bactrocera dorsalis Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Permit Cargo 3

Bactrocera spp.

Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Baggage 40

Bactrocera spp.

Persea 

americana Hawaii Plant Mail 1

Ceratitis capitata Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Baggage 4

Ceratitis capitata Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Mail 1

Dacinae Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Baggage 1

Dacinae Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Permit Cargo 1

Diaspididae Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Baggage 3

Diaspididae Persea

americana Hawaii Fruit Mail 3

Diptera Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Baggage 3

Margarodidae Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Mail 1

Sphaceloma spp.

Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Baggage 1

Tephritidae Persea 

americana Hawaii Fruit Baggage 203

Tortricidae Persea 

americana Hawaii Leaf Baggage 1
Rev 1 20110830 Page 9 of 92

2.4 Pest Categorization – Identification of Quarantine Pests and Quarantine Pests likely to 

Follow the Pathway

PPQ adheres to the accepted international definition of quarantine pest: a pest of potential 

economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but 

not widely distributed and being officially controlled (IPPC, 1996; Hopper, 1996). The first step 

in identifying quarantine pests is to present a comprehensive pest list of potential quarantine 

pests known to occur in the country and region from which the commodity is to be exported. 

The list includes all pests in the exporting country/region known to be associated with the parent 

species of the proposed export commodity. Because all pests on the list are associated with the 

plant species, they are considered to be “of potential economic importance” (IPPC, 1996). The 

listed pests may or may not occur in the United States.

There are two primary components to the definition of quarantine pest (IPPC, 1996; Hopper, 

1996). First, a pest must be “of potential economic importance.” To be included on the 

comprehensive list of potential quarantine pests, an organism is considered to be of potential 

economic importance if scientific evidence, through the literature, demonstrates that an organism 

has an association with the plant species being assessed. Thus, all of the listed organisms are 

potential quarantine pests. Second, to be considered a quarantine pest, an organism must satisfy

geographic and regulatory criteria, specifically, the pest must be “not yet present there or present 

but not widely distributed and being officially controlled” (IPPC, 1996; Hopper, 1996). A 

quarantine pest is “a pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and 

not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled” (ISPM 

#5; IPPC, 2009).

The information collected and provided in the risk assessment documents shows how each 

organism satisfies these criteria. Pertinent geographic and regulatory information, i.e., with 

respect to the exporting country and the United States, will be provided on the comprehensive 

pest list. If none of the potential quarantine pests satisfy the geographic and regulatory criteria as 

a quarantine pest, the PRA stops. Table 3 shows the pest list for avocado, Persea americana, 

from Hawaii. This pest list identifies: (1) the presence or absence of these pests in the 

continental United States, (2) the generally affected plant part or parts, (3) the quarantine status 

of the pest with respect to the continental United States, (4) whether the pest is likely to follow 

the pathway to enter the continental United States on commercially exported avocado, and (5) 

pertinent citations for either the distribution or the biology of the pest. A pest is considered to 

follow the pathway if it is associated with the fruit.

Step 4b. Identify Quarantine Pest Likely to Follow the Pathway

Quarantine pests identified as likely to be associated with the potential export commodity are 

subject to Steps 5-7. The biology and pest potential for these pests are documented as possible. 

It is reasonable to assume that these quarantine pest will be present in the exporting region; be 

associated with the commodity at the time of harvest; and remain with the commodity in viable 

form during harvesting, packing, and shipping procedures.

There are some quarantine pests listed that are not expected to follow the pathway; for example, 

a pest may be only associated with plant parts other than the commodity or a pest may not 

reasonably be expected to remain with the commodity during harvest and packing.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 10 of 92

Pests not expected to follow the pathway were not considered further. Supporting information 

was documented on the pest list or in the text. The decision not to further analyze a particular 

pest applies only to the current PRA; a pest may pose a different level of risk for the same 

commodity from a different country or from a different commodity from the same host plant 

species. Should any of the pests be intercepted in shipments of the commodity, quarantine action 

may be taken at the port-of-entry, and additional risk analyses may be conducted.

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Arthropods

Acari

Tarsonemidae

Polyphagotarsonemus 

latus (Banks)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes Jeppson, et al.

1975; Wysoki, 

et al. 2002; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

Tenuipalpidae

Brevipalpus 

californicus= 

Brevipalpus australis

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes CABI, 2011; 

Ebeling, 1959

Brevipalpus phoenicis

(Geijskes)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes Childers et al., 

2003; CABI, 

2011

Tetranychidae

Eotetranychus 

sexmaculatus (Riley)

HI, US leaf No No Jeppson, et al.

1975; Bolland, 

et al. 1998; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; UHCTAHR 

2005a

Oligonychus biharensis 

Hirst 

HI leaf3 Yes No Bolland, et al.

1998; Bishop 

Museum 2004

 

1 1Distribution (specific states are listed only if distribution is limited): AL = Alabama; CA = California; FL = 

Florida; GA = Georgia; HI = Hawaii; LA = Louisiana; MS = Mississippi; TX = Texas; PR= Puerto Rico 

VI=Virgin Islands; US = continental United States.

2 Brackets [ ] around the quarantine status designation indicate that the pest has a limited distribution in the 

continental United States and is either under official control or under consideration for official control.

3 Oligonychus biharensis: Although no information could be found on the feeding behavior of this specific mite on 

avocado, it is assumed that it would be similar to mites in the genus Oligonychus, such as: O. coffeae, O. punicae, O. 

persea, and O. yothersi. Each of these mites are found on the dorsal surface of the avocado leaves, first along the 

midrib, then along secondary vein leaves (Crane, et al. 2002; Wysoki, et al. 2002).
Rev 1 20110830 Page 11 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Oligonychus coffeae 

(Nietner)

HI, US leaf No No Bolland, et al.

1998; Wysoki, 

et al. 2002; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004

Oligonychus mangiferus 

(Rahman & Sapra)

HI, US leaf No No Bolland, et al.

1998; Crane, 

et al. 2002; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004

Oligonychus perseae 

Tuttle, Baker and 

Abbatiello

HI, US leaf No No SBC 1997; 

Muthukrishna

n, et al. 2001; 

Tanako-Lee 

and Hoddle 

2002; Wysoki, 

et al. 2002; 

HDOA 2005

Oligonychus yothersi 

(McGregor)

HI, US leaf No No Jeppson, et al.

1975; 

McMurtry 

1985; Bolland, 

et al. 1998; 

Crane, et al.

2002; Wysoki, 

et al. 2002

Panonychus citri 

(McGregor)

HI, US leaf No No Bolland, et al.

1998; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

Tetranychus gloveri 

(Banks)

HI, US leaf No No Bolland, et al.

1998

Tetranychus 

neocaledonicus Andre

HI, US leaf No No Bolland, et al.

1998; Bishop 

Museum 2004

Tetranychus tumidus 

Banks

HI, US leaf No No Jeppson, et al.

1975; Bishop 

Museum 2004

Tetranychus urticae 

Koch

HI, US leaf No No Bolland, et al.

1998; Wysoki, 

et al. 2002; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

COLEOPTERA

Anthribidae

Araecerus fasciculatus 

(De Geer)

HI, US fruit, root, 

seed, stem

No Yes Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

Bostrichidae
Rev 1 20110830 Page 12 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Sinoxylon conigerum

Gerstaeker

HI Stem, twig, 

branch

No4 No5 Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

Halbert 1996 

(in SWPM)

Cerambycidae

Lagocheirus 

araneiformis (L.)

HI, US stem No No Bishop 

Museum 2004;

CABI 2004

Chrysomelidae

Diabrotica balteata 

Leconte6

HI, US flower, 

leaf, root

No No Ebeling, 1959, 

HDOA, 2010

Curculionidae

Araecerus fasciculatus 

(Degeer)

HI, US fruit, root, 

seed, stem

No Yes Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

Caulophilus oryzae

(Gyllenhal)

HI, US seed No Yes Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

HDOA 2005

Elytroteinus subtruncatus 

Fairmaire

HI seed , 

stem 

Yes No7 Mau and 

MartinKessing 

1992a; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

HDOA 2005

Pantomorus cervinus 

(Boheman)

 Syn: Asynonychus 

godmanni 

HI, US leaf, root,

fruit

No Yes CABI 2004

Nitidulidae

Carpophilus marginellus 

(Motschulsky.)

HI, US fruit No Yes Hill 1983; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004

Platypodidae

 

4 Action only required for Peurto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands (PestID, 2011).

5 The beetle, Sinoxylon conigerum, mainly feeds on woody trunks and branches. Although Sharwil avocados can be 

imported with intact stem end or pedicel, this beetle is not likely to feed on the fresh, green wood; therefore, it can 

reasonably be excluded from the pathway. Additionally, there has never been any instance of this insect being 

intercepted on avocado at any U.S. port from anywhere in the world.

6 Diabrotica balteata was first detected in Hawaii in 2008 (HDOA, 2010). It is unclear whether a sustaining 

population still occurs in Hawaii, as there is no reported evidence that D. balteata no longer occurs in Hawaii, it was 

included on this pest list.

7 Elytroteinus subtruncatus, Fijian ginger weevil, is primarily a root pest. It has been found on seeds of avocados on

the ground, but it does not attack or bore into fruit (Mau and Martin-Kessing, 1992a). Thus, this species is not 

expected to follow the pathway.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 13 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Crossotarsus 

externedentatus 

(Fairmaire)

HI, US leaf, twig, 

branch

No No Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004

Platypus cupulatus 

Chapuis

HI twig, 

branch, 

wood

Yes No Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Malaysia 

Dept. Agric. 

[durian trunk 

borer]

Scarabidae

Adoretus sinicus HI leaf, flower Yes No Mau and 

MartinKessing 

1991a; CABI 

2004; UHCTAHR 

2005a

Protaetia fusca HI leaf, flower Yes No CABI 2004; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005b

Scolytidae

Coccotrypes cyperi 

(Beeson)

HI, US fruit No Yes Atkinson & 

Peck 1994; 

Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004

Coccotrypes dactyliperda 

(F.)

HI, US fruit No yes Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Atkinson & 

Peck, 1994

Euwallacea fornicatus 

(Eichhoff)

 

HI twig, 

branch, 

Yes No8 Hill 1983; 

Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a; UPASI 

2003

 

8 The beetle Euwallacea fornicatus, mainly feeds on woody trunks and branches. Although Sharwil avocados can

be imported with intact stem end or pedicel, this beetle is not likely to feed on the fresh, green wood; therefore, it

can reasonably be excluded from the pathway. Additionally, there has never been any instance of this insect being 

intercepted on avocado at any U.S. port from anywhere in the world.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 14 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Hypothenemus eruditus 

Westwood

HI, US twig, 

branch, 

fruit

No Yes Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Wood 1982 

(wide range of 

plant parts); 

USDA APHIS 

PPQ 2005 

(fruits not 

avocado)

Hypothenemus seriatus 

(Eichhoff)

HI, US fruit, seed, 

twig

No Yes Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004

Xyleborinus saxeseni 

(Ratzeburg)

HI, US twig, 

branch, 

stem, trunk

No No Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

Wood 1982 

(damaged 

wood >4 mm 

diam.)

Xyleborus ferrugineus 

(F.)

HI, US twig, 

branch, 

trunk

No No Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

Atkinson & 

Peck, 1994

Xyleborus perforans 

(Wollaston)

 

HI twig, 

branch, 

fruit

Yes No9 Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Bishop ; 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA APHIS 

PPQ 2005 

(mango fruit)

Xyleborus volvulus (F.) HI, US twig, 

branch, 

trunk

No No Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

 

9 The beetle, Xyleborus perforans, mainly feeds on woody trunks and branches. Although Sharwil avocados can be 

imported with intact stem end or pedicel, this beetle is not likely to feed on the fresh, green wood; therefore, it can 

reasonably be excluded from the pathway. Additionally, there has never been any instance of this insect being 

intercepted on avocado at any U.S. port from anywhere in the world.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 15 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Xylosandrus compactus 

(Eichhoff) 

HI, US twig, 

branch

No No Hill 1983; 

Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

Tenbrink and 

Hara 1994; 

Crane, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

HDOA 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a; Wood 

1982

Xylosandrus 

crassiusculus 

(Motschulsky)

HI, US fruit No Yes Mau and 

MartinKessing 

1991c; Wood 

and Bright 

1992; Crane, 

et al. 2002; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a; Halbert 

1996 (fruit); 

Wood 1982

Xylosandrus morigerus 

(Blandford)

HI twig, 

branch

Yes No10 Wood and 

Bright 1992; 

CABI 2004

DIPTERA

Muscidae

Atherigona orientalis 

Schiner

HI, US Ebeling, 

1959

No Yes Ebeling, 1959; 

CABI, 2011

 

10 The beetle Xylosandrus morigerus, mainly feeds on woody trunks and branches. Although Sharwil avocados can

be imported with intact stem end or pedicel, this beetle is not likely to feed on the fresh, green wood; therefore, it

can reasonably be excluded from the pathway. Additionally, there has never been any instance of this insect being 

intercepted on avocado at any U.S. port from anywhere in the world.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 16 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Tephritidae11

Bactrocera cucurbitae

Coquillett

HI fruit Yes No Allwood et al., 

1991 (not on 

host list); 

Armstrong et al., 

1983 Harris et 

al. 1986 (HI 

survey not found 

in avocado); 

White and 

Elson-Harris 

1992 (secondary 

source, lists 

avocado); 

Bishop Museum 

2004 (present in 

HI); CABI 2004 

(secondary 

source, lists 

avocado); 

HDOA 2005 

(present in 

HI)Bishop_Muse

um, 2004; CABI, 

2004; HDOA, 

2005; White and 

Elson-Harris, 

1992; USDA 

APHIS PPQ, 

2005 (12 of 300 

int. from HI 

1985-2005 on 

avocado)

 

11 The fruit fly infestation-free quarantine procedure approved for the movement of mature green Sharwil avocado 

from Hawaii into the mainland United States was approved in September 1990 and suspended in February 1992, 

because of the discovery of oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis, larval infestation in fruits on trees in certified 

orchards. However, the integrity of infestation-free quarantine procedure for melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae, and 

Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata, was supported by Liquido et al. (1995). Armstrong (1991) and 

Armstrong et al. (1983) concluded that mature green Sharwil avocado fruits attached on trees are resistant to 

infestation by oriental, melon, and Mediterranean fruit flies. Data gathered by Liquido et al. (1995) concurred with 

the findings of Armstrong (1991) and Armstrong et al. (1983) on melon and Mediterranean fruit flies, but disputed 

the latter’s conclusion on oriental fruit fly. Liquido et al. (1995) concluded that mature green Sharwil avocado fruits 

are suitable hosts of oriental fruit fly, albeit, poor hosts. Bactrocera dorsalis follows the pathway of moving mature 

green Sharwil avocado from Hawaii into the mainland United States, and is analyzed in this document. Bactrocera 

cucurbitae and Ceratitis capitata do not follow the pathway based on Armstrong (1991), Armstrong et al. (1983), 

and Liquido et al. (1995). 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 17 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Bactrocera dorsalis 

(Hendel)

HI fruit Yes Yes Mau and MartinKessing 1992b; 

White and 

Elson-Harris 

1992; Drew and 

Hancock 1994; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

HDOA 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a; USDA 

APHIS PPQ, 

2005

Ceratitis capitata 

(Wiedemann)

HI fruit Yes No Liquido, et al.

1991; Mau and 

Martin-Kessing 

1992c; White 

and Elson-Harris 

1992; Metcalf 

and Metcalf 

1993; Liquido, et 

al. 1998; 

Hancock, et al.

2000; Wysoki, et 

al. 2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

HDOA 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a; USDA 

APHIS PPQ, 

2005

HEMIPTERA

Aleyrodidae

Aleurocanthus woglumi 

Ashby

HI, US (FL) leaf, stem [Yes] No Hill 1983; 

Nguyen, 

Hamon et al.

1998; Wysoki, 

van den Berg 

et al. 2002; 

Bishop_Muse

um 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

HDOA 2005; 

USDA APHIS 

PPQ 2005 (on 

citrus, other 

fruit)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 18 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Aleurodicus dispersus

Russell

HI, US leaf, fruit No12 Yes MartinKessing and 

Mau 1993a; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a 

Bishop_Muse

um, 2004; 

CABI, 2004; 

MartinKessing and 

Mau, 1993; 

UH-CTAHR, 

2005; USDA 

APHIS PPQ, 

2005 (on 

many fruits)

Aleurodicus dugesii 

Cockerell

HI, US (FL, 

CA)

leaf, fruit No No Ebeling 1959; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; HDOA 

2005; USDA 

APHIS PPQ 

2005 (no fruit 

interceptions) 

Aleurothrixus floccosus 

(Maskell)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes CABI 2004; 

USDA APHIS 

PPQ 2005 (int. 

on banana, 

citrus fruit)

Aleurotrachelus 

trachoides (Back)

HI, US leafEvans, 

2008Evans

, 2008

No No Evans, 2008

Aleurothrixus floccosus 

(Maskell)

HI, US Evans, 

2008

No No Evans, 2008

Bemisia argentifolii 

Bellows and Perring

HI, US fruit, leaf,

stem

No No Mau and Lee 

1992; CABI 

2004; HDOA 

2005; UHCTAHR 

2005a; USDA 

APHIS PPQ 

2005 (no fruit 

int., only leaf)

 

12 Action on required on propagative material (PestID, 2011), therefore, this pest was not examined further in this 

assessment as the subject of this PRA is fruit for consumption.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 19 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Bemisia tabaci 

(Gennadius)

HI, US leaf No No Evans, 2008; 

Vasquez et al., 

undated; 

CABI, 2011

Dialeurodes citri

(Ashmead)

HI, US fruit, 

flower, 

leaf, stem

No Yes CABI, 2011; 

Evans, 2008

Dialeurodes kirkaldyi 

(Kotinsky)

HI, US leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No No Evans, 2008

Parabemisia myricae 

(Kuwana)

HI, US (FL, 

CA)

leaf, stem, [Yes] No Bishop_Muse

um 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA APHIS 

PPQ 2005 (no 

fruit int.)

Paraleyrodes persea 

(Quaintance)

HI, US leaf, No No UH-CTAHR 

2005a; USDA 

APHIS PPQ 

2005 (no fruit 

int.)

Trialeurodes abutiloneus 

(Haldeman)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes Evans, 2008

Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum 

(Westwood)

HI, US (FL) fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes Wysoki, van 

den Berg et al.

2002; 

Bishop_Muse

um 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA APHIS 

PPQ 2005 

(few fruir int., 

mostly leaf)

Aphididae

Aphis craccivora Koch HI, US leaf, stem No No Hill 1983; 

Blackman and 

Eastop 1994; 

Bishop_Muse

um 2004; 

CABI 2004
Rev 1 20110830 Page 20 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Aphis gossypii HI, US leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No No Hill 1983; 

MartinKessing and 

Mau 1991; 

Blackman and 

Eastop 1994; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

HDOA 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a

Aphis spiraecola Patch HI, US fruit, 

flower, 

leaf, stem

No Yes CABI, 2011; 

Ebeling, 1959

Myzus persicae (Sulzer) HI, US flower, 

leaf, stem, 

growing 

points

No No Hill 1983; 

Blackman and 

Eastop 1994; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

Toxoptera aurantii 

(Fonscolombe)

HI, US flower, leaf No No Blackman and 

Eastop 1994; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004

Asterolecaniidae

Asterolecanium pustulans 

(Cockerell)

HI, US leaf, stem No No CABI 2004; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005aCABI, 

2004; UHCTAHR, 2005

Bambusaspis bambusae

(Boisduval)

HI, US leaf, stem No No Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Eucalymnatus tessellatus

(Signoret)

HI, US leafEbeling

, 

1959Ebelin

g, 1959

No No Ebeling, 1959; 

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Parthenolecanium 

persicae (Fabricius)

HI, US leaf, stem No No Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010; 

CABI, 2011

Cicidellidae

Empoasca stevensi 

Young

HI, US leaf, stem, 

twig (egg)

No No Mau and 

MartinKessing 

1992d; HDOA 

2005; UHCTAHR 

2005a
Rev 1 20110830 Page 21 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Sophonia rufofascia HI, US leaf, stem, 

twig (egg)

No No Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

Jones, et al.

2004; HDOA 

2005; UHCTAHR 

2005a

Coccidae

Ceroplastes ceriferus HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Hill 1983; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005 

Ceroplastes 

cirripediformis Comstock

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Ebeling 1959;

Hill 1983; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004

Ceroplastes floridensis HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Hill 1983; 

Crane, et al.

2002; USDA 

ARS SEL, 

2005

Ceroplastes rubens 

Maskell

HI, US (FL) fruit, leaf, 

stem

[Yes] Yes Ebeling 1959; 

Hill 1983; 

Williams and 

Watson 1990;

Bishop 

Museum 

2004;USDA 

ARS SEL, 

2005; USDA 

APHIS PPQ, 

2005 

(reportable, 

APHIS 

program being 

considered)

Coccus hesperidum (L.) HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Ebeling 1959; 

Williams and 

Watson 1990; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Coccus longulus HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Williams and 

Watson 1990; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005
Rev 1 20110830 Page 22 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Coccus viridis (Green) HI, US (FL) fruit, leaf, 

stem

[Yes] Yes Williams and 

Watson 1990; 

Bishop

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005; 

USDA APHIS 

PPQ, 2005 

(reportable, 

APHIS 

program being 

considered)

Kilifia acuminate 

(Signoret)

 Coccus acutissimus

HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes Williams and 

Watson 1990; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Milviscutulus mangiferae 

(Green)

HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes Williams and 

Watson 1990; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Parasaissetia nigra 

(Nietner)

HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes Williams and 

Watson 1990; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Parthenolecanium 

persicae ssp. persicae 

(Fabricius)

HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Prococcus acutissimus

(Green)

HI, US leaf, fruit No Yes USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Pulvinaria mammeae 

(Maskell)

HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes Mau and 

MartinKessing 

1992e; HDOA 

2005; UHCTAHR 

2005a
Rev 1 20110830 Page 23 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Pulvinaria psidii 

(Maskell)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes Mau and 

MartinKessing 

1992f; 

Bishop_Muse

um 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a; USDA 

ARS SEL, 

2005

Saissetia coffeae 

(Walker)

HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes Williams and 

Watson 1990; 

Metcalf and 

Metcalf 1993; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Saissetia miranda 

(Cockerell & Parrott)

HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Saissetia olea (Bernard) HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes Bishop_Muse

um 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Diaspididae

Abgrallaspis cyanophylli 

(Signoret)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes MartinKessing and 

Mau 1993b; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a

Abgrallaspis palmae 

(Cockerell)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes HDOA 2005

Aspidiotus destructor

Signoret

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Hill 1983; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005; 

HDOA 2005
Rev 1 20110830 Page 24 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Aspidiotus nerii HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Crane, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005; 

HDOA 2005

Chrysomphalus aonidum 

(L.)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Metcalf and 

Metcalf 1993; 

Crane, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Chrysomphalus 

bifasciculatus Ferris

HI, US leaf No No Ebeling, 1959; 

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Chrysomphalus 

dictyospermi (Morgan)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Crane, et al.

2002; Wysoki, 

et al. 2002; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Diaspidiotus perniciosus 

(Comstock)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes CABI, 2011; 

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Diaspis boisduvalii

Signoret

HI, US leaf No No Ebeling, 1959; 

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Fiorinia fioriniae 

(Targioni Tozzetti)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a

Hemiberlesia lataniae 

(Signoret)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Nakahara 

1982; Hill 

1983; 

Tenbrink and 

Hara 1992a; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

HDOA 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a
Rev 1 20110830 Page 25 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Hemiberlesia palmae

(Cockerell)

HI, US leaf No N/A Ebeling, 1959; 

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Hemiberlesia rapax 

(Comstock)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Ebeling 1959; 

Nakahara 

1982; 

Tenbrink and 

Hara 1992b; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a

Howardia biclavis 

(Comstock)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Ischnaspis longirostris 

(Signoret)

HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005; 

Tenbrink & 

Hara, 1992c

Morganella longispina 

(Morgan)

HI, US flower, 

stem, fruit

No Yes Crane, et al.

2002; HDOA 

2005

Lepidosaphes beckii 

(Newman)

HI, US leaf, fruit No Yes Ebeling, 1959; 

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Lindingaspis rossi

(Maskell) = 

Chrysomphalus rossi

HI, US leaf No No Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010; 

Ebeling, 1959

Lopholeucaspis 

cockerelli 

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Bishop_Muse

um 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Oceanaspidiotus 

spinosus (Comstock)

HI, US leaf, bark, 

fruit

No Yes Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Parlatoria proteus

(Curtis)

HI, US leaf, No No Ebeling, 1959; 

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Pinnaspis aspidistrae

(Signoret)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Watson, 

undated; BenDov et al., 

2010
Rev 1 20110830 Page 26 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Pinnaspis strachani

(Cooley)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Tenbrink and 

Hara 1992d; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a

Pseudaulacaspis 

cockerelli (Cooley)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Pseudoparlatoria 

parlatorioides

(Comstock)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem

No Yes Ebeling, 1959; 

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Unaspis citri (Comstock) HI, US stem, leaf, 

fruit

No Yes Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Miridae

Hyalopeplus pellucidus 

(Stal)

HI flower, 

leaf, fruit

Yes No13 Mau and 

MartinKessing 

1992g; HDOA 

2005; UHCTAHR 

2005a; 

Schaefer and 

Panizzi, 2000

Margarodidae

Icerya purchasi Maskell HI, US leaf, stem No No Ebeling 1959; 

Nakahara 

1982; Bishop 

Museum 2004;

CABI 2004

Pentatomidae

Brochymena 

quadripustulata F.

HI, US leaf, stem No No Alvarz, M. et 

al. 1967; 

Henry and 

Froeschner 

1988; Bishop 

Museum 2004

 

13 Hyalopeplus pellucidus is in the family Miridae, which feed and insert their eggs on opening buds, leaves, flowers, 

and small fruit. Attacks seem to mainly affect flowers and recently set fruit, causing them to prematurely drop (Mau 

and Martin-Kessing 1992g). Since only mature green Sharwil avocados will be harvested, this pest is unlikely to be 

introduced into the United States via this pathway.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 27 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Nezara viridula

(Linnaeus)

(Hemiptera: 

Pentatomidae)

HI, US leaf, stem, 

growing 

points, 

flower, 

fruit

No No Hill 1983; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

HDOA 2005

Pseudococcidae

Dysmicoccus brevipes 

(Cockerell) 

HI, US leaf, stem, 

root, fruit

No Yes Hill 1983; 

MartinKessing and 

Mau 1992; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes 

Beardsley

HI leaf, stem, 

fruit

Yes Yes Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a; USDA 

APHIS PPQ, 

2005 

Ferrisia virgata

(Cockerell)

HI, US leaf, fruit, 

stem, 

growing 

points

No Yes Hill 1983; 

Arnett 1985; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

Maconellicoccus hirsutus 

(Green)

HI, US (CA, 

FL)

leaf, stem, 

fruit, root, 

flower

[Yes] Yes USDA APHIS 

PPQ, 2005; 

Hill 1983; 

Persad 1995; 

Hoy, et al.

2003; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005 

(APHIS 

Program 

pest)Ben-Dov 

et al., 2005a, 

2005b; 

Bishop_Muse

um, 2004; 

Hill, 1983; 

Hoy et al., 

2003; Persad, 

1995
Rev 1 20110830 Page 28 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Nipaecoccus nipae

(Newstead)

HI, US leaf, 

flower, 

fruit

No Yes Ebeling 1959; 

Hill 1983; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005; 

HDOA 2005

Nipaecoccus viridis 

(Newstead)

HI, US (CA) fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

[Yes] Yes USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005 

(reportable, 

APHIS 

program being 

considered)

Paracoccus marginatus 

Williams & Granara de 

Willink

HI, US (FL) leaf, stem, 

fruit

[Yes] Yes CABI 2004; 

USDA APHIS 

PPQ, 2005;

Walker & 

Hoy, 2003 

(reportable, 

APHIS 

program being 

considered)

Phenacoccus gossypii 

Townsend & Cockerell

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

root, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes CABI, 2011; 

Ebeling, 1959

Planococcus citri (Risso) HI, US fruit, leaf, 

root, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes Ebeling 1959; 

Williams and 

Watson 1988; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

Planococcus minor

(Maskell)

HI, US (FL) fruit, 

flower, 

leaf, root, 

stem

[Yes] Yes Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010; 

Buss, 2006; 

NAPIS, 2011

Pseudococcus cryptus 

Hempel

HI fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

Yes Yes Hill 1983; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005

Pseudococcus 

jackbeardsleyi (Gimpel 

& Miller)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes Hill 1983; 

CABI 2004
Rev 1 20110830 Page 29 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Pseudococcus 

longispinus (TargioniTozzetti)

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

flower, 

stem

No Yes Ebeling 1959; 

Hill 1983; 

Tenbrink and 

Hara 1993; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SEL, 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a

HYMENOPTERA

Formicidae

Solenopsis geminata

(Fabricius)

HI, US fruit, seed, 

stem

No Yes Ebeling, 1959; 

CABI, 2011

LEPIDOPTERA

Noctuidae

Chrysodeixis eriosoma 

(Doubleday)

[=C. chalcites (Esper) 

according to some 

authorities]

HI fruit, leaf Yes No14 Zhang, 1994 

(secondary 

source, 

avocado not 

listed); 

Zimmerman 

1958 (primary 

source, 

avocado not 

listed); CABI 

2004 

(secondary 

source, 

avocado 

listed); USDA 

APHIS PPQ 

2005 (only in 

fruits tomato 

and pepper [18 

int.], mostly 

on leaves [260 

int.] 1985-

2005)

Peridroma saucia

(Hübner)

HI, US fruit 

flower, 

leaves, 

seed, stem

No No15 CABI, 2011

 

14 Although CABI (2011) lists avocados as a host of this pest, after a thorough search of the scientific literature, no 

corroborative information could be found regarding avocado as a host. Additionally, Chrysodeixis eriosoma is 

mainly a leaf feeder (CABI, 2011). Larvae may feed externally on fruit (CABI, 2011), and unlikely to remain on the 

commodity through harvest and processing.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 30 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Spodoptera exempta 

(Walker)

HI, US leaf, stem No No PNKTO; 

CABI 2004

Pyralidae

Cryptoblabes gnidiella 

(Milliere)

HI fruit Yes Yes 16 Carter 1984; 

Zhang 1994 

(HI but 

avocado not 

listed); 

McQuate, et 

al. 2000; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

Wysoki 1999

Tortricidiae

Amorbia emigratella 

Busck

HI, US leaf, fruit No Yes Ebeling 1959; 

Zhang 1994; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

HDOA 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a

 

15 Peridroma saucia feeds externally on fruit (CABI, 2011), and is unlikely to remain with avaocado fruit through 

harvest.

16 Cryptoblabes gnidiella is considered a major pest of avocados in Israel (Wysoki, 1999). It is occasionally a 

secondary feeder and generally lays its eggs on wounds made by the feeding of other insects, such as fruit flies 

(Liquido, personal observation). In citrus, Cryptoblabes gnidiella is known to also be associated with mealybug

infestation, specifically Planococcus citri (Silva & Mexica, 1999) which occurs in Hawaii. It is assumed that 

Cryptoblables gnidiella may follow the pathway of unmitigated fruit infested with fruit flies and/or Planococcus 

citri. Additionally, Cryptoblabes spp. has been intercepted on various fruit at U.S. ports of entry over 50 times, 

which supports their ability to follow the fruit pathway even as a secondary feeder (USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005).
Rev 1 20110830 Page 31 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Epiphyas postvittana 

(Walker) 

HI, US (CA) fruit, leaf [Yes] Yes17 Ebeling 1959; 

Zhang 1994; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

HDOA 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005; 

PNKTOINKTO; 

USDA APHIS 

PPQ 2005 

(1985-2005 20 

of 21 ints. in 

apple, peach, 

blueberry, 

blackberry, 

nectarine, and 

strawberry, 

but not 

avocado); 

Stevens et al.

1995 (major 

NZ avocado 

pest)

Platynota stultana

Walsingham

HI, US leaf, 

flower, 

fruit

No Yes Zhang 1994; 

Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

ORTHOPTERA

Gryllotalpidae

Gryllotalpa africana HI root, seed, 

stem

Yes No PNKTO; 

CABI 2004

Tettigoniidae

Elimaea punctifera 

(Walker)

HI leaf, flower Yes No MartinKessing and 

Mau 1993c; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a

THYSANOPTERA

Thripidae

 

17 Epiphya postvittana is a major pest of avocado in Australia and New Zealand, and has been intercepted several 

times at U.S. Ports of entry in avocado and other fruit commodities from these countries (USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005). 

The light brown apple moth (LBAM), Epiphyas postvittana (Tortricidae), is a native pest of Australia and is now 

widely distributed New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and New Caledonia. Although it was reported in 

Hawaii in the late 1800s, a recent LBAM detection in California is the first on the United States mainland. USDA 

confirmed the detection of LBAM in Alameda County, California on March 22, 2007. Epiphyas postvittana is 

currently under official control in the U.S.It has been reported to cause internal fruit damage by entering through the 

calyx (Meijerman & Ulenberg, 2000). 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 32 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Chaetanaphothrips 

orchidii (Moulton)

HI, US flower, leaf No No Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

Frankliniella insularis

(Franklin)

HI, US flower, leaf No No Hoddle et al., 

2002; Hoddle 

et al., 2008

Frankliniella minuta 

(Moulton)

HI, US flower No No JohansenNaime et al., 

2003; Hoddle 

et al., 2008

Frankliniella occidentalis 

(Pergande)

HI, US flower, leaf No No Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004

Heliothrips 

haemorrhoidalis 

(Bouché)

HI, US fruit, leaf No Yes Ebeling 1959; 

Muthukrishna

n, et al. 2001; 

Wysoki, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a

Scirtothrips citri

(Moulton)

HI, US fruit, leaf No for US

Yes for HI 

Yes Zimmerman, 

1948; Hoddle 

et al., 2008; 

Hoddle et al., 

2002; CABI, 

2007

Scirtothrips perseae 

Nakahara 

HI, US fruit No Yes Whiley et al., 

2002; CABI, 

2011

Selenothrips rubrocinctus

(Giard)

HI, US fruit, 

flower, leaf

No Yes Ebeling 1959; 

Hill 1983; 

Muthukrishna

n, et al. 2001; 

Crane, et al.

2002; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005b
Rev 1 20110830 Page 33 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Thrips hawaiiensis 

(Morgan)

HI, US leaf, stem, 

flower

No No Mau and 

MartinKessing 

1992h; 

Muthukrishna

n, et al. 2001; 

CABI 2004; 

HDOA 2005; 

UH-CTAHR 

2005a

Thrips palmi Karny HI, US (CA, 

FL, TX)

leaf, 

growing 

point, fruit

[Yes] No18 Nakahara 

1982; Hill 

1983; Bishop 

Museum 2004; 

CABI 2004; 

USDA APHIS 

PPQ, 2005 

(reportable, 

APHIS 

considering 

program)

Thrips tabaci Lindeman HI, US flower, leaf No No CABI, 2011; 

Peña et al., 

2002

Plant Pathogens

Bacteria

Rhizobium radiobacter

(Beijerinck & van 

Delden) Young et al.

Rhizobiales: 

Rhizobiaceae

HI, US root, stem No No CABI, 2004

Rhizobium rhizogenes

(Riker et al.) Young et al.

Rhizobiales: 

Rhizobiaceae

HI, US root, stem No No CABI, 2004

Fungi

Alternaria alternata

(Fr.:Fr.) Keissl.

HI, US fruit No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Alternaria citri Ellis & 

N. Pierce in N. Pierce

HI, US fruit, leaf No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004

 

18 If avocado fruit will be exported without leaf and peduncle and fruits are washed and sorted before the shipment 

then is expected that external feeders in general including thrips would be unlikely to follow the pathway with fruit. 

Thrips are likely to be present on the fruit surface, especially during the first stage of fruit development, producing 

scraping and deformities; however this insect is not likely to remain on the surface of developed fruit, because they 

prefer to stay under leaves (Duran et al., 1999). The smooth skin of this fruit without leaf and stem and does not 

provide opportunity for thrips to remain with the fruit.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 34 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Armillaria mellea (Vahl: 

Fr.) P. Kumm.

Agaricales: 

Tricholomataceae

HI, US root, stem

(lower)

No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

UCIMP, 2003

Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) C. 

C. Tu & Kimbr.

Polyporales: Corticiaceae

Pellicularia rolfsii

Sclerotium rolfsii

HI, US fruit, 

flower, 

leaf, root, 

seed, stem

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2003

Botryosphaeria dothidea

(Moug.) Ces. & de Not.

Dothideales: 

Botryosphaeriaceae

HI, US fruit, leaf No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Everett, 1996; 

CSREES, 

2004

Botryosphaeria obtusa

(Romagn.) Herink

Dothideales: 

Botryosphaeriaceae

 Physalospora obtusa

HI, US fruit, stem No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004; 

Killgore, 

2005; UHCTAHR, 2005

Botryosphaeria parva

Dothideales: 

Botryosphaeriaceae

Post harvest stem end rot

HI, US fruit No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Everett, 1996

Botryosphaeria 

quercuum (Schwein.) 

Shoem.

Dothideales: 

Botryosphaeriaceae

HI, US wood No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Botryosphaeria ribis

Grossenb. & Duggar

Dothideales: 

Botryosphaeriaceae

HI, US fruit, shoot, 

flower, 

leaf, stem

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004

Botryosphaeria ribis f. 

chromogena

Dothideales: 

Botryosphaeriaceae

HI, US fruit, shoot, 

flower, 

leaf, stem19

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Botryosphaeria ribis var. 

chromogena

Dothideales: 

Botryosphaeriaceae

HI, US fruit, shoot, 

flower, 

leaf, stem

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr.

Helotiales: 

Sclerotiniaceae

HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004

 

19 No biological information is available on Botryosphaeria ribis f. chromogena and Botryosphaeria ribis var. 

chromogena. Plant parts affected by Botryosphaeria ribis var. chromogena are assumed to be the same as 

Botryosphaeria ribis.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 35 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Calonectria insularis

Hypocreales: Nectriaceae

HI leaf, shoot, 

stem20

Yes No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Calonectria pauciramosa

Hypocreales: Nectriaceae

HI, US (FL) leaf, shoot, 

stem

[Yes] No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Polizzi & 

Catara, 2001

Ceratocystis fimbriata

Ellis & Halst.

Microascales: 

Ceratocystidaceae

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem, root

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004

Pseudocercospora

purpurea (Cooke)

Deighton Synonym:

Cercospora purpurea

Cooke

HI, US wood, leaf, 

fruit, stem

No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Morton, 1987; 

Crane, et al., 

2001; 

Killgore, 2005

Cercospora spp. HI wood, leaf, 

fruit

Yes Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

UH-CTAHR, 

2005

Cladosporium herbarum

(Pers.:Fr.) Link

HI, US fruit No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Colletotrichum crassipes

(Spegazzini) von Arx

HI, US leaf, fruit No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994a

Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides (Penz.) 

Sacc.

HI, US leaf, twig, 

fruit

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

UH-CTAHR, 

2005; Everett, 

1996; Crane, 

et al., 2001; 

Killgore, 2005

Cylindrocladiella parva

(P.J. Anderson) 

Boesewinkel

HI, US seedling, 

root

No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Cylindrocladium 

scoparium Morg.

Hypocreales: 

Hypocreaceae

HI, US root, leaf, 

stem

No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

 

20 There is no published biological information on plant parts affected by Calonectria insularis. The closely related 

species Calonectria pauciramosa, avocado pest occurring in Hawaii, attacks leaves, shoots, and stems. It is 

assumed that C. insularis also feeds on leaves, shoot, and stems.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 36 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Cylindrocladium spp. HI root Yes No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Killgore, 

2005; UHCTAHR, 2005

Diplodia natalensis HI, US wood, fruit No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Discosia spp. HI leaf Yes No CSREES, 

2004

Dothiorella spp. HI, US stem, fruit, 

branch

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

UH-CTAHR, 

2005; Everett, 

1996; Crane, 

et al., 2001; 

Killgore, 

2005; 

CSREES, 

2004

Flavodon cervino-gilvus HI wood Yes No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CSREES. 

2004; 

Rahgukumar 

& Rivonkar, 

2001; 

Gilbertson & 

Adaskaveg, 

1993; 

Gilbertson, et 

al., 2002

Fomitopsis nivosa

Polyporales: 

Fomitopsidaceae

HI, US (SC, 

FL)

wood [Yes] No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gilbertson &

Adaskaveg, 

1993; 

Gilbertson, et 

al., 2002

Fusarium javanicum

Koord.

Hypocreales 

 Alternaria brassicicola

HI, US root No No Killgore, 

2005; USDA 

ARS SBML, 

2005

Fusarium solani (Mart.) 

Sacc.

Hypocreales: 

Hypocreaceae

HI, US root, stem No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Ganoderma lucidum

(Curtis:Fr.) P. Karst.

Ganodermatales: 

Ganodermataceae

HI, US stem No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005
Rev 1 20110830 Page 37 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Gloeosporium spp.

Coelomycetes: 

Melanconiales

HI leaf Yes No UH-CTAHR, 

2005; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994b

Glomerella cingulata

(Stonem.) Spauld. & 

Schrenk

Phyllachorales : 

Phyllachoraceae

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem, 

flower

No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

UH-CTAHR, 

2005; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994c

Lasiodiplodia 

theobromae

Xylariales: 

Hyponectriaceae

 Botryodiplodia 

theobromae

Botryosphaeria rhodina

HI, US fruit, root No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005;

Everett, 1996; 

CSREES, 

2004

Microporus flabelliformis

(Fr.) Kuntze

Polyporales: 

Polyporaceae

HI wood Yes No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Mycoacia kurilensis

Polyporales: Meruliaceae

HI wood Yes No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gilbertson, et 

al., 1976; 

Hjortstam & 

Ryvanrden, 

1996; 

Gilbertson, et 

al., 2002

Mycosphaerella tassiana

(de Not.) Johanson

Mycosphaerellales: 

Mycosphaerellaceae

HI, US leaf, stem, 

bark, 

branch

No No CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Nectria haematococca

(Wollenw.) Gerlach

Hypocreales: Nectriaceae

HI, US leaf, stem, 

root

No No CABI, 2004

Nectria pseudotrichia

Berk. & M.A. Curtis

Hypocreales: Nectriaceae

HI, US bark, wood No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Nectria rugulosa Pat. & 

Gaillard

Hypocreales: Nectriaceae

HI Bark, wood Yes No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005
Rev 1 20110830 Page 38 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Nitschkia broomeiana

(Berk.) Nannf.

Sordariales: 

Nitschkiaceae

 Fracchiaea heterogenea

HI, US bark, 

wood21

No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Bianchinotti, 

2004

Penicillium expansum

Link

HI, US fruit No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Everett, 1996

Phanerochaete australis

Polyporales: 

Phanerochaetaceae

HI wood Yes No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gilbertson & 

Adaskaveg, 

1993

Phellinus gilvus

(Schwein.:Fr.) Pat.

Hymenochaetales: 

Hymenochaetaceae

HI, US wood No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Martens, et al., 

1996; 

Gilbertson & 

Adaskaveg, 

1993

Phellinus grenadensis

(Murrill) Ryvarden

Hymenochaetales: 

Hymenochaetaceae

HI, US (LA) wood [Yes] No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Phlebia acanthocystis

Polyporales: Meruliaceae

HI wood Yes No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gilbertson & 

Adaskaveg, 

1993; 

Gilbertson, et 

al., 2002

Phlebiella tulasnelloidea

(Höhn. & Litsch.) Oberw.

HI, US wood, bark Yes No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Phomopsis spp. HI stem, fruit Yes Yes UH-CTAHR, 

2005; Everett, 

1996

Phytophthora cactorum

(Lebert & Cohn) Schröter

Pythiales: Pythiaceae

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem, root

No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994d

Phytophthora cambivora

(Petri) Buisman

Pythiales: Pythiaceae

HI, US root No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

 

21 There is no published biological information on plant parts affected by Nitschkia broomeiana. Nitschkia species 

(N. campylospora and N. pilosa) have been collected from the bark and wood of leguminous shrub in Argentina 

(Bianchinotti, 2004). Most Nitschkia species are saprophytic on branches or decorticated wood (Bianchinotti, 

2004); it is therefore assumed that N. broomeiana infests bark and woods.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 39 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Phytophthora capsici

Leonian

Pythiales: Pythiaceae

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem, root

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994d

Phytophthora cinnamomi

Rands Pythiales: 

Pythiaceae

HI, US root, leaf, 

fruit

No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005;

UCIPM, 2003; 

UH-CTAHR, 

2005; Crane, 

et al., 2001; 

Killgore, 

2005; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994d

Phytophthora citricola

Sawada

Pythiales: Pythiaceae

HI, US trunk, root, 

bark, fruit

No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005;

UCIPM, 2003; 

Everett, 1996

Phytophthora 

citrophthora (R.E. Sm. & 

E.H. Sm.) Leonian

Pythiales: Pythiaceae

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem, root

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994d

Phytophthora cryptogea

Pethybr. & Laff

Pythiales: Pythiaceae

HI, US leaf, stem, 

root, fruit

No Yes CABI, 2004

Phytophthora 

megasperma Drechsler

Pythiales: Pythiaceae

HI, US fruit, leaf, 

stem, root

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004

Phytophthora nicotianae

Breda de hann var. 

parasitica (Dastur)

Pythiales: Pythiaceae

HI, US fruit, shoot, 

leaf, stem, 

root

No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Phytophthora nicotianae

var. parasitica (Dastur) 

G.M. Waterhouse

Pythiales: Pythiaceae

 Phytophthora parasitica

HI, US leaf, fruit, 

root

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994d

Phytophthora palmivora

(E. J. Butler) E. J. Butler

Pythiales: Pythiaceae

HI, US fruit, shoot, 

flower, 

leaf, stem, 

root

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004
Rev 1 20110830 Page 40 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Pythium coloratum

Vaartaja

Saprolegniales

HI, US root No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

El-Tarabily, et 

al., 1997

Pythium debaryanum

Hesse

Saprolegniales

HI, US root No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994e

Pythium irregulare

Buisman

Saprolegniales

HI, US root, stem No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994e

Pythium oligandrum

Drechsler

Saprolegniales

HI, US biological 

fungicide

seedling, 

root

No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Pythium rostratum E.J. 

Butler

Saprolegniales

HI, US seedling, 

root

No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994e

Pythium splendens Braun

Saprolegniales

HI, US leaf, stem, 

root

No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994e

Pythium spp.

Saprolegniales

HI, US root No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Killgore, 2005

Pythium torulosum Coker 

& Patt.

Saprolegniales

HI, US leaf, root No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Pythium ultimum Trow

Saprolegniales

HI, US root No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Univ. of 

Illinois, 2002; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994e

Pythium vexans de Bary

Saprolegniales

HI, US leaf, root No No CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 

1994e
Rev 1 20110830 Page 41 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn

Ceratobasidiales: 

Ceratobasidiaceae

 Thanatephorus 

cucumeris

HI, US leaf, stem, 

root, shoot, 

flower, 

fruit, seed

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004; 

Gonsalves & 

Ferreira, 1994f

Rhizoctonia spp.

Ceratobasidiales: 

Ceratobasidiaceae

HI root Yes No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Killgore, 2005

Rhizopus stolonifer

(Ehrenb.:Fr.) Vuill.

Mucorales: Mucoraceae

 Rhizopus nigricans

HI, US fruit No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Everett, 1996

Rigidoporus microporus

(Fr.) Overeem

Polyporales: 

Meripilaceae

HI wood, 

flower, 

leaf, stem, 

root

No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004

Rosellinia necatrix Prill.

Xylariales: Xylariaceae

HI, US root, leaf, 

stem

No No CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

(Lib.) de Bary

Helotiales: 

Sclerotiniaceae

HI, US fruit, 

flower, 

leaf, stem, 

root, seed

No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Sphaeropsis tumefaciens

Hedges

Lecanorales: 

Acarosporaceae

HI, US (FL) stem, 

branch, 

shoot

No No CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

Strandberg, 

2002

Thanatephorus 

cucumeris (Frank) Donk

Ceratobasidiales: 

Ceratobasidiaceae

HI, US fruit, shoot, 

flower, 

leaf, root, 

seed, stem

No Yes USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004

Trametes versicolor

Hymenochaetales: 

Hymenochaetaceae

HI, US (dead) 

wood

No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Trichoderma harzianum

Rifai

HI, US biological 

control of 

soil 

inhabiting 

fungi

No No USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005; 

CABI, 2004

Trichothecium roseum

(Pers.:Fr.) Link

HI, US fruit No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005;

Everett, 1996

Verticillium albo-atrum

Reinke & Berthier

HI, US leaf, 

branch, 

root, fruit

No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005;

UCIMP, 2003
Rev 1 20110830 Page 42 of 92

Table 3. Pests in Hawaii Associated with Avocado (Persea americana)

Pest Scientific Name Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant Part 

Affected

Quarantine 

Pest2

Follow 

Pathway

References

Verticillium dahliae

Kleb.

HI, US leaf, stem, 

fruit

No Yes CABI, 2004; 

USDA ARS 

SBML, 2005

Bacteria and Phytoplasmas

Agrobacteriurn 

tumefaciens (Smith & 

Town.) Conn

HI, US stem, leaf No No Teliz, 2000; 

UGA, 2010

Erwinia carotovora 

subsp. carotovora 

(Jones) Bergey et al.

Synonym: 

Pectobacterium

carotovorum subsp. 

carotovorum (Jones) 

Hauben et al. emend. 

Gardan et al.

HI, US leaf, root, 

stem

No No Bradbury, 

1986; CABI, 

2011; HEAR, 

2005

Erwinia herbicola 

(Lijhnis) Dye

Synonym: Pantoea 

agglomerans (Ewing 

and Fife) Gavini

HI, US fruit No Yes Fucikovsky, 

1987; HEAR, 

2005; CABI, 

2011

Pseudomonas syringae 

pv. syringae van Hall

HI, US leaf, fruit, 

stem

No Yes HEAR, 2005; 

C.M.I., 1988; 

Bradbury, 

1986

Nematodes

Radopholus similis 

(Cobb) Thorne

HI, US (CA, 

FL, TX) 

root [Yes] No Ferris, 2011; 

NGDC, 1984

Quarantine pests that could reasonably be expected to follow the pathway, i.e., be included in 

commercial shipments of avocado were analyzed in detail (Step 5-7, PPQ, 2000). Other plant 

pests in this assessment, not chosen for further scrutiny, may be potentially detrimental to the 

agricultural production systems of the United States; however, there were a variety of reasons for 

not subjecting them to further analysis. For example, they were mainly associated with plant 

parts other than the commodity; they may be associated with the commodity, but it was not 

considered reasonable to expect these pests to remain with the commodity during processing; or 

they have been intercepted as biological contaminants of these commodities during inspection by

Plant Protection and Quarantine Officers, but would not be expected to be present with every

shipment. In addition, the biological hazard of organisms identified only to the genus level is not 

assessed due to the lack of adequate biological taxonomic information. This lack of biological 

information on any given insect or pathogen should not be equated with low risk. By necessity, 

pest assessments focus on those organisms for which biological information is available. By
Rev 1 20110830 Page 43 of 92

developing detailed assessments for known pests that inhabit a variety of niches on the parent 

species, e.g., on the surface of or within the bark/wood, on the foliage, etc., effective mitigation 

measures may be developed to eliminate the known organism and any similar unknown ones that 

inhabit the same niches. The organisms in this risk assessment that were identified only to genus 

level were Cercospora species, Dothiorella species, Phomopsis species, and Pythium species.

The quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway of the movement of Sharwil avocado (Persea 

americana) from Hawaii into the continental U. S. are further analyzed in this risk assessment

and, are summarized in Table 4.

Table 4. Quarantine Pests likely to be associated with avocado imported from 

Hawaii

Arthropoda:

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Ceroplastes rubens Maskell (Homiptera: Coccidae)

Coccus viridis (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

Cryptoblabes gnidiella Millière (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Beardsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Planococcus minor (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

2.5. Analysis of Quarantine Pests

For the quarantine pests selected for further analysis, we assessed their likelihood of introduction 

into the continental United States and the undesirable consequences that may result from their 

introduction. We rated the pests using the criteria in the Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest

Risk Assessments, Version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000). We calculated a cumulative risk rating, or Pest 

Risk Potential, for each pest by summing all risk element values. Below we summarize the 

values for each pest (Table 7).

The major sources of uncertainty present in this risk assessment include the use of a developing 

or evolving process (Orr et al., 1993; PPQ, 2000), the approach used to combine risk elements 

(Bier, 1999; Morgan and Henrion, 1990), and the evaluation of risk by comparisons to lists of 

factors within the guidelines (Kaplan, 1992; Orr et al., 1993). To address this last source of 

uncertainty, the lists of factors were interpreted as illustrative and not exhaustive, implying that 

additional biological information, even if not explicitly part of the criteria, can be used when 

relevant to a rating. Other sources of uncertainty include the quality of the biological information 

and the amount of information available on the regional flora and fauna. Inherent biological 

variation within a population of organisms introduces uncertainty as well (Morgan and Henrion,

1990).

2.5.1 Consequences of Introduction
Rev 1 20110830 Page 44 of 92

For the quarantine pests listed in Table 4, we rated the potential Consequences of Introduction 

using five Risk Elements: Climate-Host Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal Potential, Economic 

Impact, and Environmental Impact. These elements reflect the biology, host ranges, and 

climatic/geographic distributions of the pests. For each Risk Element, we assigned pests a rating 

of Low (1 point), Medium (2 points), or High (3 points) (PPQ, 2000). We then calculated a 

Cumulative Risk Rating by summing the Risk Element values. We summarized the ratings for 

the Consequences of Introduction for each pest below (Table 5).

Consequences of Introduction: Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: 

Tephritidae)

Risk Value

Risk Element #1: Climate – Host Interaction

Except for adventive populations in Guam and Hawaii, B. dorsalis is restricted to 

subtropical and tropical Asia (White & Elson-Harris, 1992). It is estimated that this 

species could become established in the continental United States in areas 

corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA ARS, 1990).

Medium

(2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

The oriental fruit fly, B. dorsalis, is a serious pest of a wide range of plant 

species (CABI, 2003). Its host species include Moraceae (Artocarpus altilis, 

Artocarpus heterophyllus, Ficus racemosa), Rutaceae (Aegle marmelos, Citrus 

aurantiifolia, Citrus, Citrus maxima, Citrus reticulata), Anacardiaceae 

(Anacardium occidentale, Mangifera foetida, Spondias purpurea, Mangifera 

indica), Arecaceae (Areca catechu), Rubiaceae (Coffea Arabica), Sapotaceae 

(Chrysophyllum cainito, Mimusops elengi, Manilkara zapota), Cucurbitaceae 

(Cucumis melo, Cucumis sativus, Momordica charantia), Sapindaceae 

(Dimocarpus longan, Nephelium lappaceum, Litchi chinensis), Ebenaceae 

(Diospyros kaki), Flacourtiaceae (Flacourtia indica), Rosaceae (Prunus avium, 

Prunus cerasus, Prunus mume, Prunus persica, Malus pumila, Pyrus communis, 

Prunus armeniaca, Prunus domestica), Punicaceae (Punica granatum), 

Myrtaceae (Syzygium aromaticum, Syzygium cumini, Psidium guajava, Syzygium 

aqueum, Syzygium jambos, Syzygium malaccense, Syzygium samarangense), 

Rhamnaceae (Ziziphus jujuba, Ziziphus mauritiana), Annonaceae (Annona 

reticulata, Annona squamosa), Oxalidaceae (Averrhoa carambola), Caricaceae 

(Carica papaya), Solanaceae (Capsicum annuum), Malpighiaceae (Malpighia 

glabra), Musaceae (Musa), Tiliaceae (Muntingia calabura), Lauraceae (Persea 

americana), and Combretaceae (Terminalia catappa) (CABI, 2004, White & 

Elson-Harris, 1992).

High

(3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 45 of 92

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

The life-cycle of B. dorsalis varies with seasons and locations (CABI, 2003); 

however, the oriental fruit fly completes one generation in about 30 days 

(Capinera, 2001). In Hawaii, the average life-cycle takes about 16 days (Mau & 

Martin, 1992). Female deposits eggs under the skin of fruit in clusters of 10-50 

eggs; their total fecundity per female is approximately 1200 to 1500 eggs, but

can be more than 3000 eggs under optimum conditions (Mau & Martin, 1992). 

Eggs hatch within a day (CABI, 2003; Mau & Martin, 1992), and the larva stage 

typically lasts for 11-15 days in Hawaii (Mau & Martin, 1992). Pupation is in 

the soil for 10-12 days (CABI, 2003; Mau & Martin, 1992). 

Females deposit 3-30 eggs per host fruit with a total fecundity (per female) that 

may exceed 1000 eggs (Fletcher, 1989b). There are several generations per year. 

B. dorsalis is capable of flying distances up to 65 km (Fletcher, 1989a) and the 

transport of infested fruit are the major means of movement and dispersal to 

previously uninfested areas (CABI, 2002). Like other dacine tephritids, B. dorsalis

exhibits high reproductive and dispersal potentials. 

High

(3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Bactrocera dorsalis is a serious pest of a wide range of fruits and vegetables; it

can damage up to 100% of plants when not protected (CABI, 2003). Economic 

losses resulting from the attack of this pest are: 1) downgrading of quality caused 

by oviposition “stings,” which spoil the appearance of fruits, including those 

unfavorable for larval survival; 2) fruit spoilage caused by larval tunneling and the 

entry of organisms of decay; and 3) indirect damage in the form of lost markets 

resulting from the imposition of quarantine restrictions (Harris, 1989). In Hawaii, 

annual losses in major fruit crops caused by B. dorsalis may exceed 13% or $3 

million (Culliney et al., 2003).

High

(3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Because of its wide host range, B. dorsalis has a high threat potential to 

threatened and endangered species. Scrub plum (Prunus geniculata) and Florida 

ziziphus (Ziziphus celata), which are listed as Endangered species have the

potential to be attacked by B. dorsalis (USFWS, 2002). The oriental fruit fly is a 

major pest of crops of economic significance in the continental United States (e.g., 

apple, peach, pear, citrus); its entry and establishment could stimulate the initiation 

of chemical or biological control programs similar to programs that have been 

established in Hawaii. 

High

(3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 46 of 92

Consequences of Introduction: Ceroplastes rubens Maskell (Hemiptera: 

Coccidae)

Risk Value

Risk Element #1: Climate – Host Interaction

Ceroplastes rubens is widely distributed throughout the Orient, southern Asia, 

Australia, India, the South Pacific, east Africa, and the West Indies. This insect 

has become established in Florida and Hawaii; it has potential to establish in 

U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 10-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). 

Medium 

(2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Primary host species include citrus (Citrus, Citrus deliciosa, Citrus limon, Citrus 

reticulata, Citrus sinensis, Citrus unshiu) (Rutaceae) and mango (Mangifera 

indica) (Anacardiaceae) (CABI, 2003). Other host species of C. rubens are 

Moraceae (Artocarpus, Ficus, Morus alba, Artocarpus altilis), Zingiberaceae 

(Alpinia purpurata), Annonaceae (Annona), Asteraceae (Artemisia, 

Chrysanthemum, Helianthus), Theaceae (Camellia sinensis), Arecaceae (Cocos 

nucifera), Lauraceae, (Cinnamomum, Cinnamomum verum, Laurus nobilis, 

Persea, Persea americana), Rubiaceae (Coffea, Eugenia), Malvaceae (Hibiscus), 

Sapindaceae (Litchi chinensis), Rosaceae (Malus, Prunus, Prunus domestica, 

Prunus mume, Pyrus, Pyrus communis), Musaceae (Musa), Myristicaceae 

(Myristica, Myristica fragrans), Apocynaceae (Nerium), Oleaceae (Olea), 

Piperaceae (Piper), Pinaceae (Pinus, Pinus thunbergii, Pinus caribaea), 

Myrtaceae (Pimenta dioica, Psidium, Psidium guajava, Syzygium), and 

Zingiberaceae (Zingiber officinale) (CABI, 2003).

High

(3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

In Australia, where Ceroplastes rubens was accidentally introduced, this species

has two generations per year (CABI, 2003). Oviposition begins in midSeptember and ends in early December; it then begins again in mid-February, 

lasting until June (CABI, 2003). Females, on average, lay around 300 eggs, but 

can lay as little as five or as much as 1178 eggs (CABI, 2003). The mortality of 

C. rubens is related to the quality of the food source rather than natural enemies 

(CABI, 2003). In Australian studies, the mortality rate was highest in the first 24 

hours after hatching, when approximately 50% of the hatchings were lost (CABI, 

2003). Primary dispersal is accomplished via infected plant parts, which is 

facilitated by a wide range of host species for this pest (CABI, 2003). Only firstinstar Coccoidea insects are dispersed by wind, but the distances carried by wind 

can be several kilometers to hundreds of kilometers, although mortality rates are 

higher at longer distances (Gullan & Kosztarab, 1997).

Medium

(2)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 47 of 92

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

This is a serious pest of citrus species and mango. In 2002, CA, TX, and FL 

produced over $2250 million worth of citrus (USDA NASS, 2004b). Hawaii 

produced $7 million of banana and $2 million of guava in 2002 (USDA NASS, 

2004a). Ceroplastes rubens is a widespread pest of citrus, coffee, tea, 

Cinnamomum, mango, avocado, and litchi (CABI, 2003). It is a major pest of 

citrus in Australia, Hawaii, Korea, China, and Japan; direct economic damage is 

caused through phloem feeding and indirectly through the promotion of sooty

mold growth (CABI, 2003). As the species appears to be established in parts of the 

United States, and under no apparent official control, further introductions are 

unlikely to result in the loss of foreign markets for domestically produced 

commodities.

Medium 

(2)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

This insect is already established in Hawaii and Florida (CABI, 2003). It has 

limited potential to destabilize the ecosystem, reduce the biodiversity, or eliminate 

threatened and endangered species. Furthermore, many closely related species of 

C. rubens are pests of many agricultural crops grown in the U.S. that are managed 

using pest control programs that include calendar insecticide sprayings, which are 

also expected to be effective against C. rubens infestations. 

Low

(1)

Consequences of Introduction: Coccus viridis (Green) (Homoptera: Coccidae) Risk Value

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

This species is pantropical in distribution. It has been reported from India through 

Indo-China, Malaysia, to the Philippines, and Indonesia, throughout much of Oceania 

and sub-Saharan Africa (CABI, 2004). In the New World, it is present in Florida and 

ranges from Central America to the northern part of South America and throughout

the Caribbean. It is estimated that it could become established in additional areas of 

the continental United States corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11. Survival 

outside of these areas would be limited to greenhouse or other artificial situations.

Medium (2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

This pest is often associated with citrus species (Citrus deliciosa, Citrus limon, 

Citrus reticulata, Citrus sinensis) in the family Rutaceae; however, it has wide 

host range. Potential hosts include Moraceae (Artocarpus), Theaceae (Camellia 

sinensis), Rubiaceae (Coffea, Coffea arabica, Ixora), Euphorbiaceae (Manihot 

esculenta), Anacardiaceae (Mangifera indica), Myrtaceae (Psidium guajava), 

Sterculiaceae (Theobroma cacao), Zingiberaceae (Alpinia purpurata), Asteraceae 

(Chrysanthemum), Sapotaceae (Manilkara zapota), Apocynaceae (Nerium 

oleander, Plumeria rubra var. acutifolia), and Lauraceae (Persea americana)

(CABI, 2004).

High (3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 48 of 92

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Females can lay up to 500 eggs, which can hatch within a few hours (CABI, 

2004). Life-cycle generations vary from one month to several, depending on 

temperatures and available food supplies (CABI, 2003). There may be several 

generations per year (Gullian and Kosztarab, 1997). Although it has a high 

reproductive rate, there is no evidence of natural long range dispersal by C. viridis

(CABI, 2004; Tandon & Veeresh, 1988). The scale can, and has, spread quickly and 

widely via the transport of infested plant materials and has been intercepted 

numerous times by PPQ on a variety of plants from many countries (USDA APHIS 

PPQ, 2005). 

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Coccus viridis is a major pest of coffee in Haiti (Aitken-Soux, 1985) and India 

(Narasimham, 1987). In Brazil, infestations of 50 scales per plant caused significant 

damage to coffee seedlings, reducing leaf area and plant growth rate (Silva & Parra, 

1982). This insect is a major cause of yield loss in coffee in New Guinea (Williams, 

1986). In India, citrus fruit quality was significantly lower on trees following C. 

viridis infestation and the sooty mold (Capnodium citri) contamination that 

accompanied it (Haleem, 1984). This scale insect is a quarantine pest for Korea, New 

Zealand, and Venezuela (PRF, 2004); however, as it is established in parts of the 

continental United States, and under no apparent official control, additional 

introductions of the scale are considered unlikely to result in the further loss of 

foreign markets.

Medium (2)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

The extreme polyphagy of C. viridis predisposes it to attack vulnerable, native plants 

in the continental United States (e.g., Manihot walkerae). Additional introductions of 

this species could have a negative impact on the citrus industry in areas, such as

Arizona and Texas, and could stimulate the initiation of chemical or biological 

control programs, as has occurred in Hawaii and Puerto Rico (e.g., Bartlett, 1978a). 

Coccus viridis already exists in Hawaii and Florida (CABI, 2004) and appears to 

have limited potential to destabilize the ecosystem, reduce the biodiversity, or 

eliminate threatened and endangered species. Furthermore, closely related species 

of C. viridis are pests of many agricultural crops grown in the U.S. These pests are 

managed using pest control programs including calendar insecticide sprayings; 

these chemical applications are also expected to be effective against C. viridis

infestations. 

Low 

(1)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 49 of 92

Consequences of Introduction: Cryptoblabes gnidiella Millière (Lepidoptera: 

Pyralidae) 

Risk Value

Risk Element #1: Climate – Host Interaction

Cryptoblabes gnidiella is a cosmopolitan species in warm climates; however, it 

is unable to survive winters in the cooler temperate areas it may be imported into 

new areas along with produce (CABI, 2003). Cryptoblabes gnidiella is found in 

Europe (Austria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, and Spain), Asia 

(India, Israel, Lebanon, Pakistan, Thailand, and Turkey), Africa (Egypt, Liberia,

Morocco, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and South Africa), the Caribbean (Bermuda), 

North America (United States-- Hawaii), South America (Argentina, Uruguay), 

and Oceania (New Zealand) (CABI, 2003). Its distribution corresponds to U.S. 

Plant Hardiness Zones 6-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). 

High

(3)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Cryptoblabes gnidiella is polyphagous and able to use almost any plant, but it is 

most often encountered on commercial crops. Host species include Rutaceae 

(Citrus spp.), Lauraceae (Persea americana) (Wysoki 1999), Punicaceae (Punica 

granatum), Vitaceae (Vitis spp.), Liliaceae (Allium sativum), Annonaceae 

(Annona muricata), Rubiaceae (Coffea spp.), Moraceae (Ficus spp., Morus alba), 

Malvaceae (Gossypium spp.), Anacardiaceae (Mangifera indica, Schinus 

terebinthifolius), Rosaceae (Mespilus spp.), Poaceae (Oryza sativa, Saccharum 

officinarum, Sorghum spp., Zea mays), Oleaceae (Osmanthus spp.), Fabaceae 

(Phaseolus spp.), Araceae (Philodendron spp.), Euphorbiaceae (Ricinus 

communis), Meliaceae (Swietenia spp.), and Sapindaceae (Nephelium 

lappaceum).

High

(3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

About 100 eggs per female are laid on the fruit or foliage and hatch in 4-7 days; 

pupation takes place on the food plant or on the ground (CABI, 2003). There are 

three or four generations per year in Southern Europe and up to five in North 

Africa (CABI, 2003). The egg stage lasts about 3-4 days; larval stage is 9-10 

days; pupal stage is 4-6 days; and the adult stage is 5-6 days (van den Berg et al., 

2001). Cryptoblabes gnidiella is frequently moved between countries in fruit 

commerce (USDA APHIS PPQ 2005). Although there is evidence that C. 

gnidiella can infest fruits as a secondary pest associated with Homoptera, it can 

also be a primary pest on some fruits Mau and Martin-Kessing, 1992; McQuate 

et al., 2000. It is known to be moved in commerce on imported fruit (CABI,

2004). For example, it was most likely spread through Europe on transported 

fruit Mau and Martin-Kessing, 1992. It has also been frequently intercepted at 

U.S. ports on a variety of fruit, including several shipments of fruit that 

originated in Hawaii (USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005). 

High

(3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 50 of 92

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Cryptoblabes gnidiella is an important pest of citrus, grapes, and pomegranates 

in the Mediterranean area (CABI, 2003). It is most noted as a major pest of 

avocado in Israel (Wysoki 1999); azolla, sorghum and rice in India; and 

sporadically of corn or other crops in warm parts of the world (CABI, 2003). 

Corn is one of the crops with the biggest production in the United States. Corn, 

sorghum, and rice combined value was more than $27 billion in 2003 (USDA 

NASS, 2004c). The United States also produced more than $2.2 billion of citrus 

and $2.5 billion of grapes in 2003 (USDA NASS, 2004a). The losses caused by

this pest are not quantified in literature, although in Israel, combined losses of 

macadamia nuts, as a result of C. gnidiella, Ectomyelois ceratoniae [Apomyelois 

ceratoniae] and the tortricid Cryptophlebia leucotreta, amounted to 30% 

(Wysoki, 1986).

High

(3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Chemical and biological control are likely to be implemented upon introduction 

of Cryptoblabes gnidiella. As a polyphagous insect, it is potentially capable of 

attacking threatened and endangered Allium species.

High

(3)

Consequences of Introduction: Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Beardsley (Homoptera: 

Pseudococcidae)

Risk Value

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes occurs throughout Central America, northern South 

America, the Caribbean, Indo-China, the Philippines, and in parts of Oceania (Miller 

& Miller, 2002; USDA ARS SEL, 2005; CABI, 2004). Outside of greenhouse or 

other artificial situations, this species should be able to survive in the warmer, 

southern parts of the United States (Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11) (USDA ARS, 

1990). One or more of its potential hosts occurs in these Zones USDA NRCS, 2002. 

Medium (2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes is highly polyphagous. Hosts include Bromeliaceae

(Ananas comosus), Rosaceae (Malus domestica) (CABI, 2003), Araceae (Colocasia 

esculenta, Pritchardia sp.), Moraceae (Ficus sp.), Musaceae (Musa paradisiaca), 

Cactaceae (Opuntia ficus-indica), Fabaceae (Acacia koa, Samanea saman ), 

Asteraceae (Helianthus annuus) (Nakahara, 1981); Agavaceae (Agave sisalana), 

Cucurbitaceae (Cucurbita maxima), Poaceae (Zea mays), Heliconiaceae (Heliconia 

latispatha), Lauracea (Persea americana), Rutaceae (Citrus spp.), and Solanaceae

(Lycopersicon esculentum) (USDA ARS SEL, 2005).

High (3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 51 of 92

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

The life span of D. neobrevipes varies from 59-117 days, averaging at 90 days 

(Martin Kessing & Mau, 1992). This mealybug is ovoviviparous, meaning the 

eggs hatch within the female; female produces about 350 larvae for 30 days, but 

some produce up to 1000 larvae (Martin Kessing & Mau, 1992). There are three 

instars for female and four instars for male. The total larval period for female 

varies from 26-52 days, averaging at 35 days, whereas the total larval period for 

male lasts from 22-53 days. There may be several generations per year. As in all 

Coccoidea (Gullan & Kosztarab, 1997), the main dispersal stage of mealybugs is the 

first-instar crawler, which may be transported locally by wind or other animals. 

Dispersal over longer distances is accomplished through the movement of infested 

plant materials in commerce (CABI, 2004).

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes attacks a number of valuable commercial crops, and is a 

particularly serious pest of pineapple, Ananas comosus (Rohrbach et al., 1988). Like 

D. brevipes, it is a vector of the virus causing pineapple wilt disease. Feeding by

large mealybug populations may cause a loss of host plant vigor. Also, honeydew 

deposited on leaves and fruit by mealybugs serves as a medium for the growth of 

black sooty molds, which interfere with photosynthesis and reduce the market value 

of the crop. Insecticides are often applied to control these mealybugs or the attending 

ants that aid in their spread and interfere with biological control (Jahn et al., 2003). 

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes is a quarantine pest for Korea and New Zealand.

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

The species is polyphagous and may infest plants listed as threatened or endangered. 

Further introductions of D. neobrevipes would likely result in the initiation of 

chemical or biological control programs, as has occurred in Hawaii and Puerto Rico 

(Bartlett, 1978). However, closely related species of D. neobrevipes are pests of 

many agricultural crops grown in the U.S. that are managed using pest control 

programs including calendar spraying of insecticides; these chemical applications 

are also expected to be effective against D. neobrevipes infestations. 

Medium (2)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 52 of 92

Consequences of Introduction: Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: 

Tortricidiae)

Risk Value

Risk Element #1: Climate – Host Interaction

This species is found throughout Australia, New Zealand, and is also found in 

Hawaii. Based on this host range it is believed that the pest would only be capable 

of living in the Southern and southeastern United States, a distribution that 

corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). 

Medium 

(2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Hosts include: Actinidiaceae (Actinidia chinensis), Asteraceae (Chrysanthemum x 

morifolium), Rutaceae (Citrus), Rosaceae (Cotoneaster, Malus pumila, Prunus 

armeniaca, Prunus persica, Pyrus, Rosa, Crataegus, Rubus), Ebenaceae 

(Diospyros), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus, Feijoa sellowiana), Cannabaceae (Humulus 

lupulus), Oleaceae (Jasminum, Ligustrum vulgare), Sapindaceae (Litchi chinensis), 

Fabaceae (Medicago sativa), Lauraceae (Persea americana) Pinaceae (Pinus, 

Pinus radiata), Salicaceae (Populus), Grossulariaceae (Ribes), Solanaceae 

(Solanum tuberosum), Fabaceae (Trifolium, Vicia faba), Ericaceae (Vaccinium), 

Vitaceae (Vitis vinifera) (Stevens et al. 1995; CABI, 2004.

High

(3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

The light brown apple moth has a relatively high biotic potiential. The number of 

annual generations varies with latitude within its range, but in general, there is 

considerable overlap between generations, with development driven by 

temperature and larval host plant. There is no winter resting stage, although 

overwintering larvae tend to develop slowly, with a lower threshold of 

development for all stages of 7.5°C and an upper threshold of 31°C 

(Danthanarayana, 1975). In Australia, the number of generations varies from three 

to four, with three in most areas (Wearing et al., 1991). In New Zealand, three to 

four overlapping generations are completed annually (CABI, 2004). Long 

distance dispersal is typically achieved by adults (CABI, 2004), although larval 

dispersal occurs over a short range. Internationally, it can be spread in fruit in 

commerce and has been intercepted at U.S. ports of entry on various fruits

(including avocado) at least 45 times since 1985 (USDA APHIS PPQ 2005). 

High

(3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Losses in Australia are estimated to be of the order of AU$21M per annum from a 

range of industries but there has been no similar estimation in other countries 

(CABI, 2004). The list of agricultural crops that could be damaged by this pest 

includes grapes, citrus, stone fruit (peaches, plums, nectarines, cherries, apricots) 

and many others. USDA confirmed the detection of E.postvittana in Alameda 

County, California on March 22, 2007. Intense control activities have contained E. 

postvittana.

Medium 

(2)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 53 of 92

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Epiphyas postvittana may impact threatened and endangered species listed in Title 

50, Part 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations (50 CFR 

§17.12), such as Prunus geniculata (endangered species in FL), Ribes echinellum

(threatened species in FL and SC), Solanum species, Trifolium amoenum 

(endangered species in CA), Trifolium stoloniferum (endangered species in AR, 

IL, IN, KS, KY, MO, OH, and WV), Trifolium trichocalyx (endangered species in 

CA), and Vicia species (USFWS, 2002).

High

(3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 54 of 92

Consequences of Introduction: Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Homoptera: 

Pseudococcidae)

Risk Value

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Maconellicoccus hirsutus is native to southern Asia (CABI, 2002). It is reported in 

northern and sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, south and southeast Asia, the Far 

East, Central America, Australia, and Oceania (CABI 2003). This pest currently has a 

limited distribution in the U.S., Hawaii, California, and Florida (Hoy et al., 2003;

Capinera, 2001). It is estimated that it could potentially become established in the 

United States Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). One or more of its 

potential hosts occurs in these zones (USDA NRCS 2002).

Medium (2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

This species is extremely polyphagous. It has been recorded on plants in over 200 

genera from 73 families, showing some preference for hosts in the Malvaceae, 

Fabaceae, and Moraceae (CABI, 2002). Hosts include: Acanthaceae (Acanthus 

ilicifolius, Eranthemum pulchellum, Pachystachys lutea, Thumbergia erecta), 

Amaranthaceae (Achyranthes indica, Amaranthus spp., Celosia cristata), 

Amaryllidaceae (Calostemma spp.) Anacardiaceae (Mangifera indica, Schinus spp., 

Spondias spp.), Annonaceae (Annona spp., Canaga odorata), Apiaceae (Daucus 

carota), Apocynaceae (Allamanda spp., Carissa spp., Catharanthus roseus, 

Ervatamia coronaria, Nerium spp., Tabernamontana divaricata, Vinca minor), 

Araceae (Aglaonema spp., Alocasia cucullata, Anthurium andraeanum, Colocasia 

esculenta, Dieffenbachia spp., Philodendron spp., Scindapsus aureus, Syngonium 

podophyllum, Xanthosoma spp.), Araliaceae (Aralia spp., Brassaia actinophylla, 

Schefflera spp., Sciadophyllum pulchrum), Basellaceae (Basella alba), Begoniaceae 

(Begonia spp.), Bignoniaceae (Bignonia spp., Crescentia cujete, Jacaranda 

mimusifolia, Kigelia spp., Tabebuia spp., Tecoma spp., ), Bombacaceae (Ceiba 

pentandra), Boraginaceae (Cordia curssavica), Cactaceae (Opuntia spp., Pereskia 

bleo), Caricaceae (Carica papaya), Casuarinaceae (Casuarina spp.), Chenopodiaceae 

(Beta vulgaris, Chenopodium, album), Combretaceae (Quisqualis sp., Rhoeo sp., 

Terminalia spp.), Compositae (Bidens pilesa, Chrysanthemum coronarium, Cosmos 

spp., Dahlia spp., Emilia sp., Gerbera spp., Helicanthus annuus, Lactuca sativa, 

Mikania cordata, Parthenium hysterophorus, Symedrella nodifloa, Tithonia 

urticifolia), Convolvulaceae (Ipomoea spp.), Crassulaceae (Kalanchoe sp.), 

Cucurbitaceae (Cucumis spp., Cucurbita spp.), Cyperaceae (Cyperus spp.), 

Dilleniaceae (Tetracera spp.), Dioscoraceae (Dioscorea spp.), Ebenaceae (Diospyros 

kaki), Euphorbiaceae (Acalypha spp., Codiaeum sp., Croton spp., Euphorbia spp., 

Hevea spp., Macarangua sp., Manihot esculenta., Ohyllanthus amarus, Phyllanthus 

spp., Ricinus communis), Fabaceae (Acacia arabica, Albizia spp., Arachis hypogaea, 

Bauhinia spp., Caesalpinia spp., Cajanus spp., Calliandra spp., Cassia spp., 

Ceratonia siliqua, Clitoria ternatea, Crotalaria sp., Erythrina spp., Gliricidium 

sepium, Glycine max, Grewia sp., Inga sp., Leucaena glauca, Medicago sativa, 

mimosa pudica, Parkinsonia aculeate, Phaseolus mungo, Phaseolus vulgaris, 

Poinciana regia, Robinia pseudacacia, Samanea saman, Sena spp., Sesbania 

aegyptiaca, Tamarindus indica, Templetonia sp., Tephrosia sp., Vigna unguiculata), 

Fagaceae (Pasania spp., Quercus spp.) Flacourtiaceae (Flacourtis indica), 

Gesneriacae (Chrysothemis pulchella), Gramineae (Saccharum officinarum, Zea 

High (3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 55 of 92

mays), Lamiaceae (Clerodendrum aculeatum, Leonotis nepetifolia), Lauraceae 

(Persea americana), Lecythidaceae (Courouptia guianensis), Liliaceae (Asparagus 

spp., Cordyline terminalis, Dracaena spp.), Lythraceae (Lagerstroemia speciosa, 

Lawsonia spp.), Malvaceae (Abelmoschus esculentus, Abutilon indicum, Gossypium 

spp., Hibiscus spp., Holmskia sanguinea, Malvaviscus arboreus, Paritium spp., 

Pavonia spp., Thespesia spp.), Melastomataceae (Miconia cornifolia), Meliaceae 

(Azadirachta indica, Ficus spp., Morus spp.), Moraceae (Heliconia spp., Musda sp), 

Myrtaceae (Callistemon spp., Eugenia spp., Myrtus communis, Psidium guajava, 

Syzygium spp.), Nyctaginaceae (Bougainvillea spp.), Oleaceae (Jasminum spp.), 

Orchidaceae (Dendrobium spp.), Oxalidaceae (Averrhoa carambola), Palmae (Cocos 

nucifera, Phoenix spp.), Passifloraceae (Passiflora spp.), Phytolacaceae (Rivina 

humilis, Petiveria alliacea), Piperaceae (Peperomia pellucida, Piper tuberculatum), 

Plumbaginaceae (Plumbago auriculata), Polygonaceae (Cocoloba uvifera, 

Nephrolepis spp.), Portulacaceae (Portulaca spp.), Proteaceae (Grevillea robusta), 

Rhamnaceae (Colubrina arborescens, Ziziphus spp.), Rosaceae (Crataegus spp., 

Cydonia oblonga, Eriobotra japonica, Prunus spp., Pyrus spp., Rosa sp.), Rubiaceae 

(Coffea spp., Haldina cordifolia, Hamelia spp., Ixora spp.), Rutaceae (Aegle 

marmelos, Citrus spp., Murraya spp., Mussaenda sp.), Salicaceae (Salix spp.), 

Sapindaceae (Blighia sapida, Dodonaea viscose, Melicocca spp.), Sapotaceae 

(Manilkara zapota), Scrophulariaceae (Russelia equisetifolia, Scoparia dulcis), 

Solnaceae (Capsicum spp., Cestrum nocturnum, Datura spp., Lycopersicon 

esculentum, Solanum spp.), Sterculiaceae (Theobroma cacao), Tiliaceae (Corchorus 

olitorius), Urticaceae (Boehmeria nivea, Laportea aestuans), Verbenaceae (Tectona 

grandis), Vitaceae (Cissus verticillata, Vitis vinifera), and Zigiberaceae (Alpinia spp.) 

(USDA ARS SEL, 2005).

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Each adult female can lay from 80-600 eggs over a one week period (Meyerdirk et al, 

1996; CABI, 2004). Hatching occurs in 609 days (CABI, 2004). In warm 

conditions, a generation is completed in five weeks; in colder climates, the species 

survives cold conditions as eggs or other stages, on the host plant or in the soil. There 

may be as many as 15 generations per year. Local dispersal is accomplished by the 

first-instar crawler, most efficiently via air or water, or on animals (CABI, 2004). All 

stages may be dispersed over longer distances through the transport of infested plant 

materials.

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Maconellicoccus hirsutus attacks a wide range of (usually woody) plants, including 

agricultural, horticultural, and forest species (CABI, 204). Feeding on young growth 

causes severe stunting and distortion of leaves, thickening of stems, and a bunchy-top 

appearance of shoots; in severe cases the leaves may fall prematurely. Honeydew and 

sooty mold contamination of fruit may reduce its value. In Grenada, estimated 

annual losses to crops and the environment from this mealybug were $3.5 million 

before biological controls were implemented (CABI, 2004). Other crops seriously

damaged by M. hirsutus include cotton in Egypt, with growth sometimes virtually

halted; tree cotton in India, with reduction in yield; the fiber crop Hibiscus sabdariffa

var. altissima (roselle) in India and Bangladesh, with reduction in yields of between 

21 and 40%; and grapes in India, with up to 90% of bunches destroyed. It is a 

High (3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 56 of 92

quarantine pest for Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Korea, New Zealand, 

Panama, and Uruguay (PRF, 2004), suggesting that its widespread establishment in 

the United States could result in a loss of foreign markets for various commodities. 

This species is an actual or potential pest of a wide range of economically important 

plants; risk associated with its economic impact is estimated to be high. EPPO 

(2004c) records this as an A1 pest; thus, its establishment in the U.S. may lead to 

the loss of export markets. It is currently a program pest under official control. 

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Because of its extreme polyphagy, this pest poses a threat to plants in the continental 

United States listed as Threatened or Endangered, including Cucurbita 

okeechobeensis ssp. Okeechobeensis (FL), Helianthus eggertii (AL,KY, TN), H. 

paradoxus (TX), H. schweinitzii (NC, SC), Manihot walkerae (TX), Opuntia treleasei 

(CA), Rhododendron chapmanii (FL), Amaranthus pumilus (DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, 

NY, RI, SC, VA), Euporbia telephiodes (FL), Prunus geniculata (FL), and others 

(USFWS, 2002). It is also a potential threat to a number of crops of considerable 

economic value in the United States (e.g., soybean, cotton, corn, citrus, grapes) 

(CABI, 2002). Its introduction into additional mainland states would lead to the 

initiation of chemical or biological control programs. This species is currently the 

target of an official program of biological control throughout its present range in the 

U.S. (Meyerdick et al, 1996). It has been targeted for biological control in other 

countries, such as Egypt and India (Bartlett, 1978b). 

High (3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 57 of 92

Consequences of Introduction: Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) (Homoptera: 

Pseudococcidae)

Risk Value

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

This species is widespread in tropical and subtropical Asia, occurs throughout Africa 

and parts of Oceania, but has limited distribution in North America (CABI, 2003). It 

can survive in the warmer, southern parts of the United States (Plant Hardiness Zones

9-11).

Medium (2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Nipaecoccus viridis has been recorded on host plants in more than 18 families 

(CABI, 2003). The primary host species are Rutaceae (Citrus spp.), Rubiaceae 

(Coffea spp.), and Malvaceae (Gossypium spp). However, this species is 

polyphagous and the following species are listed as host plants: Fabaceae (Acacia 

karroo, Leucaena leucocephala, Leucaena spp., Albizia lebbeck, Glycine max), 

Lamiaceae (Clerodendrum infortunatum), Rutaceae (Citrus limon, Citrus 

aurantiifolia, Citrus aurantium, Citrus maxima, Citrus x paradisi, Citrus sinensis), 

Apocynaceae (Nerium oleander), Punicaceae (Punica granatum), Lauraceae 

(Persea americana), Moraceae (Artocarpus heterophyllus, Ficus carica, Morus 

nigra), Tiliaceae (Corchorus capsularis), Malvaceae (Alcea rosea, Gossypium 

hirsutum, Hibiscus manihot), Liliaceae (Asparagus officinalis), Faboideae 

(Cajanus spp., Tamarindus spp., Tamarindus indica), Rubiaceae (Coffea arabica), 

Rosaceae (Eriobotrya japonica), Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbia hirta, Phyllanthus 

niruri), Proteaceae (Grevillea robusta), Bignoniaceae (Jacaranda mimosifolia, 

Spathodea campanulata), Anacardiaceae (Mangifera indica), Myrtaceae (Psidium 

guajava), Asteraceae (Parthenium hysterophorus), Solanaceae (Solanum 

tuberosum), Tamaricaceae (Tamarix spp.), Vitaceae (Vitis vinifera), and 

Rhamnaceae (Ziziphus mauritiana, Ziziphus spina-christi) (CABI, 2003).

High (3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

The life-cycle of N. viridis is about 68 days under optimum condition (Bedford et 

al., 1998). In South Africa, there are three generations per year (CABI, 2004). A 

female lays 90-138 eggs, and the egg and nymphal stages last 10-13 and 31-43 

days, respectively (CABI, 2004). Long distance dispersal methods are via infested 

plant materials (CABI, 2004).

High (3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 58 of 92

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Feeding on young twigs causes bulbous outgrowths, and heavy infestations may 

severely stunt the growth of young trees (CABI, 2003). Citrus fruits infested with N. 

viridis may develop lumpy outgrowths or raised shoulders near the stem end. 

Frequently, fruits turn yellow and then partly black around the stem end, finally

dropping off the tree. Late infestations on large green fruits result in congregations of 

young mealybugs in clumps over the face of the fruit. Copious quantities of 

honeydew may contaminate fruit and other plant parts, serving as a medium for the 

growth of sooty molds. This mealybug was responsible for losses up to 5% in 

vineyards in India (CABI, 2003). Losses in citrus orchards are due to fruit drop 

caused by large infestations of mealybugs; in South Africa, 50% or more of the navel 

orange crop has been lost in this way. Second, fruits with deformities caused by 

mealybug feeding, are culled in the packing-house, and result in the further loss of

production (CABI, 2004). As this pest is already established in parts of the 

continental United Sates, further introductions of the mealybug are considered 

unlikely to result in a loss of foreign markets beyond those that may be closed at 

present.

Medium (2)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

This pest represents a potential threat to vulnerable native plants (e.g., Euphorbia,

Hibiscus spp., Solanum spp., and Ziziphus celata) (USFWS, 2002) in the United 

States. Its status as a citrus pest could lead to the initiation of chemical or biological 

control programs, if it was to become more widely established in the United States. 

However, closely related species of N. viridis are pests of many agricultural crops 

grown in the U.S. that are managed using pest control programs including calendar 

spraying of insecticides; these chemical applications are also expected to be 

effective against N. viridis infestations. 

Medium (2)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 59 of 92

Consequences of Introduction: Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: 

Pseudococcidae)

Risk Value

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Paracoccus marginatus is a native species of Mexico andCentral America (CABI, 

2004; Walker & Hoy, 2003). It is distributed in Mexico, Central America, and 

Caribbean countries (CABI, 2004). It was first discovered in Manatee and Palm 

Beach counties in Florida in 1998. Its distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant 

Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA ARS, 1990). 

Medium

(2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Paracoccus marginatus is polyphagous and attacks economically important 

tropical fruits and ornamentals (Walker & Hoy, 2003). Its host species includes 

Annonaceae (Annona squamosa, Annona), Caricaceae (Carica papaya), 

Malvaceae (Hibiscus, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Gossypium 

hirsutum, Malvaviscus arboreus, Sida), Euphorbiaceae (Manihot esculenta, 

Acalypha), Lauraceae (Persea americana), Apocynaceae (Plumeria), Solanaceae 

(Solanum melongena, Capsicum annuum, Lycopersicon esculentum, Solanum 

nigrum, Solanum torvum, Cestrum nocturnum), Bromeliaceae (Ananas comosus), 

Asteraceae (Bidens, Dahlia pinnata, Parthenium hysterophorus), Fabaceae 

(Cajanus cajan, Erythrina spp., Lablab purpureus, Phaseolus, Vigna, Acacia, 

Mimosa pigra), Rutaceae (Citrus sinensis), Myrtaceae (Eugenia uniflora), 

Convolvulaceae (Ipomoea), Oleaceae (Ligustrum), Anacardiaceae (Mangifera 

indica), Rubiaceae (Mussaenda), Punicaceae (Punica granatum), Rosaceae (Rosa), 

Sterculiaceae (Theobroma cacao, Guazuma ulmifolia), Malpighiaceae (Malpighia 

glabra), and Acanthaceae (Pachystachys lutea) (CABI, 2004)

High

(3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

The biology of Paracoccus marginatus has not been studied in detail (CABI, 2004; 

Walker & Hoy, 2003). It has been estimated to have as many as 15 generations per 

year (CABI, 2004). In general, females lay 100-600 eggs in an ovisac (Walker & 

Hoy, 2003). Eggs hatch in about 10 days. Females have four instars, males have five 

instars. 

The natural dispersal means of P. marginatus are crawling and flying. First instar 

crawlers are capable of crawling, and the fifth instar of the males have a winged form 

that is capable of flight (CABI, 2004; Walker & Hoy, 2003). It can also be dispersed 

with the aid of wind (CABI, 2004). Long distance dispersal is via infested plants 

(CABI, 2004). Paracoccus marginatus has been intercepted on plant materials at the 

port-of-entry more than 380 times since 1985 (USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005). 

High

(3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Paracoccus marginatus is capable of causing significant damage to economically

important plants, such as papaya, hibiscus, avocado, citrus, cotton, tomato, eggplant, 

peppers, beans, peas, sweet potato, mango, cherry, and pomegranate (Walker & Hoy, 

2003). Walker & Hoy (2003) stated that the papaya mealybug could rapidly establish 

through Florida and the Gulf states to California. It is already established in parts of 

Florida and is not under any official control; it is unlikely that the further 

establishment of this pest would result in the loss of foreign markets beyond those 

that may be closed at present.

Medium

(2)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 60 of 92

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Paracoccus marginatus may impact threatened and endangered species listed in 

Title 50, Part 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations (50 

CFR §17.12), such as Hibiscus species, Manihot walkerae (endangered species in 

TX), Solanum species, Bidens species, Vigna species, and Eugenia species (USFWS, 

2002). 

USDA APHIS and ARS initiated a classical biological control program to manage 

the papaya mealybug in 1999 (Walker & Hoy, 2003). Four biological control 

agents, Acerophagus papayae, Anagyrus loecki, Anagyrus californicus, and 

Pseudleptomastix mexicana, were experimentally released in Puerto Rico and the 

Dominican Republic (Walker & Hoy, 2003). These four parasitoids successfully

reduced mealybug population by 99.7% in the Dominican Republic and 97% in 

Puerto Rico, with parasitism levels between 35.5% and 58.3% (Walker & Hoy, 

2003). The first release of those biological agents was made in Florida in October, 

2000 (Walker & Hoy, 2003). The establishment and introduction of P. marginatus

in other parts of continental United States would stimulate biological and chemical 

controls. 

High

(3)

Consequences of Introduction: Planococcus minor (Homoptera: 

Pseudococcidae)

Risk Value
Rev 1 20110830 Page 61 of 92

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Planococcus minor is distributed in the Afrotropical, Australasian, Nearctic,

Neotropical, and Oriental regions (Ben-Dov, 1994; Granara and Claps, 2003;

Williams and Granara de Willink, 1992; Williams and Watson, 1988). It is 

reported in south Asia (Bangladesh, Brit. Indian Ocean Terr., Burma, India,

Indonesia, Kalimantan, Sumatra, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan,

Thailand), Australia and islands of the South Pacific (American Samoa, Cook

Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Niue, Papua New

Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Vanuatu, Western Samoa), Africa

(Madagascar, Rodriques Island, Seychelles), tropical areas of the New World

(Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Bermuda, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,

Dominica, Galapagos Islands, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti,

Honduras, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, U.S. Virgin

Islands, Uruguay), and tropical areas of Mexico (Ben-Dov, 1994; Ben-Dov et al.,

2010; CABI, 2011). Based on this geographical distribution, we estimate this

species could establish in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 in the continental

United States (Magarey et al., 2008). Many of its potential hosts occurs in these

Zones (NRCS, 2011).

Medium 

(2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Planococcus minor (Maskell) is reported on more than 250 host plants in nearly

80 families (Ben-Dov, 1994; Cox, 1989; Venette and Davis, 2004; Williams and

Granara de Willink, 1992; Williams and Watson, 1988). It shows some preference

for hosts such as avocado (Persea americana), banana (Musa), beans (Phaseolus

spp., P. vulgaris, P. lunatus), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), cantaloupe (Cucumis

melo), citrus (Citrus spp.), cocoa (Theobroma cacao), coffee (Coffea), corn (Zea

mays), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), grapes (Vitis spp.), potato (Solanum

tuberosum), rice (Oryza sativa), soybean (Glycine max), and tomato (Solanum

lycopersicum). Most of these species are widely cultivated in the United States

(CABI, 2011; NRCS, 2011; Venette and Davis, 2004). Planococcus minor attacks

multiple species among multiple plant families.

High 

(3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Planococcus minor completes ten generations in a year and fecundity ranges from

200 to over 400 eggs per female, depending on the host plant and between 65-425

eggs under laboratory conditions (Martínez and Surís, 1998; Sahoo et al., 1999

Venette and Davis, 2004). Preoviposition period ranged from 8-12 days,

incubation period lasted approximately 3 days. The time to complete 1 generation

ranged from 31-50 days (Venette and Davis, 2004). Planococcus minor is likely

introduced to the Neotropics by trade (Cox, 1989). The insect can be transported

long distances in fruit shipments (Sugimoto, 1994). Ants may also play a role in

mealybug dispersal. Mealybug populations closely associated with ants tend to be

larger than non-tended populations of the same species (Venette and Davis, 2004).

High 

(3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 62 of 92

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Planococcus minor is a common pest species of many economically important

plants, particularly cocoa, throughout its geographical range (Ben-Dov, 1994;

Cox, 1989). Planococcus minor is a phloem feeder, and, in general, this may

cause reduced yield, reduced plant or fruit quality, stunting, discoloration, and

defoliation. Indirect or secondary damage is caused by sooty mold growth on

honeydew produced by the mealybug (Venette and Davis, 2004). Planococcus

minor is a quarantine pest that could cause the loss of foreign or domestic markets

High 

(3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Based on the broad P. minor host range (see above), it may negatively impact

Federal Threatened and Endangered plants species in the continental United

States, particularly congeners of current hosts: Amaranthus pumilus (DE, MA,

MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, SC, VA), Cucurbita okeechobeensis ssp. okeechobeensis

(FL), Euphorbia telephioides (FL), Helianthus paradoxus (NM, TX), H.

schweinitzii (NC, SC), Manihot walkerae (TX), Rhus michauxii (GA, NC, SC,

VA), and Verbena californica (CA) (USFWS, 2011). The control strategies used

for P. minor include chemical and biological control (CABI, 2011; Cunningham

and Harden, 1999; Paul and Ghosh, 2004; Shukla and Tandon, 1984; Williams and 

Watson, 1988). The introduction of P. minor into the continental United

States would likely stimulate chemical and biological control programs.

High 

(3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 63 of 92

Consequences of Introduction: Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel (Hemiptera: 

Pseudococcidae)

Risk Value

Risk Element #1: Climate – Host Interaction

Pseudococcus cryptus is widely distributed in southeast Asia, tropical Africa, the 

mideastern Mediterranean and South America (USDA ARS SEL, 2005). Its 

distribution corresponds to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11 (USDA ARS, 1990).

Medium

(2)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Host species of P. cryptus include Anacardiaceae (Mangifera indica), 

Apocynaceae (Plumeria spp.), Compositae (Dahlia spp.), Dilleniaceae (Dillenia

indica), Euphorbiaceae (Hevea brasiliensis), Guttiferae (Calophyllum inophyllum), 

Heliconiaceae (Heliconia spp.), Lauraceae (Ocotea pedalifolia, Persea

americana), Leguminosae (Erythrina spp.), Liliaceae (Crinum asiaticum), 

Moraceae (Artocarpus altilis, Artocarpus incisa, Artocarpus odoratissimus), 

Musaceae (Musa spp.), Myrtaceae (Osbornia ocdonta, Psidium guajava), Palmae

(Cocos nucifera, Elaeis guineensis), Pandanaceae (Pandanus spp., Pandanus

upoluensis), Passifloraceae (Passiflora foetida), Piperaceae (Piper methysticum), 

Rubiaceae (Coffea arabica, Coffea liberica, Gardenia spp., Ixora spp.), Rutaceae

(Citrus spp., Citrus aurantifolia, Citrus aurantium, Citrus grandis, Citrus limon, 

Citrus paradisi, Citrus reticulata, Citrus sinensis), Selaginellaceae (Selaginella

spp.) (USDA ARS SEL, 2004).

High

(3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

The number of eggs produced by females vary with the seasons; the greatest 

number in summer and the smallest number in winter. Female typically lay groups 

of 30-50 eggs, a total of 200-500 eggs (Avidov & Harpaz, 1969). This mealybug 

is able to have six generations per year (Avidov & Harpaz, 1969). The insect is 

only capable of limited dispersal under its own power. Long distance dispersal could 

be accomplished via the movement of infected plant materials.

High

(3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Pseudococcus cryptus is considered a major pest of citrus (Hill, 1983). The insect 

produces copious quantities of honeydew, on which sooty molds develop, sometimes 

reaching a thickness of 5-8 mm (Avidov & Harpaz, 1969). In heavy infestations, 

entire trees may be contaminated, and leaves and fruit prematurely shed. High 

population densities on coconut palm may cause the drying of inflorescence and 

button shedding (Moore, 2001). In Israel, both biological and chemical controls have 

succeeded in maintaining populations below economically damaging densities 

(Avidov & Harpaz, 1969; Blumberg et al., 2001). Citrus are commercially produced 

in AZ, CA, FL, and TX in the continental United States, and are worth more than 

$2.3 billion (USDA NASS, 2004b). This mealybug may have a high potential to 

damage the citrus industry in the continental United States.

High

(3)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 64 of 92

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Pseudococcus cryptus has the potential to damage threatened and endangered 

species that are listed in Title 50, Part 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of 

Federal Regulations (50 CFR §17.12), such as Gardenis species (USFWS, 2002). In 

Israel, where P. cryptus was introduced, it was successfully controlled by its natural 

enemy, Clausenia purpurea (USDA ARS SEL, 2005). Chemical treatment is used 

to control P. cryptus in Israel. The introduction and establishment would stimulate 

biological and chemical controls in the continental United States. However, 

closely related species of P. cryptus are pests of many agricultural crops grown in 

the U.S. that are managed using pest control programs including calendar spraying 

of insecticides; these chemical applications are also expected to be effective 

against P. cryptus infestations. 

Medium

(2)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 65 of 92

For each pest, the sum of the five Risk Elements gives a Cumulative Risk Rating. This 

Cumulative Risk Rating is considered to be a biological indicator of the potential of the pest to 

establish, spread, and cause economic and environmental impacts. The summary of risk rating 

for Consequences of Introduction is shown in Table 5.

Low: 5 – 8 points

Medium: 9 – 12 points

High: 13 – 15 points

Table 5. Risk Rating for Consequences of Introduction (Persea americana cv. Sharwil) 

from Hawaii

Pest

Risk 

Element 1

Climate/

Host 

Interaction

Risk 

Element 

2

Host 

Range

Risk 

Element 

3

Dispersal 

Potential

Risk 

Element

4

Economic 

Impact

Risk 

Element 5

Environmental 

Impact

Cumulative 

Risk Rating

Bactrocera 

dorsalis

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(14)

Ceroplastes 

rubens

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)

Medium

(10)

Coccus viridis Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(3)

Medium 

(2)

Low

(1)

Medium

(11)

Cryptoblabes 

gnidiella

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(15)

Dysmicoccus 

neobrevipes

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

High 

(13)

Epiphyas 

postvittana

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(13)

Maconellicocc

us hirsutus

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(1)

Nipaecoccus 

viridis

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(3)

Medium 

(2)

Medium

(2)

High

(12)

Paracoccus 

marginatus

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(13)

Planococcus 

minor

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(14)

Pseudococcus 

cryptus

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

High

(13)

2.6 Introduction Potential

We based this section on 1) an estimate of the amount of commodity likely to be imported (subelement#1), and 2) pest opportunity estimated using five biological features (sub-elements #2). 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 66 of 92

Details of the rating criteria are explained in the Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest 

RiskAssessments, Version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000). These sub-element ratings, along with the values for 

theLikelihood of Introduction, are summarized below (Table 6).

Risk Element #1: Quantity of commodity imported annually

The likelihood that an exotic pest will be introduced depends on the amount of potentially

infested commodity that is imported. For qualitative pest risk assessments, the amount of 

commodity imported is estimated in units of standard 40-foot long shipping containers. In those 

cases where the quantity of a commodity imported is provided in terms of kilograms, pounds, 

number of items, etc., the number of units is converted into terms of 40-foot shipping containers.

Low (1 point): < 10 containers/year

Medium (2 points): 10 – 100 containers/year

High (3 points): > 100 containers/year

The anticipated volume of avocado to be moved from Hawaii into the Continental United States 

is unknown. Given current production leveles, it is very likely that <10 containers of Sharwil 

would be exported in most years; thus the quantity of avocado imported annually is estimated to 

be Low (1). Should Hawaii wish to send more than 10 containers/year, this risk element will 

need to be re-evaluated.22

Risk Element #2: Pest Opportunity (Survival and Access to Suitable Habitat and Hosts)

1. Survive post-harvest treatment:

The industry accepted post-harvest treatments for mature green Sharwil avocados include culling, 

inspection, and packing within 12 hours of harvest. Fruit with skin damage, oviposition marks, 

and morphological aberrations associated with fruit fly infestation would be culled. However, 

tephritid fruit flies being internal feeders are ranked High risk. 

Sharwil avocado has smooth skin without any crevice for external feeding insects to hide; the 

short woody pedicel offers a limited but not preferred space of refuge. Thus, all hemipterous 

quarantine pests are ranked Medium risk. 

C. gnidiella has not been observed infesting mature green avocado fruit in Hawaii. Based on its 

feeding behavior, if early instars are found feeding on hard mature green fruit, they would be on 

the fruit surface, and would be culled during postharvest inspection. Full grown larvae are 

typical of pyralids—large, excrete noticeable frass, make evident circular entry hole into the fruit. 

Thus, larvae of C. gnidiella are detectable with ease during postharvest culling and inspection; 

this pest is ranked Low (1) risk.

E. postvittana has neither been observed infesting avocados in Hawaii nor detected in traps in 

avocado orchards. The general feeding behavior of this pest on hard mature green fruit would be 

by scraping the surface, thus, allowing detection during postharvest culling and inspection. It is 

 

22 The total avocado production in Hawaii (all varieties) in the growing season of 2003 to 2004 was 380 tons (USDA 

NASS, 2005b). Sea shipping containers, which are 40-foot in length, hold approximately 40,000 pounds (20 U.S. 

tons). Thus, 380 tons of avocados would be 19 containers per year. 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 67 of 92

unlikely that this pest will bore through the woody tissue of the pedicel of mature green Sharwil 

avocado. E. postvittana is ranked Low (1) risk. 

2. Survive shipment:

Depending on the variety, avocados are shipped at temperatures ranging from 4oC (40oF) to 13oC 

(55oF) and humidity between 85% and 95% (McGregor, 1999). Fruits can be safely held for at 

least two weeks under these conditions (Morton, 1987). Avocados are subject to chilling injury

in refrigerated storage; the degree of susceptibility to this injury varies with the cultivar and the 

stage at which harvesting took place and the length of time in storage (Morton, 1987). It is 

expected that most of the quarantine pests analyzed in the risk assessment would be able to 

survive shipment if the commodity is shipped under optimal conditions. 

Additionally, all specieshave been intercepted at ports-of-entry (USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005). 

This evidence suggests that all species are capable of surviving shipment; all species were ranked 

High (3) in this sub-element.

3. Not be detected at the port-of-entry:

Bactrocera dorsalis is rated High (3) risk because its eggs and larvae have the potential of 

escaping detection at the port-of-entry.

Coccus viridis, Dysmicoccus neobrevipes, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Nipaecoccus viridis, 

Paracoccus marginatus, Planococcus minor, and Pseudococcus cryptus are external feeders and 

visible with the naked eye. Sharwil avocado has smooth skin without any crevice for external 

feeding insects to hide; the short woody pedicel offers a limited but not preferred area of refuge. 

Thus, all hemipterous quarantine pests are ranked Medium (2) risk. 

If Cryptoblabes gnidiella is found feeding on mature green fruit, it would be on the fruit surface, 

and would be detected during inspection at the port-of-entry. Similarly, internal feeding larvae, 

unlikely occurrence in mature green Sharwil avocado, leave indices of infestation that are 

evident and higly detectable. Furthermore, feeding larvae are gregarious and move in and out of 

the fruit (Liquido, personal observation on the feeding behavior of C. gnidiella in lychee). This 

pest is ranked Low (1) risk.

If Epiphyas postvittana is found feeding on hard mature green avocado fruit, it would be on the 

fruit surface, thus, allowing detection during inspection. It is unlikely that this pest will bore 

through the woody tissue of the pedicel of mature green Sharwil avocado. E. postvittana is 

ranked Low (1) risk. 

4. Imported or move subsequently to an area with an environment suitable for survival:

Consider the geographic location of likely markets and the proportion of the commodity that is 

likely to move to locations suitable for pest survival. Even if infested commodities enter the 

country, not all final destinations will have suitable climatic conditions for pest survival.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 68 of 92

Bactrocera dorsalis, Ceroplastes rubens, Coccus viridis, Dysmicoccus neobrevipes, 

Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Nipaecoccus viridis, Paracoccus marginatus, Planococcus minor,

Pseudococcus cryptus, and Epiphyas postvittana occur in tropical and subtropical regions. In the 

continental United States, tropical and subtropical climate zones are limited to the South and the 

West Coast, which comprise an estimated 10-12% of the total land area of the continental United 

States. This PRA is for the limited movement of mature green Sharwil avocado from Hawaii to 

northern-tier states during winter months; thus, these pests are rated Low (1) risk.

Cryptoblabes gnidiella has a potential to move and survive in a wide range of climate zones; 

however, it has been reported to have the poor ability to survive winters of cooler temperate 

areas. The proposed limited movement of mature green Sharwil avocado from Hawaii to 

northern-tier states during winter months would constitute low volume shipments; thus this pest 

is rated Medium (2) risk for the likelihood to move to suitable habitat.

5. Come into contact with host material suitable for reproduction:

Bactrocera dorsalis has a wide range of recognized host species that inhabit tropical, subtropical, 

tropical and temperate zones. The proposed low volume movement of Sharwil avocado during 

winter months to northern-tier states warrant Medium risk rating. 

Scales and mealybugs (Ceroplastes rubens, Coccus viridis, Dysmicoccus neobrevipes, 

Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Nipaecoccus viridis, Paracoccus marginatus, Planococcus minor, and 

Pseudococcus cryptus) have limited powers of natural dispersal due to lack of wings or other 

means to achieve flight (Gullan & Kosztarab, 1997). For these insects, successful establishment 

in a new environment is contingent on the likelihood of at least two necessary conditions 

occurring: close proximity of susceptible hosts and presence on the imported fruit of crawlers (or 

other mobile forms) to transfer to new hosts (Miller, 1985; Blank et al., 1993), circumstances 

that are highly unlikely to occur. Several aleyrodid, scale and mealybug species have become 

permanently or sporadically established in the continental United States, including Ceroplastes 

rubens (Florida), Coccus viridis (Florida), Dysmicoccus neobrevipes (Florida), Maconellicoccus 

hirsutus (California and Florida), Nipaecoccus viridis (California), Planococcus minor (Florida), 

and Paracoccus marginatus (Florida). The proposed low volume movement of Sharwil avocado 

during winter months to northern-tier states significantly reduced the likelihood of coming into 

contact with host material. All these pests are Low (1). 

Pseudococcus cryptus has not been found in the continental United States. Like other scales and 

mealybugs, P. cryptus has a wide range of host species and has been intercepted several times at 

the port-of-entry since 1985 (USDA APHIS PPQ, 2005). There is no record of P. cryptus

establishment in the continental United States, which suggests that this species has a low 

probability of coming into contact with host material suitable for reproduction. Pseudococcus 

cryptus is rated Low (1).

Cryptoblabes gnidiella and Epiphyas postvittana have a wide range of host species that occur in 

tropical to temperate zones in the continental United States. Few host plants may be grown yearround, but not necessarily fruiting or fruiting in abundance during winter months in the northerntier states. These two pests are rated Medium risk.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 69 of 92

Summary of the ratings for Likelihood of Introduction is depicted in Table 6.

Low: 6 – 9 points

Medium: 10 – 14 points

High: 15 – 18 points

Table 6. Risk Rating for Likelihood of Introduction

Pest

Quantity 

Imported 

Annually

Survive 

Postharvest 

Treatment

Survive 

Shipment

Not 

Detected 

at Portof Entry

Move to 

Suitable 

Habitat

Contact 

with 

Host 

Material

Cumulative 

Risk Rating

Bactrocera 

dorsalis

Low

(1)

High

(3)

High

(3)

High

(3)

Low

(1)

Medium

(2)

Medium

(13)

Ceroplastes 

rubens

Low

(1)

Medium

(2) 

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

Medium

(10)

Coccus viridis Low

(1)

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

Medium

(10)

Cryptoblabes 

gnidiella

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

High

(3)

Low

(1)

Medium

(2)

Medium

(2)

Medium

(10)

Dysmicoccus 

neobrevipes

Low

(1)

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

Medum

(10)

Epiphyas 

postvittana

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

High

(3)

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

Medium

(2)

Low

(9)

Maconellicocc

us hirsutus

Low

(1)

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

Medium

(10)

Nipaecoccus 

viridis

Low

(1)

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

Medium 

(10)

Paracoccus 

marginatus

Low

(1)

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

Medium

(10)

Planococcus 

minor

Low

(1)

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

Medium

(10)

Pseudococcus 

cryptus

Low

(1)

Medium

(2)

High

(3)

Medium

(2)

Low

(1)

Low

(1)

Medium

(10)

2.7 Conclusion – Pest Risk Potential and Pests Requiring Phytosanitary Measures

To estimate the Pest Risk Potential for each pest, the Cumulative Risk Rating for the 

Consequences of Introduction and the Cumulative Risk Rating for the Likelihood of Introduction 

are summed in Table 7. The Pest Potential rating is as follows:
Rev 1 20110830 Page 70 of 92

Low: 11 – 18 points

Medium: 19 – 26 points

High: 27 – 33 points

Table 7. Pest Risk Potential

Pest

Consequences 

of Introduction

Likelihood of 

Introduction

Pest Risk 

Potential

Risk 

Rating

Bactrocera 

dorsalis

High

(14)

Medium

(13)

27 High

Ceroplastes 

rubens

Medium

(10)

Medium

(10)

20 Medium

Coccus viridis Medium

(11)

Medium

(10)

21 Medium

Cryptoblabes 

gnidiella

High

(15)

Medium

(10)

25 Medium

Dysmicoccus 

neobrevipes

High 

(13)

Medium

(10)

23 Medium

Epiphyas 

postvittana

High

(13)

Low

(9)

22 Medium

Maconellicoccus 

hirsutus

High

(14)

Medium

(10)

24 Medium

Nipaecoccus 

viridis

Medium

(12)

Medium 

(10)

22 Medium

Paracoccus 

marginatus

High

(13)

Medium

(10)

23 Medium

Planococcus 

minor

High

(14)

Medium

(10)

24 Medium

Pseudococcus 

cryptus

High

(13)

Medium

(10)

23 Medium

Following the assignment of the Pest Risk Potential for each pest, the risk assessor may briefly 

comment on risk management options associated with the requested commodity importations. 

The following guidelines are offered as an interpretation of the Low, Medium, and High Pest 

Risk Potential Ratings:

Low: Pest will typically not require specific mitigation measures; the port of entry

inspection to which all imported commodities are subjected can be expected to 

provide sufficient phytosanitary security.

Medium: Specific phytosanitary measure may be necessary.

High: Specific phytosanitary measures are strongly recommended. Port of entry inspection 

is not considered sufficient to provide phytosanitary security.

Identification and selection of appropriate sanitary and phytosanitary measures to mitigate risk 

for pest with particular Pest Risk Potential ratings is undertaken as part of the risk management 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 71 of 92

phase and is not discussed in this document. The appropriate risk management strategy for a 

particular pest depends on the risk posed by that pest. APHIS risk management programs are 

risk-based and dependent on the availability of appropriate mitigation methods. Details of 

APHIS risk management programs are published, primarily, in the Federal Register as quarantine 

notices.

III. Authors, Reviewers and Contributors

Authors:

Alison Neeley, Entomologist, PERAL, CPHST, USDA-APHIS-PPQ

Yu Takeuchi, Ecologist, PERAL, CPHST, USDA-APHIS-PPQ

Nicanor J. Liquido, Interdisciplinary (Lead Scientist), PERAL, CPHST, USDA-APHIS-PPQ 

Reviewers:

Hennessey, Michael K., Entomologist, PERAL, CPHST, USDA-APHIS-PPQ

Imai, Edwin, Plant Pathologist, PERAL, CPHST, USDA-APHIS-PPQ

Scott Redlin, Plant Pathologist, PERAL, CPHST, USDA-APHIS-PPQ

Contributors:

Griffin, Robert L., Director, PERAL, CPHST, USDA-APHIS-PPQ 

Sequeira, Ron, National Science Program Leader, CPHST, USDA-APHIS-PPQ

Hotz, Tara, Risk Analyst, PERAL, CPHST, USDA-APHIS-PPQ

IV. Literature Cited

Aitken-Soux, P. 1985. Some pests and diseases generally encountered in coffee nurseries. 

Feuille Extens. 53: 1-5.

Akinlosotu, T.A., L.E.N. Jackai, N.N. Ntonifor, A.T. Hassan, C.W. Agyakwa, J.A. Odebiyi, A.E. 

Akingbohungbe, H.W. Rossel. 1993. Spiralling Whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus, in Nigeria. 

Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO), Plant Protection Bulletin 41(2): 

127-128.

Allwood, A.J., A. Chinajariyawong, R. A. I. Drew, E. L. Hamacek, D. L. Hancock, C. 

Hengsawad, J. C., Jinapin, M. Jirasurat, C. Kong Krong, S. Kritsaneepaiboon, C. T. S., Leong, 

and S. Vijaysegaran. 1991. "Host Plant Records for Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephitidae) in South 

East Asia." The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology Supplement No. 7: 1-92. 

Alvarz, M. G., V. M. M., et al. 1967. "Avocado: Pests and dieseases." Fitfilo 63(5): 14-21.

Armstrong, J. W., W. C. Mitchell, and GJ Farias. 1983. Resistance of ‘Sharwil’ avocados at 

harvest maturity to infestation by three fruit fly species (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Hawaii. J. Econ. 

Entomol. 76: 119-121. 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 72 of 92

Armstrong, J. W. 1991. 'Sharwil' avocado: Quarantine security against fruit fly (Diptera: 

Tephritidae) infestation in Hawaii. Journal of Economic Entomology 84(4):1308-1315.

Arnett, R. H. 1985. American Insects. A Handbook of the Insects of America North of Mexico. 

New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.

Atkinson, T. H., and S. B. Peck. 1994. Annotated checklist of the bark and ambrosia beetles 

(Coleoptera: Platypodidae and Scolytidae) of tropical Southern Florida. Florida Entomologist 

77(3):313-328.

Avidov, Z. and I. Harpaz. 1969. Plant Pests of Israel. Jerusalem: Israel Univ. Press.

Bartlett, B. B. 1978a. Coccidae. Introduced Parasites and Predators of Arthropod Pests and 

Weeds: A World Review. C. P. Clausen, U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 480: 

137-170.

Bartlett, B. B. 1978b. Pseudococcidae. Introduced Parasites and Predators of Arthropod Pests 

and Weeds: A World Review. C. P. Clausen, U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 

480: 137-170.

Bedford, E. C. G., van den Berg, M. A. and E. A. de Villiers. 1998. Citrus Pests in the Republic 

of South Africa, second edition. Agricultural Research Council, Institute for Tropical and 

Subtropical Crops, Nelspruit, South Africa.

Ben-Dov, Y., D. R. Miller and G. A. P. Gibson 2005a.Scales found in the Hawaii Islands Query

Results. U.S. Department of Agriculture. http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalenet/scalenet.htm. [11 

February 2005].

Ben-Dov, Y., D. R. Miller and G. A. P. Gibson 2005b.Scales on a Host (Lauraceae: Persea 

americana) Query Results. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalenet/scalenet.htm. [11 February 2005].

Ben-Dov, Y., D. R. Miller, and G. A. P. Gibson. 2010. ScaleNet. 

http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/SCALENET/scalenet.htm. (Archived at PERAL).

Ben-Dov, Y. 1994. A systematic catalogue of the mealybugs of the world (Insecta: Homoptera:

Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae and Putoidae): With data on geographical distribution, host

plants, biology and economic importance. Intercept Ltd, Andover, UK. 686 pp.

Bianchinotti, M.V. 2004. Two new lignicolous species of Nitschkia from Argentina. 

Mycologia 96(4): 911-916.

Bier, V. M. 1999. Challenges to the acceptance of probabilistic risk analysis. Risk Analysis

19(4):703-710.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 73 of 92

Bishop_Museum. 2004. Hawaiian Arthropod Checklist Database. Bishop Museum, The Hawaii 

State Museum of Natural and Cultural History, Honolulu, HI. Last accessed April, 2005, 

http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/arthrosearch.html.

Blackman, R. L. and V. F. Eastop. 1994. Aphids on the World's Trees: An Identification and 

Information Guide. Wallingford, UK, CAB International.

Blank, R.H., M.H. Olson, and G.S.C. Gill. 1993. An assessment of the quarantine risk of 

armoured scale (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) fruit infestations on kiwifruit. N.Z. J. Crop Hort. Sci. 

21(2): 139-145.

Blumberg, D., Y. Ben-Dov, et al. 2001. "The citriculus mealybug, Psedococcus cryptus Hempel 

and its natural enemies in Israel: history and present situation." Entomologica 33: 233-242.

Bolland, H. R., J. Gutierrez, et al. 1998. World Catalogue of the Spider Mite Family (Acari: 

Tetranychidae). Leiden; Boston; Koln: Brill, Koninklijke.

Bradbury, J. F. 1986. Guide to Plant Pathogenic Bacteria. CAB International Mycological 

Institute, Kew, Surrey, England. 329 pp.

Buss, E. A., and J. C. Turner. 2006. Scale Insects and Mealybugs on Ornamental Plants. 

University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences ENY-323.

CABI. 2002. Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, Oxon, UK, CAB International.

CABI. 2003. Crop Protection Compendium, CAB International, Wallingford, U.K.

CABI. 2004. Crop Protection Compendium. Wallingford, UK, CAB International.

CABI. 2007. Crop Protection Compendium. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International 

(CABI), Wallingford, UK.

CABI. 2011. Crop Protection Compendium. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International 

(CABI), Wallingford, UK Last accessed http://www.cabi.org/cpc/.

CABI/EPPO. 1997. "Thrips palmi. Data Sheet on Quarantine Pests. Prepared by CABI and 

EPPO for EU under contract 90-399003."

Capinera, J. L. 2000. Featured Creatures: Thrips palmi (melon thrips). Gainesville, FL, 

University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Entomology

and Nematology.

Capinera, J. L. 2001. Handbook of Vegetable Pests. Academic Press, San Diego, California.

 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 74 of 92

Carter, D. J. 1984. Pest Lepidoptera of Europe, with Special Reference to the British Isles. 

Hingham, Massachusetts, Klumer Academic Publishers.

Childers, C. C., J. C. V. Rodrigues, and W. C. Welbourn. 2003. Host plants of Brevipalpus 

californicus, B. obovatus, and B. phoenicis (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) and their potential 

involvement in the spread of viral diseases vectored by these mites. Experimental and Applied 

Acarology 30(1-3):29-105.

Clausen, C. P. 1978. Tephritidae (Trypetidae, Trupaneidae). Introduced Parasites and Predators 

of Arthropod Pests and Wees: A World Review. Agicultural Handbook. C. P. Clausen, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture. 480: 320-335.

C.M.I. 1988. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases No. 336. Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae. 

Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, England.

Cox, J. M. 1989. The Mealybug genus Planococcus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Bulletin of

the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology 58(1):1-78.

Crane, J.H., C.F. Balerdi, and C.W. Campbell. 2001. The Avocado. University of Florida, 

Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. <http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG213> last accessed: 

April, 2005.

Crane, J., M. Aerts, et al. 2002. Crop Profile for Papaya in Florida, Regional Integrated Pest 

Management Centers, USDA Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service.

CSREES (Cooperative State Reasearch, Extention and Education Service). 2004. List of Plant 

Diseases in American Samoa. American Samoa Community College. 

<http://www2.ctahr.hawaii.edu/adap2/ascc_landgrant/Dr_Brooks/TechRepNo41.pdf> last 

accessed: April, 2005.

Culliney, T. W., W. T. Nagamine, et al. 2003. "Introductions for biological control in Hawaii, 

1997-2001." Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 36: 145-153.

Cunningham, G. P., and J. Harden. 1999. Sprayers to reduce spray volumes in mature citrus

trees. Crop Protection 18:275-281.

Danthanarayana, W. 1975. "The bionomics, distribution and host range of the light brown apple 

moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walk.) (Tortricidae)." Australian Journal of Zoology 23(3): 419-437.

Danthanarayana, W., H. Gu, et al. 1995. "Population growth potential of Ephiphyas postvittana, 

the light brown apple moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in relation to diet, temperature and 

climate." Australian Journal of Zoology 43(4): 381-394.

Drew, R. A. I. and D. L. Hancock 1994. The Bactrocera dorsalis complex of fruit flies (Diptera: 

Tephritidae) in Asia. Wallingford, UK, CAB International.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 75 of 92

Duran I., Mesa N., Estrada E. 1999 Ciclo de vida de Thrips palmi (Thysanoptera:

Thripidae) y registro de hospedantes en el valle del cauca. En. Revista Colombiana de

Entomología Vol 25 No 3-4, p. 109-120 1999

Ebeling, W. 1959. Subtropical Fruit Pests. Berkeley, University of California Division of 

Agricultural Sciences. 436 pp.

El-Tarabily, A., G.E. St. J. Hardy, and K. Sivasithamparam. Effects of Host Age on 

Development of Cavity Spot Disease of Carrots Caused by Pythium coloratum in Western 

Australia Khaled. Australian Journal of Botany 45(4): 727-734.

EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization). 2004a. Aleurodicus 

dispersus (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). EPPO, Paris, France. 

<http:///eppo.org/quarantine/alert_list/insects/aleddi.htm> last accessed: April, 2005.

EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization). 2004b. Chrysodeixis 

eriosoma (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). EPPO, Paris, France. 

<http:///eppo.org/quarantine/alert_list/insects/chrxer.htm> last accessed: March, 2005.

EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization). 2004c. "EPPO Standard 

PM1/2(13). A1 and A2 Lists of pests recommended for regulation as quarantine pests (adopted 

in 2004-09)." <http://www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/lists.htm> Last accessed April, 2005

Evans, G. A. 2008. Whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) of the World and Their Host Plants and 

Natural Enemies. . USDA/Animal Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Last accessed 

http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov:8080/1WF/World-Whitefly-Catalog.pdf

Everett, K.R. 1996. Postharvest diseases of avocados. HortResearch, The Horticulture and 

Food Research Institute of New Zealand. 

<http://www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/science/everavol.htm> last accessed: April, 2005.

Ferris, H. 2011. Nemaplex: Radopholus similis. University of California, Davis. 

http://plpnemweb.ucdavis.edu/Nemaplex/taxadata/g111s2.htm. (Archived at PERAL).

Fletcher, B.S. 1989a. Movements of tephritid fruit flies, pp. 209-219. In A.S. Robinson and G. 

Hooper (eds.). Fruit Flies: Their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. (World Crop Pests, Vol. 

3B). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Fletcher, B. S. 1989b. Life history strategies of tephritid fruit flies. Fruit Flies: Their Biology, 

Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests. A. S. Robinson and G. Hooper. Amsterdam, 

Netherlands, Elsevier. 3B: 195-208

Fucikovsky, L., and I. Luna. 1987. Avocado fruit diseases and their control in Mexico. Yearbook 

of the South African Avocado Growers' Association 10:119-121.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 76 of 92

Gilbertson, R.L. and J.E. Adaskaveg. 1993. Studies on Wood-Rotting Basidiomycetes of 

Hawaii. Mycotaxon. 49: 369-397.

Gilbertson, R.L., D.M. Bigelow, D.E. Hemmes, and D.E. Desjardin. 2002. Annotated Check 

List of Wood-Rotting Basidiomycetes of Hawaii. Mycotaxon. 82: 215-239.

Gilbertson, R.L., H.H. Burdsall, Jr., and E.R. Canfield. 1976. Fungi that decay mesquite in 

Southern Arizona. Mycotaxon. 3(3): 487-551.

Gonsalves, A.K. and S.A. Ferreira. 1994a. Crop Knowledge Master: Colletotrichum Primer. 

Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources 

(UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension 

Entomology.

Gonsalves, A.K. and S.A. Ferreira. 1994b. Crop Knowledge Master: Gloeosporium Primer. 

Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources 

(UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension 

Entomology.

Gonsalves, A.K. and S.A. Ferreira. 1994c. Crop Knowledge Master: Glomerella Primer. 

Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources 

(UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension 

Entomology.

Gonsalves, A.K. and S.A. Ferreira. 1994d. Crop Knowledge Master: Phytophthora Primer. 

Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources 

(UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension 

Entomology.

Gonsalves, A.K. and S.A. Ferreira. 1994e. Crop Knowledge Master: Pythium Primer. Honolulu, 

HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), 

Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension Entomology.

Gonsalves, A.K. and S.A. Ferreira. 1994f. Crop Knowledge Master: Rhizoctonia Primer. 

Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources 

(UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension 

Entomology.

Granara, M., and L. Claps. 2003. Cochinillas (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) Presentes en Plantas 

Ornamentales de la Argentina. Scale Insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) Present in Ornamentals in 

Argentina. Neotropical Entomology 32(4):625-637.

Gullan, P. J. and M. Kosztarab. 1997. Adaptations in scale insects. Annual Review of 

Entomology. 42: 23-50.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 77 of 92

Gunn, C.R. and C. Ritchie. 1982. 1982 Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate Noxious 

Weeds: Exotic Weeds for Federal Noxious Weed Act (unpublished).

Halbert, S. E. 1996. Entomology Section. Tri-ology: Florida Depertment of Agriculture and 

Consumer Services: Division of Plant Industry 35(6).

Haleem, S. A. 1984. Studies on fruit quality of sweet orange as affected by soft green scale and 

sooty mould. South Indian Horticulture. 32(5): 267-269.

Hancock, D. L., E. L. Hamacek, et al. 2000. The Distribution and Host Plants of Fruit Flies 

(Diptera: Tephritidae) in Australia. Brisbane, Queensland, State of Queensland, Department of 

Plant Industries.

Harris, EJ, JM Takara, and T. Nishida. 1986. Distribution of the melon fly, Dacus cucurbitae

(Diptera: Tephritidae), and host plants on Kauai, Hawaiian Islands. Environ. Entomol. 15: 488-

493. [not reared from 3 kg avocado fruit]

Harris, E. J. 1989. Pest Status: Hawaiian Islands and North America. Fruit Flies: Their Biology, 

Natural Enemies and Control. World Crop Pests. A. S. Robinson and G. Hooper. Amsterdam, 

Netherlands, Elsevier. 3: 73-81.

HDOA 2005. Distribution and Host Record Report for: Avocado. Honolulu, HI, Hawaii 

Department of Agriculture.

HDOA. 2010. Report to the twenty-fifth legislature regular session of 2010: Report on the fight 

against invasive species. Last accessed http://hawaii.gov/hdoa/meetings_reports/legislativereports/2010-legislative-report-folder/Act%20213%20-

%20Fight%20Against%20Invasive%20Species%205.24.10%20_FINAL_.pdf.

HEAR. 2005. Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk Project: Pathogens of Plants in Hawaii. 

http://www.hear.org/. (Archived at PERAL).

Hill, D. S. 1983. Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and Their Control, 2nd Ed. Oxford, 

London, Northampton, Cambridge University Press.

Henry, T. J. and R. C. Froeschner 1988. Catalog of the Heteroptera, or True Bugs of Canada and 

the Continental United States. Leiden, New York, Kobenhaven, Koln, E.J. Brill.

Hjortstam, K. and L. Ryvarden. 1996. New and Interesting Wood-Inhabiting Fungi 

(Basidiomycotina – Aphyllophorales) from Ethiopia. Mycotaxon. 60: 181-190.

Hoddle, M. S., L. A. , L. A. Mound, and D. L. Paris. 2008. Thrips of California. CBIT 

Publishing, Queensland, Australia. Last accessed 

http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/thrips_of_california/Thrips_of_California.html.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 78 of 92

Hoddle, M. S., S. Nakahara, and P. A. Phillips. 2002. Foreign exploration for Scirtothrips 

perseae Nakahara (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and associated natural enemies on avocado (Persea 

americana Miller). Biological Control 24( 3):251-265.

Holm, L. G., Plucknett, D. L., Pancho, J. V. and J. P. Herberger. 1977. The World’s Worst 

Weeds. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Holm, L. G., Pancho, J. V., Herberger, J. P. and D. L. Plucknett. 1979. A Geographical Atlas of 

World Weeds. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Holm, L. G., Doll, J., Holm, E., Pancho, J. and J. Herberger. 1997. World Weeds: Natural 

Histories and Distribution. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 

Hopper, B. E. 1996. NAPPO Compendium of Phytosanitary Terms. NAPPO Doc. No 96-127, 

North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO). NAPPO Secretariat, Ottawa, Ontario, 

Canada.

Hoy, M. A., A. Hammon, et al. 2003. Feature Creatures: Pink Hibiscus Mealybug

(Maconellicoccus hirsutus). Gainesville, FL, University of Florida, Institute of Food and 

Agricultural Sciences, Department of Entomology and Nematology.

Hoy, M. A., A. Hammon, and R. Nguyen. 2003. Feature Creatures: Pink Hibiscus Mealybug 

(Maconellicoccus hirsutus). University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, 

Department of Entomology and Nematology, Gainesville, FL. Last accessed April 2005, 

http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/orn/mealybug/mealybug.htm.

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC). 1996. International standards for 

phytosanitary measures, Guidelines for pest risk analysis. Secretariat of the International Plant 

Protection Convention, Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations. Rome, Italy.

IPPC. 2009. International Standards For Phytosanitary Measures, 1 to 31 (2008 edition). Food 

and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Secretariat of the International Plant 

Protection Convention (IPPC), Rome. 419 pp.

Jahn, G. C. 1993. "Gray Pineapple Mealybug, Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Beardsley (Homoptera: 

Pseudococcidae), Inside Closed Pineapple Blossom Cups." Proceedings of the Hawaiian 

Entomological Society 32: 147-148.

Jahn, G. C., J. W. Beardsley, and H. González Hernández. 2003. A review of the association of 

ants with mealybug wilt disease of pineapple. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological 

Society 36:9-28

Jeppson, L. R., H. H. Keifer, et al. 1975. Mites Injurious to Economic Plants. Berkeley, CA, 

University of California Press.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 79 of 92

Johansen-Naime, R. M., A. Mojica-Guzman, A. R. Valle de la Paz, and M. Valle de la Paz. 2003. 

The present knowledge of the Mexican Thysanoptera (Insecta), inhabiting avocado trees (Persea 

americana Miller). Proceedings V World Avocado Congress:455-460. 

http://www.avocadosource.com/WAC455/Papers/WAC455_p455.pdf.

Jones, V. P., M. T. Fukuda, et al. 2004. Crop Knowledge Master: Sophonia rufofascia. Honolulu, 

HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), 

Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension Entomology.

Kaplan, S. 1992. Expert information versus expert opinions. Another approach to the problem of

eliciting/combining/using expert knowledge in PRA. Reliability Engineering and System Safety 

35:61-72.

Killgore, E. 2005. Diseases of Avocado Known to Occur in Hawaii. Provided by N. Liquido in 

April, 2005. 

Kosztarab, M. 1996. "Scale Insects of Northeastern North America: Identification, Biology and 

Distribution." Virginia Museum of Natural History Special Publication No. 3.

Lewis, T. 1997. Thrips as Crop Pests. Wallingford, United Kingdom, CAB International.

Liquido, N. J., P. G. Barr, and R. T. Cunningham. 1998. MEDHOST: An Encyclopedic 

Bibliography of the Host Plants of the Mediterranean Fruit Fly, Ceratitis capitata. Hilo, HI, 

USDA Agricultural Research Service, ARS-144. 

Liquido, N. J., H. T. Chan, Jr., and G. T. McQuate. 1995. Hawaiian tephritid fruit flies 

(Diptera): Integrity of the infestation-free quarantine procedure for ‘Sharwil’ avocado. Journal 

of Econolic Entomology 88(1):85-96. 

Liquido, N. J., L. A. Shinoda, and R. T. Cunningham. 1991. Host Plants of the Mediterranean 

Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae): An Annotated World View. MMPEAL 77. Entomological 

Society of America. 52 pp.

Magarey, R. D., D. M. Borchert, and J. W. Schlegel. 2008. Global plant hardiness zones for 

phytosanitary risk analysis. Scientia Agricola 65:54-59.

Malaysia Dept. Agric. agrolink.moa.my/doa/BI/Croptech/pestdurian.html (last accessed 5/10/05).

Martens, R., H-G. Wetzstein, F. Zadrazil, M. Capelari, P. Hoffmann, and N. Schmeer. 1996. 

Degradation of the Fluoroquinolone Enrofloxacin by Wood-Rotting Fungi. Applied and 

Environmental Microbiology 62(11): 4206-4209.

Martin-Kessing, J. L. and R. F. L. Mau 1991. Crop Knowledge Master: Aphis gossypii (Glover). 

Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and 

Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of 

Agriculture Extension Entomology.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 80 of 92

Martin-Kessing, J. L. and R. F. L. Mau 1992. Crop Knowledge Master: Dysmicoccus 

neobrevipes (Beardsley). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture 

and Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of 

Agriculture Extension Entomology.

Martin-Kessing, J. L. and R. F. L. Mau 1993a. Crop Knowledge Master: Aleurodicus dispersus 

(Russell). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Martin-Kessing, J. L. and R. F. L. Mau 1993b. Crop Knowledge Master: Abgrallaspis 

cyanophylli (Signoret). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and 

Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of 

Agriculture Extension Entomology.

Martin-Kessing, J. L. and R. F. L. Mau 1993c. Crop Knowledge Master: Elimaea punctifera 

(Walker). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Martínez, M. A., and M. Surís. 1998. Biología de Planococcus minor Maskell (Homoptera:

Pseudococcidae) en condiciones de laboratorio. Revista de Protección Vegetal 13(3):199-

201.

Mau, R. F. L. and S. G. Lee 1992. Crop Knowledge Master: Bemisia argentifolii (Bellows and 

Perring). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Mau, R.F.L. and J.L. Martin. 1992. Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel). Crop Knowledge Master, 

College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii and Hawaii 

Department of Agriculture. <http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/type/bactro_d.htm> last 

accessed: April, 2005.

Mau, R. F. L. and J. L. Martin-Kessing. 1991a. Crop Knowledge Master: Adoretus sinicus 

(Burmeister). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Mau, R.F.L. and J.L. Martin Kessing. 1991b. Chrysodeixis eriosoma (Doubleday). Crop 

Knowledge Master, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of 

Hawaii and Hawaii Department of Agriculture. 

<http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/type/chrysode.htm> last accessed: March, 2005.

Mau, R. F. L. and J. L. Martin-Kessing. 1991c. Crop Knowledge Master: Xylosandrus 

crassiusculus (Motschulsky). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 81 of 92

Agriculture and Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii 

Department of Agriculture Extension Entomology.

Mau, R. F. L. and J. L. Martin-Kessing. 1992a. Crop Knowledge Master: Elytroteinus 

subruncatus (Fairmaire). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture 

and Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of 

Agriculture Extension Entomology.

Mau, R. F. L. and J. L. Martin-Kessing. 1992b. Crop Knowledge Master: Bactrocera dorsalis 

(Hendel). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Mau, R. F. L. and J. L. Martin-Kessing 1992c. Crop Knowledge Master: Ceratitis capitata 

(Wiedemann). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Mau, R. F. L. and J. L. Martin-Kessing 1992d. Crop Knowledge Master: Empoasca stevensi 

(Young). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Mau, R. F. L. and J. L. Martin-Kessing 1992e. Crop Knowledge Master: Pulvinaria mammeae 

(Maskell). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Mau, R. F. L. and J. L. Martin-Kessing 1992f. Crop Knowledge Master: Pulvinaria psiddi 

(Maskell). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Mau, R. F. L. and J. L. Martin-Kessing 1992g. Crop Knowledge Master: Hyalopeplus pellucidus 

(Stal). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Mau, R. F. L. and J. L. Martin-Kessing 1992h. Crop Knowledge Master: Thrips hawaiiensis. 

Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources 

(UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension 

Entomology.

Mau, R. F. and J. L. Martin-Kessing 1992.Crop Knowledge Master: Cyptoblabes gnidiella 

(Milliere). University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (UH-
Rev 1 20110830 Page 82 of 92

CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension 

Entomology. 

McGregor, B., 1999. Tropical Products Transport Handbook. Agricultural Handbook Number 

668. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

McMurtry, J. A. 1985. Avocado. Spider Mites, Their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control, Vol. 

1B, World Crop Pests. W. Helle and M. W. Sabelis. Elsevier, Amsterdam: 458.

McQuate, G. T., P. A. Follet, et al. 2000. "Field infestation of rambutan fruits by internal feeding 

pests in Hawaii." Journal of Economic Entomology 93: 846-851.

Meijerman L.& S.A. Ulenberg. 2000. Arthropods of Economic Importance. European 

Tortricidae: Ephiphyas postvittana. Zoölogisch Museum Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 

<http://ip30.eti.uva.nl/bis/tortricidae.php>

Metcalf, R. L. and R. A. Metcalf 1993. Destructive and Useful Insects, Their Habits and Control, 

Fifth Edition. New York, McGraw-Hill Inc.

Meyerdirk, D. W. 1996. Factsheet: The Hibiscus or Pink Mealybug. Riverdale, MD, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, International Services 

and Plant Protection and Quarantine.

Miller, D.R. 1985. Pest Risk Assessment of Armored Scales on Certain Fruit. Unpublished report. 

USDA Agric. Res. Serv.

Miller, G. L. and D. R. Miller 2002. "Dymicoccus Ferris and similar genera (Hemiptera: 

Coccoidea: Psudococcidae) of the Gulf State Region including a description of a new species and 

new United States records." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washinton 104(4): 

968-979.

Morgan, M. G., and M. Henrion. 1990. Uncertainty. Cambridge Univ. Press, U.K. 332 pp.

Moore, D. 2001. Insects of palm flowers and fruits. Insect on Palms. F. W. Howard, D. Moore, R. 

Giblin-Davis and R. Abad. Wallingford, U.K, CAB International.

Morton, J. 1987. Avocado. In: J.F. Morton, ed., Fruits of warm climates. Miami, Florida. 

<http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/avocado_ars.html> last accessed: April, 2005. 

Muthukrishnan, C. R., J. B. M. Abdul-Khader, et al. 2001. Avocados. Fruits: Tropical and 

Subtropical, Vol.1, 3rd Ed. T. K. Bose, S. K. Mitra and D. Sanyal. Calcutta, New Sarada Press: 

654-700.

Nakahara, S. 1982. Checklist of the Armored Scales (Homoptera: Diaspididae) of the 

Conterminous United States, USDA, APHIS, PPQ: 110.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 83 of 92

NAPIS. 2011. Map of Passionvine Mealybug, Planococcus minor. Last accessed 

http://pest.ceris.purdue.edu/searchmap.php?selectName=IRAWQKA.

Narasimham, A. U. 1987. Scale insects and mealybugs on coffee, tea and cardamom and their 

natural enemies. Journal of Coffee Research. 17(1): 7-13.

NGDC. 1984. Distribution of Plant-Parasitic Nematode Species in North America. Nematode 

Geographical Distribution, Committee of the Society of Nematologists.

Nguyen, R., A. B. Hamon, et al. 1998. Featured Creatures: Citrus blackfly Aleurocanthus 

woglumi Ashby (Insecta: Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Gainesville, FL, University of Florida, 

Department of Entomology and Nematology.

NRCS. 2011. The PLANTS Database. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural

Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), The National Plant Data Center.

http://plants.usda.gov/. (Archived at PERAL).

Oi, D. H., and R. F. L. Mau. 1989. Relationship of fruit ripeness to infestation in 'Sharwil' 

avocados by the Mediterranean fruit fly and the oriental fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae). Journal 

of Economic Entomology 82(2):556-560.

Orr, R. L., S. D. Cohen, and R. L. Griffin. 1993. Generic non-indigenous pest risk assessment

process: "The generic process" (For estimating pest risk associated with the introduction

of non-indigenous organisms). United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and

Plant Health Inspection Service. 40 pp.

Paul, S., and A. B. Ghosh. 2004. Effect of Novaluron 10EC against Planococcus minor

(Maskell), Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) (Pseudococcidae) and Icerya aegyptiaca

(Douglas) (Margarodidae). Environment and Ecology 224(4):729-732.

Peña, J. E., J. L. Sharp, and M. Wysoki. 2002. Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, 

Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. Wallingford, UK: CAB International:1-430.

PestID. 2011. Pest Identification Database (PestID). United States Department of Agriculture, 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine. Last accessed 

https://mokcs14.aphis.usda.gov/aqas/login.jsp. (Archived at PERAL).

Persad, C. 1995. Preliminary List of Host Plants of Maconellicoccus hirsutus: Hibiscus or Pink 

mealybug in Grenada. Grenada, CARDI.

PNKTO-INKTO (Prepared by Biological Assessment Support Staff, PPQ, APHIS, USDA, 

Federal Building Room 634, Hyattsville, MD 20782)
Rev 1 20110830 Page 84 of 92

Polizzi, G. and V. Catara. First Report of Leaf Spot Caused by Cylindrocladium pauciramosum

on Acacia retinodes, Arbutus unedo, Fejioa sellowiana, and Dodonaea viscose in Southern Italy. 

Plant Disease 85: 803.

PPQ. 2000. Guidelines for pathway-initiated pest risk assessments (version 5.02). United States

Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and 

Quarantine (PPQ), Riverdale, MD. 30 pp.

PRF. 2004. Export Certification Project (EXCERPT) Database. Purdue Research Foundation.

< http://ceris.purdue.edu/excerpt/> last accessed: April, 2005.

Raghukumar, C. and G. Rivonkar. 2001. Decolorization of molasses spent wash by the whiterot fungus Flavodon Flavus, isolated from a marine habitat. Applied Microbiology and 

Biotechnology 55: 510-514.

Reed, C. F. 1977. Economically Important Foreign Weeds. Agriculture Handbook No. 498.

Roberts, L.I.N. 1979. Biology of Chrysodeixis eriosoma (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in New 

Zealand. 7(1): 52-58.

Rohrbach, K. G., J. W. Beardsely, et al. 1988. "Mealybug wilt, mealybugs, and ants on 

pineapple." Plant Disease 72(7): 558-565.

Sahoo, A. K., A. B. Ghosh, S. K. Mandal, and D. K. Maiti. 1999 Study on the biology of the

mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell) Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera. Journal of

Interacademicia 3(1):41-48.

Sakimura, K., L. M. Nakahara, et al. 1986. A thrips, Thrips pamli Karny (Thysanoptera: 

Thripidae). Entomology Circular No. 280. Gainesville, FL, Division of Plant Industry, Florida 

Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services.

SBC 1997. Pest notices: Persea mite. Santa Barbara, CA, Santa Barbara County (California) 

Agricultural Commissioner's Office.

Schaefer, C. W., and A. R. Panizzi. 2000. Heteroptera of Economic Importance. Pages 193-205. 

CRC Press, Boca Raton.

Shukla, R. P., and P. L. Tandon. 1984. Use of insecticides for the control of Planococcus

pacificus Cox, a mealybug on custard apple. Entomon 9, (3):181-183 pp.

Silva, E. B., and A. Mexia. 1999. The pest complex Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Milliere) 

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on sweet 

orange groves (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) in Portugal: Interspecific association. Bol. San. Veg. 

Plagas 25:89-98.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 85 of 92

Silva, C. G. and J. R. P. Parra 1982. "Biology and injuriousness of Coccus viridis (Green) 

(Homoptera:Coccidae) on coffee seedlings (Coffea spp.)." An. Soc. Entomol. Brasil 11(2): 181-

195.

Stevens, P. S., C.E. McKenna, and D. Steven. 1995. Management for avocados in New Zealand. 

Proceedings of the World Avocado Congress III. pp. 429-432. 

http://www.avocadosource.com/WAC3/WAC3_TOC.htm (last accessed 5/10/05).

Strandberg, J.O. 2002. Sphaeropsis gall of holly and other landscape ornamental plants. 

University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. 

<http://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/jos/Sphaeropsis.htm> last accessed: April, 2005.

Sugimoto, S. 1994. Scale insects intercepted on banana fruits from Mindanao Is., the Philippines

(Coccoidea: Homoptera) Research Bulletin of the Plant Protection Service. Plant

Protection Service (Plant Protection Station, 5-57, Kitanakadori, Naka-Ku), Yokohama.

115-121 pp.

Tanako-Lee, M. and M. S. Hoddle 2002. "Oligonychus perseae (Acari: Tetranychidae) 

population responses to cultural control attempts inan avocado orchard." Florida Entomologist

85(1): 216-226.

Tandon, P. L. and G. K. Veeresh 1988. "Inter-tree spatial distribution of Coccus viridis (Green) 

on mandarine." International Journal of Tropical Agriculture 6(3/4): 270-275.

Teliz, D. 2000. El Aguacate: y su manejo integrado. . Mundi-Prensa, Mexico City, Mexico. 219 

pp.

Tenbrink, V. L. and A. H. Hara 1992a. Crop Knowledge Master: Hemiberlesia lataniae 

(Signoret). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Tenbrink, V. L. and A. H. Hara 1992b. Crop Knowledge Master: Hemiberlesia rapax 

(Comstock). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Tenbrink, V. L. and A. H. Hara 1992c. Crop Knowledge Master: Ischnaspis longirostris 

(Signoret). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

Tenbrink, V. L. and A. H. Hara 1992d. Crop Knowledge Master: Pinnaspis strachani (Cooley). 

Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources 

(UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension 

Entomology.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 86 of 92

Tenbrink, V. L. and A. H. Hara 1993. Crop Knowledge Master: Psedococcus longispinus 

(Targioni-Tozzetti). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and 

Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of 

Agriculture Extension Entomology.

Tenbrink, V. L. and A. H. Hara 1994. Crop Knowledge Master: Xylosandrus compactus 

(Eichoff). Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human 

Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology.

UCIMP (University of California Integrated Pest Management). 2003. UCIPM Pest 

Management Guidelines: Avocado. University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources. 

Publication 3436. < http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/selectnewpest.avocado.html> last 

accessed: April, 2005.

UGA. 2010. Widely Prevalent Viruses of the United States. University of Georgia, Center for 

Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. http://www.prevalentviruses.org/index.html. (Archived 

at PERAL).

UH-CTAHR 2005a. Crop Knowledge Master: Avocados. Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, 

College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of 

Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension Entomology. 2005.

http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/crops/avocado.htm

UH-CTAHR 2005b. Crop Knowledge Master: Mangos. Honolulu, HI, University of Hawaii, 

College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of 

Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension Entomology. 2005.

University of Illinois. 2002. Report on Plant Disease: Root Rot of Pea. University of Illinois, 

College of Agricultural, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences, Department of Crop Sciences. 

RPD No. 911. < http://www.ipm.uiuc.edu/diseases/series900/rpd911/> last accessed: April, 2005.

UPASI. 2003. India tea research center. 

http://www.upasitearesearch.org/pestmanagement_content.html. (last accessed 5/10/05).

USDA 1983. Pests not known to occur in the United States or of limited distribution, no. 33: 

Melon Fly. Hyattsville, MD, USDA APHIS PPQ: 1-10.

USDA APHIS (United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service). 2000. Guidelines for pathway-initiated pest risk assessments, version 5.02. USDA 

APHIS PPQ, Riverdale, Maryland. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/pra/commodity; last 

accessed: April, 2005. 
Rev 1 20110830 Page 87 of 92

USDA APHIS (United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service). 2002. Evaluation of cold storage treatment against Mediterranean Fruit Fly, Ceratitis 

capitata (Wiedemann) (Deptera: Tephritidae). USDA APHIS PPQ, Riverdale, Maryland. 

<http://www.aphis.usda.gov/lpa/issues/Clementine/10-17-02/ctr5-2-02.pdf> last accessed: April, 

2005.

USDA APHIS PPQ (United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health 

Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine). 2005. Port Information Network (PIN309). USDA, APHIS, PPQ, Riverdale, Maryland. 

USDA ARS (United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service). 1990. 

USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. USDA ARS, Miscellaneous Publication Number 1475. 

USDA ARS, Washington, D.C.

USDA ARS SEL (United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 

Systematic Entomological Laboratory). 2005. ScaleNet. USDA ARS, SEL, Beltsville, 

Maryland.

USDA ARS SBML (United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 

Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory). 2005. Index of Fungi. USDA, ARS, SBML, 

Beltsville, Maryland.

USDA FAS (United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service). 2003. 

USDA FAS Glossary. USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service, Washington D.C.

USDA NASS (United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service). 

2004a. Noncitrus Fruits and Nuts: 2003 Summary. USDA National Agricultural Statistics 

Service (NASS), Washington D.C. <http://www.usda.gov/nass> last accessed: April, 2005.

USDA NASS (United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service). 

2004b. Citrus Fruits: 2003 Summary. USDA NASS, Washington D.C. 

<http://www.usda.gov/nass/> last accessed: April, 2005.

USDA NASS (United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service). 

2004c. Crop Values: 2003 Summary. USDA NASS, Washington D.C. 

<http://www.usda.gov/nass> last accessed: November, 2004.

USDA NASS (United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service). 

2005a. Crop Values: 2004 Summary. USDA NASS, Washington D.C. 

<http://www.usda.gov/nass> last accessed: April, 2005.

USDA NASS (United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service). 

2005b. Noncitrus Fruit and Nuts: 2004 Preliminary Summary. USDA NASS, Washington D.C. 

<http://www.usda.gov/nass> last accessed: April, 2005.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 88 of 92

USDA NRCS 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5 (http://plants.usda.gov), National Plant 

Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

USDA NRCS (United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service). 2005. Plants Database. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 

<http://plants.usda.gov> last accessed: April, 2005.

USDA NRCS. 2011. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5 (http://plants.usda.gov). National 

Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

USFWS (United States Fish & Wildlife Service). 2002. Threatened and Endangered Species 

System (TESS). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. http://ecos.fws.gov/webpage; last accessed: 

November, 2004.

USFWS. 2011. Threatened and endangered species system (TESS). United States Fish and

Wildlife Service (USFWS). http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/pub/listedPlants.jsp. (Archived at 

PERAL).

van den Berg, M.A., E.A. de Villiers and P.H. Joubert. 2001. Pests and Beneficial Arthropods 

of Tropical and Non-citrus Subtropical Crops in South Africa. Agricultural Research Council, 

Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops. 

Vasquez, E., N. E. J. M. Smit, and J. C. O'Sullivan. undated. Sweetpotato DiagNotes: Whiteflies. 

Aleurodicus dispersus Russell and Bemisia tabaci Gennadius. Queensland, Australia: The 

University of Queensland, Centre for Biological Information Technology. Last accessed 

http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/sweetpotato/key/Sweetpotato%20Diagnotes/media/html/ThePro

blems/Pest-SuckingInsects/Whiteflies/White%20fly.htm.

Venette, R. C., and E. E. Davis. 2004. Pest Risk assessment Mini Risk Assessment Passionvine

mealybug: Planococcus minor (Maskell) (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera). United States

Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. (Archived at

PERAL).

Vo, T. and C. E. Miller 1989. Economic Analysis of the Mediterranean Fruit Fly Program in 

Guatemala. Hyattsville, MD, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health 

Inspection Service, Policy and Program Development.

Walker, A. & M. Hoy. 2003. Featured Creatures: Papaya Mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus

Williams and Granara de Willink (Insecta: Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). University of Florida 

Institute of Food and Agricultural Aciences, Department of Entomology and Nematology; 

Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. 

<http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/fruit/mealybugs/papaya_mealybug.htm> last accessed: April, 2005.

Watson, G. W. undated. Arthropods of Economic Importance - Diaspididae of the World. Last 

accessed http://ip30.eti.uva.nl/bis/diaspididae.php.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 89 of 92

Wearing, C. H., W. P. Thomaas, et al. 1991. Tortricid pests of pome and stone fruites, Australian 

and New Zealand species. Tortricid pests: Their biology, natural enemies and control. World 

Crop Pests. L. P. S. van der Geest and H. H. Evenhuis. Amsterdam, Netherlands, Elsevier. 453-

472.

Weems, H. V., Jr. 1964. "Melon fly (Dacus cucurbitate Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae)." 

Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry, 

Entomology Circular No. 29.

Weems, H.V., Jr. 1981. Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: 

Tephritidae). Fla. Dept. Agric. Consumer Serv. Div. Plant Ind. Entomol. Circ. 230.

Whiley, A. W., B. Schaffer, and B. N. Wolstenholme. 2002. The Avocado: Botany, Production, 

and Uses. CABI Publishing, New York, NY. 416 pp.

White, I. M. and M. M. Elson-Harris 1992. Fruit Flies of Economic Significance: Their 

Identification and Bionomics. Wallingford, UK, CAB International in association with ACIAR.

Williams, D. J. 1986. Scale insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea) on coffee in Papua New Guinea. 

Papua New Guinea Journal of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries. 34: 1-7.

Williams, D., and M. Granara de Willink. 1992. Mealybugs of Central and South America. CAB

International, University Press, UK. 630 pp.

Williams, D. J. and G. W. Watson 1988. The Scale Insects of the Tropical South Pacific Region, 

Part 2: The Mealy Bugs (Psuedococcidae). Wallingford, UK, CAB International Institute of 

Entomology.

Williams, D. J. and G. W. Watson 1990. The Scale Insects of the Tropical South Pacific Region, 

Part 3: The Soft Scales (Coccidae) and Other Families. Wallingford, UK, CAB International 

Institute of Entomology.

Wood, S. L. 1982. The bark and ambrosia beetles of North and Central America (Col.: 

Scolytidae), a taxonomic monograph. Great Basin Nat. Mem. 6. 1,359 pp.

Wood, S. L. and D. E. Bright 1992. A Catalog of Scolytidae and Platypodidae (Coleoptera), Part 

2: Taxonomic Index. Provo, Utah, Brigham Young University.

WSSA. 1989. Composite List of Weeds. Weed Science Society of America (WSSA), 

Champaign, Illinois.

Wysoki, M. 1999. Proceedings of Avocado Brainstorming ‘99

October 27-28, 1999, M.L. Arpaia and R. Hofshi, Editors, Pages 121-123. 

http://www.avocadosource.com/Brainstorming_99/Insect_Pest_Management/WYSOKI%20OVE

RVIEW.htm. (Last accessed 5/10/05).
Rev 1 20110830 Page 90 of 92

Wysoki, M., M. A. van den Berg, G. Ish-Am, S. Gazit, J. E. Pena and G. K. Waite 2002. Pests 

and pollinators of avodado. Tropical fruit pests and pollinators. J. Pena, J. L. Sharp and M. 

Wysoki. Wallingford, UK, CAB International.

Zhang, B.-C. 1994. Index of Economically Important Lepidoptera. Wallingford, UK, CAB 

International.

Zimmerman, E. C. 1948. Insects of Hawaii. A manual of the insects of the Hawaiian Islands, 

including an enumeration of the species and notes on their origin, distribution, hosts, parasites, 

etc. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 475 pp.

Zimmerman, E. C. 1958. Insects of Hawaii, Vol. 7, Macrolepidoptera. Honolulu, HI, University

Press of Hawaii.

Ben-Dov, Y., D. R. Miller, and G. A. P. Gibson. 2005a. Scales found in the Hawaii Islands 

Query Results. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Last accessed 

http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalenet/scalenet.htm.

Ben-Dov, Y., D. R. Miller, and G. A. P. Gibson. 2005b. Scales on a Host (Lauraceae: Persea 

americana) Query Results. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Last accessed 

http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalenet/scalenet.htm.

Ben-Dov, Y., D. R. Miller, and G. A. P. Gibson. 2010. ScaleNet. 

http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/SCALENET/scalenet.htm. (Archived at PERAL).

Bishop_Museum. 2004. Hawaiian Arthropod Checklist Database. Bishop Museum, The Hawaii 

State Museum of Natural and Cultural History, Honolulu, HI. Last accessed April, 2005, 

http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/arthrosearch.html.

Bradbury, J. F. 1986. Guide to Plant Pathogenic Bacteria. CAB International Mycological 

Institute, Kew, Surrey, England. 329 pp.

Buss, E. A., and J. C. Turner. 2006. Scale Insects and Mealybugs on Ornamental Plants. 

University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences ENY-323.

C.M.I. 1988. Distribution Maps of Plant Diseases No. 336. Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae. 

Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, England.

CABI. 2004. Crop Protection Compendium. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

CABI. 2007. Crop Protection Compendium. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International 

(CABI), Wallingford, UK.

CABI. 2011. Crop Protection Compendium. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International 

(CABI), Wallingford, UK

Last accessed http://www.cabi.org/cpc/.

Childers, C. C., J. C. V. Rodrigues, and W. C. Welbourn. 2003. Host plants of Brevipalpus 

californicus, B. obovatus, and B. phoenicis (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) and their potential 

involvement in the spread of viral diseases vectored by these mites. Experimental and 

Applied Acarology 30(1-3):29-105.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 91 of 92

Ebeling, W. 1959. Subtropical Fruit Pests. University of California. 436 pp.

Evans, G. A. 2008. Whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) of the World and Their Host Plants and

Natural Enemies. . USDA/Animal Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Last 

accessed http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov:8080/1WF/World-Whitefly-Catalog.pdf

Ferris, H. 2011. Nemaplex: Radopholus similis. University of California, Davis. 

http://plpnemweb.ucdavis.edu/Nemaplex/taxadata/g111s2.htm. (Archived at PERAL).

Fucikovsky, L., and I. Luna. 1987. Avocado fruit diseases and their control in Mexico. Yearbook 

of the South African Avocado Growers' Association 10:119-121.

HDOA. 2005. Distribution and Host Record Report for: Avocado. Hawaii Department of 

Agriculture, Honolulu, HI.

HEAR. 2005. Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk Project: Pathogens of Plants in Hawaii. 

http://www.hear.org/. (Archived at PERAL).

Hill, D. S. 1983. Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and Their Control, 2nd Ed. Cambridge 

University Press, Oxford, London, Northampton.

Hoddle, M. S., L. A. , L. A. Mound, and D. L. Paris. 2008. Thrips of California. CBIT 

Publishing, Queensland, Australia. Last accessed 

http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/thrips_of_california/Thrips_of_California.html.

Hoddle, M. S., S. Nakahara, and P. A. Phillips. 2002. Foreign exploration for Scirtothrips 

perseae Nakahara (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and associated natural enemies on avocado 

(Persea americana Miller). Biological Control 24( 3):251-265.

Hoy, M. A., A. Hammon, and R. Nguyen. 2003. Feature Creatures: Pink Hibiscus Mealybug 

(Maconellicoccus hirsutus). University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural 

Sciences, Department of Entomology and Nematology, Gainesville, FL. Last accessed 

April 2005, http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/orn/mealybug/mealybug.htm.

Johansen-Naime, R. M., A. Mojica-Guzman, A. R. Valle de la Paz, and M. Valle de la Paz. 2003. 

The present knowledge of the Mexican Thysanoptera (Insecta), inhabiting avocado trees 

(Persea americana Miller). Proceedings V World Avocado Congress:455-460. 

http://www.avocadosource.com/WAC455/Papers/WAC455_p455.pdf.

Martin-Kessing, J. L., and R. F. L. Mau. 1993. Crop Knowledge Master: Aleurodicus dispersus 

(Russell). University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources 

(UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology, Honolulu, HI. Last accessed April, 2005, 

Mau, R. F., and J. L. Martin-Kessing. 1992. Crop Knowledge Master: Cyptoblabes gnidiella 

(Milliere). University of Hawaii, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources 

(UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology and Hawaii Department of Agriculture 

Extension Entomology, Honolulu, HI. Last accessed 

McQuate, G. T., P. A. Follet, and J. M. Yoshimoto. 2000. Field infestation of rambutan fruits by

internal feeding pests in Hawaii. Journal of Economic Entomology 93:846-851.

NAPIS. 2011. Map of Passionvine Mealybug, Planococcus minor. Last accessed 

http://pest.ceris.purdue.edu/searchmap.php?selectName=IRAWQKA.

NGDC. 1984. Distribution of Plant-Parasitic Nematode Species in North America. Nematode 

Geographical Distribution, Committee of the Society of Nematologists.

Peña, J. E., J. L. Sharp, and M. Wysoki. 2002. Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, 

Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. Wallingford, UK: CAB 

International:1-430.
Rev 1 20110830 Page 92 of 92

Persad, C. 1995. Preliminary List of Host Plants of Maconellicoccus hirsutus: Hibiscus or Pink 

mealybug in Grenada. CARDI, Grenada. 6 pp.

Teliz, D. 2000. El Aguacate: y su manejo integrado. . Mundi-Prensa, Mexico City, Mexico. 219 

pp.

UGA. 2010. Widely Prevalent Viruses of the United States. University of Georgia, Center for 

Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. http://www.prevalentviruses.org/index.html. 

(Archived at PERAL).

UH-CTAHR. 2005. Crop Knowledge Master: Avocados. University of Hawaii, College of 

Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (UH-CTAHR), Department of Entomology

and Hawaii Department of Agriculture Extension Entomology, Honolulu, HI. Last 

accessed http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/crops/avocado.htm.

USDA NRCS. 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5 (http://plants.usda.gov). National 

Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

Vasquez, E., N. E. J. M. Smit, and J. C. O'Sullivan. undated. Sweetpotato DiagNotes: Whiteflies. 

Aleurodicus dispersus Russell and Bemisia tabaci Gennadius. Queensland, Australia: The 

University of Queensland, Centre for Biological Information Technology. Last accessed 

http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/sweetpotato/key/Sweetpotato%20Diagnotes/media/html/

TheProblems/Pest-SuckingInsects/Whiteflies/White%20fly.htm.

Watson, G. W. undated. Arthropods of Economic Importance - Diaspididae of the World. Last 

accessed http://ip30.eti.uva.nl/bis/diaspididae.php.

Whiley, A. W., B. Schaffer, and B. N. Wolstenholme. 2002. The Avocado: Botany, Production, 

and Uses. CABI Publishing, New York, NY. 416 pp.

White, I. M., and M. M. Elson-Harris. 1992. Fruit Flies of Economic Significance: Their 

Identification and Bionomics. CAB International in association with ACIAR, 

Wallingford, UK.

Zimmerman, E. C. 1948. Insects of Hawaii. A manual of the insects of the Hawaiian Islands, 

including an enumeration of the species and notes on their origin, distribution, hosts, 

parasites, etc. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 475 pp.