National Cancer Institute

What You Need 

To Know About TM

Breast

Cancer

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF 

HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

National Institutes of Health
National Cancer Institute Services

This is only one of many free booklets for

people with cancer.

You may want more information for yourself,

your family, and your doctor.

The NCI offers comprehensive research-based

information for patients and their families, health

professionals, cancer researchers, advocates, and

the public.

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at 1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237)

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http://www.cancer.gov/espanol

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messaging service, at http://www.cancer.gov/

livehelp

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF

HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

National Institutes of Health

National Cancer Institute

Contents

About This Booklet 1

The Breasts 2

Cancer Cells 3

Risk Factors 4

Symptoms 8

Detection and Diagnosis 8

Staging 14

Treatment 19

Second Opinion 39

Breast Reconstruction 40

Nutrition and Physical Activity 42

Follow-up Care 43

Sources of Support 44

Taking Part in Cancer Research 46

Dictionary 48

National Cancer Institute Publications 64
About This Booklet

This National Cancer Institute (NCI) booklet is

about cancer* of the breast. Breast cancer is the most

common type of cancer among women in the United

States (other than skin cancer). Each year in the United

States, more than 192,000 women are diagnosed with

breast cancer.

1

*Words in italics are in the Dictionary on page 48. The Dictionary

explains these terms. It also shows how to pronounce them.

Breast cancer also develops in men. Each year,

about 2,000 men in this country learn they have

breast cancer. Most information in this booklet

applies to both women and men with breast

cancer.

You can get more specific information

about breast cancer in men on the NCI Web site

at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/

breast and from the NCI Cancer Information

Service at 1–800–4–CANCER

(1–800–422–6237).

This booklet tells about diagnosis, treatment choices

by stage, breast reconstruction, and follow-up care. It

also describes how to take part in research studies.

Learning about medical care for breast cancer can help

you take an active part in making choices about your

care.

This booklet has lists of questions that you may want

to ask your doctor. Many people find it helpful to take a

list of questions to a doctor visit. To help remember

what your doctor says, you may want to take notes. You
may also want to have a family member or friend go

with you when you talk with the doctor—to take notes,

ask questions, or just listen.

For the latest information about breast cancer,

please visit our Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/

cancertopics/types/breast. Also, the NCI Cancer

Information Service can answer your questions about

breast cancer. We can also send you NCI booklets

and fact sheets. Call 1–800–4–CANCER

(1–800–422–6237) or instant message us through the

LiveHelp service at http://www.cancer.gov/help.

The Breasts

Inside a woman’s breast are 15 to 20 sections called

lobes. Each lobe is made of many smaller sections

called lobules. Lobules have groups of tiny glands that

can make milk. After a baby is born, a woman’s breast

milk flows from the lobules through thin tubes called

ducts to the nipple. Fat and fibrous tissue fill the spaces

between the lobules and ducts.

The breasts also contain lymph vessels. These

vessels are connected to small, round masses of tissue

called lymph nodes. Groups of lymph nodes are near

the breast in the underarm (axilla), above the

collarbone, and in the chest behind the breastbone.

2
Cancer Cells

Cancer begins in cells, the building blocks that make

up tissues. Tissues make up the breasts and other parts

of the body.

Normal cells grow and divide to form new cells as

the body needs them. When normal cells grow old or

get damaged, they die, and new cells take their place.

Sometimes, this process goes wrong. New cells

form when the body doesn’t need them, and old or

damaged cells don’t die as they should. The buildup of

extra cells often forms a mass of tissue called a lump,

growth, or tumor.

3

Lobe Lobules

Ducts

Lymph

nodes Lymph

vessels

Nipple

Areola

Fat

This picture shows the lobes and ducts inside the

breast. It also shows the lymph nodes near the breast.
Tumors in the breast can be benign (not cancer) or

malignant (cancer). Benign tumors are not as harmful

as malignant tumors:

• Benign tumors: 

—are rarely a threat to life

—can be removed and usually don’t grow back 

—don’t invade the tissues around them 

—don’t spread to other parts of the body

• Malignant tumors: 

—may be a threat to life 

—often can be removed but sometimes grow back 

—can invade and damage nearby organs and tissues

(such as the chest wall) 

—can spread to other parts of the body 

Breast cancer cells can spread by breaking away

from the original tumor. They enter blood vessels or

lymph vessels, which branch into all the tissues of the

body. The cancer cells may be found in lymph nodes

near the breast. The cancer cells may attach to other

tissues and grow to form new tumors that may damage

those tissues.

The spread of cancer is called metastasis. See the

Staging section on page 14 for information about

breast cancer that has spread.

Risk Factors

When you’re told that you have breast cancer, it’s

natural to wonder what may have caused the disease.

But no one knows the exact causes of breast cancer.

Doctors seldom know why one woman develops breast

cancer and another doesn’t.

4
Doctors do know that bumping, bruising, or

touching the breast does not cause cancer. And breast

cancer is not contagious. You can’t catch it from

another person.

Doctors also know that women with certain risk

factors are more likely than others to develop breast

cancer. A risk factor is something that may increase the

chance of getting a disease.

Some risk factors (such as drinking alcohol) can be

avoided. But most risk factors (such as having a family

history of breast cancer) can’t be avoided.

Studies have found the following risk factors for

breast cancer:

• Age: The chance of getting breast cancer increases

as you get older. Most women are over 60 years old

when they are diagnosed.

• Personal health history: Having breast cancer in

one breast increases your risk of getting cancer in

your other breast. Also, having certain types of

abnormal breast cells (atypical hyperplasia, lobular

carcinoma in situ [LCIS], or ductal carcinoma in

situ [DCIS]) increases the risk of invasive breast

cancer. These conditions are found with a breast

biopsy.

• Family health history: Your risk of breast cancer is

higher if your mother, father, sister, or daughter had

breast cancer. The risk is even higher if your family

member had breast cancer before age 50. Having

other relatives (in either your mother’s or father’s

family) with breast cancer or ovarian cancer may

also increase your risk.

• Certain genome changes: Changes in certain

genes, such as BRCA1 or BRCA2, substantially

increase the risk of breast cancer. Tests can

sometimes show the presence of these rare, specific

5
gene changes in families with many women who

have had breast cancer, and health care providers

may suggest ways to try to reduce the risk of breast

cancer or to improve the detection of this disease in

women who have these genetic changes. 

Also, researchers have found specific regions on

certain chromosomes that are linked to the risk of

breast cancer. If a woman has a genetic change in

one or more of these regions, the risk of breast

cancer may be slightly increased. The risk increases

with the number of genetic changes that are found.

Although these genetic changes are more common

among women than BRCA1 or BRCA2, the risk of

breast cancer is far lower. 

• Radiation therapy to the chest: Women who had

radiation therapy to the chest (including the breasts)

before age 30 are at an increased risk of breast

cancer. This includes women treated with radiation

for Hodgkin lymphoma. Studies show that the

younger a woman was when she received radiation

treatment, the higher her risk of breast cancer later

in life.

• Reproductive and menstrual history: 

—The older a woman is when she has her first

child, the greater her chance of breast cancer.

—Women who never had children are at an

increased risk of breast cancer.

—Women who had their first menstrual period

before age 12 are at an increased risk of breast

cancer.

—Women who went through menopause after age

55 are at an increased risk of breast cancer.

—Women who take menopausal hormone therapy

for many years have an increased risk of breast

cancer.

6
• Race: In the United States, breast cancer is

diagnosed more often in white women than in

African American/black, Hispanic/Latina,

Asian/Pacific Islander, or American Indian/Alaska

Native women.

• Breast density: Breasts appear on a mammogram

(breast x-ray) as having areas of dense and fatty (not

dense) tissue. Women whose mammograms show a

larger area of dense tissue than the mammograms of

women of the same age are at increased risk of

breast cancer.

• History of taking DES: DES was given to some

pregnant women in the United States between about

1940 and 1971. (It is no longer given to pregnant

women.) Women who took DES during pregnancy

may have a slightly increased risk of breast cancer.

The possible effects on their daughters are under

study.

• Being overweight or obese after menopause: The

chance of getting breast cancer after menopause is

higher in women who are overweight or obese.

• Lack of physical activity: Women who are

physically inactive throughout life may have an

increased risk of breast cancer.

• Drinking alcohol: Studies suggest that the more

alcohol a woman drinks, the greater her risk of

breast cancer.

Having a risk factor does not mean that a woman

will get breast cancer. Most women who have risk

factors never develop breast cancer.

Many other possible risk factors have been studied.

For example, researchers are studying whether women

who have a diet high in fat or who are exposed to

certain substances in the environment have an

increased risk of breast cancer. Researchers continue to

study these and other possible risk factors.

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Symptoms

Early breast cancer usually doesn’t cause symptoms.

But as the tumor grows, it can change how the breast

looks or feels. The common changes include:

• A lump or thickening in or near the breast or in the

underarm area

• A change in the size or shape of the breast

• Dimpling or puckering in the skin of the breast

• A nipple turned inward into the breast

• Discharge (fluid) from the nipple, especially if it’s

bloody 

• Scaly, red, or swollen skin on the breast, nipple, or

areola (the dark area of skin at the center of the

breast). The skin may have ridges or pitting so that

it looks like the skin of an orange.

You should see your health care provider about any

symptom that does not go away. Most often, these

symptoms are not due to cancer. Another health

problem could cause them. If you have any of these

symptoms, you should tell your health care provider so

that the problems can be diagnosed and treated.

Detection and Diagnosis

Your doctor can check for breast cancer before you

have any symptoms. During an office visit, your doctor

will ask about your personal and family medical

history. You’ll have a physical exam. Your doctor may

order one or more imaging tests, such as a

mammogram.

8
Doctors recommend that women have regular

clinical breast exams and mammograms to find breast

cancer early. Treatment is more likely to work well

when breast cancer is detected early.

You may want to read the NCI booklet

Understanding Breast Changes. It describes types of

breast changes and tests used to find changes.

Clinical Breast Exam

During a clinical breast exam, your health care

provider checks your breasts. You may be asked to

raise your arms over your head, let them hang by your

sides, or press your hands against your hips.

Your health care provider looks for differences in

size or shape between your breasts. The skin of your

breasts is checked for a rash, dimpling, or other

abnormal signs. Your nipples may be squeezed to

check for fluid.

Using the pads of the fingers to feel for lumps, your

health care provider checks your entire breast,

underarm, and collarbone area. A lump is generally the

size of a pea before anyone can feel it. The exam is

done on one side and then the other. Your health care

provider checks the lymph nodes near the breast to see

if they are enlarged.

If you have a lump, your health care provider will

feel its size, shape, and texture. Your health care

provider will also check to see if the lump moves

easily. Benign lumps often feel different from

cancerous ones. Lumps that are soft, smooth, round,

and movable are likely to be benign. A hard, oddly

shaped lump that feels firmly attached within the breast

is more likely to be cancer, but further tests are needed

to diagnose the problem.

9
Mammogram

A mammogram is an x-ray picture of tissues inside

the breast. Mammograms can often show a breast lump

before it can be felt. They also can show a cluster of

tiny specks of calcium. These specks are called

microcalcifications. Lumps or specks can be from

cancer, precancerous cells, or other conditions. Further

tests are needed to find out if abnormal cells are

present.

Before they have symptoms, women should get

regular screening mammograms to detect breast cancer

early:

• Women in their 40s and older should have

mammograms every 1 or 2 years.

• Women who are younger than 40 and have risk

factors for breast cancer should ask their health care

provider whether to have mammograms and how

often to have them.

If the mammogram shows an abnormal area of the

breast, your doctor may order clearer, more detailed

images of that area. Doctors use diagnostic

mammograms to learn more about unusual breast

changes, such as a lump, pain, thickening, nipple

discharge, or change in breast size or shape. Diagnostic

mammograms may focus on a specific area of the

breast. They may involve special techniques and more

views than screening mammograms.

To learn more about mammograms, you may want

to read the NCI fact sheet Mammograms.

10
Other Imaging Tests

If an abnormal area is found during a clinical breast

exam or with a mammogram, the doctor may order

other imaging tests:

• Ultrasound: A woman with a lump or other breast

change may have an ultrasound test. An ultrasound

device sends out sound waves that people can’t hear.

The sound waves bounce off breast tissues. A

computer uses the echoes to create a picture. The

picture may show whether a lump is solid, filled

with fluid (a cyst), or a mixture of both. Cysts

usually are not cancer. But a solid lump may be

cancer.

• MRI: MRI uses a powerful magnet linked to a

computer. It makes detailed pictures of breast tissue.

These pictures can show the difference between

normal and diseased tissue.

11
Biopsy

A biopsy is the removal of tissue to look for cancer

cells. A biopsy is the only way to tell for sure if cancer

is present.

You may need to have a biopsy if an abnormal area

is found. An abnormal area may be felt during a

clinical breast exam but not seen on a mammogram. Or

an abnormal area could be seen on a mammogram but

not be felt during a clinical breast exam. In this case,

doctors can use imaging procedures (such as a

mammogram, an ultrasound, or MRI) to help see the

area and remove tissue.

Your doctor may refer you to a surgeon or breast

disease specialist for a biopsy. The surgeon or doctor

will remove fluid or tissue from your breast in one of

several ways:

• Fine-needle aspiration biopsy: Your doctor uses a

thin needle to remove cells or fluid from a breast

lump.

• Core biopsy: Your doctor uses a wide needle to

remove a sample of breast tissue.

• Skin biopsy: If there are skin changes on your

breast, your doctor may take a small sample of skin.

• Surgical biopsy: Your surgeon removes a sample of

tissue.

—An incisional biopsy takes a part of the lump or

abnormal area.

—An excisional biopsy takes the entire lump or

abnormal area.

A pathologist will check the tissue or fluid removed

from your breast for cancer cells. If cancer cells are

found, the pathologist can tell what kind of cancer it is.

The most common type of breast cancer is ductal

carcinoma. It begins in the cells that line the breast

ducts. Lobular carcinoma is another type. It begins in

the lobules of the breast.

12
Lab Tests with Breast Tissue

If you are diagnosed with breast cancer, your doctor

may order special lab tests on the breast tissue that was

removed:

• Hormone receptor tests: Some breast tumors need

hormones to grow. These tumors have receptors for

the hormones estrogen, progesterone, or both. If the

hormone receptor tests show that the breast tumor

has these receptors, then hormone therapy is most

often recommended as a treatment option. See the

Hormone Therapy section on page 30.

• HER2/neu test: HER2/neu protein is found on

some types of cancer cells. This test shows whether

the tissue either has too much HER2/neu protein or

too many copies of its gene. If the breast tumor has

too much HER2/neu, then targeted therapy may be

a treatment option. See the Targeted Therapy section

on page 33.

It may take several weeks to get the results of these

tests. The test results help your doctor decide which

cancer treatments may be options for you.

13

You may want to ask your doctor these

questions before having a biopsy:

• What kind of biopsy will I have? Why?

• How long will it take? Will I be awake? Will it

hurt? Will I have anesthesia? What kind?

• Are there any risks? What are the chances of

infection or bleeding after the biopsy?

• Will I have a scar?

• How soon will I know the results?

• If I do have cancer, who will talk with me

about the next steps? When?
Staging

If the biopsy shows that you have breast cancer,

your doctor needs to learn the extent (stage) of the

disease to help you choose the best treatment. The

stage is based on the size of the cancer, whether the

cancer has invaded nearby tissues, and whether the

cancer has spread to other parts of the body.

Staging may involve blood tests and other tests:

• Bone scan: The doctor injects a small amount of a

radioactive substance into a blood vessel. It travels

through the bloodstream and collects in the bones. A

machine called a scanner detects and measures the

radiation. The scanner makes pictures of the bones.

The pictures may show cancer that has spread to the

bones.

• CT scan: Doctors sometimes use CT scans to look

for breast cancer that has spread to the liver or

lungs. An x-ray machine linked to a computer takes

a series of detailed pictures of your chest or

abdomen. You may receive contrast material by

injection into a blood vessel in your arm or hand.

The contrast material makes abnormal areas easier

to see.

• Lymph node biopsy: The stage often is not known

until after surgery to remove the tumor in your

breast and one or more lymph nodes under your

arm. Surgeons use a method called sentinel lymph

node biopsy to remove the lymph node most likely

to have breast cancer cells. The surgeon injects a

blue dye, a radioactive substance, or both near the

breast tumor. Or the surgeon may inject a

14
radioactive substance under the nipple. The surgeon

then uses a scanner to find the sentinel lymph node

containing the radioactive substance or looks for the

lymph node stained with dye. The sentinel node is

removed and checked for cancer cells. Cancer cells

may appear first in the sentinel node before

spreading to other lymph nodes and other places in

the body.

These tests can show whether the cancer has spread

and, if so, to what parts of your body. When breast

cancer spreads, cancer cells are often found in lymph

nodes under the arm (axillary lymph nodes). Also,

breast cancer can spread to almost any other part of the

body, such as the bones, liver, lungs, and brain.

When breast cancer spreads from its original place

to another part of the body, the new tumor has the

same kind of abnormal cells and the same name as the

primary (original) tumor. For example, if breast cancer

spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are

actually breast cancer cells. The disease is metastatic

breast cancer, not bone cancer. For that reason, it is

treated as breast cancer, not bone cancer. Doctors call

the new tumor “distant” or metastatic disease.

15
These are the stages of breast cancer:

• Stage 0 is sometimes used to describe abnormal

cells that are not invasive cancer. For example,

Stage 0 is used for ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS).

DCIS is diagnosed when abnormal cells are in the

lining of a breast duct, but the abnormal cells have

not invaded nearby breast tissue or spread outside

the duct. Although many doctors don’t consider

DCIS to be cancer, DCIS sometimes becomes

invasive breast cancer if not treated.

• Stage I is an early stage of invasive breast cancer.

Cancer cells have invaded breast tissue beyond

where the cancer started, but the cells have not

spread beyond the breast. The tumor is no more than

2 centimeters (three-quarters of an inch) across.

16

DCIS Wall of duct

This picture shows ductal carcinoma in situ.
17

Invasive cancer cells Wall of duct

This picture shows cancer cells spreading outside the

duct. The cancer cells are invading nearby tissue

inside the breast.

• Stage II is one of the following: 

—The tumor is no more than 2 centimeters (threequarters of an inch) across. The cancer has spread

to the lymph nodes under the arm.

—The tumor is between 2 and 5 centimeters (threequarters of an inch to 2 inches). The cancer has

not spread to the lymph nodes under the arm.

—The tumor is between 2 and 5 centimeters (threequarters of an inch to 2 inches). The cancer has

spread to the lymph nodes under the arm.

—The tumor is larger than 5 centimeters (2 inches).

The cancer has not spread to the lymph nodes

under the arm.
• Stage III is locally advanced cancer. It is divided

into Stage IIIA, IIIB, and IIIC.

—Stage IIIA is one of the following:

• The tumor is no more than 5 centimeters

(2 inches) across. The cancer has spread to

underarm lymph nodes that are attached to

each other or to other structures. Or the cancer

may have spread to lymph nodes behind the

breastbone.

• The tumor is more than 5 centimeters across.

The cancer has spread to underarm lymph

nodes that are either alone or attached to each

other or to other structures. Or the cancer may

have spread to lymph nodes behind the

breastbone.

—Stage IIIB is a tumor of any size that has grown

into the chest wall or the skin of the breast. It

may be associated with swelling of the breast or

with nodules (lumps) in the breast skin:

• The cancer may have spread to lymph nodes

under the arm.

• The cancer may have spread to underarm

lymph nodes that are attached to each other or

other structures. Or the cancer may have

spread to lymph nodes behind the breastbone.

• Inflammatory breast cancer is a rare type of

breast cancer. The breast looks red and swollen

because cancer cells block the lymph vessels

in the skin of the breast. When a doctor

diagnoses inflammatory breast cancer, it is at

least Stage IIIB, but it could be more

advanced.

18
19

—Stage IIIC is a tumor of any size. It has spread in

one of the following ways:

• The cancer has spread to the lymph nodes

behind the breastbone and under the arm.

• The cancer has spread to the lymph nodes

above or below the collarbone.

• Stage IV is distant metastatic cancer. The cancer has

spread to other parts of the body, such as the bones

or liver.

• Recurrent cancer is cancer that has come back after

a period of time when it could not be detected. Even

when the cancer seems to be completely destroyed,

the disease sometimes returns because undetected

cancer cells remained somewhere in your body after

treatment. It may return in the breast or chest wall.

Or it may return in any other part of the body, such

as the bones, liver, lungs, or brain.

Treatment

Women with breast cancer have many treatment

options. The treatment that’s best for one woman may

not be best for another.

The options are surgery, radiation therapy, hormone

therapy, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy. You may

receive more than one type of treatment. The treatment

options are described on pages 22 through 35.

Surgery and radiation therapy are types of local

therapy. They remove or destroy cancer in the breast.

Hormone therapy, chemotherapy, and targeted

therapy are types of systemic therapy. The drug enters

the bloodstream and destroys or controls cancer

throughout the body.
The treatment that’s right for you depends mainly on

the stage of the cancer, the results of the hormone

receptor tests, the result of the HER2/neu test, and your

general health. Treatment options by stage are

described on pages 35 through 39.

You may want to talk with your doctor about taking

part in a clinical trial, a research study of new

treatment methods. Clinical trials are an important

option for women at any stage of breast cancer. See the

Taking Part in Cancer Research section on page 46.

Your doctor can describe your treatment choices, the

expected results, and the possible side effects. Because

cancer therapy often damages healthy cells and tissues,

side effects are common. Before treatment starts, ask

your health care team about possible side effects, how

to prevent or reduce these effects, and how treatment

may change your normal activities.

You may want to know how you will look during

and after treatment. You and your health care team can

work together to develop a treatment plan that meets

your medical and personal needs.

Your doctor may refer you to a specialist, or you

may ask for a referral. Specialists who treat breast

cancer include surgeons, medical oncologists, and

radiation oncologists. You also may be referred to a

plastic surgeon or reconstructive surgeon. Your health

care team may also include an oncology nurse and a

registered dietitian.

At any stage of disease, supportive care is available

to control pain and other symptoms, to relieve the side

effects of treatment, and to ease emotional concerns.

Information about such care is available on the NCI

Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/

coping and from the NCI Cancer Information Service

at 1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237) or at

LiveHelp (http://www.cancer.gov/help).

20
21

You may want to ask your doctor these

questions before you begin treatment:

• What did the hormone receptor tests show?

What did other lab tests show? Would genetic

testing be helpful to me or my family?

• Do any lymph nodes show signs of cancer?

• What is the stage of the disease? Has the

cancer spread?

• What are my treatment choices? Which do you

recommend for me? Why?

• What are the expected benefits of each kind of

treatment?

• What can I do to prepare for treatment?

• Will I need to stay in the hospital? If so, for

how long?

• What are the risks and possible side effects of

each treatment? How can side effects be

managed?

• What is the treatment likely to cost? Will my

insurance cover it?

• How will treatment affect my normal

activities? 

• Would a research study (clinical trial) be

appropriate for me? 

• Can you recommend other doctors who could

give me a second opinion about my treatment

options?

• How often should I have checkups?
Surgery

Surgery is the most common treatment for breast

cancer. (See pages 23 and 24 for pictures of the types

of surgery.) Your doctor can explain each type, discuss

and compare the benefits and risks, and describe how

each will change the way you look:

• Breast-sparing surgery: This is an operation to

remove the cancer but not the breast. It’s also called

breast-conserving surgery. It can be a lumpectomy

or a segmental mastectomy (also called a partial

mastectomy). Sometimes an excisional biopsy is the

only surgery a woman needs because the surgeon

removed the whole lump.

• Mastectomy: This is an operation to remove the

entire breast (or as much of the breast tissue as

possible). In some cases, a skin-sparing mastectomy

may be an option. For this approach, the surgeon

removes as little skin as possible.

The surgeon usually removes one or more lymph

nodes from under the arm to check for cancer cells. If

cancer cells are found in the lymph nodes, other cancer

treatments will be needed. (For more about information

about lymph node biopsy, see the Staging section on

page 14.)

You may choose to have breast reconstruction. This

is plastic surgery to rebuild the shape of the breast. It

may be done at the same time as the cancer surgery or

later. If you’re considering breast reconstruction, you

may wish to talk with a plastic surgeon before having

cancer surgery. See the Breast Reconstruction section

on page 40.

22
23

In breast-sparing surgery, the surgeon removes the

cancer in the breast and some normal tissue around it.

The surgeon may also remove lymph nodes under the

arm. The surgeon sometimes removes some of the

lining over the chest muscles below the tumor.

In total (simple) mastectomy, the surgeon removes the

whole breast. Some lymph nodes under the arm may

also be removed.
The time it takes to heal after surgery is different for

each woman. Surgery causes pain and tenderness.

Medicine can help control the pain. Before surgery,

you should discuss the plan for pain relief with your

doctor or nurse. After surgery, your doctor can adjust

the plan if you need more relief.

Any kind of surgery also carries a risk of infection,

bleeding, or other problems. You should tell your

health care team right away if you develop any

problems.

You may feel off balance if you’ve had one or both

breasts removed. You may feel more off balance if you

have large breasts. This imbalance can cause

discomfort in your neck and back.

24

In modified radical mastectomy, the surgeon removes

the whole breast and most or all of the lymph nodes

under the arm. Often, the lining over the chest muscles

is removed. A small chest muscle also may be taken

out to make it easier to remove the lymph nodes.
Also, the skin where your breast was removed may

feel tight. Your arm and shoulder muscles may feel stiff

and weak. These problems usually go away. The

doctor, nurse, or physical therapist can suggest

exercises to help you regain movement and strength in

your arm and shoulder. Exercise can also reduce

stiffness and pain. You may be able to begin gentle

exercise within days of surgery.

Because nerves may be injured or cut during

surgery, you may have numbness and tingling in your

chest, underarm, shoulder, and upper arm. These

feelings usually go away within a few weeks or

months. But for some women, numbness does not go

away.

Removing the lymph nodes under the arm slows the

flow of lymph fluid. The fluid may build up in your

arm and hand and cause swelling. This swelling is

called lymphedema. It can develop soon after surgery

or months or even years later. You’ll always need to

protect the arm and hand on the treated side of your

body from cuts, burns, or other injuries. Information

about preventing and treating lymphedema is available

on the NCI Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/

cancertopics/coping and from Information Specialists

at 1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237) or

LiveHelp (http://www.cancer.gov/help).

25
You may want to ask your doctor these

questions before having surgery:

• What kinds of surgery can I consider? Is

breast-sparing surgery an option for me? Is a

skin-sparing mastectomy an option? Which

operation do you recommend for me? Why?

• Will any lymph nodes be removed? How

many? Why? 

• How will I feel after the operation? Will I have

to stay in the hospital?

• Will I need to learn how to take care of myself

or my incision when I get home?

• Where will the scars be? What will they look

like?

• If I decide to have plastic surgery to rebuild

my breast, how and when can that be done?

Can you suggest a plastic surgeon for me to

contact?

• Will I have to do special exercises to help

regain motion and strength in my arm and

shoulder? Will a physical therapist or nurse

show me how to do the exercises?

• Is there someone I can talk with who has had

the same surgery I’ll be having?

• How often will I need checkups?

26
Radiation Therapy

Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) uses

high-energy rays to kill cancer cells. It affects cells

only in the part of the body that is treated. Radiation

therapy may be used after surgery to destroy breast

cancer cells that remain in the area.

Doctors use two types of radiation therapy to treat

breast cancer. Some women receive both types:

• External radiation therapy: The radiation comes

from a large machine outside the body. You will go

to a hospital or clinic for treatment. Treatments are

usually 5 days a week for 4 to 6 weeks. External

radiation is the most common type used for breast

cancer.

• Internal radiation therapy (implant radiation

therapy or brachytherapy): The doctor places one or

more thin tubes inside the breast through a tiny

incision. A radioactive substance is loaded into the

tube. The treatment session may last for a few

minutes, and the substance is removed. When it’s

removed, no radioactivity remains in your body.

Internal radiation therapy may be repeated every day

for a week.

Side effects depend mainly on the dose and type of

radiation. It’s common for the skin in the treated area

to become red, dry, tender, and itchy. Your breast may

feel heavy and tight. Internal radiation therapy may

make your breast look red or bruised. These problems

usually go away over time.

Bras and tight clothes may rub your skin and cause

soreness. You may want to wear loose-fitting cotton

clothes during this time.

27
Gentle skin care also is important. You should check

with your doctor before using any deodorants, lotions,

or creams on the treated area. Toward the end of

treatment, your skin may become moist and “weepy.”

Exposing this area to air as much as possible can help

the skin heal. After treatment is over, the skin will

slowly heal. However, there may be a lasting change in

the color of your skin.

You’re likely to become very tired during radiation

therapy, especially in the later weeks of treatment.

Resting is important, but doctors usually advise

patients to try to stay active, unless it leads to pain or

other problems.

You may wish to discuss with your doctor the

possible long-term effects of radiation therapy. For

example, radiation therapy to the chest may harm the

lung or heart. Also, it can change the size of your

breast and the way it looks. If any of these problems

occur, your health care team can tell you how to

manage them.

You may find it helpful to read the NCI booklet

Radiation Therapy and You.

28
29

You may want to ask your doctor these

questions before having radiation therapy:

• Which type of radiation therapy can I

consider? Are both types an option for me? 

• When will treatment start? When will it end?

How often will I have treatments?

• How will I feel during treatment? Will I need

to stay in the hospital? Will I be able to drive

myself to and from treatment?

• What can I do to take care of myself before,

during, and after treatment?

• How will we know the treatment is working? 

• Will treatment harm my skin?

• How will my chest look afterward?

• Are there any lasting effects?

• What is the chance that the cancer will come

back in my breast?

• How often will I need checkups?
Hormone Therapy

Hormone therapy may also be called anti-hormone

treatment. If lab tests show that the tumor in your

breast has hormone receptors, then hormone therapy

may be an option. (See the part about Lab Tests with

Breast Tissue on page 13.) Hormone therapy keeps

cancer cells from getting or using the natural hormones

(estrogen and progesterone) they need to grow.

Options before menopause

If you have not gone through menopause, the

options include:

• Tamoxifen: This drug can prevent the original breast

cancer from returning and also helps prevent the

development of new cancers in the other breast. As

treatment for metastatic breast cancer, tamoxifen

slows or stops the growth of cancer cells that are in

the body. It’s a pill that you take every day for 5

years.

In general, the side effects of tamoxifen are similar

to some of the symptoms of menopause. The most

common are hot flashes and vaginal discharge.

Others are irregular menstrual periods, thinning

bones, headaches, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, vaginal

dryness or itching, irritation of the skin around the

vagina, and skin rash. Serious side effects are rare,

but they include blood clots, strokes, uterine cancer,

and cataracts. You may want to read the NCI fact

sheet Tamoxifen.

• LH-RH agonist: This type of drug can prevent the

ovaries from making estrogen. The estrogen level

falls slowly. Examples are leuprolide and goserelin.

This type of drug may be given by injection under

the skin in the stomach area. Side effects include hot

flashes, headaches, weight gain, thinning bones, and

bone pain.

30
• Surgery to remove your ovaries: Until you go

through menopause, your ovaries are your body’s

main source of estrogen. When the surgeon removes

your ovaries, this source of estrogen is also

removed. (A woman who has gone through

menopause wouldn’t benefit from this kind of

surgery because her ovaries produce much less

estrogen.) When the ovaries are removed,

menopause occurs right away. The side effects are

often more severe than those caused by natural

menopause. Your health care team can suggest ways

to cope with these side effects.

Options after menopause

If you have gone through menopause, the options

include:

• Aromatase inhibitor: This type of drug prevents the

body from making a form of estrogen (estradiol).

Examples are anastrazole, exemestane, and

letrozole. Common side effects include hot flashes,

nausea, vomiting, and painful bones or joints.

Serious side effects include thinning bones and an

increase in cholesterol.

• Tamoxifen: Hormone therapy is given for at least 5

years. Women who have gone through menopause

receive tamoxifen for 2 to 5 years. If tamoxifen is

given for less than 5 years, then an aromatase

inhibitor often is given to complete the 5 years.

Some women have hormone therapy for more than

5 years. See page 30 for more information about

tamoxifen and its possible side effects.

31
32

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells. The

drugs that treat breast cancer are usually given through

a vein (intravenous) or as a pill. You’ll probably

receive a combination of drugs.

You may receive chemotherapy in an outpatient part

of the hospital, at the doctor’s office, or at home. Some

women need to stay in the hospital during treatment.

The side effects depend mainly on which drugs are

given and how much. Chemotherapy kills fast-growing

cancer cells, but the drugs can also harm normal cells

that divide rapidly: 

• Blood cells: When drugs lower the levels of healthy

blood cells, you’re more likely to get infections,

bruise or bleed easily, and feel very weak and tired.

Your health care team will check for low levels of

blood cells. If your levels are low, your health care

team may stop the chemotherapy for a while or

reduce the dose of the drug. There are also

medicines that can help your body make new blood

cells.

• Cells in hair roots: Chemotherapy may cause hair

loss. If you lose your hair, it will grow back after

treatment, but the color and texture may be changed.

• Cells that line the digestive tract: Chemotherapy

can cause a poor appetite, nausea and vomiting,

diarrhea, or mouth and lip sores. Your health care

team can give you medicines and suggest other

ways to help with these problems.

Some drugs used for breast cancer can cause

tingling or numbness in the hands or feet. This problem

often goes away after treatment is over.
Other problems may not go away. For example,

some of the drugs used for breast cancer may weaken

the heart. Your doctor may check your heart before,

during, and after treatment. A rare side effect of

chemotherapy is that years after treatment, a few

women have developed leukemia (cancer of the blood

cells).

Some anticancer drugs can damage the ovaries. If

you have not gone through menopause yet, you may

have hot flashes and vaginal dryness. Your menstrual

periods may no longer be regular or may stop. You

may become infertile (unable to become pregnant). For

women over the age of 35, this damage to the ovaries

is likely to be permanent.

On the other hand, you may remain able to become

pregnant during chemotherapy. Before treatment

begins, you should talk with your doctor about birth

control because many drugs given during the first

trimester are known to cause birth defects.

You may want to read the NCI booklet

Chemotherapy and You.

Targeted Therapy

Some women with breast cancer may receive drugs

called targeted therapy. Targeted therapy uses drugs

that block the growth of breast cancer cells. For

example, targeted therapy may block the action of an

abnormal protein (such as HER2) that stimulates the

growth of breast cancer cells. (For information about

HER2, see the part about Lab Tests with Breast Tissue

on page 13.)

33
Trastuzumab (Herceptin®) or lapatinib (TYKERB®)

may be given to a woman whose lab tests show that

her breast tumor has too much HER2:

• Trastuzumab: This drug is given through a vein. It

may be given alone or with chemotherapy. Side

effects that most commonly occur during the first

treatment include fever and chills. Other possible

side effects include weakness, nausea, vomiting,

diarrhea, headaches, difficulty breathing, and rashes.

These side effects generally become less severe after

the first treatment. Trastuzumab also may cause

heart damage, heart failure, and serious breathing

problems. Before and during treatment, your doctor

will check your heart and lungs. The NCI fact sheet

Herceptin® (Trastuzumab) has more information.

• Lapatinib: The tablet is taken by mouth. Lapatinib

is given with chemotherapy. Side effects include

nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tiredness, mouth sores,

and rashes. It can also cause red, painful hands and

feet. Before treatment, your doctor will check your

heart and liver. During treatment, your doctor will

watch for signs of heart, lung, or liver problems.

You may want to read the NCI fact sheet Targeted

Cancer Therapies.

34
Treatment Choices by Stage

Your treatment options depend on the stage of your

disease and these factors: 

• The size of the tumor in relation to the size of your

breast

• The results of lab tests (such as whether the breast

cancer cells need hormones to grow)

• Whether you have gone through menopause

• Your general health

Below are brief descriptions of common treatments

for each stage. Other treatments may be appropriate for

some women. Research studies (clinical trials) can be

an option at all stages of breast cancer. See page 46 for

information about cancer research studies.

35

You may want to ask your doctor these

questions before having hormone therapy,

chemotherapy, or targeted therapy:

• What drugs will I be taking? What will they

do?

• When will treatment start? When will it end?

How often will I have treatments? 

• Where will I have treatment? 

• What can I do to take care of myself during

treatment?

• How will we know the treatment is working?

• Which side effects should I tell you about? 

• Will there be long-term effects?

• How often will I need checkups?
Stage 0 (DCIS)

Most women with DCIS have breast-sparing surgery

followed by radiation therapy. Some women instead

choose to have a total mastectomy. Women with DCIS

may receive tamoxifen to reduce the risk of developing

invasive breast cancer.

Stages I, II, IIIA, and some IIIC

Women with Stage I, II, IIIA, or operable IIIC

breast cancer may have a combination of treatments.

(Operable means the cancer can be treated with

surgery.)

Some may have breast-sparing surgery followed by

radiation therapy to the breast. This choice is common

for women with Stage I or II breast cancer. Others

decide to have a mastectomy.

With either approach, women (especially those with

Stage II or IIIA breast cancer) often have lymph nodes

under the arm removed.

Whether or not radiation therapy is used after

mastectomy depends on the extent of the cancer. If

cancer cells are found in 1 to 3 lymph nodes under the

arm or if the tumor in the breast is large, the doctor

sometimes suggests radiation therapy after

mastectomy. If cancer cells are found in more than 3

lymph nodes under the arm, the doctor usually will

suggest radiation therapy after mastectomy.

The choice between breast-sparing surgery

(followed by radiation therapy) and mastectomy

depends on many factors: 

• The size, location, and stage of the tumor 

• The size of the woman’s breast 

• Certain features of the cancer 

36
• How the woman feels about how surgery will

change her breast 

• How the woman feels about radiation therapy

• The woman’s ability to travel to a radiation

treatment center 

You may want to read the NCI booklet Surgery

Choices for Women with Early-Stage Breast Cancer.

Some women have chemotherapy before surgery.

This is called neoadjuvant therapy (treatment before

the main treatment). Chemotherapy before surgery may

shrink a large tumor so that breast-sparing surgery is

possible. Women with large Stage II or IIIA breast

tumors often choose this treatment.

After surgery, many women receive adjuvant

therapy. Adjuvant therapy is treatment given after the

main treatment to lower the chance of breast cancer

returning. Radiation treatment is local therapy that can

kill any remaining cancer cells in and near the breast.

Women may also have hormone therapy,

chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or a combination.

These systemic therapies can destroy cancer cells that

remain anywhere in the body. They can prevent or

delay the cancer from coming back in the breast or

elsewhere.

You may want to read the NCI fact sheet Adjuvant

and Neoadjuvant Therapy for Breast Cancer.

Stage IIIB and some Stage IIIC

Women with Stage IIIB (including inflammatory

breast cancer) or inoperable Stage IIIC breast cancer

have chemotherapy first, and then may be offered other

treatments. (Inoperable means the cancer can’t be

treated with surgery without first shrinking the tumor.)

They may also have targeted therapy.

37
38

If the chemotherapy or targeted therapy shrinks the

tumor, then surgery may be possible:

• Mastectomy: The surgeon removes the breast. In

most cases, the lymph nodes under the arm are

removed. After surgery, a woman may receive

radiation therapy to the chest and underarm area.

• Breast-sparing surgery: In rare cases, the surgeon

removes the cancer but not the breast. The lymph

nodes under the arm are usually removed. After

surgery, a woman may receive radiation therapy to

the breast and underarm area.

After surgery, the doctor will likely recommend

chemotherapy, targeted therapy, hormone therapy, or a

combination. This therapy may help prevent the

disease from coming back in the breast or elsewhere.

Stage IV and Recurrent 

Women with recurrent breast cancer will be treated

based on where the cancer returned. If the cancer

returned in the chest area, the doctor may suggest

surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone

therapy, or a combination.

Women with Stage IV breast cancer or recurrent

cancer that has spread to the bones, liver, or other areas

usually have hormone therapy, chemotherapy, targeted

therapy, or a combination. Radiation therapy may be

used to control tumors in certain parts of the body.

These treatments are not likely to cure the disease, but

they may help a woman live longer.

Many women have supportive care along with

anticancer treatments. Anticancer treatments are given

to slow the progress of the disease. Supportive care

helps manage pain, other symptoms of cancer, or the

side effects of treatment (such as nausea). This care can
help a woman feel better physically and emotionally.

Supportive care does not aim to extend life. Some

women with advanced cancer decide to have only

supportive care.

Second Opinion

Before starting treatment, you might want a second

opinion from another doctor about your diagnosis and

treatment plan. Some women worry that their doctor

will be offended if they ask for a second opinion.

Usually the opposite is true. Most doctors welcome a

second opinion. And many health insurance companies

will pay for a second opinion if you or your doctor

requests it. Some companies require a second opinion.

If you get a second opinion, the doctor may agree

with your first doctor’s diagnosis and treatment plan.

Or the second doctor may suggest another approach.

Either way, you’ll have more information and perhaps

a greater sense of control. You may also feel more

confident about the decisions you make, knowing that

you’ve looked carefully at your options.

It may take some time and effort to gather your

medical records and see another doctor. Usually it’s not

a problem if it takes you several weeks to get a second

opinion. In most cases, the delay in starting treatment

will not make treatment less effective. To make sure,

you should discuss this possible delay with your

doctor. Some women with breast cancer need treatment

right away.

There are many ways to find a doctor for a second

opinion. You can ask your doctor, a local or state

medical society, a nearby hospital, or a medical school

for names of specialists.

39
The NCI Cancer Information Service at

1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237) or at

LiveHelp (http://www.cancer.gov/help) can tell you

about nearby treatment centers. Other sources can be

found in the NCI fact sheet How To Find a Doctor or

Treatment Facility If You Have Cancer.

Breast Reconstruction

Some women who plan to have a mastectomy

decide to have breast reconstruction. Other women

prefer to wear a breast form (prosthesis) inside their

bra. Others decide to do nothing after surgery. All of

these options have pros and cons. What is right for one

woman may not be right for another. What is important

is that nearly every woman treated for breast cancer

has choices.

Breast reconstruction may be done at the same time

as the mastectomy, or later on. If radiation therapy is

part of the treatment plan, some doctors suggest

waiting until after radiation therapy is complete.

If you are thinking about breast reconstruction, you

should talk to a plastic surgeon before the mastectomy,

even if you plan to have your reconstruction later on.

There are many ways for a surgeon to reconstruct

the breast. Some women choose to have breast

implants, which are filled with saline or silicone gel.

You can read about breast implants on the Food and

Drug Administration Web site at http://www.fda.gov/.

You also may have breast reconstruction with tissue

that the plastic surgeon removes from another part of

your body. Skin, muscle, and fat can come from your

lower abdomen, back, or buttocks. The surgeon uses

this tissue to create a breast shape.

40
The type of reconstruction that is best for you

depends on your age, body type, and the type of cancer

surgery that you had. The plastic surgeon can explain

the risks and benefits of each type of reconstruction.

41

You may want to ask your doctor these

questions about breast reconstruction:

• Which type of surgery would give me the best

results? How will I look afterward?

• When can my reconstruction begin? 

• How many surgeries will I need?

• What are the risks at the time of surgery?

Later?

• Will I have scars? Where? What will they look

like?

• If tissue from another part of my body is used,

will there be any permanent changes where the

tissue was removed?

• What activities should I avoid? When can I

return to my normal activities?

• Will I need follow-up care?

• How much will reconstruction cost? Will my

health insurance pay for it?
Nutrition and Physical Activity

It’s important for you to take very good care of

yourself before, during, and after cancer treatment.

Taking care of yourself includes eating well and

staying as active as you can.

You need the right amount of calories to maintain a

good weight. You also need enough protein to keep up

your strength. Eating well may help you feel better and

have more energy.

Sometimes, especially during or soon after

treatment, you may not feel like eating. You may be

uncomfortable or tired. You may find that foods don’t

taste as good as they used to. In addition, the side

effects of treatment (such as poor appetite, nausea,

vomiting, or mouth blisters) can make it hard to eat

well. On the other hand, some women treated for

breast cancer may have a problem with weight gain.

Your doctor, a registered dietitian, or another health

care provider can suggest ways to help you meet your

nutrition needs. Also, the NCI booklet Eating Hints has

many useful ideas and recipes.

Many women find that they feel better when they

stay active. Walking, yoga, swimming, and other

activities can keep you strong and increase your

energy. Exercise may reduce nausea and pain and make

treatment easier to handle. It also can help relieve

stress. Whatever physical activity you choose, be sure

to talk to your doctor before you start. Also, if your

activity causes you pain or other problems, be sure to

let your doctor or nurse know.

42
Follow-up Care

You’ll need regular checkups after treatment for

breast cancer. Checkups help ensure that any changes

in your health are noted and treated if needed. If you

have any health problems between checkups, you

should contact your doctor.

Your doctor will check for return of the cancer.

Also, checkups help detect health problems that can

result from cancer treatment.

You should report any changes in the treated area or

in your other breast to the doctor right away. Tell your

doctor about any health problems, such as pain, loss of

appetite or weight, changes in menstrual cycles,

unusual vaginal bleeding, or blurred vision. Also talk

to your doctor about headaches, dizziness, shortness of

breath, coughing or hoarseness, backaches, or digestive

problems that seem unusual or that don’t go away.

Such problems may arise months or years after

treatment. They may suggest that the cancer has

returned, but they can also be symptoms of other health

problems. It’s important to share your concerns with

your doctor so that problems can be diagnosed and

treated as soon as possible.

Checkups usually include an exam of the neck,

underarm, chest, and breast areas. Since a new breast

cancer may develop, you should have regular

mammograms. You probably won’t need a

mammogram of a reconstructed breast or if you had a

mastectomy without reconstruction. Your doctor may

order other imaging procedures or lab tests.

You may find it helpful to read the NCI booklet

Facing Forward: Life After Cancer Treatment. You

may also want to read the NCI fact sheet Follow-up

Care After Cancer Treatment.

43
Sources of Support 

Learning that you have breast cancer can change

your life and the lives of those close to you. These

changes can be hard to handle. It’s normal for you,

your family, and your friends to need help coping with

the feelings that such a diagnosis can bring.

Concerns about treatments and managing side

effects, hospital stays, and medical bills are common.

You may also worry about caring for your family,

keeping your job, or continuing daily activities.

Several organizations offer special programs for

women with breast cancer. Women who have had the

disease serve as trained volunteers. They may talk with

44
or visit women who have breast cancer, provide

information, and lend emotional support. They often

share their experiences with breast cancer treatment,

breast reconstruction, and recovery.

You may be afraid that changes to your body will

affect not only how you look but also how other people

feel about you. You may worry that breast cancer and

its treatment will affect your sexual relationships.

Many couples find it helps to talk about their concerns.

Some find that counseling or a couples’ support group

can be helpful.

Here’s where you can go for support:

• Doctors, nurses, and other members of your health

care team can answer questions about treatment,

working, or other activities.

• Social workers, counselors, or members of the

clergy can be helpful if you want to talk about your

feelings or concerns. Often, social workers can

suggest resources for financial aid, transportation,

home care, or emotional support.

• Support groups also can help. In these groups,

women with breast cancer or their family members

meet with other patients or their families to share

what they have learned about coping with the

disease and the effects of treatment. Groups may

offer support in person, over the telephone, or on the

Internet. You may want to talk with a member of

your health care team about finding a support group.

Women with breast cancer often get together in

support groups, but please keep in mind that each

woman is different. Ways that one woman deals

with cancer may not be right for another. You may

want to ask your health care provider about advice

you receive from other women with breast cancer.

45
• Information specialists at 1–800–4–CANCER

(1–800–422–6237) and at LiveHelp

(http://www.cancer.gov/help) can help you locate

programs, services, and publications. They can send

you a list of organizations that offer services to

women with cancer.

For tips on coping, you may want to read the NCI

booklet Taking Time: Support for People With Cancer.

Taking Part in Cancer Research

Cancer research has led to real progress in the

prevention, detection, and treatment of breast cancer.

Continuing research offers hope that in the future even

more women with breast cancer will be treated

successfully.

Doctors all over the country are conducting many

types of clinical trials (research studies in which people

volunteer to take part). Clinical trials are designed to

find out whether new approaches are safe and

effective.

Even if the people in a trial do not benefit directly,

they may still make an important contribution by

helping doctors learn more about breast cancer and

how to control it. Although clinical trials may pose

some risks, doctors do all they can to protect their

patients.

Doctors are trying to find better ways to care for

women with breast cancer. They are studying many

types of treatment and their combinations: 

• Radiation therapy: In women with early breast

cancer who have had a lumpectomy, doctors are

comparing the effectiveness of standard radiation

therapy aimed at the whole breast to that of

radiation therapy aimed at a smaller part of the

breast.

46
• Chemotherapy and targeted therapy: Researchers

are testing new anticancer drugs and doses. They are

looking at new drug combinations before surgery.

They are also looking at new ways of combining

chemotherapy with targeted therapy, hormone

therapy, or radiation therapy. In addition, they are

studying lab tests that may predict whether a woman

might be helped by chemotherapy.

• Hormone therapy: Doctors are testing several

types of hormone therapy, including aromatase

inhibitors. They are looking at whether hormone

therapy before surgery may help shrink the tumor.

• Supportive care: Doctors are looking at ways to

lessen the side effects of treatment, such as

lymphedema after surgery. They are looking at ways

to reduce pain and improve quality of life.

If you’re interested in being part of a clinical trial,

talk with your doctor. You may want to read the NCI

booklet Taking Part in Cancer Treatment Research

Studies. It describes how treatment studies are carried

out and explains their possible benefits and risks.

The NCI Web site includes a section on clinical

trials at http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials. It has

general information about clinical trials as well as

detailed information about specific ongoing studies

of breast cancer. Information specialists at

1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237) or at

LiveHelp at http://www.cancer.gov/help can answer

questions and provide information about clinical trials.

47
Dictionary 

Definitions of thousands of terms are on the NCI

Web site in the NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms. You

can access it at http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary.

Adjuvant therapy (A-joo-vant THAYR-uh-pee):

Treatment given after the primary treatment to increase

the chances of a cure. Adjuvant therapy may include

chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone therapy,

targeted therapy, or biological therapy.

Anastrozole (an-AS-troh-zohl): An anticancer drug

that is used to decrease estrogen production and

suppress the growth of tumors that need estrogen to

grow. It belongs to the family of drugs called

aromatase inhibitors.

Anesthesia (A-nes-THEE-zhuh): A loss of feeling or

awareness caused by drugs or other substances.

Anesthesia keeps patients from feeling pain during

surgery or other procedures.

Areola (a-REE-o-la): The area of dark-colored skin on

the breast that surrounds the nipple.

Aromatase inhibitor (uh-ROH-muh-tayz in-HIH-bihter): A drug that prevents the formation of estradiol, a

female hormone, by interfering with an aromatase

enzyme. Aromatase inhibitors are used as a type of

hormone therapy for postmenopausal women who have

hormone-dependent breast cancer.

Atypical hyperplasia (AY-TIP-ih-kul HY-per-PLAYzhuh): A benign (not cancer) condition in which cells

look abnormal under a microscope and are increased in

number.

Axilla (ak-SIL-a): The underarm or armpit.

Axillary lymph node (AK-sih-LAYR-ee limf): A

lymph node in the armpit region that drains lymph

from the breast and nearby areas.

48
Benign (beh-NINE): Not cancer. Benign tumors may

grow larger but do not spread to other parts of the

body.

Biopsy (BY-op-see): The removal of cells or tissues for

examination by a pathologist. The pathologist may

study the tissue under a microscope or perform other

tests on the cells or tissue. There are many different

types of biopsy procedures. The most common types

include: (1) incisional biopsy, in which only a sample

of tissue is removed; (2) excisional biopsy, in which an

entire lump or suspicious area is removed; and (3)

needle biopsy, in which a sample of tissue or fluid is

removed with a needle. When a wide needle is used,

the procedure is called a core biopsy. When a thin

needle is used, the procedure is called a fine-needle

aspiration biopsy.

Bone scan: A technique to create images of bones on a

computer screen or on film. A small amount of

radioactive material is injected into a blood vessel and

travels through the bloodstream; it collects in the bones

and is detected by a scanner.

Brachytherapy (BRAY-kee-THAYR-uh-pee): A type

of radiation therapy in which radioactive material

sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed

directly into or near a tumor. Also called implant

radiation therapy, internal radiation therapy, and

radiation brachytherapy.

BRCA1: A gene on chromosome 17 that normally

helps to suppress cell growth. A person who inherits

certain mutations (changes) in a BRCA1 gene has a

higher risk of getting breast, ovarian, prostate, and

other types of cancer.

BRCA2: A gene on chromosome 13 that normally

helps to suppress cell growth. A person who inherits

certain mutations (changes) in a BRCA2 gene has a

higher risk of getting breast, ovarian, prostate, and

other types of cancer.

49
Breast-conserving surgery (SER-juh-ree): An

operation to remove the breast cancer but not the breast

itself. Types of breast-conserving surgery include

lumpectomy (removal of the lump), quadrantectomy

(removal of one quarter, or quadrant, of the breast), and

segmental mastectomy (removal of the cancer as well

as some of the breast tissue around the tumor and the

lining over the chest muscles below the tumor). Also

called breast-sparing surgery.

Breast-sparing surgery (SER-juh-ree): An operation

to remove the breast cancer but not the breast itself.

Types of breast-sparing surgery include lumpectomy

(removal of the lump), quadrantectomy (removal of

one quarter, or quadrant, of the breast), and segmental

mastectomy (removal of the cancer as well as some of

the breast tissue around the tumor and the lining over

the chest muscles below the tumor). Also called breastconserving surgery.

Calcium (KAL-see-um): A mineral needed for healthy

teeth, bones, and other body tissues. A deposit of

calcium in body tissues, such as breast tissue, may be a

sign of disease.

Cancer (KAN-ser): A term for diseases in which

abnormal cells divide without control and can invade

nearby tissues. Cancer cells can also spread to other

parts of the body through the blood and lymph

systems.

Carcinoma (KAR-sih-NOH-muh): Cancer that begins

in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal

organs.

Cell: The individual unit that makes up the tissues of

the body. All living things are made up of one or more

cells.

Chemotherapy (KEE-moh-THAYR-uh-pee):

Treatment with drugs that kill cancer cells.

50
Chromosome (KROH-muh-some): Part of a cell that

contains genetic information. Except for sperm and

eggs, all human cells contain 46 chromosomes.

Clinical breast exam: A physical exam of the breast

performed by a health care provider to check for lumps

or other changes. Also called CBE.

Clinical trial: A type of research study that tests how

well new medical approaches work in people. These

studies test new methods of screening, prevention,

diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. Also called clinical

study.

Contrast material: A dye or other substance that helps

show abnormal areas inside the body. It is given by

injection into a vein, by enema, or by mouth. Contrast

material may be used with x-rays, CT scans, MRI, or

other imaging tests.

Core biopsy (BY-op-see): The removal of a tissue

sample with a wide needle for examination under a

microscope. Also called core needle biopsy.

CT scan: A series of detailed pictures of areas inside

the body taken from different angles. The pictures are

created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also

called CAT scan, computed tomography scan,

computerized axial tomography scan, and

computerized tomography.

Cyst (sist): A sac or capsule in the body. It may be

filled with fluid or other material.

DES: A synthetic form of the hormone estrogen that

was prescribed to pregnant women between about

1940 and 1971 because it was thought to prevent

miscarriages. DES may increase the risk of uterine,

ovarian, or breast cancer in women who took it. It also

has been linked to an increased risk of clear cell

carcinoma of the vagina or cervix in daughters exposed

to DES before birth. Also called diethylstilbestrol.

51
Diagnostic mammogram (MAM-o-gram): X -ray of

the breasts used to check for breast cancer after a lump

or other sign or symptom of breast cancer has been

found.

Digestive tract (dy-JES-tiv): The organs through

which food and liquids pass when they are swallowed,

digested, and eliminated. These organs are the mouth,

esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and

rectum and anus.

Duct (dukt): In medicine, a tube or vessel of the body

through which fluids pass.

Ductal carcinoma in situ (DUK-tal KAR-sih-NOHmuh in SYE-too): A noninvasive condition in which

abnormal cells are found in the lining of a breast duct.

The abnormal cells have not spread outside the duct to

other tissues in the breast. In some cases, ductal

carcinoma in situ may become invasive cancer and

spread to other tissues, although it is not known at this

time how to predict which lesions will become

invasive. Also called DCIS and intraductal carcinoma.

Estradiol (es-truh-DY-ol): A form of the hormone

estrogen.

Estrogen (ES-truh-jin): A type of hormone made by

the body that helps develop and maintain female sex

characteristics and the growth of long bones. Estrogens

can also be made in the laboratory. They may be used

as a type of birth control and to treat symptoms of

menopause, menstrual disorders, osteoporosis, and

other conditions.

Excisional biopsy (ek-SIH-zhun-al BY-op-see): A

surgical procedure in which an entire lump or

suspicious area is removed for diagnosis. The tissue is

then examined under a microscope.

Exemestane (EK-seh-MEH-stayn): A drug used to

treat advanced breast cancer and to prevent recurrent

breast cancer in postmenopausal women who have

52
already been treated with tamoxifen. It is also being

studied in the treatment of other types of cancer.

Exemestane causes a decrease in the amount of

estrogen made by the body. It is a type of aromatase

inhibitor. Also called Aromasin.

External radiation therapy (RAY-dee-AY-shun

THAYR-uh-pee): A type of radiation therapy that uses

a machine to aim high-energy rays at the cancer from

outside of the body. Also called external-beam

radiation therapy.

Fibrous: Containing or resembling fibers.

Fine-needle aspiration biopsy (as-per-AY-shun BYop-see): The removal of tissue or fluid with a thin

needle for examination under a microscope. Also

called FNA biopsy.

Gene: The functional and physical unit of heredity

passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of

DNA, and most genes contain the information for

making a specific protein.

Genome (JEE-nome): The complete genetic material

of an organism.

Gland: An organ that makes one or more substances,

such as hormones, digestive juices, sweat, tears, saliva,

or milk.

Goserelin (go-SAIR-uh-lin): A drug that belongs to the

family of drugs called gonadotropin-releasing hormone

analogs. Goserelin is used to block hormone

production in the ovaries or testicles.

HER2/neu: A protein involved in normal cell growth.

It is found on some types of cancer cells, including

breast and ovarian. Cancer cells removed from the

body may be tested for the presence of HER2/neu to

help decide the best type of treatment. Also called

c-erbB-2, human EGF receptor 2, and human

epidermal growth factor receptor 2.

53
Hodgkin lymphoma (HOJ-kin lim-FOH-muh): A

cancer of the immune system that is marked by the

presence of a type of cell called the Reed-Sternberg

cell. Also called Hodgkin disease.

Hormone receptor test (HOR-mone reh-SEP-ter): A

test to measure the amount of certain proteins, called

hormone receptors, in cancer tissue. Hormones can

attach to these proteins. A high level of hormone

receptors may mean that hormones help the cancer

grow.

Hormone therapy (HOR-mone THAYR-uh-pee):

Treatment that adds, blocks, or removes hormones. For

certain conditions (such as diabetes or menopause),

hormones are given to adjust low hormone levels. To

slow or stop the growth of certain cancers (such as

prostate and breast cancer), synthetic hormones or

other drugs may be given to block the body’s natural

hormones. Sometimes surgery is needed to remove the

gland that makes a certain hormone. Also called

endocrine therapy, hormonal therapy, and hormone

treatment.

Implant radiation therapy (RAY-dee-AY-shun

THAYR-uh-pee): A type of radiation therapy in which

radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or

catheters is placed directly into or near a tumor. Also

called brachytherapy, internal radiation therapy, and

radiation brachytherapy.

Incisional biopsy (in-SIH-zhun-al BY-op-see): A

surgical procedure in which a portion of a lump or

suspicious area is removed for diagnosis. The tissue is

then examined under a microscope to check for signs

of disease.

Inflammatory breast cancer (in-FLA-muh-TOR-ee):

A type of breast cancer in which the breast looks red

and swollen and feels warm. The skin of the breast

may also show the pitted appearance called peau

54
d’orange (like the skin of an orange). The redness and

warmth occur because the cancer cells block the lymph

vessels in the skin.

Internal radiation therapy (in-TER-nul RAY-dee-AYshun THAYR-uh-pee): A type of radiation therapy in

which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds,

wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near a

tumor. Also called brachytherapy, implant radiation

therapy, and radiation brachytherapy.

Intravenous (IN-truh-VEE-nus): Into or within a vein.

Intravenous usually refers to a way of giving a drug or

other substance through a needle or tube inserted into a

vein. Also called IV.

Invasive breast cancer (in-VAY-siv KAN-ser): Cancer

that has spread from where it started in the breast into

surrounding, healthy tissue. Most invasive breast

cancers start in the ducts (tubes that carry milk from

the lobules to the nipple). Invasive breast cancer can

spread to other parts of the body through the blood and

lymph systems. Also called infiltrating breast cancer.

Lapatinib (luh-PA-tih-nib): A drug used with another

anticancer drug to treat breast cancer that is HER2

positive and has advanced or metastasized (spread to

other parts of the body) after treatment with other

drugs. Lapatinib is also being studied in the treatment

of other types of cancer. Also called TYKERB®.

Letrozole (LET-ruh-zole): A drug used to treat

advanced breast cancer in postmenopausal women.

Letrozole causes a decrease in the amount of estrogen

made by the body. It is a type of aromatase inhibitor.

Also called Femara.

Leukemia (loo-KEE-mee-uh): Cancer that starts in

blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow and

causes large numbers of blood cells to be produced and

enter the bloodstream.

55
Leuprolide (LOO-pro-lide): A drug that blocks the

body from making testosterone (a male hormone) and

estradiol (a female hormone). It may stop the growth of

cancer cells that need the hormone to grow. It is a type

of gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog.

LH-RH agonist: A drug that inhibits the secretion of

sex hormones. In men, LH-RH agonist causes

testosterone levels to fall. In women, LH-RH agonist

causes the levels of estrogen and other sex hormones to

fall. Also called luteinizing hormone-releasing

hormone agonist.

Lobe: A portion of an organ, such as the liver, lung,

breast, thyroid, or brain.

Lobular carcinoma in situ (LAH-byuh-ler KAR-sihNOH-muh in SY-too): A condition in which abnormal

cells are found in the lobules of the breast. Lobular

carcinoma in situ seldom becomes invasive cancer;

however, having it in one breast increases the risk of

developing breast cancer in either breast. Also called

LCIS.

Lobule (LOB-yule): A small lobe or a subdivision of a

lobe.

Local therapy (THAYR-uh-pee): Treatment that

affects cells in the tumor and the area close to it.

Locally advanced cancer: Cancer that has spread

from where it started to nearby tissue or lymph nodes.

Lumpectomy (lum-PEK-toh-mee): Surgery to remove

abnormal tissue or cancer from the breast and a small

amount of normal tissue around it. It is a type of

breast-sparing surgery.

Lymph node (limf): A rounded mass of lymphatic

tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective

tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph (lymphatic fluid), and

they store lymphocytes (white blood cells). They are

located along lymphatic vessels. Also called lymph

gland.

56
Lymph vessel (limf): A thin tube that carries lymph

(lymphatic fluid) and white blood cells through the

lymphatic system. Also called lymphatic vessel.

Lymphedema (LIM-fuh-DEE-muh): A condition in

which excess fluid collects in tissue and causes

swelling. It may occur in the arm or leg after lymph

vessels or lymph nodes in the underarm or groin are

removed or treated with radiation.

Malignant (muh-LIG-nunt): Cancerous. Malignant

tumors can invade and destroy nearby tissue and

spread to other parts of the body.

Mammogram (MAM-o-gram): An x-ray of the breast.

Mastectomy (ma-STEK-toh-mee): Surgery to remove

the breast (or as much of the breast tissue as possible).

Medical oncologist (MEH-dih-kul on-KAH-loh-jist):

A doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating

cancer using chemotherapy, targeted therapy, hormonal

therapy, and biological therapy. A medical oncologist

often is the main health care provider for someone who

has cancer. A medical oncologist also gives supportive

care and may coordinate treatment given by other

specialists.

Menopausal hormone therapy (MEH-nuh-PAW-zul

HOR-mone THAYR-uh-pee): Hormones (estrogen,

progesterone, or both) given to women after

menopause to replace the hormones no longer

produced by the ovaries. Also called hormone

replacement therapy and HRT.

Menopause (MEH-nuh-PAWZ): The time of life when

a woman’s ovaries stop working and menstrual periods

stop. Natural menopause usually occurs around age 50.

A woman is said to be in menopause when she hasn’t

had a period for 12 months in a row. Symptoms of

menopause include hot flashes, mood swings, night

sweats, vaginal dryness, trouble concentrating, and

infertility.

57
Menstrual period (MEN-stroo-al): The periodic

discharge of blood and tissue from the uterus. From

puberty until menopause, menstruation occurs about

every 28 days, but does not occur during pregnancy.

Metastasis (meh-TAS-tuh-sis): The spread of cancer

from one part of the body to another. A tumor formed

by cells that have spread is called a “metastatic tumor”

or a “metastasis.” The metastatic tumor contains cells

that are like those in the original (primary) tumor. The

plural form of metastasis is metastases (meh-TAS-tuhSEEZ).

Metastatic (meh-tuh-STA-tik): Having to do with

metastasis, which is the spread of cancer from one part

of the body to another.

Microcalcification (MY-kroh-KAL-sih-fih-KAYshun): A tiny deposit of calcium in the breast that

cannot be felt but can be detected on a mammogram. A

cluster of these very small specks of calcium may

indicate that cancer is present.

Modified radical mastectomy (RA-dih-kul maSTEK-toh-mee): Surgery for breast cancer in which the

breast, most or all of the lymph nodes under the arm,

and the lining over the chest muscles are removed.

Sometimes the surgeon also removes part of the chest

wall muscles.

MRI: A procedure in which radio waves and a

powerful magnet linked to a computer are used to

create detailed pictures of areas inside the body. These

pictures can show the difference between normal and

diseased tissue. MRI makes better images of organs

and soft tissue than other scanning techniques, such as

computed tomography (CT) or x-ray. MRI is especially

useful for imaging the brain, the spine, the soft tissue

of joints, and the inside of bones. Also called magnetic

resonance imaging, NMRI, and nuclear magnetic

resonance imaging.

58
Neoadjuvant therapy (NEE-oh-A-joo-vant THAYRuh-pee): Treatment given as a first step to shrink a

tumor before the main treatment, which is usually

surgery, is given. Examples of neoadjuvant therapy

include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and hormone

therapy. It is a type of induction therapy.

Oncology nurse (on-KAH-loh-jee): A nurse who

specializes in treating and caring for people who have

cancer.

Ovarian cancer (oh-VAYR-ee-un KAN-ser): Cancer

that forms in tissues of the ovary (one of a pair of

female reproductive glands in which the ova, or eggs,

are formed).

Ovary (OH-vuh-ree): One of a pair of female

reproductive glands in which the ova, or eggs, are

formed. The ovaries are located in the pelvis, one on

each side of the uterus.

Partial mastectomy (ma-STEK-toh-mee): The

removal of cancer as well as some of the breast tissue

around the tumor and the lining over the chest muscles

below the tumor. Usually some of the lymph nodes

under the arm are also taken out. Also called segmental

mastectomy.

Pathologist (puh-THAH-loh-jist): A doctor who

identifies diseases by studying cells and tissues under a

microscope.

Physical therapist: A health professional who teaches

exercises and physical activities that help condition

muscles and restore strength and movement.

Plastic surgeon (SER-jun): A surgeon who specializes

in reducing scarring or disfigurement that may occur as

a result of accidents, birth defects, or treatment for

diseases.

Plastic surgery (SER-juh-ree): An operation that

restores or improves the appearance of body structures.

59
Precancerous (pre-KAN-ser-us): A term used to

describe a condition that may (or is likely to) become

cancer. Also called premalignant.

Progesterone (proh-JES-tuh-RONE): A type of

hormone made by the body that plays a role in the

menstrual cycle and pregnancy. Progesterone can also

be made in the laboratory. It may be used as a type of

birth control and to treat menstrual disorders, infertility,

symptoms of menopause, and other conditions.

Prosthesis (pros-THEE-sis): A device, such as an

artificial leg, that replaces a part of the body.

Radiation oncologist (RAY-dee-AY-shun on-KAHloh-jist): A doctor who specializes in using radiation to

treat cancer.

Radiation therapy (RAY-dee-AY-shun THAYR-uhpee): The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays,

gamma rays, neutrons, protons, and other sources to

kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may

come from a machine outside the body (external-beam

radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive

material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal

radiation therapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a

radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled

monoclonal antibody, that travels in the blood to

tissues throughout the body. Also called irradiation and

radiotherapy.

Radioactive (RAY-dee-oh-AK-tiv): Giving off

radiation.

Reconstructive surgeon (REE-kun-STRUK-tiv SERjun): A doctor who can surgically reshape or rebuild

(reconstruct) a part of the body, such as a woman’s

breast after surgery for breast cancer.

Recurrent cancer (ree-KER-ent KAN-ser): Cancer

that has recurred (come back), usually after a period of

time during which the cancer could not be detected.

60
The cancer may come back to the same place as the

original (primary) tumor or to another place in the

body. Also called recurrence.

Registered dietitian (dy-eh-TIH-shun): A health

professional with special training in the use of diet and

nutrition to keep the body healthy. A registered

dietitian may help the medical team improve the

nutritional health of a patient.

Risk factor: Something that may increase the chance

of developing a disease. Some examples of risk factors

for cancer include age, a family history of certain

cancers, use of tobacco products, certain eating habits,

obesity, lack of exercise, exposure to radiation or other

cancer-causing agents, and certain genetic changes.

Screening mammogram (MAM-o-gram): X-rays of

the breasts taken to check for breast cancer in the

absence of signs or symptoms.

Segmental mastectomy (seg-MEN-tul ma-STEK-tohmee): The removal of cancer as well as some of the

breast tissue around the tumor and the lining over the

chest muscles below the tumor. Usually some of the

lymph nodes under the arm are also taken out. Also

called partial mastectomy.

Sentinel lymph node biopsy: Removal and

examination of the sentinel node(s) (the first lymph

node[s] to which cancer cells are likely to spread from

a primary tumor). To identify the sentinel lymph

node(s), the surgeon injects a radioactive substance,

blue dye, or both near the tumor. The surgeon then uses

a scanner to find the sentinel lymph node(s) containing

the radioactive substance or looks for the lymph

node(s) stained with dye. The surgeon then removes

the sentinel node(s) to check for the presence of cancer

cells.

61
Side effect: A problem that occurs when treatment

affects healthy tissues or organs. Some common side

effects of cancer treatment are fatigue, pain, nausea,

vomiting, decreased blood cell counts, hair loss, and

mouth sores.

Supportive care: Care given to improve the quality of

life of patients who have a serious or life-threatening

disease. The goal of supportive care is to prevent or

treat as early as possible the symptoms of a disease,

side effects caused by treatment of a disease, and

psychological, social, and spiritual problems related to

a disease or its treatment. Also called comfort care,

palliative care, and symptom management.

Surgeon (SER-jun): A doctor who removes or repairs a

part of the body by operating on the patient.

Surgery (SER-juh-ree): A procedure to remove or

repair a part of the body or to find out whether disease

is present. An operation.

Surgical biopsy (SER-jih-kul BY-op-see): The

removal of tissue by a surgeon for examination by a

pathologist. The pathologist may study the tissue under

a microscope.

Systemic therapy (sis-TEH-mik THAYR-uh-pee):

Treatment using substances that travel through the

bloodstream, reaching and affecting cells all over the

body.

Tamoxifen (tuh-MOK-sih-FEN): A drug used to treat

certain types of breast cancer in women and men. It is

also used to prevent breast cancer in women who have

had ductal carcinoma in situ (abnormal cells in the

ducts of the breast) and in women who are at a high

risk of developing breast cancer. It blocks the effects of

the hormone estrogen in the breast.

62
Targeted therapy (TAR-geh-ted THAYR-uh-pee): A

type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances,

such as monoclonal antibodies, to identify and attack

specific cancer cells. Targeted therapy may have fewer

side effects than other types of cancer treatments.

Tissue (TISH-oo): A group or layer of cells that work

together to perform a specific function.

Total mastectomy (ma-STEK-toh-mee): Removal of

the breast. Also called simple mastectomy.

Trastuzumab (tras-TOO-zuh-mab): A monoclonal

antibody that binds to HER2 (human epidermal growth

factor receptor 2), and can kill HER2-positive cancer

cells. Monoclonal antibodies are made in the laboratory

and can locate and bind to substances in the body,

including cancer cells. Trastuzumab is used to treat

breast cancer that is HER2-positive and has spread

after treatment with other drugs. It is also used with

other anticancer drugs to treat HER2-positive breast

cancer after surgery. Also called Herceptin®.

Tumor (TOO-mer): An abnormal mass of tissue that

results when cells divide more than they should or do

not die when they should. Tumors may be benign (not

cancer), or malignant (cancer). Also called neoplasm.

Ultrasound (UL-truh-SOWND): A procedure in which

high-energy sound waves are bounced off internal

tissues or organs and make echoes. The echo patterns

are shown on the screen of an ultrasound machine,

forming a picture of body tissues called a sonogram.

Also called ultrasonography.

X-ray: A type of high-energy radiation. In low doses,

x-rays are used to diagnose diseases by making

pictures of the inside of the body. In high doses, x-rays

are used to treat cancer.

63
National Cancer Institute Publications

NCI provides publications about cancer, including

the booklets and fact sheets mentioned in this booklet.

Many are available in both English and Spanish.

You may order these publications by telephone, on

the Internet, or by mail. You may also read them online

and print your own copy.

• By telephone: People in the United States and its

territories may order these and other NCI publications by calling the NCI Cancer Information Service

at 1–800–4–CANCER (1–800–422–6237).

• On the Internet: Many NCI publications may be

viewed, downloaded, and ordered from

http://www.cancer.gov/publications on the

Internet. People in the United States and its

territories may use this Web site to order printed

copies. This Web site also explains how people

outside the United States can mail or fax their

requests for NCI booklets.

• By mail: NCI publications may be ordered by

writing to the address below: 

Publications Ordering Service

National Cancer Institute

P.O. Box 24128

Baltimore, MD 21227

Clinical Trials

• Taking Part in Cancer Treatment Research Studies

64
Finding a Doctor, Support Groups, or Other

Organizations

• How To Find a Doctor or Treatment Facility If You

Have Cancer (also in Spanish)

• National Organizations That Offer Services to

People With Cancer and Their Families (also in

Spanish) 

Cancer Treatment and Supportive Care

• Radiation Therapy and You (also in Spanish)

• Understanding Radiation Therapy: What To Know

About External Beam Radiation Therapy (also in

Spanish)

• Chemotherapy and You (also in Spanish)

• Targeted Cancer Therapies

• Tamoxifen (also in Spanish)

• Herceptin® (Trastuzumab)

• Adjuvant and Neoadjuvant Therapy for Breast

Cancer

• Surgery Choices for Women with Early-Stage Breast

Cancer

• Eating Hints (also in Spanish)

• Pain Control (also in Spanish)

Coping with Cancer

• Taking Time: Support for People with Cancer 

• Managing Radiation Therapy Side Effects: What To

Do When You Feel Weak or Tired (Fatigue) (also in

Spanish)

65
Life After Cancer Treatment

• Facing Forward: Life After Cancer Treatment (also

in Spanish)

• Follow-up Care After Cancer Treatment

• Facing Forward: Ways You Can Make a Difference

in Cancer

Advanced or Recurrent Cancer

• Coping With Advanced Cancer

• When Cancer Returns

Complementary Medicine

• Thinking about Complementary & Alternative

Medicine: A guide for people with cancer

• Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Cancer

Treatment (also in Spanish)

Caregivers

• When Someone You Love Is Being Treated for

Cancer: Support for Caregivers

• When Someone You Love Has Advanced Cancer:

Support for Caregivers

• Facing Forward: When Someone You Love Has

Completed Cancer Treatment

• Caring for the Caregiver: Support for Cancer

Caregivers

Finding Breast Changes 

• Understanding Breast Changes

• Mammograms (also in Spanish)

66
The National Cancer Institute 

The National Cancer Institute (NCI), part of the

National Institutes of Health, is the Federal

Government’s principal agency for cancer research

and training. NCI conducts and supports basic and

clinical research to find better ways to prevent,

diagnose, and treat cancer. The Institute also supports

education and training for cancer research and

treatment programs. In addition, NCI is responsible

for communicating its research findings to the

medical community and the public.

Copyright permission

You must have permission to use or reproduce the

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but they may require a credit line and/or usage fees.

To inquire about permission to reproduce NCI

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You do not need our permission to reproduce or

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of this NCI booklet.
NIH Publication No.09-1556

Revised July 2009

Printed September 2009