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UNITED STATES

Agriculture Handbook No. 13

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

September I950

FORESTRY HANDBOOK

for the Upper Mississippi Region

(Fifth Edition)

! — f—«, A r-i f) \y

r4 Î950

' tPAKIMrKTDrAGhiCULTÜHE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE

Upper Mississippi Region

Regional Headquarters, Milwaukee, Wis.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C.

Price 45 cents
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION

Keeping pace with advances in knowledge means continual

changes and revisions of texts. This Fifth Edition is an attempt to keep farm-forestry facts current and up-to-date.

But only a few of the facts have been changed and others

added. The purpose of this handbook is the same as it was

for previous editions: To supply in a single volunne information necessary for the application of forestry principles

to land use planning on farms and to aid in the development

and application of complete farm conservation plans based

on land capabilities.

The handbook is a compilation of the results of State and

Federal research and of the observations of Soil Conservation Service technicians as applied to farm-forestry problenns in the soil conservation districts of Soil Conservation

Service's Region 3, the Upper Mississippi Region.

The material was not written for foresters, farrners, or

the general public. It is designed for use of soil conservationists who assist farmers in more than 500 soil conservation districts in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin. In a sense it is a

first-aid text. By prescribing some of the sinnple treatnnents, we hope soil conservationists can be helpful to

owners of sick land in need of planting, and of sick woodland in need of protection and management.

To take credit for any but a small part of the text would

be gross plagiarism. The forestry division has acted simply as an editor and compiler and has freely used the writings of numerous authors. Many of their publications are

listed as references and are worthy of study when more detailed information is desired.

Stanley S. Locke

Regional Forester

Milwaukee, Wis. Upper Mississippi Region

August 1950 Soil Conservation Service
CONTENTS

TREES AND TREE GROWTH

JList of Trees

Identification of Pines » o «

How Trees Grow ».OP...

Site .... o

Tolerance o

Plant Succession ..« ....... o

SILVICULTURE

General

Improving the Woods

Thinning

Pruning . o

Removal of vines

Planting . . o » ». <. What to plant ? .

When to plant ? ;

How to plant ?

Wind-erosion planting

Windbreak and shelterbelt

planting o

Stripped-coal-land planting . . . .

PROTECTION

Fire o

Insects and Disease

Doraestic Animals .

Fencing

Elimination of woody plants

in pastures

Wild Animals

WOODLAND PRODUCTS

Saw Timber » »

Lumber

Black walnut .... .

Veneer ^

Railroad Ties

Round Timber ...... » . «

Piling ... o ... c

Poles .....,....<......

Fuelwood o ..... » Maple Sirup .... » . .

Christmas Trees ». o

Charcoal

Stave Bolts (Cooperage)

Page

11

13

13

14

15

16

16

19

19

22

23

24

27

29

34

36

37

39

41

41

43

44

45

46

46

46

47

48

50

50

51

Page

Pulpwood o . o o ..... . 51

Other Products 51

Marketing ........ 52

Harvesting .... o • 55

WOOD USE ON THE FARM

Lumber for Construction . ....... . 59

Durability of Wood 62

Wood Preservation 63

WOODLAND MANAGEMENT

Measurement of Standing Timber .... 65

Determination of Cut 69

Regulation of Cut 71

Management Plans ' 72

WOODLAND ECONOMICS

Valuation o 75

Income as Reflected by

Management » 78

Deferred Returns 79

Comparison with Other Farm.

Enterprises 80

Integration with Other Farm

Activities ....... o « 81

APPENDIX

Unit Conversion Factors (Length and

Area) • 83

Dimensions of Plots 83

Approximate Equivalents - Forest

Products 84

Board Foot Content of Logs 85

Compound Interest Table 86

Approximate Numiber of Trees for

Specific Volumes 87

Area of Circles (Basal Area) 88

Board Measure 89

Approximate Weights of Woods 90

Transportation Items 90

Railroad Ties 91

Volume Tables 93

Volume in Tree Tops (Hardwoods) ... 98

Index 99

GPO—O—ses 217
TREES AND TREE GROWTH

LIST OF TREES

Except for a simple key to the pines it is not within the scope of this handbook to include a

tree identification guide. The books listed on page 4 are readily available to all farnn planners.

These publications are valuable aids in learning to know the native and some exotic species that

grow or have been extensively introduced in any locality.

The trees used in planting or commonly found in the farm woods of the Upper Mississippi

Valley are listed:

Common name Botanical name Other common names in local use

HARDWOODS

Box elder

Silver maple

Red maple

Sugar maple

Yellow birch

Biver birch

Paper birch

Mockernut hickory

Bitternut hickory

Shagbark hickory

Chestnut

Hardy catalpa

Hackberry

Dogwood

Persimmon

Beech

White ash

Green ash

Honey Locust

Butternut

Black walnut

Red gum

Yellow poplar

White mulberry

Red mulberry

Sour gum

Sycamore

Balm of Gilend

Cottonwood

Largetooth aspen

Aspen

Black cherry

Black locust

White oak

Red oak

Jack oak

Shingle oak

Bur oak

Blackjack oak

Chestnut oak

Chinquapin oak

Pin oak

Acer negundo

Acer saccharinum

Acer rubrum

Acer saccharum

(N) Betula lutea i

Betula nigra

Betula papyrifera

(S) Carya alba

Carya cordiformis

Carya ovata

Castanea dentata

(S) Catalpa speciosa

Ce Itis occidentalis

Cornus florida

Diospyros virginiana

Fagus grandifolia

Fraxinus americana

Fraxinus pennsylvanica lanceolata

Gleditsia triacanthos

Juglans ceneria

Jugions nigra

(S) Liquidambar styraciflua

(S) Liriodendron tulipifera

(E) Morus alba

Morus rubra

Nyssa sylvatica ..

Platanus occidentalis

Populus balsamifera

Populas deltoides virg,

Populus grandidentata

(N) Populus tremuloides

Prunus serótina

Robinia pseudoacacia

Quer cus alba

Quer cus borealis maxima

(N) Quer cus ellipsoidalis

(S) Quercus imbricaria

Quercus macrocarpa

(S) Quercus marilandica

(S) Quercus montana

Quercus muehlenbergil

(S) Quercus palus tris

Soft maple

Soft maple

Hard maple, Rock maple

milite birch

Pignut

Shellbark hickory

Catalpa

Sugarberry

Flowering dogwood

White walnut

Sweetgum

Tulip poplar, whitewood, poplar

Russian mulberry

Mulberry

Tupelo, pepperidge, black gum

Ruttonwood, buttonball, plane

Poplar

Popple, poplar, aspen

Popple, poplar

Pin or Hills oak

Laurel oak

Mossycap oak

Jack oak

Rock oak

Water oak

1
FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

Common name

Post oak

Black oak

Black willow

Sassafras

Basswood

Osage orange

Bed elm

i'Vnerican elm

Rock elm

Botanical name

(S) Quercus stellata

Quercus ve latina

Salix nigra

Sassafras variifolium

Ti lia glabra

(S) Toxylon pomiferwn

Ulmus fulva

Ulmas americana

(N) Ulmus racemosa

Other common names in local use

Yellow oak

Linden, linn

Hedge, bois d'Arc

Slippery elm

milite .:;lm, soft elm, water elm

Cork elm

CONIFERS:

Balsam fir

Norway i^ruce

^hite spruce

Black spruce

Jack pine

Shortleaf pine

Austrian pine

Ponderosa pine

Bed pine

Pitch pine

Northern white pine

Scotch pine

Loblolly pine

Virginia pine

Douglas fir

Eastern red cedar

Tamarack

Northern white cedar

Hemlock

(E)

(N) Abies balsamea

(E) Picea excelsa

(N) Picea canodensis or glauca

Picea mar i ana

(N) Pinas banksiana

(S) Pinas echinata

(E) Pinas nigra

(E) Pinas ponderosa

(N) Pinas resinosa

(S) Pinas rigida

(N) Pinas strobus

(E) Pinas sylvestris

(S) Pinas taeda

(S) Pinas virginiana

(E) Pseadotsuga taxifolia

Juniperas virginiana

(N) Larix laricina

(N) Jhuja occidentalis

Tsaga canodensis

(E) Not native to region

(S) Grows only in southern part of region

(N) Grows only in northern part of region

Fir, balsam

Variety: Black Hills spruce

Southern or yellow pine

Black pine

vVestem yellow pine

Norway pine

White or soft pine

Old field or southern pine

Jersey or scrub pine

Fir

Juniper, red cedar, cedar

Larch

Arbor vitae, white cedar, cedar
TREES AND TREE GROWTH

IDENTIFICATION OF PINES

Pines are the most widely planted genera in the Lake and North Central States, and some

species have been introduced in localities where they do not occur naturally. Because the State

tree-identification books cover only the native trees, the identification of species of introduced

pines frequently is difficult. The following key will be helpful in distinguishing the pines which

are or have been more or less commonly used in forest planting in the Upper Mississippi Region.

First count the number of individual needles in each cluster; then note arrangement and other

needle characteristics. Examine the characteristics of the small branches and buds; if possible,

find some cones from older trees.

A. Needles always 5 to cluster

AA. Needles always 3 to cluster

WHITE

B,

BB.

Cones 2 to 3 times as long as wide, with stout

prickles; needles 6 to 9 inches long, at acute

angle with branch , , »LOBLOLLY

Cones less than twice as long as wide, with

slender prickles; needles 3 to 5 inches long,

standing at nearly right angles to the branch. PITCH

AAA. Needles both 2 and 3 to cluster,

clusters on same tree

i.e., 2 and 3 needle

Needles stout and coarse; branches stout, becoming gray-black at end of 2 or 3 years; cones

borne near ends of branches; only one whorl of

branches develops each year; buds resinous . . . . .WESTERN YELLOW

(Ponderosa)

BB. Needles slender and flexible; young branches

pale green or violet, becoming red-brown

tinged with purple; cones not borne at ends but

near middle of branches; more than one whorl

of branches per year; buds not or only slightly

resinous ........oo...oo.,.o.;<, . SHORTLEAF

AAAA. Needles always 2 to cluster

B. Needles 3 to 7 inches long

C. Bark on 2-year-old branches dividedinto

sharply defined scales, each peeling off

as a whole; young branches not glaucous-!'

D. Needles quite stiff; young branches

gray-black; cones break off completely at falling; cross section through

needles shows, with hand lens, resin

ducts midway between margin and center of leaf tissue . „ . . . . o o AUSTRIAN

*Gloucous--cove red with bluish-v^ite or gray bloom.
4 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

AAAA. Needles always Z to cluster (continued)

BBo

DD. Needles flexible; young branches

reddish-brown; cones leave a few

basal scales on stem after falling;

cross section through leaf shows

resin ducts near margin of leaf

tissue •••oo«ee«»oo«oo*Ooe*ooooeo*

CC. Bark on 2 to 4-year branches not divided into sharply defined scales, peeling

off rather irregularly; young branches

glaucous'S^

D. Central trunk commonly forks into

two or more stems .. o o • .... o » ... o

Needles 3/4 to 3 inches long

C. Cones synnmetrical, not incurved

, RED or

NORWAY

JAPANESE RED

D. Only one whorl of branchlets develops each year; cones borne on ends

of branches; cone scales without

sharp prickles. Bark on old branches

o range-red brown; needles bluegreen „,. «. o * ...•..<....... o .. » ..«». .

DD. More than one whorl of branches develop each year; cones borne in middle of branches; cone scales with

sharp prickles; branchlets greenish

tinged with purple, becoming light

gray-brown; branchlets glaucous*i*;

gray-green needles . . . . . , . . o o « o . <, « e <

SCOTCH

VIRGINIA

CC. Cones unsymmetrical, incurved toward branch

D. Cone scales without sharp prickles;

branchlets not glaucous^î*, slender,

tough and flexible, pale yellow-green;

needles yellow-green; more than one

whorl of branches develop each year . . c . JACK

* Glaucous--covered with bluish-v^iii te or gray bloom.

REFERENCES

Trees, USDA Yearbook of Agriculture 1949, pages 763-798.

Manual of Trees of North America, Sargent. lioughtonMifflin.

Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, Rehder. Macinillan.

Trees and Tree Planting Together With a Descriptive Catalog of Common Forest Trees of Minnesota and the Lake

States, Anderson. Webb Publishing Co.

Trees of Minnesota, Minnesota Department of Conservation.

Forest Trees of Missouri, Missouri Conservation Commission Conservation Bulletin 7.

The Distribution of Important Forest Trees of the United

States, USDA Miscellaneous Publication 287.

Native Woody Plants of the united States, Their ErosionControl and Wildlife Values,\]SDA Miscellaneous Publication 303.

Forest Trees of Illinois, Illinois Department of Conservation.

Iowa Trees in Winter, Iowa State Extension Circular 246.

Evergreens, Michigan StateCollege Extension Bulletin 178.

Michigan Trees, Otis, University of Michigan.

Ohio Trees, Ohio State University Agricultural Extension

Bulletin 185.

Fifty Common Trees of Indiana, Shaw and VanCamp, Indiana

Department of Conservation and Purdue University.

Forest Trees of Wisconsin, Wisconsin Conservation Department Publication 507.
TREES AND TREE GROWTH

HOW TREES GROW

The interrelation of aU parts of a tree and

the functions of its various parts can be seen

in the diagram. The three principal parts of a

tree are the crown, consisting of the leaves,

and branches, the trunk or stem, and the

roots. In its entirety the crown or top of the

tree may be thought of as a manufacturing plant.

Carbon dioxide is taken from the air. Water is

absorbed from the soil by the roots and transported up through the trunk to the leaves. In

the presence of chlorophyl (the green substance

in leaves), and with the energy supplied by the

sun, carbon dioxide and water are combined

into a series of organic compounds. Simplified, the chemical reaction is approximately:

6 COo + 6 H2O C, H,, 0^+120

Sugar (glucose), the principal product, eventually is transformed into cellulose and lignin

which form the woody tissues of the tree.

Oxygen is the by-product.

Water that is absorbed by the roots also

contains nninute quantities of minerals. The

mineral requirements for tree growth, however, are much less than for most farm crops

and their presence does not materially affect

the essential.chemical process of producing

cellulose. This does not overlook the proteins,

which are synthesized in plants only with the

help of some 10 or more essential mineral

elements. Soils may be, and commonly are,

deficient in some of these elements in terms

of protein for animal-food production. Most

soils are not deficient in the usual elements

required for wood production.

An understanding of how plant food is manufactured has two very important applications:

Of the elements necessary to make cellulose,

water is most likely to be limited; carbon dioxide, the minor mineral chemical elements,

and sunlight generally are present in sufficient quantities. There are many environmental factors that affect the availability of

water and therefore influence the supply of

food needed for tree growth: Droughts, dry

soils, soils so impervious the roots cannot

get sufficient moisture, and mechanical injuries to the roots all limit the water supply.

The amount of leaf surface where the food

is manufactured is the second important measure of tree growth. The crown, considered in

terms of area of green leaves, is one of the

best indications of tree vigor. A small,

crowded, thin crown, or one that is partially

dead indicates a defective or inefficient manufacturing plant. Full-crowned trees with no

dead branches are producing the maximum

amount of food because the plant is operating

to capacity.

Trees grow in height and diameter. Height

growth and the elongation of the individual

branches results from cell division taking

place at the extreme tip of each twig. Because there is no change in the cells once

formed, it is clear that wood stays in the position in which it was originally deposited. A

branch 10 feet fronn the ground today, therefore, always will be 10 feet from the ground.

The trunk and tree branches enlarge at the

point where bark meets the wood. The growing tissue, called the cambium, is the minute layer of cells lying just underneath the

bark. The cells of the cannbium layer divide

both inwardly and outwardly; those on the inside produce wood (the xylem), and the outside cells form the bark (the phloem). The o Id

bark cells eventually scale off as they are pushed

toward the outside of the tree by the new cells,

but the inside cells stay in place and each year

a new layer of wood is laid over the layer

formed the previous year.

Site

As used in forestry, the term "site" is a

generic one and includes all the factors influencing the growth of trees in any given location. Soil is only one of these and often is of

less importance than are others such as direction of slope (aspect), exposure, and climatic and biotic factors.

Site is most commonly measured by the height

to which the dominant trees of a given species

will grow in a specific number of years (generally 50). Thus a site index of "80" for red

oak simply means that on a particular site

dominant red oak trees will grow to a height

of 80 feet in 50 years. Obviously this is a better site for red oak than one expressed as "60."

Table 1 will be helpful in determining the

tree-producing capacity of any given site, particularly in appraising areas to be planted.

The site cannot be judged accurately on the

basis of single factors. Even if soil, exposure,

and drainage are "excellent, " more than likely there would be heavy competition from brush

and herbaceous plants which will require costly site preparation and cultivation if planting

is to be successful. Also, a light sandy site

might have all the other favorable characteristics but be so excessively drained (droughty)

as to limit its usefulness for growing trees.

The hazardous secondary effects of attemjjting to grow trees on deficient sites must also

be taken into account. Insects and disease usually are damaging in direct proportion to site

quality (p. 29), Heavy competition of bluegrass

and quackgrass is closely correlated with winter die-back of black locust in the northern
FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

Trees increase each year

in heighr and spread of

bronches by adding on o

new nrowth of ^wigs

Lighf and heot ore required by the

ieoves m the preparation of food

obtained from the oir and soil The

leaves give off moisture by tronspirotion

r

Parr of a Leaf

CROWN

r

ROOTS

Heartwood (inactive)

gives strength —_

V^

Sapwood {xylem) carnes

sap from root to Ieoves _-

Cambium (layer of cells

where growth m diameter

TRUNK occurs ) builds tissues-wood

inside and bark outside ——

Inner bark (phloem) carries

food made m the leaves down

to the branches, trunk,and

roots. ..^ ^ —-—

Outer bark protects Sf%^

from injuries.

Taproot

Ihe parts of a tree and their fiinctions.
TREES AND TREE GROWTH

TABLE l,"-'Site quality

Site factors

Soil (A horizon)

Depth disregarding h

Soil (B horizon)

Structure when

moi St.

Structure when

dry.

Plasticity

Color of subsoil.

Aspect (Rolling or

steep)

Exposure (Degree

of protection

from drying wind

and sun)

Excellent

12 inches

Loose or only sli^tly coherent.

Mellow, crumbly,

porous, gardenlike.

Not plastic when wet.

Reddish-brown.

North and northeast.

Drainage (Surface)

(i>npetition (Biotic)

Cove, sheltered,

steep topography.

Ciood

8 inches

Mellow and friable.

Friable not difficult to dig.

Slightly plastic.

Brown or yellow.

NorthwestCove, open, moderate dissection.

Terraces; rolling upland.

No competition from

plants or animals,

insects or disease.

Level upland with

subsurface drainage.

4 inches

Competition limited

to low, sparse annual plants; no

animals, insects or

disease.

ff'oderately corrpact.

Bakes into refractory clods, cracks

when dry.

Moderately plastic.

Ye How-gray,

mottled.

East, west, or

southeast

Slopes, open.

Poor

2 inches

Very compact.

Dense and structureless

or breaks into hard

sharp pyramidal lumps.

Very plastic.

Drab or blue.

Southwest or south.

Ridge or flat open

terrain.

Moraines; loose sand;

low areas.

Moderately heavy

brush or weed competition.

Swamp with high water

table, excessively or

poorly drained upland.

Heavy brush and herbaceous competition, insects, animals, or

diseases prevalent.

part of the region, (Deficient soil moisture

causes the trees to become partially dormant

in midsummer; a resumption of the active

growth period following fall rains then exposes

the new plant tissue to freezing before it has

had time to harden off. ) See also p. 39 for damage done by mice wintering in heavily sodded areas.

Although various species of trees have different soil requirements, it can be said that

generally they are less demanding than are

agricultural crops and hence will grow on

soils of lower fertility. Summarizing the relatively small amount of research that has been

done on soils in relation to tree growth, and

after the first few years of establishment,

several general facts are evident:

(l) Insofar as the mineral requirements for

trees are concerned, available nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium usually are not seriously deficient in forest soils. Calcareous soils

(limestone particles present, reaction pH 7 or

above) do not favor native pines in the Central

States. They are suitable for red cedar. With

some possible exceptions, most hardwoods

seem to grow equally well on calcareous and

noncalcareous soils. Limestone-derived soils

(residual from limestone but may be acid in

reaction) are suitable for hardwoods (or pines

if the reaction is below pH 6. 5). Ligon reports

that black locust grows better on limestonederived or calcareous soils than on acid shale

soils,

(2) Available but not excessive soil moisture

is an extremely important requisite for good

tree growth. In soils subject to drought, such

as sands, the percent of organic matter and

the amount of silt and clay present are important because these two factors influence waterholding capacity.

(3) Certain physical properties of soils in

general directly influence tree growth are total

depth of the A and B horizons, plasticity and

compactness of the B horizon, drainage, and

aeration. A deep, friable, moist but welldrained soil is best suited for tree growth.

(4) Absence of the A horizon is not serious

where there is a deep, friable, and moist soil
8 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

profile. If the subsoil is compact and tight,

however, the amount and depth of topsoil assumes the same importance in tree growth as

it does in other plants,

(5) From the above generalization, it is

clear that fertility alone, as used in an agricultural sense, is not an accurate measure of

soil quality desirable to produce good trees.

For example, Auten has found that yellow poplar, a species commonly thought of as requiring "good" soil, made the best growth in localities where the general "fertility" level was

low. The successful growth was due to the

youthful character of the soil profiles, the

deeply dissected terrain which resulted in good

drainage, and the slopes which favored slow

evaporation rates and low soil temperatures.

Tolerance

Tolerance may be considered as the ability

of a tree to grow un,der shade and in competiBelative tolerance of species:

Tolerant

Balsam fir

Basswood

Beech

Cedar, white

Dogwood

Elm, white

Gum, black

Hemlock

Ironwood

Maple, hard

Spruce

Intermediate

Ash, white

Birch, yellow

Box elder

Cedar, red

Cherry, black

Elm, red

Gum, red

Hackberry

Hickory

Maple, soft

Oak, white

Pine, white

Intolerant

Ash, green

Aspen

Birch, white

Butternut

Catalpa

Cottonwood

Cypress

Locust, honey

Locust, black

Oaks, red and black

Osage orange

Pine, 2- and

3-needled

Sassafras

Sycamore

Tamarack

Walnut, black

Willow

Yellow poplar

tion with other trees. Because competition is

always relative — what species is competing

with what other species, and on what kind of a

site — the assignment of any specific degree of

tolerance to a single kind of tree can not be exact.

Nevertheless, the general concept of tolerance finds practical application when two or

more species are planted in close association.

If an attempt were made to plant a slow-growing intolerant like red oak close to more rapidly growing trees such as white or loblolly

pine, probably the oak would fail to compete.

On the other hand, spruce (a tolerant species)

and white pine (which is quite tolerant when

young) would survive in proximity to black locust and under most conditions would eventually overtop and eliminate the locust.

The degree of tolerance also is important in

any woodland cutting or harvesting operations

because the manner of cutting affects the kind

of young trees that will reproduce naturally. A

farmer who wanted natural reproduction of

black walnut or yellow poplar, followmg cutting

operations of mature trees, would be compelled

to eliminate considerable competition before

these two intolérants could develop and grow;

it would be necessary to make large openings

in the overstory of older trees. Contrarily,

spruce, balsam, hard maple, or basswood reproduction could best be assured by the removal of a single large tree or two. These tolerant

species then will reproduce to the exclusion of

sonne of the less desirable and less tolerant

species.

Varying degrees of tolerance in the same

species have already been mentioned. Some of

the more pronainent regional variations should

also be recognized. White ash, black cherry,

and red cedar are considered relatively intolerant in the East, although in the western parts

of their range they seem to withstand more

competition. This is especially pronounced in

red cedar. On the other hand, the red oaks

appear to be intolerant in the Central States,

but in the East can be classed as intermediate.
TREES AND TREE GROWTH

PLANT SUCCESSION

.4> - :

^^-r.

/•d^

Dry soils contaming litfle

organic maHer

Pioneer species

^md

Moist well drained 50ÍI5 '-" ''' '.' ''■■':'\^-'\

.é${^-^' W

with ¿ood distribution ... t ^^^, -x

of organic matter ^^^f-P^Êf soils

Climix &iub-"~clim-a)( species Water-tolerant species

Typical succession of northern forest trees in relation to soil development and moisture

If undisturbed for sufficient time, land will

develop a dominant type of vegetation through

a series of successional steps. This vegetation is called the climax type. It is characterized by certain species of trees which are

called climax species, (in arid or semiarid

regions, the climax species may be grasses

or shrubs.) Once established, no other species of plants can naturally invade and replace the climax, unless the type is subjected

to some external form of destruction or unless there is a change in one or more site

factors that brought the cliinax into existence.

All types of vegetation are subject to some

external form of destruction. Logging, clearing land, and man-caused fires are forms of

destruction. Excessive winds, damage by insects or disease, droughts, and fires caused

by lightning are other form.s of destruction to

which forests have always been exposed and

which temporarily may affect the climax type

on a site. However, the same climax, i.e.,

the same combination of species, will eventually reappear unless a permanent change in

the site has been brought about by the external force. For example, if land is drained

there is a permanent reduction in the moisture available, and a more xerophytic climax

results.

Despite the fact that something often happens which seems to upset the process known

as plant succession, an understanding of ecological principles involved makes clear that

succession is universal and continuous. After

the cause of disturbance, either by nature or

man, has been removed, development will

proceed from the present stage to the climax

very much as before.

The concept becomes more understandable

if we view the species of trees which make up

a climax type, as end products of a series of

successional steps that began hundreds or

even thousands of years ago, with solid rock,

dry sand, or water. Certain plants which are

called pioneer species became established in

the crevices of the rocks or in water. They

were adapted to that particular kind of site.

As the soil on the barren sand or rock develops to a greater depth, as the organic

matter increases, and as a foothold is built

up by an accumulation of decayed plants, the

pioneer species are gradually replaced by

others. Finally the climax species are able

to invade the site and gradually crowd out the

other species. Hence, certain kinds of plants

characteristically follow the various stages of

soil development.

The approxim.ate relative position of some
10 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

of the common trees in the ecological succession is shown in the following list:

PIONEERS

Conifers Hardwoods Soil development

Red cedar

Virginia pine Wliite or gray birch Dry sands or

Jack pine Pin cherry shallow soils

Pitch pine Aspen

Shortleaf pine

Loblolly pine Bur oak

SUBCLIMAX

Red pine

White spruce White oaks

Whi te pine Red oaks

1

CLIMAX Deep, welldeveloped soils

Hemlock Yellow birch with good

Beech drainae;e

Hard maple > k

Basswood

SUBCLIMAX

Balsam Tulip poplar

White cedar Black walnut

White ash

Bed gum

Black spruce Anerican elm

Soft maple

Cotton wood

Black ash

PIONEERS

Swamp, wet

Cypress Willow bottom-land

Tamarack Alder soils

The practical application of plant succession

is obvious. The climax species which demand

the best soil development cannot be successfully grown on degraded sites. Conversely,

pioneer species, if planted on good sites, will

rather quickly give way to climax species.

The principle is especially iraportant in planting on farna land where so many prospective

planting areas have been subject to destructive influences. The original cover has been

stripped; the land has been plowed up and

down the hill; the topsoil is gone. An attempt

to reestablish climax species would be futile,

even though the land at one time might have

been covered vdth hard maple or basswood.

Another comnnon application of this ecological principle occurs when the woodland

owner attempts to maintain a pine forest instead of some of the less valuable hardwoods.

In most regions, the hardwoods are the climax species and will succeed the pine. In the

central hardwood region on good sites this is

a desirable succession, because many of the

native hardwoods are economically more valuable than pines. However, the pine3 and

other subclinrxax species are the most desirable trees on poor, dry sites. Here, the

problem is one of holding back the succession

and checking the natural encroachment of the

less valuable hardwoods. That is why controlled burning to discourage hardwoods is

considered good forestry practice in the South,

Note that this list does not recognize any

geographic range of the species. For that

reason, one would not expect white pine, a

northern tree, eventually to succeed shortleaf pine, a southern tree. That the principle of succession assumes a change in the

soil should also be recognized. Thus, as long

as poor drainage exists, water-tole rant species such as cypress or black spruce may

persist indefinitely.

REFERENCES

Ready Reference to Conservation Farm Planning, U. S.

Soil Conservation Service, Region 3, Milwaukee, Wis.

"Soil Characteristics, Topography and Lesser Vegetation

in Relation to Site Quality of Second Growth Oak

Stands in Connecticut," Herbert A. Lunt, Journal of

Agricultural Research, September 1939.

"Prediction of Site Index for Yellow Poplar," John T.

Auten, Journal of Forestry, September 1945.

"The Role of Soil Organic Matter in Reforestation, "

Wilde and Patzer, Journal of American Society of

Agronomy, August 1940.

Forest Soils and Forest Growth, '^ilde, Chronica Botánica Cb.

"Somtf Soil Factors Associated with Site Quality for

Planted Black Locust and Black Walnut, " John T. Auten,

Journal of Forestry, August 1945.

Science in Farming, USDA Yearbook of Agriculture 1943-

47, pages 473-480.

Trees, USDA Yearbook of Agriculture 1949, pages 103,

114, 120.

Soils of Wisconsin in Relation to Silviculture, Wisconsin Conservation Department Publication 525-49.

Relation of Soil Characteristics to Site Index of Loblolly and Shortleaf Pines in the Lower Piedmont Region

of North Carolina, Coi le, Duke Ikiversity School of

Forestry Bulletin 13.
SILVICULTURE

GENERAL

Silviculture ib the growing and reproducing

of a community of forest trees on a permanent

basis. Its application to farm woodlands is

similar to the application of horticulture to an

orchard. It aims to establish trees if they are

not present, or, if they are present, to improve their quality and rate of growth and to

insure their permanence.

no' 12 14 16 18

DIAMETER - INCHES

Number of trees per acre of different diameters in a

southern Michigan woodland. Good silviculture has been

practiced here for a quarter of a century.

The ideal farm woods is a community of

small, intermediate, and large-size trees--

trees of all ages (see illustration above). The

owner of such a woodland simply harvests the

older trees annually or periodically and permits

the younger age classes to occupy the ground

where the large trees grew. He is maintaining

his woods' capital; he is insuring a pernaanent

operation; he is practicing silviculture. To obtain these objectives he should carefully consider each of the following questions when harvesting a tree:

Size. Is the tree to be cut the right size to be usable

for the product needed? For example, small trees will

not make sawlogs; it would be wasteful to cut large,

choice trees for fuelwood.

Species. Is the tree the best species available for the

intended use? Cottonwood is not good for fuel, but it is

very acceptable as pulpwood. Also, if it is a desirable

species, should it be left to furnish seed fornew trees?

Maturity. Is the tree ripe? Does it show signs of deterioration from old age or from insects and disease?

Dead tops, evidence of insect damage, or rot are signs

indicating that the tree should be cut.

Growth. Is the tree growing fast? Does it have a full

crown and comparatively smooth bark, which indicate

thrift and vigor? If so, and if it has potential marketable value, it should be retained as a part of the growing stock »- the wood's capital capable of bearing a

high rate of interest. See page 56 for more detailed

discussion.

Reproduction, What kind of reproduction will result

from the cut? Preventing the regeneration of brush and

comparatively worthless species is one of the principal

aims of silviculture. One of two methods of cutting, or

modifications on a small scale, generally will assure

reproduction of the more valuable trees which are

present:

Selection. Only scattered mature trees are cut. No part

of the ground larger than the crown of a single tree

or two is exposed.

Group selection. A modification of the above: Several

large, though not necessarily mature, trees are cut

on one area. Obviously this results in larger q^enings than when a single tree is removed. The openings

should not exceed half an acre, preferably a little

wider than the height of the tallest trees.

Leaving a few scattered seed trees or clearcutting all merchantable trees are two drastic

modifications of group selection. Although recognized by foresters as applicable to some

circumstances, neither practice is generally

recommended for eastern farm woodland. Seed

trees are always subject to wind damage, and

site conditions frequently become unfavorable

to seed germination following sudden exposure

of the ground to sun and wind. Clear-cutting

likewise results in site deterioration, and

11
ÎZ FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

commonly only the undesirable species are left

to reseed the area.

Hardwoods* have the capacity to regenerate

from sprouts, but the resulting tree s, knov/n

as coppice, do not as a rule develop so satisfactorily as those from seed. Sprouts, therefore, will start from the stumps of hardwood

trees cut by any of the above methods, and in

amounts proportionate to the degree of cutting,

the age, and the kind of tree.

Young trees sprout with greater vigor than

old ones, and some species exhibit greater

capacity than others. Birch, hickory, and

shortleaf pine are among the comparatively

less prolific sprouters. Experiments indicate

that trees cut in the fall, winter, or early

spring sprout more vigorously than those cut

in midsummer.

The amount and kind of trees and tree seed

on the ground at the time of cutting, the seed

crop on the trees that are left standing, competition from other woody and herbaceous

plants, and the influence of site factors on soil

moisture affect'the kind of seedling reproduction obtained under any degree of cutting. Assuming favorable conditions for germinating

seed, however, the various degrees of cutting

will result in reproduction about in proportion

to the tolerance of the species. The follov/ing

list will be useful as a general guide as to the

kind of trees most likely to reproduce from

each of three methods of cutting:

Probable resulting

reproduction, assuming seed trees

Method to be present

Selection Hard maple, bass-

\^ood, elm, black

Remarks

Only method recommended on steep, southMethod

Group

selection

Clear-cut

Probable resulting

reproduction, assuming seed trees

to be present

cherry, beech,

hickory, v^iite

ash, hemlock, red

and white cedar,

spruce, tolerant

shrubs.

All oaks, black

walnut, yellow

poplar, pines, in

short, most all

intermediate and

intolerant species, in proportion to seed

available at time

of cutting.

Sprouts of existing hardwoods;

light-seeded trees

such as aspen,

cottonwood, elm,

boxelder, birch¿

shrubs, briars,

herbaceous

plants.

*Shortleaf and pitch pines are the only eastern

conifers having sprouting ability.

Remarks

ly facing slopes. Intolerant species

ordinarily will not

reproduce satisfactorily.

Use on east, north, or

west slopes, or flats,

where desired reproduction is intolerant.

Too large openings on

dry sites will encourage site deterioration and only brush

and weeds will come in.

Generally not recommended for farm woods.

May be necessary on

anall areas in order

to secure sprout reproduction \\here there

is a heavy undergrowth

of shrubs and undesirable species. Black

locust, catalpa, Osageorange, and jack pine

m.ay be reproduced by

clear cutting. In addition to heavy cutting, the exposure of

mineral soil and the

lopping and scattering

of the cone-bearing

tops is necessary for

the reproduction of

jack pine.
SILVICULTURE

IMPROVING THE WOODS

13

In some respects the farm woodland is like a

garden --a farmer cannot grow good vegetables unless he does some weeding and thinning.

It is the same way in the woods. When a man

is cutting timber, he should think of improving

the quality and the conditions for growth of the

trees that are left if he expects to get a good

crop in the future. The following diagram and

the explanation will illustrate usual situations.

10 II

Trees 1, 4, 7, and 10--Good, healthy trees, with full

crowns, making rapid growth. Should not be cut. All

future wood operations should favor them until they

are big enough to be harvested as sawlogs or veneer

logs.

Tree 2--Tree with dead top. Should be cut and utilized.

This tree has no prospects of good growth; is subject

to disease and insect damage, and probably will die in

a few years. However, if the dead top is a result of

mechanical injury, say from a sleet storm, and the

tree is otherwise thrifty, it probably should be left

to grow larger.

Tree 3 --A "wolf" tree. Should be taken out or girdled*.

This tree is hindering or suppressing the growth of

nearby trees as well as reproduction underneath. It

is of little value itself.

Tree 5--Forked tree. Should be cut and utilized as soon

as possible. Its poor form will never permit its use

as high quality material, the older it gets the harder

it will be to cut.

*Hardwoods ccmimonly develop basel sprouts even after

girdling. Sprouting is discouraged by removing the bark

only and not cutting into the sapwood.

Tree 6--Suppressed tree. Even though of desirable

species, this tree will never recover nor amount to

anything. It should be cut and utilized for fuel or props.

Tree 8--Crooked and poorly formed tree. Same recommendation as for tree 5.

Tree 9--Tree from a stump sprout. Probably is rotten on

the inside, or will be if it joins the old stump very

high up. Should be cut and utilized.

Tree ll--A"whip." Too weak and narrow crowned to have

promise as a crop tree. Should be cut and used before

it dies, breaks off, or blows down.

Tree 12--Fire-scarred and decayed trunk. Qit and

utilize.

Tree 13--Dead tree. This tree probably is not damaging

the remaining stand. If it cannot be used there is no

object in cutting it. If only a limited amount of

material is needed, it is better to -take trees like

numbers 2, 3, 5, 8, and 9 than the dead ones. Consider also that a dead tree may be beneficial to

wildlife.

Tree 14--Trees, 4 to 8 inches in diameter, growing too

close. Should be thinned out. Leaving only the best

formed and the most desirable cmes, thus permitting

their faster growth. The trees cut may be used for

posts, pulp, or fuel. (See "Ihinning". )

The above discussion is applicable only to

woodland which has not been excessively

grazed and which has a fairly dense stand of

trees. In severely grazed woods having comparatively few old trees and a heavy sod or

brush-cover underneath, the best form of

woodland improvement is complete protectioix

Little cutting of any kind should be done until

an accumulation of leaf litter has restored

something approaching natural forest soil

conditions.

Thinning

Contrary to the commonly held viewpoint,

trees do not grow taller as a result of close

spacing; in fact, competition for water and

sunlight may cause stagnated growth. Similarly the elimination of crowding, i. e. , thinning,

will not materially affect rate of height growth,

except in tolerant species that have been suppressed to a point where they no longer occupy

a dominant place in the stand.

In order that trees less than 10 inches in

diameter will have sufficient growing space,

the following guide will determine roughly the

optimum spacing between trees: The average

diameter of the trees plus 4 should equal the

desired spacing in feet. Thus, trees averaging 7 inches in dianneter should be about 11

feet apart; if closer, thinning is needed. For

trees 10 inches or more in diameter measured

at breast height, the diai-neter plus 6 will

give better spacing.
14 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

Tree height also has been used as a guide to

thinning, the rule being that for best growth the

space between trees should have the following

relation to height:

Tolerant trees - - -

Intermediate trees -

Intolerant trees- - -

1/6 of total height.

1/5 of total height.

1/4 of totar height.

Applying this rule-of-thumb to a plantation

of jack pine 40 feet in height would indicate a

spacing of about 10 feet between trees.

Pruning

Pruning is another operation employed to increase the future value of standing trees. As

used in forestry, pruning is not intended to accomplish the same objectives as in horticulture

or landscape work where the purpose is to increase fruit production or remove unsightly

limbs. In silvicultural practice the side

branches of trees are cut off so that wood

subsequently farmed will be free of knots.

In the natural forest, most trees grow close

enough to be self-pruning, and in naturally reproduced hardwoods or closely spaced conifers

artificial pruning is infrequently practiced. In

coniferous plantations, natural pruning is slow

and with white pine particularly, the side

branches persist many years.

If pruning is to fully accomplish the purpose

intended and is to be economical, several important rules should be remembered:

(1) .Confine priming to the pines and possibly spruce

which are being grown for the production of high-grade

lumber. Pruning pines like jack, Scotch, pitch, or

Virginia or species raised for pulpwood or railroad

ties is a questionable venture. Neither is the pruning

of hardwoods economical except for occasional select

trees to improve form; such pruning because of the

danger of heart rot may do more harm than good.

(2) Pruning should be accomplished in two operations,

the first when the trees are not less than 3 and not

more than 5 inches in diameter, at which time all the

lower branches are cut off to a height of about 6 or 7

feet; the second several years later when the trees

reach a diameter of 7 or 8 inches, at which time the

remaining side branches up to a height of 15 to 17 feet

should be removed. If the first pruning is delayed until the trees become too large, there will not be sufficient clear material laid on to pay for the increased

labor of cutting the large branches.

(3) Pruning should be done with a saw, and the cut

made as close as possible to the trunk. The use of axes

or other tools which do not give a clean close cut

should be avoided.

(4) Not more than the lower one-third of the live

branches should be cut from any tree. Some prefer to

cut no more than the two Iç^er whorls of live branches,

but experiments have proved that healthy pines can lose

the lower third of their live branches without any reduction in vigor. If more green growth is removed, however, the wood-producing capacity is lowered.

(5) Not more than 150 to 250 trees per acre should

be selected for pruning. These are the ones that show

promise of growing into sound healthy crop trees, the

vigorous well-formed individuals that can successfully

c<xnpete with their neighbors for growing space.

Another form of pruning, more appropriately called shearing, is done to improve the

shape of conifers to be used for Christmas

trees. The object is to thicken the foliage and

give the tree a dense conical shape. It has

been successful with Scotch, red, white,

Austrian, and western yellow pine, as well

as spruce and fir. The other pines--pitch,

jack, and the southern species--because of

their indeterminate growth, do not lend themselves to shaping so readily as the pines

which grow but one whorl of branches each

year.

Pine is pruned after the growth has started in the spring, on the new shoots only, and

before the buds at the ends of the new branches

are fully developed. About the first week in

June in the southern part of the region up to

the middle of July in the northern Lake States

is the proper time to shear pine. If the cutting is done too early, new growth will continue and no noticable thickening of foliage will

result. If done too late, bud formation may

not take place.

The cuts can be made anywhere on the new

shoots in order to give the tree the desired

shape. The following year, several new

(A) Typical shape of a pruned pine whose growth was cut

back a year ago, along the dotted line. (B) Normal

growth of a pine similar to A, which was not pruned.

Note the open character and poor form as compared with

the pruned tree.
SILVICULTURE 15

branches develop at the point of pruning. This

serves to thicken the tree and at the same

time improves its shape. If wood grown the

previous year is cut, only the objective of

shaping will be accomplished, because no new

buds will be formed at the point of cutting.

Hedge shears are about the best tool to use.

However, because there is a tendency to remove too much of the terminal leaders, some

growers recommended two operations: Cut

terminal leader first with pruning shears,

leaving not less than 12 to 15 inches of new

growth; later shape the new growth On the

lateral branches with hedge shears. Sweeping cuts with a sharp hand sickle also are

effective in shearing side branches.

Trees vary in their need for shaping. A

few individuals develop into dense conical

specimens without attention. Some will be

improved by one shearing a year-and-a-half

prior to marketing. More frequently, shearing for two or three successive years is

necessary to produce a first-class specimen.

For such trees the first shearing will start

about 3 years after planting and continue

annually or as needed.

Spruce and fir also are sheared to develop

more compact Christmas Trees. With these

species, however, pruning of the long leader

or side branches is done in the late sumimer,

fall, or winter. The central leader is cut at

a point about 6 to 10 inches above the uppermost whorl of branches. If two or more leaders grow from the point of severance the following year, one can be removed. In pruning

laterals, the cut should be made as close as

possible to the nearest bud or branchlet in

order to avoid a bare branch stub.

Removal of Vines

In addition to improving woodland quality

and growth by weeding, thinning, and pruning, there are some pernicious vines to

consider. Wild grape, poison ivy, Virginia

creeper, and trumpet vine are a serious nnenace to the growth of trees in many farm woods.

Wild grape has a marked capacity to sprout,

and the mere cutting of the vine does not insure its destruction. In extremely dense wood

land, however, cutting in late June or early

July will eliminate the plant, because the

sprouts will not develop in complete absence

of sunlight. In most f^rm woods, however,

there will be sufficient sunlight to permit

sprouts to grow, and the vines will be killed

only after repeated cuttings during July and

August, over a period of about 3 years. A

team or tractor will most effectively eliminate grape vines by removing the root. The

vine is severed from the roots, and by fastening a chain or cable to the bulge formed by

the roots and the stem, the vital portion of

the root system can be pulled fromi the

ground.

REFERENCES

Some Results of Tliinrting Fifteen-Year-Old Red Pine,

Journal of Forestry, Sept. 1945.

Timber Stand Improvement in the Southern Appalachian

Region, USDA Miscellaneous Publication 693.

Foundations of Silviculture Upon an Ecological Basis,^

Tourney. John Wiley & Sons.

Managing the Small Forest, USDA. Farmers' Bulletin 1989.

Managing Small Woodlands, Koroleff. American Forestry

Association

Comments on Timber Stand Improvement in the Central

States, Central States Forest Experinrent Station

Note 30.

^Woodland Improvement, Wisconsin College of Agriculture

Extension Circular 305.

Woodland Management, Bulletin 213, Ohio State University

Agricultural Extension Service.

Improvement Cutting and Thinning, Massachusetts Forest

and Park Association Bulletin 155.

Results of Forest Cutting Practice in Lake States Timber

Types, U.S. Forest Service, Region 9, Milwaukee, Wis.

Knots in Second-Growth Pine and the Desirability of

Pruning, USDA Miscellaneous Publication 307.

Pruning Southern Pines, USDA Farmers' Bulletin 1892.

Pruning for Profit, Cline & Fletcher. Massachusetts

Forestry Association,

Thinning a Pine Plantation, Wisconsin Conservation

Department Publication 515.

Results of Thirty Years Experimentation in Silviculture.

Part 1, Lutz and Cline, Harvard Forest, Petershan,

1947.

Trees, USDA Yearbook of Agriculture 1949, pages 120-126.

"Christmas-Tree Farming,** Cornell Extension Bulletin 704.
;6 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

PLANTING

Forest planting, as distinguished What to Plant?

from ornamental or windbreak planting, This question must be answered on a local

may be defined as an effort to assist basis. On pages 5 and 7 the various factors

Nature in the reestablishment of a of appraising planting sites are stated in gencomplete cover of trees and shrubs, eral terms. To specifically nanne species to

Thus, on a given area to be planted, be planted under any given local condition rean attempt is made to establish in a quires the development of a local planting quide

few years a conaniunity of woody plants inwhich the generalized factors are restated to

which might otherwise require decades, fit local conditions. These guides, in brief,

Success requires reasonably accurate should show what species are adaptable to any

answers to three questions: What to given soil, exposure, degree of erosion, etc.

plant? When to plant? How to plant? There follows a listthat can be used as an aid in

developing a local planting quide.

Species Relative adaptability

Eastern red cedar Medium acid to alkaline soils; above pH 5.5.

Jack pine .,......................... Most hardy of the northern pines. Wide range of pH adaptability.

Scotch pine Adaptable to poor soils throughout region. Short lived.

Virginia pine ..... — The eastern counterpart of j ack pine.

Pitch pine Acid soils. Both heavy and light soils.

Shortleaf pine Fast growing. For dry upland soils.

Western yellow pine Slow growing. Used mostly in low-rainfall localities.

Loblolly pine Fastest growing of pines. Used on heavier soils than shortleaf.

Austrian pine ., Slightly acid to alkaline soils, pH 6. 8 to 8.0. Not conmonly planted.

Red pine Not adapted to soils more alkaline than pH 6. 8.

American elm^ Adapted to wide variety of moisture conditions; the least demanding of

Cottonwood J hardwoods. Elm infrequently planted.

Green ash ....,., .. Dry-land hardwood, widely used in Plains States.

White spruce Medium acid to alkaline, relatively dry soils. Slower growing than Norway

spruce.

White pine object to root rot on heavy, poorly drained sites. Most demanding of

pines.

Norway spruce "^ Highest moisture requirements of any conifers. Moderately acid to neutral

Northern white cedar v soil s.

Balsam

Soft maple For wet, poorly drained areas. Rapid growing.

Bur oak '^

Hickory L Very slow growing. Not frequently planted. Best started from seed.

White oak j

Osage orange ... Often hard to start from seedlings. Heavy or light soils. Needs topsoil.

Red oak Best started from seed.

Black cherry Rarely planted.

Red gum Southern hardwood which tolerates heavy, poorly drained soils.

Black locust , Will start on poor sites, but subject to borer damage unless soil has

optimum drainage.

Catalpa Tolerates heavy soils. Not planted so much as formerly.

White ash Deep, well-drained soils.

Black walnut , ,. Requires deep, well-drained loams.

Hard maple "N Although often occur naturally on relatively poor soils, they cannot be

Basswood s. .... successfully established artificially except where there is good

Yellow poplar drainage, slow evaporation, and low surmier soil temperatures. Basswood

-^ infrequently planted.
SILVICULTURE 17

The trees near the top of the list can be

established on the drier and generally poorer

sites. Species listed further down demand

progressively better sites for satisfactory

survival and growth.

The arrangement of species indicates that

conifers, especially the pines are better

adapted to soils of lower "fertility" than are

the deciduous trees. For that reason pines

are the most widely planted, even in localities where they do no!: naturally occur. With

the exception of Austrian pine. Northern

white cedar, and red cctdar, the conifers prefer acid soils. Some have a wide range of

tolerance to alkalinity but, in general, they

develop best on soils-which are very acid to

neutral in reaction, pH 4. 5 to 7. 0.

Black locust has been one of the most widely planted species on farms in eastern United

States. Its position on the list, however,

shows that it requires fairly good sites if it is

to succeed.^ Locust should not be planted except when the subsoil is moist, well-drained,

and friable. Dry sands, rocky slopes, poorly

drained, and heavy, claypan soils will not

produce good black locust trees.

The farther a tree is moved away from its

natural climatic range, the better the site

must be to insure its survival. Newly planted

white pine and spruce will withstand the

rigors of exposed sites within their natural

range. If the same species are planted in the

Central States, however, they should be confined to cool slopes.

If three or more site factors are poor, the

prospective planter should begin to question

the advisability of planting trees. Many

planting failures have resulted from the misconception that trees will grow anywhere a

hole could be dug in the ground. The fact

remains, however, that there is considerable land on farms which has been so badly

misused that tree planting is a highly questionable venture. Land can be submarginal

for trees the same as it is submarginal for

other farm crops.

Wet, poorly drained areas are not good

tree planting sites. They are better

adapted to some of the water-tolerant grasses,

such as reed canary, or for the development

of wildlife.

The planting of exotic species, in general,

should be avoided. Of all the foreign species

that have been introduced, there is none that

Growth of locust can be stimulated on poor sites by

placing commercial fertilizer in the hole at the time

of planting. Over a period of years, however, this stimulation disappears, and competent observes have reached

the conclusions that on good sites fertilizer is unnecessary, and on poor sitet pine rather than locust

should be planted.

has proved eminently successful in forest

planting. Norway spruce and Scotch pine are,

for certain purposes and in some localities,

possible exceptions to this rule. The native

species of western United States have not

proved useful in eastern reforestation practice. Western yellow pine and Douglas-fir,

grown from Rocky Mountain seed, succeed

fairly well in the Central and Eastern States,

but their growth does not compare favorably

with the native conifers.

Plans for tree planting should contemplate

the use of at least two, and preferably txiore,

species on any area. A single species in a

solid block is an inviting host to insect and

disease epidemics. Mixtures to duplicate

natural forest development are insurance

against future losses.

Trees may be mixed ''stem-wise, " i. e. ,

alternating the different species in the same

row, or else two or three rows of one species

can be alternated with the same number of

rows of other species. When, mixing species,

the planter must consider two important

factors: how fast the trees will grow and

their relative tolerance. As has been previously discussed (p. 8), it would be unwise to

plant a slow-growing intolerant species close

to a more rapidly growing tree. Stated in

another way, the individuals in mixtures must

be compatible on the particular site where

they are to be grown.

In addition to the kind of trees, the kind of

planting stock is an important phase of the

question, "What to plant?" Most planting is

done with nursery-grown trees. Occasionally,

naturally seeded trees, "Wildlings, " are dug

from the woods and set out, and cottonwood

from river sand bars has been cheaply and

successfully transplanted. With few exceptions,

however, wild seedlings usually have poorly

developed root systems as compared to nursery-raised trees and are not adapted to

large-scale planting.

Forest tree nursery practice attempts to

develop planting stock that can be transported

and set out in the field with a minimum of

labor and little care immediately after planting. If reforestation on a large scale is to be

successful, the nursery stock must be inexpensively grown; it must be small enough to be

easily handled in quantities and yet sturdy

enough to survive handling and planting. Many

of the conifers have to be carried several

years in the nursery before they are plantable. Other species can be planted after one

year in the nursery; and a few may be successfully planted directly from seed or cuttings.

Trees grown direct from seed without transplanting are known as seedlings. If it becomes

necessary to transplant the tree in the nursery in order to produce a larger tree, a
18 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

TABLE 2."Specifications of nursery stock for farm woodland planting

Species Age Height above ground Diane ter at root collar Root-top ratio*

%>ruce

Douglas- fir

White cedar

White pine . ,. . .

Red pine .......

Ponderosa pine

Austrian pine

Bed cedar ......

Jack pine ......

Scotch pine

Virginia pine

Pitch pine

Shortleaf pine .

Loblolly pine

All oaks .......

Other hardwoods

Fears2-2

2-2 or 2-1

2-1 or 1-2

2-0, 1-1, or 2-1

2-0 or 1-1

1-0 or 1-1

1-0

1-0

Inches

6

6

10

Inches

3/16

1/4

V4

3/16

3/16

3/16

3/16

5/16

40-60

40-60

25-75

40-60

25-75

25-75

50-50

50-50

Percent by wei^it o£ root and top respectively, inc

more compact root systenij and a better balance between the roots and the top, the tree

is known as a transplant. In table 2, the

column showing age reflects the distinction

between seedlings and transplants. The first

number represents the number of years in the

seedbed, while the second shows the number

of years grown as a transplant. The total of

the two numbers equals the age of the tree.

Table 2 above indicates the approximate

specifications of good nursery stock that can

be successfully used for farmi-forest planting.

Under ideal site and weather conditions, and

with good care after planting, snnaller stock

may be satisfactory. Also, during the early

part of the planting season, smaller trees

have a better chance of survival than if

planted late in the spring. Under average circumstances, however, the sizes and ages

shown are the optinnum consistent with good

survival. Larger stock will be more costly

to plant and is likely to have a sniall root

system in proportion to the top, which contributes to poor survival. Smaller stock may

be too weak to survive on the eroded sites or

in competition with herbaceous vegetation.

Black walnut, the oaks, and other nut-bear

ing trees also can be established in the field

by direct seeding. This method of planting is

less costly and, as shown by observations

made in Missouri, (table 3) may result in

better growth than can be obtained by planting nursery-grown seedlings.

luding needles of conifers.

The effectiveness of direct seeding is limited by the possible damage by weevil and rodents.^ Every effort should be made to plant

the nuts in the fall, because fall-planted seeds

apparently are less susceptible to theft by

squirrels. If not planted then, the seed nnust

be stored in a well-drained, moist medium,

like wet sand, over winter. If nuts dry out

they will not germinate.

When planting, clpar a spot about 2 feet in diameter and work up the soil with a spade or

TABLE 3. "Comparison of direct seed vs, seedlings

(Growth 5 years after seeding)

Size Black

Walnut

Red

Oak

&irr

Oak

Pecan

IHameter, root collar:

Direct seeded..(inches)

Transplanted...(inches)

Height:

Direct seeded....(feet)

Transplanted.....(feet)

2.0

I. I

7.2

4.7

0.8

.4

4.3

2.5

1.3

1.1

5.2

4.4

0.7

.3

3.3

1.0

^ The use of discarded tin cans has proved successful in

protecting nuts mid acorns from squirrels. Oie end of the

can is completely opened; the other end opened with a

crossed cut and the four quarters sprung slightly outward for sufficient passage of the shoot, ibut not enough

to permit entrance by squirrels. The can is then pushed

down over the already planted seed so the top is flush

with the ground. Another method is to "pot** the seed

directly in the can and then set the inverted can in a

hole. Obviously, no extensive plantings can be made with

this method.
SILVICULTURE 19

grub hoe. Cover the seed with soil to a depth

equal to about twice the thickness of the seed.

The only forest trees that are planted directly in the field by means of cuttings are

the willows. Under favorable conditions, cottonwood also may be planted by this method,

but on most sites nurserygrown stock or 1-

year-old Wildlings give the best survival.

To give best results, cuttings should be

handled as follows:

(1) Make cuttings about 8 inches long and

about the thickness of a lead pencil, from 1-

year-old, fast-growing wood, anytime during

dormant season prior to planting.

(2) If cutting is made before the time to

plant, store in a cool, moist, but aerated

medium; a sand and peat moss mixture is

good. Do not let cutting dry out.

(3) Push cutting into soil, top up with one

good bud exposed,

(4) Complete planting early, by the time the

native willows have burst their buds, if possible.

Planting usually presupposes some future

utilization of the trees when they are mature,

hence the prospective planter wants to know

what use can be made of the various species.

Trees for various uses:

Posts

Osage-orange

Black locust

Red cedar

Catalpa

Railroad ties

Black locust

Oaks

Pines (except white)

Christmas trees

All pines

Douglas-fir

Spruce

Red cedar

Veneer logs Lumber

Black walnut

Oak

Yellow poplar

Yellow birch

Maple

Gum

Elm

Cottonwood

All pines

Black walnut

Oaks

Yellow poplar

Cottonwood

Ash

Red gum

Pu Ipwood

All species

except hickory,

black locust and

Osage-orange.

The use of the tree, however, «should not be

the first consideration in choosing the species.

The site is always the limiting factor, and it

should be remembered that regardless of the

potential value of a species, if it is not adaptable to the site, planting will be futile.

Assuming adaptablility to the site and recovery from the shock of transplanting, the

commonly planted trees may be grouped in

three classes to indicate their relative rates

of height growth the first few years following

planting. Later, some species, such as white

pine and spruce, develop more rapidly and may

overtake some of the fast-growing juveniles.

When to Plant?

Forest trees should be planted when the stock

is dormant and early enough to insure root establishment before dry weather. In the northern

Relative growth rates of forest trees:

Rapid Medium Slow

Southern pines White pine Spruce

Scotch pine Bed pine Austrian pine

Jack pine Pitch pine Western yellow pine

Cottonwood Virginia pine Red Cedar

Willow Black walnut White cedar

Black locust Ash Wliite oak

Yellow poplar Red oak Osage-orange

states early spring is the most acceptable

planting season. If planted in the fall, the alternate freezing and thawing of the soil causes small

trees to be heaved out of the ground.

When the soil is subject to freezing, fall

planting will be successful only with large

stock on light, sandy soils which are continuously covered with snow throughout the winter

months. Mulching around newly planted trees

with straw or dead herbaceous material is

used as a precaution against heaving. Oftentimes, however, this practice encourages

mouse damage (p. 39) and, for that reason, is

hazardous. Fall planting if done in the north

should be connpleted before the first half of

October, in order to permit root establishment before the ground freezes.

The approximate periods during the spring

when tree planting is recommended is given

on the following map. The dates, of course,

are subject to yearly variations but will be

found useful as a year-after-year average.

How to Plant?

Probably more tree planting failures can be

attributed to careless handling of stock and

improper planting than any other cause. All of

the steps listed below should be carefully followed if successful planting is to be assurred:

Handling stock:

1. Always keep roots moist. Drying of the

fine root hairs of conifers results in hardening of the resin and consequent inability of the

tree to grow,

Z. Trucks hauling stock should be supplied

with tarpaulins for covering the trees.

3. Avoid piling stock too deep, which will

result in heating. Tree-tops, particularly of

the evergreens, need aeration.

4. Do not permit the roots of nursery stock

to freeze, either at digging time or in transit.

Black locust, Osage-orange, black walnut,

and some conifers are damaged to a point of

worthlessness if exposed to temperatures below 25^ F.

5. Boxed or baled stock must be removed

from containers as soon as received, the

bundles cut, and trees "heeled-in" in light,

friable soil. If the trees can be planted within

a day or two after arrival, heeling-in may be

unnecessary. Tightly packed stock that has

roots supplied with plenty of moist packing

material and tops exposed to the air will not

deteriorate if stored in SL cool place for
20 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

Spring tree-planting periods, ^proximate dates between which tree and shrub planting is recommended
SILVICULTURE 21

periods up to 1 week. The essential prerequisites are good packing at the nursery and a

cool storage place, such as an unheated basement or root cellar»

6. Establish heel-in beds in light or sandy

soil in places protected from sun and wind,

such as north slopes, under shade frames,

north or east of windbreaks, woodlands, or

buildings, and with the tops of the trees

pointed toward the south.

7, After healing-in, soak well with water.

Heeling In

8. Planting stock also can be held over

winter in properly prepared ground. In fact,

this practice is desirable v/here early-spring

delivery of trees cannot be assured:

(a) Choose a site as described in (6) above

with special attention to the requirement

of good drainage. A droughty soil is preferable to a somewhat irapervious one.

(b) Dig a pit about 4 feet wide and long

enough for the entire shipment. (Allow

8 square feet per thousand seedlings,

and 12 square feet per thousand transplants.) The pit should be deep enough

to accommodate the roots without bending when the root collar is 1 inch below the ground level. Thus, if the roots

average 8 inches long, a 9-inch depth

is necessary,

(c) Discard any sod that is removed from

the pit, but pile the mineral soil on the

sides to be used later in filling around

the roots. If there is danger of the

ground freezing before the stock is received, this soil should be mulched.

(d) As soon as stock is received, unpack

and place close together in rows across

the bed, similar to the heeling-in described above, except straight up and

down. As each row is placed, work in

loose soil around the roots well above

the root collar, and pack firmly. Allow

4 to 6 surface inches of soil between

each row of trees. *

(e) Soak the completed bed with water.

Keep soil well-watered until freezing

weather.

(f) After frost has hardened the top inch of

soil, spread a mulch of straw, leaves,

or sawdust between the rows but not over

the tops of trees. Application of mulch

before that time may result in moulding

or heating; if put on after the ground is

deeply frozen, no moisture will be

available to the trees during the winter.

Lay poles on the mulch to prevent removal by wind. Watch for damage by

mice if straw is used.

Site preparation and spacing:

1. Never plant in unprepared ground if

there is appreciable ground cover. Competing vegetation is the cause of nnany failures.

2. Plow double furrows about 6 to 8 feet

apart on the contour, using a reversible plow,

a two-bottom gang plow, or a single walking

plow. The plowing should be done in the late

summer or early fall preceding the planting

season.

Double-furrow

thrown down-hill

Planting trees in contour furrows

3. If plowing is impractical, use a grub

hoe to strip sod or ground cover from a spot

18 to 24 inches across. On difficult sites,

work up the soil in the spot.

4. In field and gully planting space trees

about 6 to 8 feet apart. With fast-growing

species in the South and East, and where

natural reproduction can be expected, trees

may be spaced up to 10 feet apart. Christinas

-tree plantings are spaced not less than 4x4

nor more than 6x6 feet.

5. To determiine the number of trees required to plant an acre, divide 43, 560 by the

product of the spacing, thus: In planting 6 x

8 feet, 43, 560 divided by 6 x 8, or 48, gives

907 trees per acre,

6. If the plantation is to be handled intensively, such as for Christmas trees, lanes

between every sixth or seventh row of trees

should be left unplanted. These lanes may be

used as firebreaks', as roadways for the

movement of spray equipment, and as places
22 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

to remove products. The resulting plantation

also is more productive of wildlife.

Setting the trees:

1. Carry trees in 12- to 14-quart pails half

filled with water, or in boxes containing wet

moss or shingle tow.

2. Using a grub hoe, a tile spade, a specially constructed dibble or planting bar, dig

holes of ample size to receive all the roots

without crowding or doubling back.

3. Take but one tree at a time from the

container and leave roots exposed no longer

than necessary.

4. Set tree in hole no deeper than it grew

in the nursery.

5. Thoroughly tamp loose soil around the

roots; eliminate any air pockets.

6. Avoid sod and undecomposed litter in

contact with roots.

Two methods used in planting trees with a

plow are il lusttated here. Such methods are

useful only on level or somewhat rolling land,

and where there is little or no ground cover.

Good tamping is very important and can be

done by the feet or by driving over the second

furrow with the rear tractor wheel. Method

METHOD h "PLOWiNG IN" (1,2 OR 3-BOTTOM PLOW)

^^'^^f^

STEP Z

>low furrows to approximate Set trees against upturned furrow;

root depth. Cover roots with hondfut of earth.

STEP 3.

Plow second round ogoinst the

first, thus completing covering

the roots.

Straighten trees. Firm the soil

around tree with feet.

METHOD 2: "RIDING THE PLOW"

First, second and third steps above occomplished in one operation,

by setting trees Immediotely behind the first furrow of a two

or three- bottom plow, thus;

Second step same as Step 4 above.

Planting trees with a plow

2 is easier if there is a place to sit. An "A"

frame made of 2-by-4's and attached to the

plow frame with »'U" bolts provides for seating as well as a place to carry trees. The

plow must be set deep enough to accomodate

the full length of the roots.

Various types of tree planting machines

have been designed in recent years and can

be purchased. They will plant up to 8,000

trees per day with a crew of three men. The

cost of the machines precludes their purchase

by individual farmers, but a number of soil

conservation districts have purchased miachines which are available to cooperators at

a nominal rental. A few private individuals

also own machines which they operate for

custom tree planting at a specified rate per

thousand.

Care after planting:

1. Cultivation the first summer is necessary if ground cover will overtop or seriously

compete with trees. Do not delay until the

trees are overtopped andaré difficult to find.

Sudden exposure of overtopped trees to the

hot sun frequently is fatal.

2. In low ground where there is a rank

growth of hemp, horseweeds, etc. , cultivation

the second summer following planting may be

necessary. Merely cutting the weeds around the

trees and permitting the dead tops to act as a

mulch is often substituted for cultivation.

3. A good straw mulch spread in a 12- to 18-

inch radius arpund the trees will often eliminate the necessity of cultivation, and will result in greatly increased growth. Mulch around fall-planted trees, however, often

harbors rodents which will girdle and kill the

trees.

Wind-Erosion Planting

Ordinary field planting methods are ineffective in controlling active sand dunes or

blow-outs. Shifting sand first must be stabilized to prevent abrasion, undermining, or

covering of newly planted trees. After soil

movement has been checked, the hardy

species of pine are most frequently used for

planting, although on moist sites white pine

will grow satisfactorily. Spacing is about

6 X 6 feet.

The three stabilization methods comnnonly

used are "brushing, " mulching with straw,

and planting of beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata). All are expensive and alone cannot be considered as permanent methods of

control; they merely constitute an essential

form of site preparation for tree planting.

Brushing consists of covering the bare

sand with any reasonably durable material
SILVICULTURE 23

like cornstalks or brush. The butts should

be laid toward the prevailing wind, the tops

of each layer overlapping the butts of the preceding layer. Trees are planted immediately

afterward.

A cheaper nnethod of stabilization adapted

to small blow-outs is to mulch with straw and

then roll well with a subsurface or canel

packer or a dull disk to give a stubble-mulch

effect. The trees are planted immediately

afterward in cleared spots in the mulch.

Planting beachgrass is an acceptable

method of stabilization when extensive areas

of blow sand are involved. The following

sketch shows two types of planting. Beachgrass may be planted any time of the year

except summer.

é. ,^ ë. m

u t ê é.

^, ^ ^ k

(t) For activeWrapidly-moving

Dunes and Ridges and

Stobilizotion the first year:

Clumps of 5-10 plönts in

16 incti squares.

(2y For Typicot Blow-outs:

Clumps spaced variably,

depending on intensity of

sond movement — 2x2ft

oround edges, up to 2x6ft

or more in center rows.

Two ways of planting beaqhgrass

Beachgrass plants should be vigorous and

have at least two nodes on their tap roots.

Because the tops offer immediate mechanical

resistance to reduce air currents, they

should be erect, well-developed, and unbroken. Two or more years after the beachgrass has become established, trees are

planted in the openings.

Windbreak and Shelterbelt Planting

A windbreak is generally accepted to mean

one or more rows of trees planted to act as

protection to a farmstead. Shelterbelts, on the

other hand, are planted for the purpose of protection to fields from destructive wind action.

Although the two words are used synonymously in some locations, a windbreak as here defined has no direct relation to soil conservation,

even though it may add to the livability of farm

homes. ^

The techniques involved in planting trees for

windbreaks and shelterbelts are not radically

different than for other kinds of field planting;

^A study by the Lake States Forest Experiment

Station in North Dakota showed that a windbreak on

the north side of a fann home reduced fuel requirements about 25 percent.

however, species, size of stock, ground preparation, and spacing are somewhat different.

Except where there is danger from wind erosion,

complete breaking of the ground in the fall before planting is recommended. Regular cultivation after the trees are established is essential

for good survival and growth. A good practice

is to plant a couple of rows of corn or a row of

sunflowers between the rows of newly established trees. This provides for utilizing the

land, cultivating the trees, and partially protecting the trees from hot sun and winds, which

may be desirable for young conifers.

Conifers, because they give year-round protection, are used more widely than hardwoods

and in larger sizes than in field planting. White

and Norway spruce, red cedar, and Douglas-fir

are favorites, although the pines, particularly

on sandy soils and in the southern part of the region, are used most extensively.' Mixing of conifers and fast-growing hardwoods is not

recomnnended, because the hardwoods shade out

and quickly overtop the slower growing evergreens. Also avoid planting intolerant species

on the north side of windbreaks running east

and west.

Unwanted snow drifts may result from windbreaks growing too close to farm buildings and

roads. In any locality, trees should not be

planted nearer than Z rods windward of buildings or of the edge of a road right-of-way or

lane. Frequent heavy snows accompanied by

high winds such as occur in sections of Iowa,

Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan will pile

up drifts 50 to 60 feet to the windward and 100

to 150 feet to the leeward of a solid belt of trees,"^

The proper location of windbreaks in such localities, therefore, requires recognition of drifting both on windward and leeward sides ,

HÄwr.nr.kr FYPFRIMFWT FARM

^

WISCONSIN

1940

7 V

Effect

DISTANCE EAST OF 12 YR. OLD PINE SHELTERBELT, FEET

of a shelterbelt on a Timothy and clover meadow in

central Wisconsin.

*If a shelterbelt has sufficient width -- 50 or

more feet -- snow will accumulate to the windward and

among the trees but not to an appreciable extent to

the leeward.
24 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

The retention of snow on fields may be

beneficial to adjacent crops, especially to the

protection of grass and legumes from winter

injury. The chart illustrates the effect of a

12-year-old pine shelterbelt on a meadow

growing on Plainfield sand in central Wisconsin.

The number of rows of trees and the spacing recommended differ for different States.

The following list gives general recommendations. For additional details see State extension service bulletins.

Illinois: Ihree rows, 12 feet ^art, trees 14 feet apart

in rows; alternately spaced.

Indiana: At least 3, preferably 4 or 5, rows of evergreens, spaced 10 x 10 feet to 12 x 12 feet. Fastgrowing hardwoods, such as green willow, Salix

amygdalina (also called almond-leaved willow), are

commonly used in single rows on much soils. These onerow shelterbelts, with the trees spaced 2 feet apart

in the row, are planted at 30- to 40-rod intervals.

They use less land, hence are more acceptable than are

multiple row barriers at 60- to 80-rod intervals.

Iowa: At least three rows of conifers with the tallestgrowing in the fhiddle row. Average spacing for pines

and spruce 18 x 18 feet; arbor vitae and red cedar 12

feet apart.

Michigan: V\iiridbreaks: three rows, 8 feet apart, trees

10 feet apart in rows. Shelterbelts: two rows, 8 feet

apart, trees 10-14 feet apart in rows.

Minnesota: Ihe "standard" windbreak is 140 to 150 feet

wide and is desired for winter protection to farm

buildings and feedlots. Tm) outside rows (north or

west), 8 feet apart are planted to shrubs or low-growing trees 6 feet apart; a-"snow-trap" or open space

about 50 feet wide is left unplanted and used possibly as a garden or calf pasture. The main windbreak

of 80 feet consists of ei^t rows of trees, both

hardwoods and conifers, arranged according to height,

crown spread, length of life, rate of growth, etc.

(See Planting the Standard Windbreak, University of

Minnesota, Special Bulletin 168. )

An acceptable type of shelterbelt used on the west

and south sides of fields subject to wind erosion in

western Minnesota, consists of a row of shrubs planted 4 feet apart; two rows of trees like cottonwood,

willow, and green ash, 6 feet apart; and a fourth row

of shrubs. The rows are 10 to 12 feet ^art which

permits cultivation with ordinary farm equipment as

well as utilization of the intervening space for corn

or other kinds of row crops during the first few

years after establishment.

Missouri: Two rows 8 to 12 feet apart, trees 6 to 8

feet apart in rows.

Ohio: Three or five rows 8 feet ^art, trees 12 feet

apart in rows. The middle row in the 3-row windbreak

and the second and fourth rows of the 5-row windbreak

are planted to fast-growing conifers like Scotch or

jack pine. These so-called filler trees are removed

when they begin to interfere with the longer lived

spruce or other conifers intended for the permanent

windbreak in the remaining rows. The eventual spacing

therefore will be 12 x 16 feet.

Wisconsin: Three rows 8 feet apart, trees 6 feet apart

in row.

Stripped-Coal-Land Planting

The reforestation of spoil banks resulting

from the surface mining of coal or other xninerals presents another special tree-planting

problem. Aspect, exposure, and competing

vegetation affect tree selection for spoil-bank

planting in the same manner as in other

planting. Dry, exposed slopes and ridges and

the frequent sweetclover on alkaline spoils

all contribute to difficult planting sites. Spoil

acidity and texture of spoil, however, are

more variable than of natural soil; hence

they must be given more than ordinary attention.

If planting is attempted on newly created

spoils, the instability of the banks may also

limit success. Three to five years after

stripping, however, the banks are sufficiently settled to eliminate this planting hazard.

The texture of the upturned soil, particularly when considered along with the degree

to which it is subject to drying (aspect and

exposure), is an important site factor in strip-land planting. Texture ranges

within wide limits -- from great chunks of

limestone and shale to finely divided particles of clay. However, all spoils can be cataloged^ in one of the six classes shown in the

tentative planting guide (table 4),

The niaterial exposed by stripping shovels

is extremely variable even on the same acre.

Soil tests may show acidity ranges from below pH 3. 8 (lethal to most plants) to above

pH 8.0, depending on the original overburden and the nature of the stripping. Because of this variability, soil tests by conventional methods do not always give usable

results; hence one of the most practical

^..Technical Paper 109, Central States Forest Experiment Station, December 1948.
FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION 25

TABLE 4.--Suggested planting guide stripped coal land

Slightly acid,

Acid spoils neutral, or calcareous spoils

Texture of (pH 4.0 - 6.5) (pH 6.5 or more)

spoil

Depressions; Ridges; Depressions; Ridges;

north and east slopes south and west slopes north and east slopes south and west slopes

Loamy: Red pine Any of the 2- or 3- White pine Red cedar

Less than White pine needled pines Any of the WTiite ash

60% of spoil Any of the hardwoods Cottonwood

composed of hardwoods Black locust

large rocks.

More than Red pine Any of the 2- or 3- White pine Red cedar

60% composed White pine needled pines Cottonwood Pitch pine

of large Cottonwood White ash Loblolly pine

rocks. White ash

Red oak

Red oak

Black locust

Scotch pine

Clays: Red pine Red pine White ash Red cedar

Less than White pine Loblolly pine Cottonwood Pitch pine

70% of spoil Loblolly pine Red gum Loblolly pine

composed of Any of the Scotch pine

large rocks. hardwoods

More than Red pine Pitch pine Any of the Red cedar

70% composed Wliite pine Scotch pine hardwoods Loblolly pine

of large Any of the Virginia pine Pitch pine

rocks. hardwoods Loblolly pine Scotch pine

Sandy:

Less than Red pine Jack pine White pine Red cedar

50% of spoil White pine Red pine Scotch pine Pitch pine

composed of Shortleaf pine Virginia pine Cottonwood Scotch pine

large rocks. White ash

Cottonwood

Short leaf pii^e Black locust

White ash

Red gum

Yellow poplar

Red oak

More than Jack pine Jack pine White pine Red cedar

50% composed Virginia pine Virginia pine Scotch pine Pitch pine

of large rocks Scotch pine Scotch pine Cottonwood Scotch pine

(very Shortleaf pine Shortleaf pine Black locust

droughty). Red pine
26 SILVIGULTURE

means of judging acidity is to observe the

density and nature of existing ground cover.

Except as influenced by soil moisture,

vegetation in general is scant or lacking on

extremely acid spots, becomes fairly well

established at about pH 5.0, and is heavy and

dense on nearly neutral or alkaline banks. ^

Specifically, the presence of certain plants

will indicate the degree of acidity about as

follows:

Extremely acid

(less than pH 4.5)

Partridge pea

Knotweed (smartweed)

Beimyard grass

Cinquefoil

Sorrell

(Plants

stunted or none,

less than pH 3.8)

Moderately acid

(pH 5, 6 - 6.5)

Barnyard grass

Knotweed (smartweed)

Goldenrod

Foxtail

Sheep sorrel

Dewberry

Hogweed

Black raspberry

Wild morning glory

Bindweed

Wild lettuce

Wild strawberry

Wild mustard

Evening primrose

Great ragweed

Lespedeza

Strongly acid

(pH â.5 -5,5)

Partridge pea

Knotweed (smartweed)

Barnyard grass

Cinquefoil

Goldenrod

Foxtail

Sheep sorrel

Dewberry

Hogweed

Slightly acid to

alkaline '(above pH €,6)

Black raspberry

Wild morning glory

Bindweed

Wild, lettuce

Wild strawberry

Wild mustard

Evening primrose

Kentucky bluegrass

Sunflower

Great ragweed

Lespedeza

Teasel

Mullein

Cocklebur

Pokeweed

Sweetclover

REFERENCES

Growing and PIan t ing Con iferous Tree s on the Farm, USDA

Farmers' &illetin 1453.

Growing and Planting Hardwood Seedlings on the Farm,

USDA Farmers' Bulletin 1123.

Seeding and Planting in the Practice of Forestry,

Tourney and Korstian, Jolm Wiley and Sons. 2nd Edition

Forest Planting on Illinois Farms, Illinois College of

Agriculture Extension Circular 567.

Forest Tree Planting ManuaI for 111inois, II1inois

Department of Conservation.

^ Revegetation of Illinois Coal-Stripped Lands,

W. G. Croxton; Ecology 9 (2), 19^.

Tree Planting Guide, Iowa State College Hktension

Panphlet 120.

Planting and Care of Forest, Trees, Missouri College of

Agriculture Extoision Circular 563.

How to Succeed with Forest Plantations, Wisconsin State

Conservation Department Publication 506.

Forest Trees and Shrubs - What, iMien , and How to Plant,

Midiigan State College Bulletin 264.

How to Plant Forest Trees, Michigan State College

Extension Folder F-32.

Woodlimd Management, Ohio State University Agricultural

Ebctension ftilletin 213.

The Hoosier Tree Planters Manual, Indiana Department of

Conservation.

Trees for Reforestation in Indiana, IndianaAgricu3ture.

Experiment Station Circular 306.

Forest Plantations, Their Establishment, Growth and

Marmgement, Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station

Circular 33L

Trees and Tree Planting, Together with a Descriptive

Catalog of Common Forest Trees of Minnesota ami the

Lake States, Anderson, Webb E\iblication Co.

Reforestion in Ohio, Giio Agricultural Experiment

Special Circular 76.

Extentf Character, and Fores tat ion Possibilities of Land

Stripped for Coal in the Central States, Central

States Forest Experiment Station Technical Paper 109.

Why Forest Plantations Fail, Journal of Forestry,

May 1939.

Ihe Windbreak as a Farm Asset, USDÂ Farmers' Bulletin

1405.

Windbreaks for Illinois Farmsteads, Illinois Natural

History Survey Circular 38.

jTree Mndbreaks for Indiana Farms, Purdue University

Agricultural Extension Bulletin 226.

Windbreaks for Protecting Muck Soils and Crops, Indiana

Agricultural Fjcperiment Station Circular 287.

Lafayette.

Evergreen Windbreaks for loiva Farms te cuis, Iowa

Agricultural Ebcperiment Station Bulletin P88.

Windbreaks for Field Protection, Mnnesota University

Agricultural Extension Folder 140.

Planting the Farmstead Shelter Belt, Minnesota lÄiiversity Agricultural Extension Bulletin 196..

Tree Windbreaks for Missouri Farms, Missouri College of

%riculture Extension Circular 343.

Windbreak Planting in Qiio, Ohip State University,

[Mimeogr aphedj

Shelterbelts for Windblown Soils, Wisconsin Gsllege of

Agriculture Fjctension Circular 287.

Tree Planting in the Central, Piedmont, and Southern

Appalachian Regions, USDA Farmers' &illetin 1994.
PROTECTION

AU farm crops have their enemies. Farm

operators know they must exercise eternal

vigilance against many kinds of pests if

farming is to be successful. The wood crop

is no exception, although insects and diseases

are less destructive to well-managed woodlands

than to croplands and orchards. In many farm

woods, fire and domestic and wild animals

lower the productivity of the woodland more

than insects and fungi.

FIRE

In spite of the widespread publicity given to

forest-fire damage, farmers as a group have

not heeded the warnings. They fail to recognize that small fires slowly burning along the ground are destructive, even though

the older trees are not killed. The death of

small trees, the destruction of the litter,

humus, and the balanced biotic soil conditions essential to the healthy growth of the

woodland has escaped their attention. They

are aroused against fire only when it gets out

of hand, as uncontrolled fires do, and threatens their buildings.

When humus and the ground cover are burned,

the sun and the drying winds absorb moisture

needed for tree growth. Plant nutrients in

the surface soil are lost and the growth rate

of the trees is reduced. Fire kills all or part

of the young tree growth necessary to replace

the trees that are harvested. It burns the

outer bark and the cambium layer of older

trees, exposing the wood to insects and decay.

Fungi causing rot then spreads and ruins the

nnost valuable part of the stem. Even though

the tree continues to grow, the effect of the

damage will show up when the tree is harvested.

In the interim the farmer will have lost much

of the earning capacity of the soil which the

trees occupied.

Tests conducted over 7- and 9-year periods

by the Soil Conservation Service at three different stations reveal the effect of woods fires

on runoff and erosion (table 5).

TABLE S.—Average annual surface runoff and soil loss

Surface runoff Soil loss

Location and condition of rainfall per acre

Percent Tons

Guthrie, Okla.

Undisturbed virgin woods 0.1 0.01

Woods burned once annually 4.4 .13

Tyler, Tex.

Virgin woods, unburned .3 .05

Woods burned once annually .2.6 .36

Statesville, N. C.

Virgin woods, unburned .1 0

Virgin woods, burned annually 9.9 2.6

The Central States Forest Experiment

Station reports the results of 588 tests on the

rate at which moisture would penetrate on

seven soil types in the Missouri Ozarks.

Half of the tests were nnade on areas that

were burned annually, and the other half on

comparable soils unburned for 5 or 6 years.

On the unburned plots the penetration was

2. 12 inches per hour, whereas* on the burned

plots it was only 1. 32 inches per hour.

The first step toward the control of woods

fire is prevention. Enlightened public opinion

is the best form of fire prevention. As a rule,

the farm woodland is an isolated parcel of

timber having a comparatively low fire hazard. Differing from extensive forested areas

controlled by the State and Federal Governments and by the lumber companies, it is not

so frequently subject to the carelessness of

hunters, fishermen, and tourists. Furthermore, it does not or should not include extensive areas of dry tops and branches left

from logging operations which create high

hazards. Fire in the farm woodland, therefore, is often the result of the farmer's own

carelessness. He and his neighbors can prevent most fires if they use the same degree of

care exercised around their homes and

buildings.

Under hazardous conditions, however, firebreaks are good insurance, especially around

coniferous plantations. Â satisfactory barrier can be made by plowing a strip about

a harrow section wide and keeping it open by

subsequent harrowings. One harrowing in the

early spring and a second in July or August

are usually sufficient to keep weeds in check

and the mineral soil exposed. Permanent

meadow strips also nnake effective firebreaks

during most of the year.

Even though a farmer is careful, his neighbors and others who cross his land may not

be, so fires may start on his land or close

to his land that must be put out. Usually he

will not have water available and must use

the tools and equipment readily obtainable.

He will be faced with one or more of the

following types of fire: ground fire, crown

fire, or surface fires.

27
28 FORESTRY HÄNDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

Ground fires occur only in peat soils. As

inaplied, the organic soil itself is burned.

Although these fires spread very slowly,

they are extremely difficult to suppress.

Two methods are used to control ground

fires: If plenty of water is available, the

ground is completely saturated just ahead of

the farthest extent of the fire. The other

nnethod of control is to dig a trench around

the fire. To be effective the trench must go

down to mineral soil or to a point where the

peat is w^et.

'';:■■■^:MINERAÜ*SOÍi:^v

Two ways to control groiond fires in peat soils.

Fortunately, most farmers will not have to

fight a crown fire in which the spread is

through the tops of the trees. Close-growing

coniferous plantations as well as extensive

areas of evergreen forests are subject to

crown fires. There is little an individual

can do to check such fires, because the

speed with which they travel and the extensive heat accompanying them defy any ordinary

human efforts. Large well-organized fire

crews w^ith hose atnd pumps are needed to

cope with crown fires.

The nnost common type of fire is the one that

burns on the surface. At the start its spread is

ordinarily slow. But as it gains momentumi

and generates sufficient heat to create its

own draft, progress may be almost as rapid

as in crown fires. Surface fires arernost

frequently controlled by scraping away the

flammable debris on the surface of the ground

immediately ahead of the fire. Exposing the

mineral soil to a width of about 12 inches

with a hoe, rake or shovel will create a fire

line w^hich will check the spread of the flames.

In open areas and in sod, plowing furrows is

the best method of combating surface fires.

Wet sacks are also effective in beating out

grass and leaf fires when the heat and smoke

will permit a direct attack. Loose soil, if

available, is also useful to suppress surface

fires. It is thrown at the base of the flame

with a shovel, in a swinging or swirling

motion.

Over-enthusiasm and haste in combating

fires result in inefficiency. One does not

necessarily start to work at the first point

of contact w^ith the fire. The first step in

suppressing a woods fire is to determine the

direction in ^which the fire is nnovingniost

rapidly. Other factors also bear on the point

of initial attack. Where is the most valuable

property threatened? Where are the natural

barriers like roads, streams and open fields?

The illustration will demonstrate some of

the principles.

The natural inclination of a man approaching from the road would be to start to work

wjm^Ä^ BUILDINGS

a

immediately on the west side of the fire. The

fallacy of such a move is obvious. The impending damage is to the east and, furthermore, the fire willstop anyway when it

reaches the road. After a line has been made

to the stream on the east side, and the buildings secured from danger, the line should

progress toward the northwest. If there are

two or more men available, one should continue working toward the northwest and the

other can then start at the road, working

toward the northeast. Only after they have

conripletely controlled the head of the fire

should they begin on the southwest.

When fires burn so fiercely that trenching

close to the head is impossible, work should

start at the flanks and an attempt made to

gradually pinch off the head. Regardless of

where the start is made, however, there are

two important rules to remember: (1) Work

as close as possible to the edge of the fire

so that all flammable material inside the line

is consumed; and (2) don't permit fire to get

behind the line. Burning leaves and sparks

from dead snags blow over the line, burning

cones and logs roll down steep slopes and,

unless the trench was started at a natural

barrier, there is always the risk of the main

fire enveloping the starting end of the line.

Backfiring is used only on extremely hot

fires and as the last resort. A trench is dug

as usual, but well ahead of the fire. Then

the back-fire is started far enough away to

consume all flammable nnaterial between

the trench and the main fire. Stated in

another way, the opposite perimeters of the

backfire should burn so as to meet the trench

and the main fire about the sanne time.
PROTECTION

INSECTS AND DISEASE

29

Damage from insects and disease as a rule

is in direct proportion to the misuse of the

woodland. Fire, grazing, and excessive cutting lower the natural resistance of the trees

and pernnit pests to get a foothold. Manyother disease and insect depredations to

planted trees are the result of the failure to

recognize and properly appraise site factors.

(See p. 7.) Trees, like every other organism, when growing in an unsuitable environment are weak and beconne inviting hosts to

epidemics. Studies by competent entomologists and pathologists indicate further that

insects and diseases are usually secondary

in causing decadence in standing timber. Environmental factors, including cunaulative

deficiencies of rainfall, are the primary

causes of death.

Thus, the well-managed, healthy farm

woods is relatively free from serious insect and disease injury. Even when epidemics occur, there usually is no practical

method of control other than to remove and,

if possible, utilize the infested or diseased

trees to check the spread. White pine blister rust is an example of an exception; it

can be controlled by removing nearby currants and gooseberries. Control measures

in natural woodland, therefore, are silvicultural. Spraying schedules such as are

used in orchards are not generally feasible.

Artificial control of insects in plantations,

however, may be necessary. The establishment of solid blocks of a single tree species

or two encourages the development of unnaturally high populations of insects, which

must be kept in check by spraying.

Tables 6 and 7 indicate the kind and extent

of damage done by the more important and

common insects and fungi found in farnn woodlands of the Central United States. Appropriate departments at State experiment stations

should be consulted for more detailed information.

TABLE 6.--Common/oresi tree insects, their host trees, and the character of the damage

INSECTS BORING UNDER THE BARK AND IN THE WOOD

[Control of the insects in this group by insecticides is impractical. The only recourse is to cut and burn infested parts of tr

during the dormant season in hopes of reducing populations.J

Insect Host trees Kind and extent of damage

Bark beetles

Bronzed birch

borer

Cottonwood

borer

Locust

borer

Two-line

chestnut borer

Other borers

Pine, hickory

Birch, aspen

Cottonwood,

poplars

Black locust

Oaks

Sugar maple,

hickory, beech,

elm, oak, basswood.

Larvae tunnel between bark and sapwood, scoring the sapwood in

fantastic designs. Large nunbers of these insects will girdle and

hasten the death of trees weakened from other causes.

The death of birch and sometimes aspen is hastened by the larvae which

mine shallow criss crossed and winding patterns underneath the bark.

Dead branches may be symptoms of attack.

A large insect which cuts deep galleries up to an inch in diameter in

the trunks and large branches, so weakening the tree that wind causes

breakage. Coarse wood-dust at base of tree and holes in bark identify

presence.

Larvae mine galleries 1/4 inch or more in diameter in stem, causing

Severe breakage or death. Trees 3 to 15 years old will be attacked,

particularly on poor sites. Trees on better sites usually recover.

Growth from sprouts spears more resistant than that from seed. (The

locust twig borer, \^hicli mines in the pith of 1 or 2-year stems and

produces irregular swellings 1 to 3 inches long, is not serious and

should not be confused witli the locust borer. )

Larvae make wavy, transverse burrows between the bark and wood. Fatal

only when tree has been weakened by other agents, such as root rot.

Similar to the cottonwood borer except the galleries are smaller.

The species attacking sugar maple is most serious.
30 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

INSECTS ATTACKING THE BUDS, SHOOTS, AND SMALL LIMBS

Llnsects in this group can be controlled by spraying, provided it is done at the right time of year and is economical,]

Insect Host trees Kind and extent of damage

European pine

shoot moth

White pine

weevil.

Hard pines, (2-3

needles) especially red pine.

(kll aphids or

lice

Nantucket or

pine tip

moth

Spruce, pines

Stortleaf,

loblolly, red

or ponderosa

Oystershell

scale.

pine.

Ash, cottonwood,

maple, elm,

birch.

Pales weevil Northern pines,

spruce.

Pine bark

aphid.

Pines, especially white

pane.

Pine spittle

bug.

All conifers

White pine,

Norway spruce,

jack pine,

Scotch pine.

Rusty, orange-red moth having silvery-marked wings, 3/4 inch, that

flies in June laying eggs on new needle sheaths. Caterpillars

hatch and start boring into twigs about 10 days later and spend rest

of surrmer working inside stem toward the buds, where they overwinter.

A crooked or forked tree results from killing the new twigs and buds.

Not prevalent where winter tenperatures get below -15 F. Use ÍM3T

spray as soon as adults are seen and repeat two or three times at

weekly intervals. Spraying must catch adults during egg-laying season and before larvae reach the inside of stem.

Snail,pineÊçjple or conelike growths on stems indicate the work of this

insect. No more serious than causing the death of infested twigs.

Larvae work in terminal buds or twigs, similar to European pine shoot

moth. Young trees may be killed; if not, they devele^ a cabbagelike

growth that they usually outgrow. Spraying usually is not practical,

except in nurseries to control shipment of infested stock.

Bark of twigs more or less covered with gray, shell-like bodies, easily

detached. Heavy infestation reduces trees' resistance and is sometimes fatal. Other scale insects, notably the European elm scale,

act similarly. Contact spray during dormant season.

Dark-brown adult weevils girdle and kill small trees in nurseries and

plantations. Larvae inhabit pine stumps and fallen timber, hence

only plantations in recently cut over pine will be attacked.

Presence identified by white flocculent growth which develops on the

insect's body, giving branches and stems of young trees a whitewashed appearance. Not a problem on healthy mature trees but may

kill weaklings in plantations. Contact spray.

White frothy masses in spring and early summer identify presence and

protect the nynrqjhs. A sap-sucking insect, in both nymph and adult

stages, which lower tree's resistance and may be the primary cause

of decadence and death. In recent years has been very damaging in

the Lake States. Contact spray or dust the spittle masses in spring.

Kills terminal shoots. Not usually fatal but results in poorly formed

trees. Tiny drops of resin on stem are the first evidence of attack.

Spray with lead arsenate in early spring before buds start t« swell.

INSECTS ATTACKING LEAVES

[All of the insects in this group can be controlled by stomach sprays applied at the time the insect (larvae, except as noted)

begins feeding.]

Cankerworms,

measuring

worms, or

loopers.

Fall webworm.

Forest tent

caterpillar.

Other

caterpillars.

Elm, oak

Most hardwoods

Oak, hard maple,

aspen, birch.

Oak, elm, aspen,

basswood, birch,

beechj maple.

Small ^ey to dark brown worms. Partial to complete defoliation comnon

in late spring. Rarely fatal unless concurrent with other unfavorable climatic or biotic conditions.

Dirty webs, sometimes enclosing entire trees, made by this insect are

comnon during the late summer. Defoliation is often complete, but

not fatal.

Hairy caterpillars with blue head and lines along sides. Feed on

leaves in spring and may completely defoliate by June. Common, but

not fatal if trees are otherwise healthy,

îfed, orange, yellow, or green-marked, smooth caterpillars, lH to 2

inches long, defoliate hardwoods between July and Sept^iber L Not

fatal.
PROTECTION 31

Insect Host trees Kind and extent of damage

Japanese

beetle.

Locust leaf

miner.

Sawflies

Spruce bud

worm

Walnut

caterpillar.

Basswood, chestnut,

sassafras, elm,

willow, birch,

some oaks.

Black locust

All pines,

spruce,

tamarack.

Spruce, balsam,

northern pines,

Scotch pine.

Black walnut

The adult beetle eats the tissue inside the veins of the foliage which

results in skeletonized leaf. A serious pest to forest and ornamental trees quickly becoming established throughout the Eastern and

Midwestern states. Not as yet serious in farm woodland.

Skeletonized, often transparent foliage, turning brown in surraner and

early fall are evidence of damage. Not considered serious but repeated attacks are held responsible for the death of locust in parts

of Ohio Valley.

The small larvae of the several species of this group of insects consume the needles of conifers with similar effect. Trees partially

defoliated or even completely defoliated in early suirmer generally

recover. When two and even three broods of larvae hatch, late smimer or early fall defoliations are usually fatal.

In the spring, small, yellow-green, brown-headed caterpillars feed on

the new shoots of spruce and balsam and on the flowers of pines.

Later the full-grown brown larvae attack mature leaves of spruce and

balsam. The base of the needles are gnawed off and'the branch covered

with silken web. A serious pest where natural stands of balsam and

spruce occur.

Defoliates trees in late July, August, or September. Seldom fatal.

Ants

June beetles

Boot collar

weevil.

INSECTS WHOSE ATTACK ABOVE GROJND IS NOT APPARENT

Conifers

All trees

Northern,

Austrian,

and Scotch

pines.

Mound-building ants gnaw bark at the base of young trees, apparently

to eliminate shade from their mounds. Trees are killed as a result

of formic acid injected into the wounds made by insect. Surround the

mound with a complete barrier of sodium fluoride.

White grubs (larvae) eat roots of newly planted conifers, causing

death; common in old pastures, and very damaging in tree nurseries.

Occasionally, adults defoliate hardwoods in late spring. No

practical control.

White larvae burrow in cambium of young trees just below the ground.

Frequently fatal. Outer bark and adjacent soil blackened and scaled

with pitch. Pull out and burn infested stumps in fall, winter, or

early spring to control spread.

Some standard insecticides used to control

forest tree insects are:

Lead Arsenate is used as a stomach sprayin solutions as strong as 1 pound to 2. 5 gallons of water for white pine weevil, up to 1

pound to 20 gallons of water for leaf-eating

insects. Commercial wetting or spreading

agents are usually added according to manufacturers' directions for better distribution

of the spray. One ounce of linseed oil per

gallon of water insures better adherence of

the spray.

Nicotine Sulfate is the most generally

used contact spray and is the base of most

commercial insecticides for control of sucking and soft-bodied insects. It is diluted at

the rate of about 1 fluid ounce per 6 gallons of

water, to which is added 2 heaping tablespoons

of soap flakes per gallon of solution.

DDT is both a stomach and a contact poison.

It can be used as a dust or a spray. Futhermore, it is not so violent a poison to warmblooded animals as lead arsenate or nicotine

sulfate and its effects appear to last longer

after application. Dusts and wettable powders

are most used in forest-insect control, but

since the DDT content of commercial preparations will vary, the manufacturers' directions should be followed. Two to three pounds

of wettable 50 per cent DDT powder per 100 gallons of watei^Ts" a common dosage against

forest-tree insects.
32 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

TABLE 7. '-Common forest fungi, their host trees, and the character of the damage

Fungi

Sioestring fungus

Fbot rot

Leaf rusts, leaf spots.

Needle casts

Strumella and nectria

cankers.

Antropellis canker

Tympanis canker

Host Trees

All species

ALI conifers

Pines

Conifers

Most hardwoods

\Wiite pine blister rust

Sweet fern rust

Cedar e^ple rust

Pitch, Scotch, loblolly,

and slash pines

Fted pine

Cedar blight

White pine

Scotch pines, pitch pines

Eastern red cedar, apples

Red cedar

Kind and Ebctent of Damage

This fungus spreads throu^ soil by black, shoestring-like

strands of mycelium, attacking the roots and spreading

upward into the trunk. Generally fatal, especially when

present with the two-lined borer or other weakening factors. Presence not easily determined except in advanced

stage; then honey-colored toadstools appear on trunk or

exposed roots.

Pines, white in particular, if planted on heavy, poorly

drained soils, are subject to attacks of root-rotting

fungi. No easy means of identifying presence, but the

short, yellowish needles, thin crowns, and sometimes the

leaning trimks of trees in older plantations grown on

heavy soils are indicators, üiderground spread is slow,

but trees attacked are generally wind thrown.

Blisters on pine needles produce bright orange or yellow

dust (spores) in the spring. Tliey occur principally in

plantations and are not serious. There are also large

aiunbers of fungi causing spots and blisters on the leaves

of other trees; none should be the object of concern.

Old needles turn brown from the tips back and shed prematurely. Frequently cause alarm because of striking effect

Usually not serious.

Start in living or dead branch stubs, gradually spreading

to form target-like "catfaces" in the trunk. Not immediately fatal but result in a poorly formed tree subject to danage by other causes.

Cankers occur on twigs and small branches; wood beneath is

stained blue. Rarely fatal.

In crowded plantations south of its natural range, red or

Norway pine is subject to a disease that enters throu^

dead branches. Heavily infected trees die. Presence shown

by black cankers on bark around branch whorls; affected

wood beneath is depressed.

Orange or yellow blister on bark. Eventually fatal. Dependent on gooseberries or currants (Ribes) to spread from

tree to tree, inasmuch as these shrubs act as alternate

hosts.

Similar to white pine blister rust except alternate host

is sweet fern. Infected trees are missh^en. Occasionally

fatal.

Unimportant to the cedar. %)ots on apples result in degrading of fruit. No practical importëuice except within U

mile of commercial orchards; here cedar should not

be planted.

Leaves of seedlings and transplants turn ye How-brown and

plant dies. Fatal only to new plantings and in nursery

stock.
PROTECTION 33

Fungi

Oak wilt

Heart rots

Chestnut blight

ÍDutch elm disease

Host Trees

Oaks, especially red oak

All species

Kind and Extent of Damage

Elm necrosis

Oiestnut

Elm

White Elm

Leaves begin to turn yellow any time during summer from

May on. Within a few weeks tree is dead. A newly isolated

and very serious organism for which no control methods

are known other than to quickly cut and remove dead trees.

All heart or butt rots are similar. Spores of the fungi

gain entrance in fire scars, branch stubs, or other exposed wood, and the resulting decay spreads at an average

rate of about 2 inches per year throughout the heartwood.

Infected wood is reduced to a punky, useless state.

Cankerous growth affects cambium on trunk and branches until tree is killed. Has practically eliminated the American chestnut from eastern woodland. No control methods

are known.

Kills weakened and unhealthy elms by spreading in the sapwood and cambium where the spores are carried by the elm

bark beetle. A serious disease of street trees in the

east. Partial control by cutting and burning infected

trees.

ALthou^ not known to affect trees in woodland, this virus

disease causes the death of Midwest street trees. Identified by yellowing, falling leaves, and yellow to lightbrown inner bark which gives off a wintergreen odor. No

known control.
34 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Intensive grazing in woodland on livestock

and dairy farms probably causes more

damage to tree growth than any other destructive agent. Livestock browse on the leaves

and shoots of the small trees, trample them

underfoot, and break or deform them by

rubbing or riding them down. The destruction

of the young trees eliminates the possibility

of any future tree crop to take the place of

the older trees as they are cut or die.

Confinement to restricted areas lacking

sufficient forage will force livestock to feed

on alnnost any species of plant. Nutritional

deficiencies will even impel the chewing

the bark of trees. The extent to which livestock will damage young trees depends not

only on the palatability of species but also on

the degree to which the stock is underfed.

Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station recorded the extent to which cattle browsed

various kinds of trees. The fact that cows

have a general preference for the more

economically desirable tree species indicates

that woodland grazing of ordinary intensity

will reduce the quality as well as the quantity

of reproduction. The relative frequency of

browsing on forest trees, based on percentage

of browsing on reproduction over 6 inches

high is as follows:

Relished

under all

conditions

White ash

Sugar maple

Basswood

Red elm

Browsed under

light grazing

(10 acres or

more per cow)

American elm

White oak

Red oak

Tulip poplar

Browsed only

under heavy

grazing f2-4

acres per cow )

Dogwood

Black walnut

Hawthorn

Browsed under

Moderate grazing

(¿t-lO acres

per cow)

Beech

Black locust

&ssafras

Black oak

Hickory

Sycamore

Honey locust

Kentucky coffee tree

Barr oak

Black cherry

Rarely browsed

even under very

heavy grazing

(less than 2

acres per cow)

Red cedar

Blue beech

Hop hornbeam

Paw paw

Persimmon

Trampling by livestock damages the surface

feeding roots and compacts the soil, reducing

its water a:bsorptive capacity, thus adversely

affecting the rate of tree growth. There is less

litter and humus accumulated, and the ground

surface dries out faster because of the sun

and wind. Table 8 summarizes the results of

a study by Cornell University of the extent to

which grazing affected site factors on 18 grazed

and 18 ungrazed woodlands.

TABLE B.--Comparison of 18 grazed and 18 ungrazed

woodlands in central New York

Site factor

Soil organic matter (percent)

Volume weight— — (pounds)

Soil moisture(Dry weight) (percent)

Average air tarperature---f°C. j

Coil tenperature (^C.)

Percent of full sunlight--fpercentj

Relative humidity- (percent)

Grazed

6.40 8.50

1.15 .90

10.60 14.40

27.10 25.00

23.60 20,10

21.00 3.03

53.60 67.70

Ungra zed

Soil losses and the amount of water that runs

off the land following rain were measured at

the Soil Conservation Experiment Station, La

Crosse, Wis. The table 9 gives the results of

6 years of measurements on three separate

watersheds having the same soil type.

TABLE 9,--Soi Z loss and runoff from watersheds

with different covers

Cover

Watershed A (grazed woods)

Watershed B (protected woods)

Watershed G (open pasture)

Inches

2.31

.05

.79

Percent

1.17

.02

.40

Soil loss

per acre

Pounds

2,126

19

866

Watershed A: 2.67 acres of second-growth hardwoods.

Slope, 15-28 percent. Grazed to optimum carrying

capacity.

Watershed B: 11.5 acres of second-growth hardwoods.

Slope, 25-50 percent. Neither grazed nor burned.

Watershed G: 5.85 acres cleared of second-growth timber

in 1932. Slope, 25-35 percent. Grazed to optimum

carrying capacity.

Livestock grazing in woodland, therefore,

adversely affects more than the growth of the

trees. Community and national interests have

an enormous stake in the control of floods

which are caused by uncontrolled water and

silt-clogged stream channels. Anything that
PROTECTION 35

contributes to the loss of soil and to a reduction in its water-holding capacity is inimical to general public welfare.

Ungrazed, unburned woodland has long

been recognized as the form of land use best

suited to the conservation of soil and moisture

on sloping land. In that respect, woodland in

relation to other types of land use was demonstrated at the Soil Conservation Experiment

Station, Zanesville, Ohio. The soil and water

losses from three watersheds receiving an

average annual precipitation of 37 inches were

measured over a 9-year period. The soil and

the slope (14 percent) were comparable in all

watersheds. Table 10 summarizes the results

of this experiment,

TABLE 10.—Annual soil and water losses

from, land in different uses

AVERAGE ANNUAL

PRODUCTION PER ACRE"

AVERAGE ANNUAL

PRODUCTION PER ACRE"

POUNDS

Soil loss Water loss

Land Use per acre of rainfall

Tons Percent

Oiltivated in rotation of

corn-grain-hay 17.18 20.6

Pasture, fertilized

bluegrass .10 13.8

Woodland, unburned, ungrazed .01 3.2

second-growth

Acres per cow

9 plus

4 5 to 9.0

3.0 to 4.5

2.3 to 3.6

1.4 to 2. 3

LI to L4

.75 to L4

In general, the farmer uses woodland for

pasture at a loss to himself and to the livestock

State agricultural experiment stations have repeatedly demonstrated that forage grown in

woodland is poorer both in quantity and quality

than that produced in open pastures. The Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station measured

the total yield of dry matter from three types of

pasture. The improved grass-and-legume pasture produced over 11 times, »and the unimproved open bluegrass 5 times, the forage grown

in the woodland. Over a 5-year period the

average annual yield of dry matter per acre for

each type of pasture was as follows:

Renovated, grass and legume- - 3210 lbs.

Open bluegrass, unimproved - - 1453 lbs.

Woodland pasture -------- 276 lbs.

In Indiana, studies of the ground cover in

grazed woodland showed a preponderance of lowvalue forage. In the same State, other experiments proved that attempts to carry beef cattle

in woodland without supplemental feed resulted

in a loss of weight of the animals.

Similar evidence, available from observation and experinnents in Minnesota and Ohio,

is shown graphically in the following figure.

Adjusting these studies to the grazing capacity of various types of pastures, the area

needed to sustain a cow for 180 days is as

follows:

Kind of Pasture:

Dense woods pasture

Average woods pasture

Open woods pasture

Steep open pasture

Bluegrass on rolling land

Bottom land pasture

Improved or legume pasture

Northern farmers require 5 to 10 times the

acreage of wooded pasture to support their

livestock because of the failure to improve

their open pastures. This waste of land resource is reflected in lower yields of milk

and meat and increased costs of fence maintenance. In short, it costs the farmer nnore

per cow to carry stock on poor pasture than

on good pasture.

Studies by the Soil Conservation Service in

cooperation with the Wisconsin Agricultural

Experimient Station show that the daily pasture cost per cow is greater in woodland pastures. The study considered taxes and other

charges against the land, fencing, costs of

establishment, and acres required per cow.

The results are shown in the following graph.

DAILY PASTURE COST PER COW

.0 $.02 .04 06 08 .10 .12 .14 .16 .18

^VqWION PàSTùREN^^^^^^

^OPEVpÈRMAVENt>A^t^

'RENOvÀT^q PÀsfuRe::^^:^^^

VWOODED PASTURE\\

If the farm woods produces maple sirup,

the loss incurred by grazing the woodland is

also very pronounced. In northeastern Ohio,
36 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

a study ofmaple-sirup yields on an ungrazed

and an adjacent grazed woods over a 5-year

period showed that grazing lowers the flow of

maple sap. The average annual production of

sirup per acre on the ungrazed tract was

21.9 gallons. The grazed tract produced 16.2

gallons per acre, or a difference of 5. 7 gallons. Based on sirup prices current at the

time the study was naade, the operation of

the grazed wood produced $10. 67 less sirup

per acre annually to gain a connparatively

few cents worth of livestock forage.

The quality of the woodland pasture may

have even more serious aspects than merely

snnall amount and small nutritional value of

the forage. Many of the weeds as well as

sonn^e of the trees that occur in farm woodland are poisonous to the livestock. Here

again, the farmer who grazes woodland risks

the loss of stock worth several thousands of

dollars in order to get some poor quality forage. The following list includes those species

common in eastern United States which are

poisonous at sonne time during the grazing

season. It includes only typically woodland

plants; species such as corn cockle, green

sorghunn, and others which grow in open

fields are not listed.

Woodland plants poisonous to livestock:

Common name

Black'cherry

Bittercup

Common brake

IXitchman's breeches

Gre at 1aurel

Kentucky coffeetree

Larkspur

Nightshade

Oak

Ohio buckeye

Pokeberry

Water hemlock

White snakeroot

Whorled milkweed

Scientific name

(Prunus serótina)

(Ranunculus sp.)

(Pteris aquilina)

(Discentra cucullaria)

(Rhododendron maxima)

(Gymnacladus dioica)

(Delphinium sp.j

(Solanum nigrum)

((^ercus sp.)

(Aesculus glabra)

(Phytolacca decandra)

(Cicuta maculât a)

(Eupatorium urticaefolium)

(Âsclepias verticillata)

There are a few exceptions to the rule that

livestock and trees are not compatible. In

order to get natural establishment of coniferous reproduction in the North, controlled

grazing m.ay be advisable. The stock keep the

undesirable but more aggressive hardwoods

in check until the less palatable but more valuable conifers are started. See also recommendations for preventing damage by rodents.

Cattle and other donnestic aninnals commonly range in the pine forests of the South

without serious damage to the wood crop.

Because the stock is pernnitted to roam at

large and since pine is less palatable than

much of the associated vegetation, there is a

SINGLE ÚSWQSnñ

aowER {enloraeiir

White snakeroot, one of the most poisonous plants in

eastern farm woodland. Farmers suffer heavy losses

from cattle, sheep, horses, mules, and goats eating

this weed.

negligible loss of tree growing stock. Furthermore, by keeping the ground cover down,

livestock serves to eliminate fuel for hot destructive surface fires.

In fact, pine forests generally suffer less

than hardwoods from domestic livestock. As

a rule, the pines naturally exist on the lighter sandy soils which are not subject to the

same degree of compaction as loam or clay

soils. On light soils where the regeneration

of conifers is desired, intensive and carefully controlled grazing may be an inexpensive reforestation measure.

Fencing

The protection of woodland from livestock

necessitates building a fence between the

pasture and the woodland. Fencing methods

are throroughly covered in previously issued

instructions, as well as the following publications:

"Farm Fence Handbook, " Guise. Republic

Steel Corp., Chicago, Rev. 1942.

''Range Pasture and Field Fencing, " Soil

Conservation Service EP-17, Novem.ber

1939.

The important consideration to be given in

fencing farm woodland is cost (see table 11).

On many small tracts this may be so great as

to absorb a large part of any anticipated returns from the woods. Incidentally, there is

no good reason why the cost of fencing should

not be charged against the livestock enterprise rather than the woodland. Regardless

of where it is charged, nowever, these are a

few suggestions to keep cost to a minimuna:
PROTECTION 37

(1) The smaller and more irregular the

area, the greater the cost per acre of complete fencing. Therefore, the fence should

include as large and as regular an area as

possible.

(2) Wire may be fastened to poorlyformed live trees along the margin of the

woods to cut costs and to insure permanence.

Do not, however, fasten wire to straight,

well-formed trees which later may be processed; stapling to a 2 X 4 which is fastened to

the trunk of good trees will prevent injury.

(3) It is not usually necessary to build

fences between woodland and cultivated fields

and meadows. The relatively short period

that livestock will have access to the woods,

and the small damage they may do will not,

as a rule, justify the cost of building and

maintaining the fence. Think of fences as a

means of confining livestock in pastures, not

of keeping stock out of the woods.

TABLE 11. --Approximate cost per rod of fence for labor

and materials, assuming wood posts one rod apart

Labor: two-man- Cost of

crew- day^ material^

L.inú of fence Line Line

posts

driven

posts

set^

Wire,

etc.

Posts

Days Days

Barbed wire:

2 strands, 2 pt. 0.012 0.015 $ 0.14 f 0.30

3 strands, 2 pt. .014 .020 .21 .30

4 strands, 2 pt. .017 .025 .28 .30

5 strands, 2 pt. .020 .033 .35 .30

Woven wire only

(60 inch) .018 .030 .95 .30

Woven + barbed:

32-inch wovQi

+ 2 strands .022 .035 .85 .30

47-inch woven

+ 1 strand .022 .035 .90 .30

^ llius, two men will set line posts and build a 4-

strand barbed wire fence at the rate of 40 rods per day

(1 day-^ 025) If labor is worth $10.00 for the two men,

the labor expense per rod is 25 cents (10.00 x .025).

2 Average ijuality materials, 1945 prices.

^Will require about 3 hours for 2 men to set corner

and brace posts (wood).

Living fences recently have been given renewed attention. Osage-orange and multiflora

rose are used in Ohio, Indiana, Missouri,

Illinois, and much of Iowa as natural fences

with or without a supplementary wire or two.

Red cedar, hawthorn (C. crusgalli), and

orange bark willow are about the only promising species for such use in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, anticipating that

protection must be given until the trees are

large enough to support the necessary wire.

Eliminating of Woody Plants in Pastures

Farmers permit livestock to graze in

woodland either because of indifference or

because they feel they need the forage in the

woodland to augment that in the open pasture.

Most farms are short of palatable forage,

especially in the sunnmer, hence the prevention of woodland grazing must necessarily

start by the improvement of the pasture.

Although the following material cannot

rightly be classed under the subject of woodland protection, the elimination of woody

plants in pastures has an indirect bearing on

the farm woods. Where power machinery is

available, pulling stumps and grubbing roots

is the quickest and most satisfactory method.

Power saws operating from a tractor and

special sickle bars for cutting brush are

available for keeping sprout growth in check.

Continued mowing, plus fertilizer treatment

and seeding with adapted grasses and legumes, eventually will result in the exclusion

of sprouts.

Grazing alone is not a satisfactory method

of eliminating brush. A sufficient concentration of stock to nnake inroads on the woody

vegetation means underfeeding of the animals,

and a consequent loss against the livestock

investment. At best, grazing is merely supplemental to other methods of clearing.

A single or occasional cutting also is unsatisfactory. Most hardwoods and shrubs

have marked sprouting capacity, and so long

as they are permitted to produce enough

leaves to manufacture plant food they will

continue to send up new growth. Cutting in

midsummer, June to August, is preferable

to fall, winter, or early spring. The important consideration, however, is not when

to do the cutting, but how frequently. Little

pernaanent benefit will be derived unless tops

are cut at least twice during the summer and

cutting is continued year after year until there

is no food supply left in the roots.

Fire is another favoredmethod of brush

disposal; but the problem of getting a "clean"

burn, together with the dangers of the fire

getting out of control, make it unsatisfactory

except as a supplement to other methods.

In the absence of heavy equipment and s\x£-

ficient power to pull and uproot all woody

vegetation, a combination of cutting, grazing

and fire, continued over a 4-year period is

an inexpensive and fairly efficient method.

In late summer or early fall, all small trees

and brush are cut and left where they fall.

Follow with a heavy seeding of forage grasses,

such as equal parts of tinnothy, orchard grass,

redtop, and alsike. After the grass is well

established in the spring, stock is turned in

at the rate of about 3 animal-units per acre.

Grazing is continued for about 4 years, dur-
38 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

ing which time the larger trees are cut and

hauled away. Also it may be necessary to

hand-clear some sprout growth resulting

from previous cutting.

In the summer of the fourth year the stock

is removed and the grass permitted to grow

to maturity. After the frost has killed the

grass during a dry time in the late fall or

early winter the grass is set on fire. Usually

this fire is hot enough to consume the down

brush and smiall logs. Many of the stumps

will be partially rotted and burned and can be

pulled the next spring, following which a good

disking and seeding can be repeated.

Chemicals are also used to kill woody vegetation and prevent sprouting. For small

trees and shrubs under 7 feet high, or for

new sprouts from large trees, herbicides

such as 2, 4-D and ammonium sulfamate

("Ammate") are most frequently used. Solutions nnade according to the nnanufacturers'

directions are sprayed on the full-grown

leaves in June or July. Complete coverage

of the leaf surface is necessary for a satisfactory kill. Ammiate, though more expensive than 2, 4-D, appears to be more potent.

Neither is poisonous. Ammate, however, is

corrosive to metal, and spray equipment

should be thoroughly cleaned after using.

For larger trees, methods other than leaf

spraying are necessary for a complete kill.

Some violently poisonous and dangerous

chemicals, such as caustic soda, arsenic

trioxide, and sodium chlorate, have been

used in the past, but now have been replaced

by the safer Ammate.

Trees up to 8 to 10 inches can be completely killed by placing Ammate in "cups" in the

trunk near the ground. Cups are made by

chopping two downward axe cuts, one about

an inch above the other, and prying out the

chip. Two or three cups are enough for 3 to

6-inch trees; an additional cup is needed for

each 2-inch increase in diameter. One heaping tablespoon of dry Ammate crystals is put

in each cup immediately after cutting. Trees

less than 3 inches high can be cut off completely, leaving a V-shaped stump, and the

crystals put into the V. Spring or summer is

the best time to apply this method.

Instead of dry crystals, solution of Amm.ate

(4 pounds per gallon of water) can be applied

to a row of axe-cuts made completely around

the stem of the tree. Make single downwardslanting cuts with an axe, spud, or other

sharp tool, well into the sapwood, near the

ground. The solution can be poured into the

girdle with a long-spouted oil can or a watering can the nozzle of which is plugged with a

perforated cork. Treatmient should be raade

in the spring or early sumnner and the solution applied before the exposed sapwood

dries out. Trees should stand at least a year,

so that full effects of the treatment may be

realized.

Ammate is not always effective in killing

tl\e larger bottom land hardwoods or some of

themore persistent sprouters. Observations

indicate that sodium arsenite is a more effective herbicide. It can be used in the dry

form as described above or in solution (1

pound per 3 pints of water). In common with

all arsenic compounds, this one is deadly

poison. If used, the following precautions

should be rigidly observed:

1. Don't breathe the dust or fumes from

the chemicals

2. Wash hands and clothing after handling.

3. Label containers conspicuously.

4. Don't permit livestock in the poisoned

area until the spring following treatment.

5. Avoid spattering chennicals on skin.

6. If the poisoned wood is burned, avoid

breathing the smoke.

7. Screen off the poisoned areas if valuable game and fur animals are present

in the community.
39

PROTECTION

WILD ANIMALS

Plantations of most species, often up to 10

years of age, are subject to serious damage

by mice during the winter. The common field

mouse is the worst offender, and high populations can be expected in 4-year cycles. Any

small, heavily sodded area in which the rodents from surrounding fields and pastures

invariably concentrate is in a hazardous position. When the mouse population is heavy

and the snow is deep, every tree in a plantation may be girdled, and even the bark from

the stems and branches will be consumed.

Scotch pine is a favored host; spruce, jack

pine, and white oak are among those usually

not harmed.

One way to prevent such losses is to turn

livestock into the area for a few days before

freezing weather in the fall. Some danaage to

the trees can be expected from trampling and

browsing, but for the week or two that stock

have access to the plantations, danciage by

livestock will be small connpared to what the

mice would do otherwise.

Pocket gophers may kill tr.ees in young

plantations by chewing off the roots under the

surface of the ground. Complete control can

be obtained by placing poisoned carrots in

burrows. See Pocket Gopher Control, USDA

Farmer's Bulletin 1709.

In years of peak population, rabbits or

snowshoe hares also will damage newly

planted stands in the Northern States. They

nip off terminal buds and stems, thus tending

to deform trees and retard growth. Trapping

and hunting are the best controls.

The protection of deer and beaver afforded

by State game laws sometimes results in local concentrations of these two animals.

Deer browse trees and shrubs particularly

in the winter. Under ordinary conditions their

dannage to commercial tree species can be

ignored. Heavy populations of deer on overstocked ranges, however, result in severe

injury to northern conifers particularly white

cedar, white and jack pine, and balsam. Yellow poplar is highly palatable to deer in the

southern part of the region. Deer can be controlled by hunting, but before any radical

measures are taken, the value of the wildlife

resource should be carefully weighed against

the damage to the tree crop.

Beaver feed on the bark of many hardwoods

obtained by cutting the standing trees. This

direct killing of timber, however, is not so

serious as is the indirect damage caused by

their dams in streams. By backing up water

and flooding lowlands, they may kill hundreds

of acres of timber. Most States permit trapping the beaver and the destruction of their

dams where they threaten valuable property.

State conservation departments should be consulted for recourse.

Birds are distinctly beneficial to the trees,

the one exception being the yellow-bellied sapsucker. This bird, which looks and acts like

a woodpecker, drills a series of holes completely around the trunks and large liinbs of

pine, basswood, maple, and some of the

other hardwood trees. The exotic conifer

Scotch pine is a favorite host. Rather than

attempting to kill the birds, it is better to

accept the deformities in the trees, and perhaps avoid planting the more s-usceptible

species.

Squirrels occasionally and porcupines regularly eat the succulent inner bark from the

branches of living trees. While their operations retard the developm.ent of the trees and

furnish a point of entrance for destructive

insects and diseases, generally the loss is

small. If porcupines become so numerous as

to kill many trees, they can be readily controlled by shooting.

REFERENCES

Managing the Small Forest, USDÂ Farmers' Bulletin 1989.

Principles of Forest Entomology, Graham. McGraw-Hill.

Destructive and useful Insects, Nietcalf and Flint. McGraw-Hi11.

Common Diseases of Important Shade Trees, USDA Farmers'

Bulletin 1987.

Butt Rot in Unturned Sprout Oak Stands, USDA Technical

Bulletin 684.

Insects Injurious to Deciduous Shade Trees and Their

Control, USDA Fanners' Bulletin 1169.

Protecting Shade Trees from Insect Damage, Illinois

Agricultural Experiment Station Circular 509.

Reducing Losses from Tree Diseases in Eastern Forests

and Form Woodlands, USDA Farmers' Ekilletin 1BB7.

Stand Improvement of Northern Hardwoods in Relation to

Diseases in the Northeast, Allegheny Forest Experiment Station. Paper 5.

Woodland Management, Ohio State University Agricultural

Extension Bulletin 213.

Pathology in Forest Practice, Baxter. John Wiley & Sons.

WOODLAND PRODUCTS

The farm woods should be handled in a

manner similar to cropland and m.eadows..

Like any other crop, the woodland products

are harvested, used on the farm, or sold.

The requisites for conducting this harvest

are (1) the recognition of various products in

the trees, (2) a knowledge of the specifications of the products and how they are measured, and (3) an idea of how to market and

harvest the products. The farmer will be interested principally in the following products:

SAW TIMBER

Logs or tinnber intended for sawing into

boards, planks, or other construction material are known as saw timber. Practically

all species which grow to sufficient size are

usable, the more important being pine, black

walnut, cottonwood,'ash, the oaks, red elm,

yellow poplar, aspen, basswood, hard maple,

beech, yellow birch, soft maple, black

cherry, hicko'ry, gum, hemlock, and cypress.

Except as taken in inaprovement cuttings,

trees to be cut for saw logs should be a minimum of 16 inches d.b.h. (diameter, breast

high), be at least 16 feet to nearest branch of

appreciable size, and be reasonably straight

and sound. The cutting of small trees for saw

logs does not pay. Based on logging and milling studies in both pine and hardwoods, a

typical comparison of costs represented in

the utilization of trees of different sizes is

shown in this figure:

$32.00

Saw timber is sold by the thousand board

feet (M bd.ft. ), a board foot being a unit of

volume 1 inch x 12 inches x 12 inches. After

the tree has been felled, it is cut into logs,

8, 10, 12, 14, or 16 feet in length plus an

additional 2 to 4 inches for trinnming and

squaring the ends of the resulting boards. In

absence of a specified length, foresters

assume a log to be 16 feet.

The board foot contents of sound logs can

be determined with fair accuracy by measuring the average diameter inside the bark of

the snnall end, obtaining the length, and referring to a table indicating the board feet

(Appendix C). Where many logs are to be

measured, scale sticks or log rules giving

readings direct in board feet are used. If

logs are defective, the board foot contents

are reduced accordingly.'^

There are no uniformly established grades

for sawlogs. In fact, much saw timber is purchased from farmers on a lump sunn or lot

basis. In a few localities, however, log

grades are fairly well recognized, and by

knowing exactly the specifications of the

grades, the seller may be assured of a fair

price for his product. When graded, the diameter of the log, the length, and the number

and size of visible defects influence whether

it is a No. 1, 2, or 3 log. See figure on page

44 for specifications of a No. 1 log in one

locality.

Lumber

Boards 1 inch or more in thickness and in

random widths and lengths sawed from logs

are known to the trade as lumber. Thicker

pieces sawed to specific dimensions, such as

2 by 4's, are called dimension stock. Further remanufacture produces trim, flooring,

and other finished products for special uses.

Lumber sizes are designated by thickness,

width, and length respectively. Thus, 1 x 6 x

14 indicates a board 1 inch thick, 6 inches

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Diometer of Tree—inches

Comparison of production costs of trees of different size

To scale out defect: (a) measure in inches the end

dimensions of a rectangle that will be wasted in sawing, (b) measure the length of the defect in feet; (c)

multiply the three dimensions and divide by 15. Thus

W" X H" X L' board feet to be deducted. This reduc15

tion in scale is not made for sound knots, stain, or

small worm holes.

°In hardwoods, any small piece cut to specific size

for special use also is called dimension stock.

41
42 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

COMMON LOG DEFECTS

" \Naste /- ^^J^

wide, and 14 feet long. Thickness is also designated in quarter inches: 4/4 is I-inch lumber; 6/4 is 1-1/2 inch lumber, etc.

There are a dozen or more lumber-grading

rules in use in the United States to specify

quality. In fact, some species are graded

under several different rules, depending on

the use to which the inaterial is to be put. No

one person is intimately familiar with all the

rules, but their common denominator is the

amount of defect present in an individual

board, or stated in another way, the amount

of clear material obtainable.

Generally, hardwood lumber can be placed

in one of five grades, each grade determined

by the proportion of the board that can be cut

into clear (without knots or defect) pieces of

a miniraum size. The names of the grades and

the approximate specifications for each are

as follows.

AjpipTOximate

percent of Minimum size of

surface to clear pieces

Grade and minimum yield clear after cutting

size of board: pieces defects

FAS (Firsts and seconds) 85 4" x 5' or 3" x 3'

6" wide, 8' long

SELECT One side ( face) of board to meet

4" wide,- 6' long FAS specifications and the other

to meet No. 1 Gonmon.

No.. 1 œMMON. 67 4" X 2' or 3" X 3'

3" wide, 4' long

No. 2 COMMON 50 3" x 2'

3" wide, 4' long

No. 3 œWMON 33 3" x 2^

3" wide, 4^ long

No. 3 Canmon is further divided into A and B, B requiring only 25 percent of the surface to yield sound pieces,

each piece to contain at least 36 square inches.

The average hardwood logs from poorly

managed farm woodland will produce only

about 10 percent of FAS and Select lumber,

and about 30 percent in each of the three

lower grades. Well-managed woodland should

produce logs ^vhich will yield about 20 percent

in each of the five grades.

Softwood lumber or dimension stock is

classified into three major groups depending

on intended use: (1) Yard lumber for general

building and construction, (2) Structural material or "timber", graded primarily according to its strength, and (3) Shop and factory

lumber which, similar to hardwood lumber,

is intended for re-manufacture. Each group

has its individual grades, and yard lumber,

for example, recognizes the following nine

grades.

Grades of softwood yard lumber:

Principal requirements

A Select Suitable for natural finishes. A is esß Select sentially free from any defect. B admits not over two minor defects such as

small, tight knots, worm holes, or

pitch pockets.

C Select Suitable for paint finishes that will

D Select cover any defects. C admits four minor

defects such as pin knots, etc. D admits any number that will not detract

from the appearance when painted.

No. 1 Common... Admits sound, tight knots V;i to 3

inches in diameter, depending on width

of board. Water-tight material.

No. 2 Common... Admits sound, tight knots 2/^ to 4

inches in diameter depending on width

of board, plus other coarse defects

which permit its use in construction

without waste.
WOODLAND PRODUCTS 43

Grades of softwood yard lumber: (Cont)

Principal requirements

No. 3 Common... Admits loose knots and knot holes not

exceeding one in boi-rds 10 feet or Jfiss,

and three in 16 feet or longer boards.

25 percent poorer than Mo. 2.

No. 4 Common... Same as No. 3 except to a greater

degree.

No. 5 Common... Admits all defects, provided the board

is strong enough to hold together under

careful handling.

Black Walnut

If walnut timber will not yield logs that approximately meet specifications for veneer

logs, it is worth but little more than any

other timber. In larger trees, however, there

may be exceptional values, and farmers

should recognize the factors that make one

tree more valuable than another (table 12).

TABLE 12,—Board-foot contents of walnut stumps of various top diameters and heights

Diameter Lengtli

(inches) 24 inches 30 inches 36 inches

Board-feet Board-feet Board-feet

18 2^ 30 37

20 32 40 48

22 40 50 61

24 50 62 75

26 60 75 91

28 72 90 108

30 84 105 127

32 98 122 147

Most good walnut is sold as stumpage

(standing trees, on the stump) and is cut by

men who are skilled in obtaining the highest

valued products from each tree. This is as it

should be and is an exception to the general

recommendation that farmers can get a higher

labor return if they cut their own timber. In

many cases the owner can get more for a

good standing walnut than he can for the same

tree after it has been improperly cut and

made into logs.

To bring prennium prices, walnut logs

should have the following characteristics:

Butt logs must be more than 12 inches inside

bark at small end and 8 feet or more in

length (6- to 7-foot lengths acceptable only if

16 inches or more in diameter). Logs other

than butt cuts must exceed 16 inches at sm.all

end and be 8 feet or nnore in length. AH logs

must be cut from live tinciber and be sound,

straight, and free of all defects and of excessive sapwood; must be 4 inches over specified length. Walnut is usually scaled by the

Doyle rule (Appendix C).

Large, sound walnut trees having bellshaped bases are commonly cut off below the

ground line so that the stump can be utilized

to obtain valuable figured veneer. The stump

is left attached to the first log, but its characteristics are considered separately. If the

stump will not meet the minimum specifications shown in the figure it should be ignored,

for it will not be worth the extra labor involved in grubbing it out.

MUST BE CUT FROM

SOUND/UVE TIMBER

After allowing 3-4 inches

foririmming^The heighf

¡5 measurea from a ,v^^>.->

square cut which re- f '-^''^'

moves the ends of the (v

spur roots resulting frorn"

the tree felling.

Minimum specifications for walnut stumps.

Figured ¿rain as

indicated by ripples

under bark at least

-^height. (^ if more

than 30" high.)
44 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

VENEER

Usually the best grade of timber will bring

the highest price if sold to veneer manufacturers. Veneering, the cutting, slicing, or

sawing of timber into thin sheets, is not a

new process. Veneered caskets and plywood

furniture have been found in the tombs of

Egptians who lived I, 500 years before Christ.

Since then, improved machinery, nnodern

waterproof glues, and new methods of laminating have greatly expanded the use of veneer to naany fields of construction.

Because of the wide variety of uses, most

species in large-sized bolts are usable for

some purpose. The more common are black

walnut, the oaks, birch, yellow poplar, basswood, cottonwood, elm, maples, gums, sycamore, and pine. The fact that manufacturers

want clear, unbroken pieces of veneer emphasizes their demands for large logs without defects. Trees below 16 inches in

diameter, or logs that have visible knots,

rot, wormholes, and shake, ordinarily are

not marketable for veneer.

Logs are sold by the board foot the same

as saw timber, even though manufactured

veneer is sold by the square foot of surface.

Specifications for veneer logs vary according to locality and species. The accompanying

illustration shows the maximura number of

defects allowed in various sizes of veneer logs

in Wisconsin and northern Michigan. Although

standards in the Southern and Eastern States

are somewhat higher, the same principles

are applicable.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR VENEER

OR GRADE NO. I LOGS

(Wisconsin and Norfhern Michigan Hardwoods)

Ail logs shall be 12" and larger in diameter at the small end, the

small way. Logs must be cut in 10,12,14 or 16'lengths. Logs 6,7,8and

9'long may be cut but are optional with buyers. Add 4 " to length

for trimming allowance.

Below is diagramea the maximum number of defects allowed

in the i^arious lengths of logs. Knots, worm holes, shake^ cat-faces,

dead or dozy spots, bird, peciis, brown spots, pin - hoJes, or seams

are considered defects.

6-7 ¿^

|íí(|»]^^fe^ Entire log must be surface clear---^^^^^

8 and 9'Logs-1 J-^fect if within 10"of end

10' Log

I

If surface clear and 12' or longer, can be II" diameter

14'-16' Log

In logs I2"-I4"{n dio. a hole in the

center of a log not to exeed 3"in dia.

is allowed. In togs 15"-16"dia. a 5"

hole allowed. In logs over 16" a €"

hole allowed.

One tight straight seam is

permitted in a log 16" and over

in dia. No seam allowed in

logs 15'dia. or smaller.
WOODLAND PRODUCTS 45

RAILROAD TIES

The relative suitability of various species

of wood used for ties depends on (1) strength,

(2) wearing qualities, (3) susceptibility to

preservative treatment, and (4) natural resistance to decay. No single species has all

these favorable characteristics, but the oaks

and hard pines (two- and three-needled) are

used in the greatest numbers by eastern railroads. Species are commonly grouped together, as follows:

Group U~a Group T-a

Black locust (heartwood) Ash

White oak (heartwood) Hickory

Black walnut (heartwood) Honey locust

Red and black oaks

Any of U-a group with

sapwood

Group U-b Group T-b

Hard pines (heartwood) Same as U-b and U-c

Larch (heartwood) except with sapwood

Group U-c Group T-c

C!edars (heartwood) Beech

Cypress (heartwood) Birch

Cherry

Gum

Hard maple

Group U'd Group T-d

Catalpa (heartwood) Any of U-d group with

Mulberry (heartwood) sapwood

Sassafras (heartwood) Butternut

Elm

Hackberry

Poplar

Sycamore

These groups, when considered with the various sizes (grades), dictate the acceptability

and value of the product. Group U ties may

be used untreated, group T ties require treatment.

The minimum standard railroad tie length

is 8 feet, although many roads demiand 8 l/2-

foot or 9-foot ties. The minimum diameter of

a tie cut is about 12 inches outside the bark

at the small end, although it will be seen from

the diagram of grades that this may be variable, depending on the size which the market

accepts. Trees must be reasonably straight,

sound, and free from decay and large knots.

Many tie operators purchase tie cuts in diameters from 12 inches up at a flat rate regardless of diamieter. When they get a 20-

inch bolt, they can cut two #5 ties or three #3

ties plus 35 to 45 board feet of additional side

lumber. (See Appendix I for tables. )

The demands by different railroads are

variable in respect to grades of ties. However, the grades shown in the illustration are

standard, and it remains only for the seller

to determine grades that the market will

accept.

Grade

Sawed or hewed

(fop,boHom,side^

Notaccei

mosF rai

Sawed or hewed

(tepand^boHom)

Pole ties

z —

3 —

4 —

5 —

Grades of railroad ties
46 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

ROUND TIMBER

Piling

Oak and pine are most commonly used for

piling. The market, however, is variable and

irregular in its demands, and for many purposes, sound straight trees of any species

are acceptable.

Sizes also are variable, depending on

special uses. Soundness, freedom from

crook and excessive sweep, and gradual taper

from butt to tip always are essential requisites for good piling. Sizes range from 15 to

60 or more feet in length, and between 6-

inch tip and 20-inch butt. Table 13 gives the

specifications established by one State highway department.

Poles

Treated pine is the most widely used species, although tamarack, untreated cedar and

some of the more decay-resistant hardwoods

are used locally when available. Both poles

and piling are sold by the linear foot.

As shown in the table 14, there are 10

classes of poles, based on top diameter and

length. The first 7 classes also specify miniTÂBLE Í3.-'Specifications for first-class piling (oak^

peeled) established by a Midwestern State

highway department

Length Diameter 6 feet from butt Diameter of tip

(feet) Minimum Maximum Minimum

Inches Inches Inches

Less than

30 12 18 10

3 0 to 40 12 18 9

More than

40 12 18 8

mum circumference of the butt. Freedom

from short crooks, excessive sweep, decay,

cracks, and bird holes are required in addition to size. Shakes and checks are also considered as defects if located at the top or

above the butt of the pole, and prior to treatment the surface must be free from bark and

projecting limb stubs.

Table 14 gives the classes of southern pine

poles and their minimum dimensions, as specified by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company.

TABLE Í4.—Specifications for southern pine telephone poles

MINIMUM TOP DIMETER

Length

of pole

Class

1

Class

2

Class

3

Class

4

Class

5

Class

6

Class

7

Class

B

Class

9

Class

10

Any length. Inches

8.6

Inches

8.0

Inches

7.3

Inches

6.7

Inches

6.0

Inches

5.4

Inches

4.8

Inches

5.7

Inches

4.8

Inches

3.8

MINIMUM CIRCUMFERENCE AT 6 FEET FROM BUTT

16 feet 21.5 19.5 18.0

18 feet 26.5 24.5 22.5 21.0 19.0

20 feet 31.5 29.5 27.5 25.5 23.5 22.0 20.0 4J

22 feet ..... 33.0 31.0 29.0 26.5 24.5 23.0 21.0 i

25 feet ..... 34.5 32.5 30.0 28.0 26.0 24.0 22.0 4J ^ u

30 feet

35 feet

37.5

40.0

35.0

37.5

32.5

35.0

30.0

32.0

28.0

30.0

26.0

27.5

24.0

25.5

4J 4-) <D

40 feet 42.0 39.5 37.0 34.0 31.5 29.0 27.0

o 4)

¿ Ï

45 feet 44.0 41.5 38.5 36.0 33.0 30.5 28.5

50 feet 46.0

47.5

49.5

51.0

52.5

54.0

43.0

44.5

46.0

47.5

49,0

50.5

40.0

41.5

43.0

44.5

46.0

47.0

37.5

39.0

40.0

41.5

42.5

44.0

34.5

36.0

37.0

38.5

39.5

32.0

33.5

34.5

29.5 IS ^

55 feet

60 feet

65 feet

70 feet

75 feet .....

^To reduce to diameter breast height of

standing trees, divide circumferences

by 2.76. Thus a tree 50 feet above the

stump to an 8-inch top diameter, must

be 15.6 inches d.b.h. (43.0 ^ 2.76) to

produce a Class 2 pole. On the same

80 feet

85 feet

90 feet

55.0

56.5

57.5

51.5

53.0

54.0

48.5

49.5

50.5

45.0

basis, if a tree of that height iá in

excess of 16.6 inches d.b.h., it will

produce a Class 1 pole, etc.
WOODLAND PRODUCTS 47

FUELWOOD

Although any reasonably well seasoned

species may be used as fuel, its value for

heating purposes is roughly equivalent to its

dry weight, i.e., specific gravity (see Appendix H. ) This relationship is shown by figures supplied by the United States Forest

Products Laboratory, giving the weight per

cord (80 cu. ft. of solid wood) of air-dried

wood (20 percent moisture content) and the

gross fuel value in b. t. u. 's.

TABLE IS,-'height of air-dried fuelwood and gross fuel

value (i/.'5. Forest Products Laboratory)

Total heat value

Species Weight per cord

per cord

Pounds B.t,u.

Shagbark hickory 4,240 24,600,000

White oak 3.920 22,700,000

Beech 3,760 21,800,000

Sugar maple 3,680 21,300,000

Bed oak 3,680 21,300,000

Birch 3,680 21,300.000

Ash 3,440 20.000,000

Red maple 3,200 18,600,000

Anerican elm 2,960 17,200,000

Shortleaf pine 2.900 18,500,000

Bed pine 2,880 18.200,000

^hite pine 2,080 13.300,000

Aspen 2,160 12,500,000

For comparison with other fuel, the range

of values for bituminous coal produced in

Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Ohio

is between 18,000,000 and 30,000,000

B t.u. 's per ton, and an average grade of

fuel oil furnishes 120, 000 B.t.u. 's per gallon. Hence, roughly speaking, a cord of good

dry wood is about equal to one ton of coal or

200 gallons of fuel oil, assuming comparable

efficiency of the heating units.

A ton of hardwood burns to about 60 pounds

of ash; hard coal, 200 to 300 pounds; and soft

coal, up to 1, 000 pounds of ash per ton.

The above values are for seasoned wood --

wood cut for 6 to 12 months and properly

dried. Green wood of some species like aspen

and elm may burn with only 60 percent of this

heating value, depending on the amount of natural moisture in the cells. However, the fact

that the heartwood of other ^species like white

ash, beech, pignut and shagbark hickory,

black locust, Osage-orange, red pine, and

tamarack is naturally dry, such species will

improve but little on drying.

There are no standard grades or specifications for fuel or cord wood. It is sold by the

cord or rick. State laws in Illinois, Ohio,

and Minnesota define a cord as 128 cubic feet,

and even though local usage is commonly indefinite, the courts, in absence of statutes,

have upheld the dictionary definition which

says a cord is a pile of wood 4' x 4^ x 8', or

128 cubic feet. A rick of wood (sometimes

called a short or face cord) generally designates fuel or fireplace lengths, 4 feet high

and 8 feet long.
48 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

MAPLE SIRUP

Where hard or sugar maple grows in considerable quantities there is a possibility of

adding to the farm income by utilizing the sap

of this tree. (Soft maple also yields satisfactory sap, but it does not contain a large

enough percentage of sugar to make a worthwhile operation. ) Although the evaporating

and other equipment necessary for such an

enterprise represents an additional investment over the usual farna equipment, a study

of 130 maple groves in Maryland showed annual net profits per acre as good or better

than from other farming operations. Unless

sap can be pooled and evaporated at a central

point, an operation involving less than 500

buckets probably would not be economical as

a commercial enterprise.

Best yields of sap come from ungrazed

woodland. The probable reason for this increase is that the flow of sap is dependent on

availablemoisture in the soil. When the

ground is frozen, as it commonly is in grazed

woods, the soil raoisture is bound up. In protected woods, however, good leaf litter and

persistent snow depths keep the ground from

freezing. In general, production depends to a

large extent on climatic conditions. Cool

nights, warm days in the spring, moist but

well-drained sites and a heavy snowfall during the months preceding the tapping are conducive to highest yields.

It is not economical to tap trees less than

10 inches in diameter. Large, full-crowned,

thrifty trees are the best producers. The

number of buckets hung per tree varies.

Some experienced operators in Ohio use one

bucket for trees under 15 inches and add a

bucket for every 5-inch increase in diameter

with a maximum of four. In other localities

two buckets are the maximum per tree, and

then only on those 24 inches or nnore.

Trees should be tapped on all sides. The

difference of sap flow in favor of the south

side of the tree is too small to warrant a

concentration of holes on that side.

From 30 to 60 gallons of sap will evaporate

to 1 gallon of sirup, the average being around

50. Sirup production is estimated on the basis

of number of buckets hung during the season.

The average figure is between 3 and 5 buckets per gallon. In poor seasons and in grazed

woods, however, this may run higher.

The product is sold mostly'as sirup. Some

sugar is manufactured, but it is generally

consumed locally. One gallon of sirup will

yield 8 pounds of sugar. Eleven pounds per

Standard U.S. gallon is the standard for the

four grades under which sirup usually is sold.

All except the lowest grade must be free from

any trace of fermentation, sappiness, or

cloudiness. The lighter the color, the higher

the grade.

Table 16 itemizes the income and expenses

of twelve farm woodlands whose principal

production was maple sirup. The records

cover 1 to 4 years of operation, 1942-45, in

Ohio, northern Indiana, and southern Michigan. They reflect above-average sirup prices,

but to offset this, expenses also were higher.

Furthermore, the 1945 season was one of the

poorest in volume production that operators

ever experienced.
WOODLAND PRODUCTS

TABLE 16.--Average amual income and expense from maple sirup operations

49

Item

home-use income:

Posts

Lumber

Fuel

Other

Total

Income from sales:

Posts

Logs and lumber

Fuel and other

Maple sirup

Total

Stumpage sales

Total gross income

Noncash expense:

Labor

Team

Equipment operation

Equipnent depreciation

Total

Cash expense

Labor

Tools and equipment

Processing

Materials

Total

Taxes

Interest at 3%

Total expense

Net income

Total farm area

Area in managed woods

Capital value, woodland

and equipment

Net return per acre

o£ woods

Rate of interest earned

on capital

Return per hour of labor

hours of labor

...acres.

..,acres.

...dollars.

...dollars.

...percent.

..,.number.

...dollars.

Average of four

high-income woods

Do I lars

12.50

8.30

50.37

21.22

92. 39

11.75

25.00

1,07L16

1,107.91

1,200.30

174.06

61.56

29.00

264.62

10.12

19.69

51.64

81.45

11.27

118.50

475.84

724.46

136

30

3,950.00

24.15

21.3

(368)

2.47

Average of four

medium-income woods

Dollars

15.00

129.37

7.50

151.87

13.77

77.48

788.25

60.69

1,000.81

183.06

53.62

6.26

26.25

269.19

28.44

16.12

38.99

83.55

40.94

141.75

535.43

465,38

119

43

4,725,00

10.82

12,9

(423)

L45

Average of four

low-income woods

Dollars

0.78

40.22

160.22

19.95

22L 17

90.82

120.40

281.67

492.89

289.82

1,003.88

48.69

18.43

22.35

25.65

115.12

97.25

2.76

9.19

16.32

125. 52

16.25

56.80

513.69

490.19

657

101

8,560

4.85

8.7

(389)

0.89
50 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

CHRISTMAS TREES

Christmas trees can be raised and marketed at a good profit on most any farm.

Many northern and eastern woodland owners

raise them with little, if any, care, and at

intervals simply sell the thinnings from, plantations or natural woodland. The highest returns, however, are made by men who are

accessible to metropolitan centers, where

they sell on the retail market. They plant

and harvest their trees on regular rotations

of from 6 to 10 years. (See page 21 for recommendations on spacing and arrangement of

plantations. )

Any well-shaped evergreen produces an

acceptable Christmas tree. The spruces,

Douglas-fir, and Scotch and Norway pines

are the species most commonly planted,

although locally, red cedar and most of the

other pines are marketable. Balsam fir is an

ideal tree, but'except on cool sites in the

North and East its establishment is difficult.

The shape and not the species is the nriost

important factor in marketing. Some farmers

develop symnnetrical-shaped trees by pruning

and have found that the increased value of a

well-shaped tree gives them good returns on

the extra labor involved. Spruce should be

pruned in late summer; pine as soon as the

new needles have reached their full size, or

about "June 1 to July 15, depending on latitude

This stimulates the development of a large

number of new buds, which in turn insures

compact as well as symmetrical growth.

(See page 14. )

Trees are acceptable from 2 to 10 feet in

height, the most popular being those about

6 to 8 feet high. Symmetrical specimens,

with full foliage from the lower branches to

the top, are desirable. Conversely, trees

with long, terminal shoots and few needles

and trees that have been exposed to hot sun

with the resulting dying back of branches are

not so readily marketable.

CHARCOAL

Under ordinary demands conamercial charcoal kilns produce sufficient quantities for a

market with which the average farmer is unable to compete. With a good market, however, and a knowledge of its manufacture,

farmers can get a fair labor return from the

reduction of low-grade wood. Charcoal is the

carbon residue of partially burned wood. During the making, enough air is admitted to

burn the gasse s driven off by the burning

wood, but not enough to consume the residue.

Because of the necessity of controlling the

burning with loose soil, charcoal cannot be

made in the Northern States during the winter

when the ground is frozen.

Any sound wood will make acceptable charcoal. Heavy, hard species yield greater

amounts per cord and produce stronger coal.

Small trees taken fronn improvement cuttings,

limb wood, or any odd-sized pieces from 2 to

4 feet long and up to 6 inches in dianaeter may

be used. The only essential requirements are

that the billets used are uniformly dry and

not rotten.

The larger and harder the resulting pieces,

the better. Charcoal which does not hold together with handling is not in demand. One

cord of hardwood will yield about 40 bushels

of charcoal; 1 bushel weighs about 18 to 20

pounds.
WOODLAND PRODUCTS

STAVE BOLTS (GOOPERAGE)

51

Stave bolts are utilized in two ways: as

slack cooperage or as tight cooperage, depending on whether the resulting barrel is to

be used for dry material or liquids. Mills

producing staves for tight cooperage are active wherever there is a sufficient quantity

of large, sound, straight-grained oak. The

discussion that follows applies only to tight

cooperage, because this product yields the

highest returns to the farm.-woodland owner.

The white oaks are used, although for some

types of barrels the other oaks, white ash,

and even red gum and elm are acceptable.

Sections of varying lengths, but usually between 30 to 39 inches depending on the kind of

barrel, are cut from strictly sound, straightgrained trunks of trees 18 inches or more

d.b.h. The sections are then split radially to

the size acceptable to the local market, 6

inches being the smallest size generally taken.

The resulting bolts are measured by the

chord-foot.

Bark

Sapwood

Barrel staves

are cut thus iMeasured on the

¡chord, either from

bark to bark or

sapwood to sapwood,

depending on buyer

How barrel staves are cut

Inasmiuch as the splitting of stave bolts requires considerable skill to obtain most efficient utilization, farmers should not be encouraged to work up trees unless they are

thoroughly famtiliar with the operation. If the

disposal of trees as stumpage is contemplated, however, the owner should carefully

compare the values offered as staves against

prices obtainable for veneer or high-grade

sawlogs, keeping in mind that there is an

enormous amount of waste in trees (50 to 70

percent) if only stave bolts are taken.

PULPWOOD

Any wood intended for conversion into paper products is known as pulpwood. The manufacture of some plastics and rayon also

requires pulpwood. Farmers within reasonable shipping distance of pulp mills (paper

mills do not necessarily convert trees to

pulp) can take advantage of a market for

snnall-sized trees cut from thinnings and

small material from tops.

Pine, hemlock, spruce, balsam, aspen,

and cottonwood are the species most used,

although yellow poplar, basswood, maple,

gum, and most of the other hardwoods except

hickory, Osage-orange, black locust, and

black walnut also can be pulped. The kinds of

wood in demand by any pulp mill depend on the

reduction process in use by the particular

mill, and like any other product, the users*

specifications should be well known and

closely adhered to.

Pulpwood is sold by the cord and in the

Northern States most commonly is cut in 100-

inch lengths, but sometimes in 50- or 48-

inch lengths. A stack of 100-inch wood 4 feet

high and 4 feet wide is sold as a "cord. " In

the Southern States, wood is cut in 5-foot

lengths; hence a "cord" or unit contains 160

cubic feet. Pieces free from rot or charred

surfaces, with closely trimnned limbs, and

having minimum diameters sometimes as

low as 3 inches, are acceptable. Often buyers require that pieces be over 9 inches in

diameter by split; others accept diameters

as large as 20 inches.

Pulpwood is purchased as "rough" or

"peeled, " i. e. , with or without the bark.

Peeled wood can be economically produced

only during the peeling season which is normally the first 2 months of the growing season. Peeled wood contains about 15 percent

more solid material per cord than does rough

wood and should command a correspondingly

higher price. Most buyers of peeled wood

insist that all inner bark be removed completely.

OTHER PRODUCTS

Local industries demand many other forest

products which may be marketed under certain local specifications: Fence posts; bolts

for nandles, bowling pins, etc. ; mine tinabers;

Christmas greens; excelsior wood; edible

nuts; cabin loszs.
52 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

MARKETING

Unlike other products grown on the farm,

the market for wood in many farming communities is not always well established. Buyers

are often itinerant and take advantage of the

fact that the average farmer does not have

any accurate idea of the value of standing

timber. Furthermore, a farmer with but a

small amount of material is at a disadvantage

to find buyers who can regularly and efficiently process and handle the relatively few

trees he has to sell. In spite of apparent raarketing difficulties, however, the problem has

several possible solutions.

In the first place the farm itself is the best

outlet for wood products. Fuelwood, fence

posts, rough lumber, poles, and other farm

uses annually consume large quantities of

wood (table 17), In fact, honne consumption

each year on many of the farms in the more

highly developed agricultural areas exceeds

the annual wood production. Table 18 shows

the results of a survey naade in 1941-42 in a

typically agricultural county.

TABLE 17.--H'^ood products used annually on average farm

State Area of Fence Fuelwood Lumber

Average farm posts

Standard Board

Acres Number cords feet

Illinois 140 75 5 1,000

Indiana 130 75 9 900

IOffa 150 80 12 1,200

Michigan 125 60 12 850

Minnesota 155 110 15 1,000

Missouri 190 112 13 800

(except Cfearks)

Ohio 120 100 8 1,000

Wisconsin (western) 145 145 15 1,200

If there is a surplus to sell, the farmer is

not compelled to put his product on the market each year. If the price is not right, he

can leave his trees standing in the woods until it is; he can "store them on the stump. "

Except in emergencies, sound, immature,

well-formed trees should not be cut. Differing from livestock which may have to be sold

because of feed shortage, standing timber can

be carried without direct cost. Sound trees in

well-managed woods do not deteriorate, in

fact young, thrifty trees will treble in value

every 15 to 20 years. Many of the so-called

marketing problems are the result of attempts

to dispose of low-grade products, which in

turn are the result of mismanaged farm

woods. Selling fire-scarred, partly rotten,

and crooked trees is as difficult as an attempt

to market moldy grain, skim milk, or cull

livestock.

There is also a possibility of cooperative

marketing of forest products. Many other

farm crops are sold through a centralized

agency which represents the farmers themselves, thus eliminating the disadvantages of

attempting to move and process small lots of

material. Products from farm woods are well

adapted to such a form of processing and marketing, particularly through already existing

cooperatives.

TABLE 18. --Total annual wood used in Allamakee County,

Iowa, Í9¿ií-¿t2

[Population: 10402 on farms, 6,782 in towns]

Fence

posts

Fuelwood

ÏJimber

Where used Home

sawed

Imported

Coal

1,000 1,000

Number Cords Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Tons

Tcwns and v i1läge s ....... 3,605 538 10,100

(6)

Creameries (6) 145 270

Churches & rural

schools (115) 415 1,850

Farms (2,088) 302,760 22,970 1,044 640 3,550

Total 302,760 27,135 1,044 1,178 15,770

Many farmers lose income from their

woods by selling standing trees (stumpage)

instead of utilizing their labor and equipment

to further carry on the processing. This is

similar to selling standing hay or corn, in

that only a part of the value of the crop is recovered. The diagrann on page 54 shows

the approximate percentage of the total value

of rough lumber and ties represented at various stages of production. If rough lumber,

for examiple, is worth $60 per thousand board

feet, the farmer would receive only about 20

percent or $12 if he sold standing trees only.

If, however, he cut and hauled his timber to

the mill, he could expect about 60 percent or

$36 per thousand as a return on his labor and

equipment.
WOODLAND PRODUCTS 53

TABLE 19. —Harvesting and marketing hardwoods: Approximate time and expense factors

Operation^

Saw logs

per M bd.ft.

Mill Tally2

Cross ties

per average

sawed tie

FueIwood

per cord

4'x4'x8'

Fence posts

per 100, average

split and round

Shipping cost

per 1,000

pound carload lot

Logs

Lumber Fue Iwood

Cut - fall and buck:

10 - 12 inches d.b.h. .. ...man hours 6.0

14 - 20 inches d.b.h. . ....man hours 5.5

22 - 30 inches d.b.h. . man hours 5.0

Average. all sizes .... ...man hours 5.6

0.2

12

Skid and yard:

10 - 12 inches d.b.h man and team

hours

14 - 20 inches d.b.h man and team

hours

22 - 30 inches d.b.h man and team

hours

Average, all sizes man and team

hours

Load and unload:

Truck or wagon .man hours

Load:

Railroad cars .man hours

Haul 1-way loaded milé^:

W2 ton truck, graded dirt dollars

m ton truck, gravel dollars

IM ton' truck, surfaced ....dollars

Processing*:

Sawing dollars

Planing lumber dollars

Sheathing and siding manufacturers dollars

Flooring manufacturing

1,000 linear feet dollars

Freight^:

50 miles dollars

75 miles dollars

100 miles dollars

125 miles dollars

150 miles dollars

200 miles dollars

6.0

3.5

3.0

4.0

1.0

3.7

.35

.27

.18

6-9

3-5

6-8

12-15

.07

.07

.008

.006

.005

.15-.20

1.5

.18

.16

.15

2.0

1.0

.15

.12

.10

0.45

.55

.60

.70

.75

.80

1.20

1.60

1,90

2.20

2.30

2.70

0.45

.55

.60

.65

.70

.80

^ With good equipment and reasonably experienced operators.

^ Mill tally conforms approximately to the International rule for logs after deducting for rot, cracks, checks,

or other defects.

^ Assumes trucks with usual beds loaded to about double rated capacity, (see also Appendix I). Also assumes fair

hauling conditions from woods to public road. For example, if it is 10 miles to destination, the expense per M of

hauling a load of 800 bd. ft. of logs over a gravel road is about $2.16 (10 x .27 x .8).

A standard portable type sawmill, working efficiently, is capable of producing about 1,500 bd. ft. of lumber and

50 ties per hour of actual running time. The usual mill, running 8 hours per day will produce about 8 to 10 M bd.

ft. of lumber and 250 to 325 cross ties.

'^ Shipping weight varies with species and whether green or dry. See Appendix H for log, lumber, cord, and minimum

carload weights. Values shown are m.ileage rates which are higher than special commodity rates frequently in effect

between certain shipping points. Check locally.
54 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

TIMBER VALUES

FROM TREE TO PRODUCT

STUMPAGE ONLY

LPLUS!

20%

aim

PERCENT OF TOTAL

VALUE REPRESENTED

IN STUMPAGE AND AT

VARIOUS STAGES OF

PROCESSING.*

¡40%

I 45%

GÜTTÍNG. SK5D01NG,

ETC.

HANDLING, MARGIN.

RISK, ETC. TOTAL.

loo*^

* Stumpage ond various operating costs ar» extremely

vorioble. The above averages may or may not apply

to any individual operation.

Competition among buyers should be encouraged, and, if possible, timber should be

sold direct to the user instead of to agents.

This is one of the advantages offered by marketing through a cooperative. Timber should

not be cut until a market is located and an

agreement made as to its disposal. Finally,

the responsibility of the purchaser should be

investigated, and in transactions involving

sizable amounts, a written contract should be

drawn up to include the following items:

(a) Date of agreement, and names and addresses of the seller and buyer.

(b) Description of place where the timber

or product is located.

(c) Description of the product and approximate amount in terms of pieces,

board feet, cords, etc., giving the

log rule used, or otherwise specifically defining the unit of measurement.

(d) Amount to be paid per unit of product;

and tirae of such payment(s).

(e) Time when cutting or removal shall

start, and when to be completed.

(f) Other optional clauses such as: Penalties for infraction of agreement,

waiving or posting a bond, protection

of young trees, limits of utilization,

disposal of slash, ingress and egress.

(g) Signatures of each party, and witnesses

and seals if necessary.
WOODLAND PRODUCTS

HARVESTING

55

The older generations of American farmers needed no instructions regarding the

cutting of tinnber. The era of clearing up

timberland for farming has passed, however, and except for cutting an occasional

tree and clearing brush, many of the present-day farmers have not had the opportunity to exercise the skill possessed by their

forefathers. Harvesting tinnber involves less

skill than many other farra operations, and

with good tools and equipment any ablebodied farmer and an extra man can do a

creditable job.

'c¡^-Auxiliary ¡landle can be moved

to end for ¿man saw

Frame or bow saws (A) and one-man cross-cut saws

(B) are useful in small timber.

The essential tools for harvesting are

simple and inexpensive., Any equipment

needed already is available on the farm or

can be purchased or home-made at snnall

expense. Axes, saws, wedges, and sledges

are all that are required for felling trees

and cutting into lengths. Axes should be

about 3 1/2 pounds in weight with 30 to 32

inch handles. Cross-cut saws for logs

should be less than 5 feet in length. Heavier

axes or longer saws should be avoided. Medium weight axes with fairly short handles

can be directed with greater accuracy than

large axes, whereas long saws require unnecessary work in filing and setting.

Power-chain saws are rapidly finding

their place in farm-woods work. Although

they make the harvesting job nauch easier,

their high initial cost and subsequent maintenance make them uneconomical except in

large operations.

All logs should be cut as long as possible,

up to 16 feet. Defects in the tree, however,

frequently modify this general rule, and the

following figure illustrates a few common

principles to be observed in getting the

highest values from log-making.

Cut af A.not B Use AC for Fuel or posb

Cut at A and B, not C. Use ends fer fuel.

One ¿ood lo^ is better than two culls.

Eliminating defects in logs

After logs are cut, a simple type of drag

or sled will lessen the power required to

pull the logs to a loading point. Many modifications of the three types shown in the

following figure can be made at home. Type

C is especially good behind tractors. A flat

piece of boiler plate is flared up in front to

form a pan, which is chained to the draw

bar. When one or more logs are secured to

the same source of pow^er, the forward

m.ovement of the tractor draws the logs on

the pan.

^ Manuals of instruction for filing cross-cut

saws are available from any saw manufacturer. Skidding devices for moving logs in the woods
56 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

Log chains are useful for many different woods

operations. They should be about 14 feet long and

have links 3/8 inch thick, A grab hook on one end

and an open hook with swivel on the other are desirable features of such chains.

The cross -haul is the almost universally enaployed method of loading logs on trucks or

wagons. One end of a chain or cable is attached

to the underside of the vehicle to be loaded. The

other end goes under the log and over the vehicle

to a team or tractor. Two poles, large enough

to bear the weight of the log and notched on the

ends to fit the edge of the truck bed, are placed

as shown in the figure below.

The cross-haul, asimple method of loading logs or vehicles

All harvesting should be done with an eye toward gpod silviculture. The imnnature, fullcrowned trees of desirable species should be

undamaged by the cutting operations. Whenever

a tree is cut, the questions asked on page 11

should be answered. Especially important are

the fast-growing trees-the interest-bearing trees.

The addition of a few inches in diameter results

in surprisingly large increases in board feet.

For example, the diagram below represents a

section through the stem, at breast height, of a

22-inch tree having 40 feet of merchantable

height, V/hen cut in 1949 it contained 344 board

feet, Doyle rule (Appendix J).

The tree had been growing at the rate of 6

rings per inch; hence it was adding an inch in

diameter every 3 years. Thus, 12 years before,

in 1937, the diameter was only 18 inches, and

it had an assumied 32 feet of merchantable height.

By referring to the volume tables. Appendix J,

such a tree would scale about 164 board feet,

Doyle rule. In 12 years, therefore, the volume

more than doubled, to say nothing about increase

in quality. Stated in another way, the tree was

producing about 15 board feet of high quality

lumber annually.

This principle can be readily demonstrated to

farmers by counting rings on stumps or logs.

On small trees, growth can be projected into

the future to prove that cutting small thrifty tim=

ber for sawlogs is poor business. Obviously,

good growth is a prerequisite to the demonstration. If the tree in the above diagram had grown

20 rings per inch ( 1.0 years per inch of diameter),,

the 4-inch increase would have taken 40 years.

Good business, therefore, would have dictated

its prior removal in order to make room for a

thrifty tree.

Because forest products are bulky and their

movement puts a big strain on the ordinary farm

equipment, roads should be planned so the products move downhill. Farmers should remember

that commercial loggers go many miles out of

their way to avoid steep grades.

Harvesting is best done in the late fall, winter,

and early spring. Teams, tractors, and farm

labor are not so busy; the weather is better

suited to chopping, sawing, felling, and skidding

timber; the timber itself saws and splits and

seasons better. When the product is to be peeled

as in piling and pulpwood, spring is the most

satisfactory season for harvesting. Trees cut in

summer are subject to damage by stain and insects; hence, summer-cut logs should be disposed of immediately.

Under most conditions no provisions are necessary for the disposal of limbs and tree tops left

after harvesting. In the East and North most

hardwood slash decomposes rather rapidly. Any

tops left in southern woodland are quickly disposed of by fungi and termites. Coniferous slash

in northern woodland, however, may present a

fire hazard, and along highways or railroads,

piling and burning of tops is good fire insurance.
WOODLAND PRODUCTS 57

REFERENCES

Managing the Small Forest, USDA Farmers' Elulletin 1989.

How Lumber Is Graded, USDA Department Circular 64.

Growing Walnut For Profit, American Walnut Manufac>

turer's Association, Chicago.

How to Grade Hardwood Sawlogs, Purdue Agricultural

Extension Bulletin 346.

Preduction of Maple Sirup and Sugar, USDA Farmers'

Bulletin 1366.

Production of Maple Sirup in Michigan, Michigan State

College ^ricultural Experiment Station Circular

Bulletin'213. 1949.

Woodlands in the Farm Plan, USDA Farmers' Bulletin

1940.

Logging Farm Forest Crops in the Northeast, USDA

Farmers' Bulletin 2008.

Cooperative Management and Marketing for the Woodland

Owner, USDA Farmers' Bulletin 1927.

Equipment and Methods for Harvesting Farm Woodland

Products, USDA Farmers' Bulletin 1907.

Operating Sma11 SawmiI Is in Wartime, USDA Misce1lane ous

Publication 509.

Marketing Cross ties and Piling in Southern Indiana,

Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station Bui letin 395-

Marketing Timber in the North Central Area of Indiana,

Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 477.

Marketing Illinois Forest Products, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Circular 361.

Use of Home'Grown Timber on the Farm, Michigan State

College Extension Folder F-30.

Market for Forest Products Grown on Minnesota Farms,

Minnesota University Agricultural Extension Pamphlet

69.

Marketing Missouri Farm Timber Crops, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 460.

Ohio Farm Woods a Neglected Crop, Ohio State University

Agricultural Extension Bulletin 142.

Timber Marketing in Eastern Ohio, Ohio Agricultural

Experiment Station Bulletin 666.

Woodland Improvement, Wisconsin College of Agriculture

Extension Circular 305.

Marketing and Harvesting Farm Timber, Wisconsin College

of Agriculture Agricultural Extension Service.

[Mimeographed. ]

Trees, USDA Yearbook of Agriculture 1949, pages 173-176,

237-254.

WOOD USE ON THE FARM

The operation o£ a farm is less expensive

and much more convenient because of the

availability of wood products. Many farmers

in the Northern States burn 25 to 30 cords of

wood per year, thus saving a considerable

fuel bill. A dairy or livestock farm may use

at the rate of 100 or more fence posts and

1, 000 board feet of lumber annually. As a

class, farmers are the country's biggest

users of wood products. (See p. 52)

The farm woodland should be large enough

and good enough to supply home needs. If the

operator has to pay retail prices for his wood

products, his costs include expensive transportation charges plus a wholesale and retail

profit-taking. In effect, he is hiring men to

cut and manufacture the tinnber and still

other men to ,market and transport it to

him. All of these hired hands demand a higher wage than the labor he can employ on the

farm.

In order to efficiently use honae-grown

timber, however, the farmer should have a

knowledge of its adaptability in construction

and its durability and information on methods

of wood preservation to extend its usefulness.

LUMBER FOR CONSTRUCTION

The farm woodland containing pine or

other conifers can supply the owner with

lumber which is ideally suited for construction purposes. Only Douglas-fir, the leading

commercial timber of the West Coast, can

equal pine in adaptability. Ease of manufacture, seasoning, and working, and strength

in proportion to weight and ability to take

paint and preservative treatment are factors

that favor the softwoods over the hardwoods

for general construction.

The terms "softwoods" and "hardwoods"

describe products fronn coniferous and broadleaf trees respectively. This convenient separation is not literally accurate because some

southern pines and tamarack (softwoods) actually may be harder than aspen or yellow

poplar which are called hardwoods.

In spite of the advantages of softwoods,

locally processed hardwoods are available to

farmers at considerably less cost and are as

well adapted to many farm uses as the usually more expensive coniferous species. In

fact, white oak for sills and any of the oaks,

59
60 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

hard maple, birch, or beech for flooring are

superior to the softwoods. The drawing on

page 59 shows the relative adapatibility of

some of the more cominon hardwoods to farm

building construction, and suggests where

some of the so-called less desirable species

can be used for rough construction.

Home-grown hardwood lumber in framings

siding, and roofing of buildings does not

exhaust the possible uses of wood on the farm.

There are many other everyday needs such as

bridge planks, stalls and stanchions, wagon

boxes and tongues, bolsters, eveners, and

dozens ofminor uses. Every farmer knows

the convenience of having a stock of seasoned

material on hand for the repairs of buildings

and equipment in emergencies. When there is

hay to get in or grain to be threshed, there

usually is not time to go to town to buy material for repairs.

Because of the commercial practice of

specifying that lumber be cut from ''sound,

live trees, " the idea has developed that

material cut from dead trees is unusable.

The fact that the tree was dead when cut is

immaterial; the important consideration is

whether the wood is free from decay or other

defects which render it unsuitable for use.

Sound lumber cut from trees killed by insects,

disease, fire, or ^vindfall is as good for most

structural purposes as that cut from live trees,

provided it is not decayed or badly checked.

If lunaber cannot be used within a few days

after it is sawed from the log, it must be

properly piled to prevent warping and twisting. Much locally-sawed lumber is unfit for

use because of improper handling. Hardwoods

are especially subject to warping, and

because the sawyer or the consumer has piled

it iraproperly, home-produced hardwood

lumber has not had a good reputation.

The principles illustrated in the accompanying figure will eliminate nnany of the

mistakes that are nnade in curing green

lumber. Good piling takes more care and

time, but it more than pays its way in

quality of product. Future time-saving

and convenience also can be assured by

making separate piles for different species

and varying lengths, because a board

from the top of a pile is much easier obtained than one from the bottom.

The amount of time required to thoroughly

air-dry lumber varies by species, thickness,

and local climatic conditions. When lumber

has lost all but 15 to 20 percent of its

Inch boards

flat with about 2'

space between

boards in each

course,——~

Slobs or low grade lumber on top of

pile to form roof and add weight to

prevent top boards curling.

At least a 4" space

between lumber and

roof for a»r

circulotion.

2 X 4's placed at

bottom of pile

on edge to

overcome bowing.

Soiid|Well supported

foundation to keep

lumber well off ground

Stickers l" thick and 3" wide placed

vertically over foundation piers which'

should be 3 ft, or not over 4 ft. apart.
WOOD USE ON THE FARM 61

moisture, it is said to be "air-dry" and is a

stable product under average conditions in

the eastern United States. The tinae required

to air dry 1 inch boards (properly piled) is as

follows :

Days

White oaks 240-300

Red oaks, cypress......... 180-240

Birch, beech, inaple, cherry

hickory 150-200

Red gum, black walnut 100-160

Ash, elm, chestnut... 80-120

White pine, hemlock 60-120

Yellow poplar, cottpnwood,

southern pine 40- 80

Basswood 30- 60

The best commercially kiln-dried lumber

has but 6 to 8 percent moisture, but after the

lumber has been nailed in place for a short

period, there is no difference in the strength

as a result of the method of drying.

Piling and seasoning are unnecessary for

many purposes of rough construcition, provided the lumber can be used as soon as it is

sawed and is not permitted to get out of shape.

Hog houses, sheds, cribs, and other outbuildings are conamonly put up with green

lumber. The vertical raembers of barns also

can be used green, and there is no great objection to unseasoned joists, provided they

are given support and bracing until they are

dry. Seasoning is essential, however, for

any construction that requires a tight match,

such as flooring and siding.

One of the biggest advantages of using hardwoods before seasoning is the ease of nailing.

Dense heavy lumber is difficult to nail satisfactorily when dry, not only because the nails

are harder to drive, but also because the

lumber has a tendency to split and to warp.

Nailing difficulties in hardwoods can be minimized by several methods: Using blunt-pointed

nails, placing warped boards so as to obtain

maximum bearing surface at the point of nailing, using a wedge or shim to furnish a

temporary bracing when nailing at the point

of warp, and waxing nail points so they will

drive easier.

After lumber has been seasoned there is no

difference between the strength of the sapwood

and the heartwood. In fact, the strength of all

wood is roughly in proportion to its specific

gravity. The width of the growth rings also

furnish an indication of strength. In a given

species of hardwoods, the wider the annual

rings, the greater the strength. But the reverse is true in softwoods; here wide rings

indicate weakness and the strongest timbers

are those from slow-growing trees.

Although farm buildings usually are constructed by following detailed plans and specifications, frequently it is desirable to estimate the lumber requirements of different

types of buildings. Table 20 adapted from

material furnished by the Missouri Extension

Service, will be found helpful in obtaining the

approximate number of board feet required to

construct specific kinds of farm buildings.

TABLE 20.--Conversion factors to be multiplied by cubic

contents to obtain board feet

ÜDnstruetion Finished

Type of building lumber lumber

Two-story general-purpose barn

(55,000 cu. ft.) 0.41 0.063

Hay and feeding barn (64,000

cu. ft.) .39 .034

Two-story dairy barn (58,000

cu. ft. ) .49 .048

Sheds -- sheep, machine, cattle

(10,000 cu. ft.) .45 .026

i)ouble corn crib (2,000 bu. --

11,000 cu. ft.) .55 .016

Granary (2,000 bu. -- 3,000

cu. ft. ) .90 .380

Garage (1 car -- 2,200 cu. ft.) .46 .720

Milk house (2 room -- 1,500

cu. ft.) .61 1.03

^ For the 3 barns: For every 10 percent increase in

cubic contents, decrease lumber by 2 percent and vice

versa. For the other types: For every 10 percent increase in cubic contents, decrease lumber by 4 percent

and vice versa.

An example of the practical application of

this table would be the case of a farmer who

wanted to know if he had enough standing tinaber to build a two-story general purpose

barn, 34 by 60 feet, and l6 feet to the eaves.

Thus, the cubic contents of such a barn are

about 50, 000 cubic fept, including the gambrel

roof. Then.

50, 000 x . 41 = 20, 500 bd. ft. of construction

lumber, and 50, 000 x . 063 = 3, 150 bd. ft. of

finished lumber, or a total of 23, 650 bd. ft.

However, this barn has 10 percent less cubag

than the one to which the converting factor

applies; hence, it is necessary to add 2

percent of the indicated total, making a total

in excess of 24,000 board feet. The prospective builder then could answer his question

by estimating the board foot contents of his

standing tiinber (page 65), and comparing

against his needs.
62 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

DURABILITY OF WOOD

Decay in wood is caused by fungi, which,

feed upon cellulose or lignin and gradually

succeed in breaking down the wood structure.

Feur conditions are necessary for fungus

growth: Air, warmth, moisture and the food

supply which all species of wood furnish to a

greater or lesser degree. Wood, therefore,

will not decay if kept uniformly dry or continuously cold or submerged in a liquid. Under

ordinary conditions of use there is always

sufficient air, and during most of the year

sufficient heat; hence, moisture is the greatest influence on fungus action.

The sapwood, of all kinds of timber, has

low resistance to decay. The durability of

heartwood is extremely variable, depending

on the species, density (weight), temperature, available moisture, and the kind of

fungus. With all these variables affecting

decay it will be recognized that the comparison given in the table is relative. In fact,

variations within the same species are so

great that the groupings overlap, hence, the

necessity of placing some kinds of wood in

two groups.

Comparative durability of heartwood under conditions favoring decay (alphabetical -- not in order of durability):

Group I Group II Group III

(very durable) (intermediate) (nondurable)

Catalpa

Cedars

Chestnut

Cypress

Locust, black

^lul berry

Osage-orange

Redwood

Walnut, black

Group I or II

Douglas-fir (dense)

Locust, honey

Oak, white and bur

Pine, southern (dense)

Elm, red Aspen

Douglas-fir Basswood

Larch Cottonwood

Pine, white Willow

Pine, southern

Red gum

Group II or III

Ash Maple

Birch Oak, red and black

Elm, white Yellow poplar

Hickory Spruce

Sycamore

ved in maintaining fences. From experience

farm operators generally are familiar with

the wide range of decay resistance in the

various kinds of wood. The effects of seasoning, time of cutting, and peeling posts on durability are not so well known. Here are some

comparative figures on the durability of

untreated fence posts.

Comparative durability of

Fears

Osage-orange 30

Black locust 25

Red cedar — 20

N. white cedar 15

Catalpa — 15

Mulberry 15

Chestnut-- 15

Bur oak --' 15

White oak 12

Walnut - —--. 10

Sassafras— 10

Tamarack-- 10

untreated fence posts:

Cherry

Ash-- --

Red elm

Red and black oak

Willow

Aspen and cottonwood

Jack and Scotch pine-—

Red pine

Shortleaf pine

ILL ckory^

Sugar maple

Birch --

Years

10

7

7

6

5

4

4

4

4

4

3

3

The decay resistance of posts is of special

interest to farmers because of the labor involContrary to the popular belief, peeled unseasoned fence posts placed in the ground as

soon as cut are as durable as seasoned posts.

This is understandable from the fact that the

amount of moisture eventually contained in the

post will depend on the amount in the ground.

A seasoned post will absorb ground moisture

and a green post will give off moisture. Within a few months both posts will contain the

same amount, regardless of their original

condition.

Peeling posts is desirable with the less

durable species. The bark allows raoisture

to collect, thus creating conditions favorable

to decay. The amount of moisture in freshly

cut heartwood does not vary appreciably by

seasons. Nevertheless, it is preferable to

cut posts and other round nnaterial in the fall

and winter rather than in late spring and

summer; there is less checking and less

fungus and insect activity during cool weather.

Although there is no scientific evidence

showing that rate of growth has a significant

bearing on resistance to decay, numierous

observations indicate that posts from fast

growing trees with wide annual rings are less

decay-resistant than posts from slower growing trees.
WOOD USE ON THE FARM

WOOD PRESERVATION

63

The rate of decay in wood can be greatly

reduced by impregnating the cells with a preservative. In principle, the preservative oil

or salt simply poisons the food supply of the

fungus which would cause the wood to decay.

The strength of the wood is not affected by the

treatment.

There are many kinds of preservative oils

and salts, and as many methods of getting

them into the wood cells. Commercial treating plants load railroad ties, piling, or other

timbers on special trucks, run them into

large tanks, and force the preservative into

the tanks under pressure. Regardless of the

preservative used, or the many variations of

this process, wood so handled is known as

"pressure treated. "

Less elaborate methods, such as those

outlined below, are the only ones that find

application on farms, even though the depth

to which the preservative will penetrate with

nonpressure methods is not so great as with

pressure treatments. In considering the

desirability of any home treatment, however,

first recognition must be given to the degree

which various species of trees will absorb the

preservative.

The heartwood of most species, except the

pines, is relatively impenetrable by nonpressure methods. The degree of penetration,

therefore, depends on the amount of sapwood

and the rate at which it will absorb the preservative. An attempt to honle-treat the

species having a poor rate of sapwood penetration would meet with questionable success.

Relative penetration of preservatives, sapwood only:

Good Moderate Poor

Beech Aspen Ash

Elm, red Birch Basswood

Red gum Black gum Balsam fir

Red oaks Cherry Butternut

Pines Cottonwood Green ash

Sycamore Elm, white Hemlock

Tupelo gum Hackberry Hard maple

Hickory Yellow poplar

Soft maple Spruce

White oaks Tamarack

Willow

Hot and cold bath. The material to be treated is heated in coal-tar creosote in an open

tank to temperatures ranging from 180 to

220° F. for 2 hours or more, depending on

species. The heating causes some of the

air and moisture in the wood cells to be

driven off, but in itself does not give the

desired penetration of preservative.

The wood is then removed and placed

into another tank containing cold creosote,

although the word "cold" is used only in a

relative sense. Actually, the temperature

should be about 800 to 100 OF. , or high

enough to result in thinning the oil. This

cooling process permiits the preservative

to fill the wood cells from which air and

moisture have been eliminated. The wood

should be left in the cool bath about the

same length of time as in the hot. Equal

parts of fuel oil and creosote can be used in

the cold bath for economy. Where only a

small amount of wood is to be treated, the

process can be done in one tank. The posts

are left in the tank overnight and pernnitted

to cool gradually. The fire can be rekindled

the following day, a new batch-treated, and

again allowed to cool.

Wood treated by this process must be

entirely free of bark, which means that

with posts, peeling, to be economical, must

be done on freshly cut material in May or

early June. Also, penetration will be deeper

and more complete if the wood is thoroughly

seasoned. Assuming good penetration,, three

round posts, butt-treated only, will absorb

about one gallon of creosote.

A relatively new preservative, pentachlorophenol, promises to be a good substitute for

creosote. It is a crystalline organic compound used in about 5 percent solution with

petroleum oils, like kerosene or fuel oil.

It is available in solution under various trade

names. Penetration is equal to creosote; in

fact, cold soaking for 48 to 72 hours appears

to give a satisfactory degree of absorption for species listed under "good" in the

table above.

The osmose process compares favorably

with other nonpressure nnethods, according

to tests with the southern pines. Sodiunm

fluoride and sodium or potassium carbonate are the basic ingredients which are

applied to green and freshly cut material

in the form of a thin paste. The wood is

then closely piled and covered with watertight paper, in which state it is left for 2

weeks to 3 months, depending on the

thickness of the wood. During that period

the salts in the paste gradually diffuse with

the water in the wood cells by osmosis.

The preservative has been used connmiercially in the United States since 1930,

and is .sold under proprietory names by at

least two companies. Its desirable features

are easy application with no special equipment, no fire hazard, and the treated wood

is left odorless, paintable, and clean.

Tire-tube method. This method is adapted

primarily for fence posts or other round
64 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

material which can be treated green with the

bark intact. A water-soluble preservative

such as zinc chloride is used at the rate of

about 1 pound of dry salt per post. The principle involves the replaceraent of the living

sap in the tree by the salt solution; later

evaporation through seasoning leaves the

salt deposited in the wood cells. The expected life of species such as aspen, birch, or

pine can be extended by 10 to 15 years. The

details of the method are described in a

leaflet, Tire-tube Method of Fence Post

Treatnaent, Forest Products Laboratory,

Madison, Wis.

Where water-soluble preservatives are

used, the steeping process is probably as

effective as any and is generally simpler.

Seasoned material is submerged and soaked, with or without heating, in the preservative solution for about 1 week. See Preservation of Timber by the Steeping Process,

Forest Products Laboratory, Madison,

Wisconsin.

REFERENCES

Selection of Lumber for Farm and Home Building, USí»Á

Farmers' Bulletin 1756.

Selecting, Seasoning, and Using Home-Grown Lumber, Wisconsin College of Agriculture Extension Service

Special Circular, [Mimeographed.J

Piling and Seasoning Iowa Native Limber, Iowa State

College Extension Service.

Using Home-Grown Ti^^^r for Farm Buildings, Minnesota

University Agricultural Extension Bulletin 238.

Better Lumber Through Good Piling, Minnesota University

Agricultural Extension Folder 104.

How to Pile and Season Native Lumber, Purdue University Agricultural Extension Bulletin 300.

Preserve Your Posts with Penta, Illinois College of

Agriculture Extension Circular 636,

The Durability of Fence Posts, Missouri Agricultural

Experiment Station Bulletin 312,

The Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers, US'JA

Farmers' Bulletin 744.

Longer Durability for Fence Posts and Farm Timbers,

Iowa State College Extension Rilletin 109.

For complete technological discussion of wood in construction, see "Wood Handijook, " prepared by U. S.

Forest Products Laljoratory. Available from Siperintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., 25 cents.
WOODLAND MANAGEMENT

Stripped of all its technical implications,

woodland management on the farm is simply

the wise use of the woods. If a farmer is protecting his woodland from fire and grazing, if

he is practicing good silviculture, and if he is

harvesting products to get the most out of his

timber, he has already taken the first and

most iraportant steps toward good manageinent.

There is no reason, therefore, to introduce

the word "management, " except as it covers

some additional information required for orderly cropping. An inventory of the standing

timber which is important in harvesting and

marketing, an estiraate of the amount of wood

products produced annually, and a simple plan

for annual or periodic harvests, are further

requirements for the intelligent handling of

merchantable wood products.

MEASUREMENT

OF STANDING TIMBER

Before orderly management can be applied

to any type of land, property, or business, an

inventory of the physical conditions, products,

or assets should be available. In the farm

woods an essential part of such an inventory is

an estimate of the araount of timber on the

land. The inventory is expressed in board feet,

cords, cubic feet, or pieces of some specified

product per acre. It also may be designated in

total'Square feet of basal area^^of all trees per

acre. A breakdown of numbers of trees into

species and dianneter classes usually is made.

At best, any timber inventory is an estimate.

The lack of uniformity of trees, species, and

growing conditions in different parts of the

woods makes it impossible to get an exact

figure unless each tree is nrieasured. Further^

more, the unit of measurennent itself is frequently expressed in terms of a product which

requires processing before the exact volume is

known.

Methods of estimating tinnber are many and

varied. The early day timber estimator simply

walked through the woods, and with little, if

any, recording made a mental estiinate of the

amount of timber on the land. His experience

perinitted him. to make a comparison with previously logged tracts from which the volume

had been measured after cutting. Based on experience in previous years, his method was the

same as used by farmers in anticipating the

yield of corn and grain per acre.

Present-day estimating inethods with valuable species inay be detailed to the extent that

every merchantable tree is examined and recorded. Experienced tiiïiber buyers can visualize the nuraber and length of logs that will be

cut from a standing tree, and estiinate the

diamieter inside the bark of the small end of

each log. Then by consulting a table showing

the contents of logs of different sizes (Appendix C), they arrive at the total volume.

Unless there are exceptionally high values

involved, however, the timber inventory or

cruise most often is raade by measuring and

recording the trees standing on a number of

mechanically selected plots. By applying the

volume recorded on the sampled areas to the

total acreage of woodland, the gross volume

can be obtained. Table Zl furnished by the

Lake States Forest Experiment Station will

give the recommended percentage of cruise,

in accordance with the woodland area and the

percentage of accuracy desired.

TABLE 2] . --Recommended percent o f cruise

Acres

to be

Sampling error (percent)

estimated 2 3 4 5 6 10 15 2Q 25

Per- Per- Per- Per- Per- Per- Per- Per- Percent cent cent cent cent cent cent cent cent

10 -- -- -- 70 44 33 18 11 8

20 -- 73 61 50 29 20 10 6 --

40 16 58 44 33 16 11 5 3 --

80 61 41 29 20 9 6 3 -- —

160 44 26 16 11 5 -- _- -- --

32C 30 15 9 6 2 -- -. -- --

640 20 8 5 3 -- — -- -- --

^^ Basal area: The area in sq. ft. represented by the

cross-section of the stem of a tree, 44. feet (breast

high) from the ground, (iß in inches x .00545.)

Thus, if one-fifth-acre plots are to be used

to estinaate the volume of timber on a 40-acre

woodland, with a sampling error of 10 percent,

the above table indicates that 11 percent of the

woodland should be sampled. The value of the

product to be estiinated should guide the accuracy desired. A woodland containing valuable

products should be estimated with a sampling

error of 5 percent; one consisting of smallsized, low-grade timber might be sampled

with an error of 20 percent or more

One of the most common estimating procedures is known as the "line-plot" method.

65
66 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

Thismethod is relatively simple to execute,

is adapted to any kind of timber, and permits

one man, if necessary, to work alone. Its

essential steps are outlined below:

(1) The following material is required:

(a) Outline map of the woodland to be cruised.

(b) A compass to keep directions.

(c) Measuring tools to get tree diameters and

heights.

(d) Pencil.

(e) Engineers' or surveyors' scale.

(f) Paper in a stiff-backed pad or holder.

(g) Measuring tape if ground distances cannot be

paced accurately.

(2) Determine the total woodland area from the map and

decide on the size of the circular sample plots.

One-fifth acre plots are more convenient, although

quarter-acre plots are commonly used in open woodland and in large timber. (See %>pendix A for plot

dimensions.)

(3) Determine the number of plots necessary to give the

desired accuracy. Table 21 will be helpful if onefifth acre plots are used. For example, if the

table shows that 16 percent of a 40-acre woodland

should be sampled, it means that 32 one-fifth acre

plots should be taken (.15 x 40 x 5).

(4) Plot the location of each sample on the outline

map, so that the plots will be regularly distributed over the woodland. The plots should be uniformly spaced, and generally lined up in cardinal

directions through the woods, thus:

o o o ^"o o o o

o 0 o./o Q o o 0

o o w'O o o ^i o

o ^

'o o o o ávO

(5) Locate a convenient starting point on the border

of the woodland. With the compass determine the

direction the first line of plots is to follow.

(6) Scale off the distance from the starting point to

the center of the first plot, and by measuring or

pacing this distance along the line established

in (5), mark the center of the first plot.

(7) Measure the diameter at breast height (4^ feet,

known as d.b.h.) and the merchantable height of

each tree growing within the radius of the plot.

Merchantable height is that part of the stem.

above the stunç», which is usable for the product

being estimated.

(8) Record the diameter and height of each tree separately by species, in 2 inch classes, on a form

similar to the following. Heights also are designated in 16-foot log lengths. Sixteen-inch trees,

for example, are any whose diameters measure from

15.0 inches to 16.9 inches.

Species and merchantable heights

d.b.h.

inches Pine White and

red oak

Others

16 24 32 40 48 56 16 24 32 40 48 56 16 24 32 40 48 56

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

One form for keeping tree measurements. Each tree is recorded by a dot or a dash in the square corresponding

to its breast-high diameter (d.b.h.), and its merchantable height.

(9) When all trees on the first plot have been measured, continue on the line established in (5), and

repeat steps (7) and (B) for all the remaining

plots.

(10) After all plots have beem measured, the volumes of

the trees are determined by means of a volume

table (Appendix J), which gives the contents of

standing timber of known diameters and heights.

Having the volumes of the trees on the plots, and

the percentage of the total area the plots represent, the total volume of. the woodland can be

readily calculated.

Steps (8) and (10) may be modified if cumulative tally sheets are available. These forms

are designed to permit recording directly in

board feet or cords and make the use of volume tables unnecessary. They are available

with instructions for use from a number of

State and Federal forestry agencies,

A simple tool, known as a cruiser stick,

sometimes called a Biltmore stick, is very

handy for measuring tree heights and diameters. Some State extension foresters supply

them through county agents, they can be purchased, or can be home-made by graduating

any straight stick to read diameters on one

side and heights on the other (table 22). The

principles governing the use of this treemeasuring tool are showin in the illustration.
WOODLAND MANAGEMEíNT 67

X UJ Ou.

16

20

24

28

32

36

40

44

48

52

56

60

64

Illustrating the use of a cruiser stick to measure diameters and heights of standing timber.
68 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

TABLE 22.--Markings for cruiser stick (25-tnch reach)

Tree

diameter I'uarli on

Tree

height

Mark or stirck

(inches) stick (feet) For 60 feet For 66 feet

Inches Inches Inches

6 5 3/8 16 6 5/8 6 1/8

8 Í 20 8 1/4 7 1/2

10 8 1/2 24 10 9 1/8

12 9 7/8 28 11 5/8 10 3/4

14 11 1/4 32 13 3/8 12 1/4

16 12 1/2 36 15 13 3/4

18 13 3/4 40 16 3/4 15 1/4

20 14 7/8 44 18 3/8 16 7/8

22 16 48 20 18 1/2

24 17 1/8 52 21 5/8 20

26 18 1/4 56 23 1/4 21 1/2

28 19 1/4 60 25 23 1/8

30 20 1/4

32 21 1/8

34 22 1/8

36 23

38 24

40 24 3/4

If other reaches or distances are desiredj

the correct markings can be computed from

the following fornnulae:

K.ameter scale

Height scale Ha

D

= inches from end of stick.

= inches from end of stick.

In which:

a -- iieach in inches

d -- Tree diameter, inches

H -- Tree height, feet

D -- Distance from tree, feet.

If cruiser sticks are to be home-made,

the maker will recognize that the calibrations are dependent on the length of the arm

or reach. Comraerdaily manufactured

sticks assurae an arm's length as 25 inches.

On the height side of the stick, the marking also will depend on the distance froin

the tree.

Like many other woodland practices, the

theory of estimating timber is simple. The

inexperienced estimator, however, cannot

expect to obtain truly accurate results. First

of all, the degree to which the tree is to be

utilized must be known. In the case of lumber

this requires a knowledge of sav7-milling

practices in the region. Then, there are

hidden defects in most trees which can be

recognized only by experienced timbernnen.

Even though care in measuring and recording has been taken, the estimator has to

make deduction for the rotten, checked, or

otherwise unusable portion of the gross volume. This deduction is known as the cull

percent, which may run as high as one-third

of the total estimated volume.

The volume tables used are another source

of error. Those included in Appendix J are

averages of thousands of measureinents obtained from trees that had been cut. If they

are applied to single trees that differ from

the average, they commonly will indicate

volumes that are inaccurate. These inaccuracies are primarily the result of

differences in the taper of tree trunks.

Short-stemmed, rapidly tapering trunks

actually contain less volume than the tables

indicate. Long-bodied trees, whose top

diameters are but little less than the d. b. h.

will contain more board feet or cords than

shown in the tables.
WOODLAND MANAGEMENT 69

DETERMINATION OF CUT

A farmer's woodland is similar to other

forms of invested capital. The growing stock

of trees is the principal; what it produces

each year in growth is the interest or increraent. The object of management is to manipulate the capital or principal so as to obtain

the maxiinum interest. Manipulation of the

capital or growing stock means building it

up in quantity and quality so as to utilize the

capacity of the soil to produce the most wood.

Like any other investment, the capital must

be maintained if interest is to be perraanent.

If a 30-acre farm woods is growing at an

annual rate of 60 cubic feet per acre, the

farraer theoretically can harvestl, &00 cubic

feet in sawlogs, poles, pulpwood, fuel, or

other products, per year. Actually, in any

one year he inight choose to cut more or less

than this amount, depending on the farm

needs, the outside market, the available farm

labor and equipment, the silvicultural condition of the woods, and perhaps other factors.

Over a period of years, however, cutting in

excess of growth will reduce the growing

stock (capital) and consequently, the increment (interest). Cutting less than the annual

growth will not yield maximum interest on his

capital. In order to avoid over cutting or undercutting --in short, to maintain efficient

production year after year indefinitely -- the

woodland owner should know the volume of

tinnber that is being produced annually.

For a given type (kind) of timber, the productive capacity of woodland is prinaarily dependent on three factors: (1) Soil condition,

particularly depth and character of subsoil,

(2) Aspect or exposure which influences the

soil moisture. (3) Density of the trees or the

degree of stocking, which may be measured in

terms of basal area per acre.

With a knowledge of these three factors, a

rough estimate of what a given farnn woodland

will produce annually can be obtained from

table 23. It will be found sufficiently accurate

for general application in woodland where the

principal species are upland hardwoods or

northern conifers«

Where other species predonninate, the table

is not applicable without adjustment. On bottom

lands or wet flats supporting soft maple, red

gum, or other moisture-tolerant species,

yields will be comparable to, or better than,

the best loanns. A considerable amount of tulip poplar (25-50 percent) will increase the

figures shown by one-half. Fifty percent or

more of cottonwood may double the best production shown in the table. Thinnings cut from

TABLE 23.-"Approximate annual production of upland hardwoods per acre

Soil

Northeast, north, and northwest slopes or flats^

Southeast, south, and southwest slopes

Degree of stocking Degree of stocking

Good Medium Poor Good Medium Poor

Loams:

Pervious A and B horizons, 5 feet or more deep.

Somewhat impervious B horizon; 2 to 5 feet deep.

Very impervious B horizon; ^or less than 2 feet deepSands: ^

iielatively moist during growing season.

Dry; very little sub-surface moisture during growing

season.

Rocky soils:

Deep, pervious. Large rock fragments do not occupy

more than 25 percent of soil.

2 to 5 feet deep. Large rocks occupy 25 to 75 percent of soil volume.

Very shallow. Large rock fragments comprise more than

75 percent of soil.

Cubic

feet

70

50

30

60

30

60

40

20

Cubic

feet

52

37

22

45

22

45

30

15

Cubic

feet

35

25

15

30

15

30

20

10

Cubic

feet

55

30

20

40

15

40

20

10

Cubic

feet

40

22

15

30

12

30

15

5

Cub I c

feet

25

15

10

20

8

20

10

0

^ Flat land includes all slopes under 15 percent. Consider highly impervious soils on flat land as south slopes.

^ If impervious material is close to surface, yields will be reduced proportionately to those shown for loams.
70 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

small trees and tops from logging are excess

and are not charged against growth.

An example of the use of the table: A mixedoak woodland lies on a generally south-facing

slope and is growing in a moderately compact

loam. It is well stocked with trees over 4

inches in diameter, (over 75 square feet basal

area per acre). The table shows an approximate annual production of 30 cubic feet of wood.

This is equivalent to 150 board feet, 0. 39 cord,

30 fence posts, or 6 ties. (Appendix B.)

The conversion of cubic feet to other units

of volume requires some judgment and an application of common sense» If a farm woods

had an indicated production of 50 cubic feet per

acre annually, one would not recommend a

yearly cut of 250 board feet (50 x 5) per acre

if the trees were too small to be used as sawlogs. In fact, if a converting factor of 5 is

used, a considerable part of the cut would have

to come from trees of 20 inches or more in

diamieter. (See explanation, Appendix B. )

Similar reasoning must be exercised in converting to cords. Straight smooth pieces 6 to

12 inches in diameter have approximately 90

cubic feet of solid wood; crooked limb wood,

less than 6 inches in diameter may have only

60 cubic feet per cord.

With the many variables affecting rate of

growth in woodland, it is apparent that these

generalized figures assume no high degree of

accuracy. Applicable local yield tables are

seldom available for farm woodland, and in

absence of better information, table 23 will

serve to guard against unrestrained and promiscuous cutting. Furthermore, it demonstrates the relative importance of site and

stocking as related to tinnber growth.
WOODLAND MANAGEMENT

REGULATION OF CUT

71

By definition, regulation is the development

of a woodland in order that it can produce an

annual, sustained income. By application to a

farmer's woods, regulation is no different

than the field arrangements made on cropland

meadows, and pasture so as to provide

uniform amiounts of corn, grain, hay, or

pasture each year. It is merely a part of

good farm management.

Regulation modifies utilization and is inseparable from silviculture. All members of

the triumvirate are interrelated in their prac

tical application. Thus, the three steps for

continued economical "nnanagement of any

w^oodland are:

(1) Silviculture: Eliminates worthless trees

or weeds; gives good trees sufficient growing

space; encourages reproduction of desirable

species. (Note the interrelation of silviculture

with utilization in the definition of "worthless," "good," and "desirable. ")

(2) Utilization: Salvages merchantable portions of trees that are misformed and show

decay; takes thinnings for fuel, posts, pulp,

and props; harvests marketable trees of

sizes and species that bring the highest

value. (Note again how silviculture is

involved. )

(3) Regulation: Provides for continuous

wood crops indefinitely, through the right

kind of silviculture and utilization.

The first obvious requisite of a farm woods

capable of producing a regular income is a

reasonably good distribution of sizes of trees.

If all the trees are too small to utilize, it is

apparent that no income will be derived until

they are large enough to cut. If most of the

trees are old, heavy cutting will result in a

depletion of the growing stock sometime in

the future, because of an absence of younger

trees to replace them.

Table 24 will furnish a guide to what may

be considered as a well-stocked average acre^-^

of woodland having a good distribution of

sizes.

^^ Intolerant species, p.8, tend to grow in approximately even-aged stands, hence any single acre never

would develop in the manner shown. Ihe table atterrpts

to depict an average acre over the woodland as a whole

and not a specific plot.

Stands of Virginia pine, jack pine, and the

northern swamp species which do not attain

the larger diameters shown in the table will

have proportionally greater numbers of trees

in the lower diameters.

Not many farm woods will duplicate this

distribution; in fact, exact duplication is both

impossible and unnecessary. The dianneter

classes in the w^ell-managed southern Michigan

woodland shown in the figure on page 11, will

vary considerably from the above. The fractional difference is unworthy of concern.

TABLE 2^.--Number of trees by diameters onawell-stockeä

average acre

Diameter

(inches) Trees Basal Area

Number Square feet

4 60 5.2

6 40 7.8

8 30 10.5

10 20 10.9

12 15 11.8

14 10 10.7

16 7 9.8

18 5 8.8

20 3 6.5

22 2 5.3

24 1 3.1

26 1 3.7

Total 194 94.1

Any woodland which has 75 to 100 square

feet of basal area per acre and roughly approximates this range qi sizes may be considered satisfactory. Unmanaged woods show

heavy concentrations in a few size classes

and deficiencies in others. The objective of

regulation is accomplished by taking the allowable annual cut from the age groups that

are high, and cutting but little material from

those that are deficient. When sizes are welldistributed, and when good silviculture and

utilization are being practiced, regulation in

the farm woods becomes more or less automatic with regular harvests of the periodic

growth.
72 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

MANAGEMENT PLANS

A woodland management plan is a cropping

plan for the farm woods. In addition to the universal requirements of protection, it maycover recommendations for silvicultural treatment. It may give a sequence of cutting, how

much should be cut, suggestions as to size and

kind of trees to be harvested. Above all, it

should be brief. Elaborate typewritten plans

which are handed to the farmer with the expectation that he will read and apply the recommendations have proved ineffective.

The extent and degree to which management

reconnnaendations are pertinent depend on the

character of the woodlando For purposes of

management, any farm woodland will fall in

one of five classes:

(1) Small patches of woodland (less than 10 acres),

that cannot permanently supply even the home needs, ivecoiitfnendations should cover only protection and close

utilization so as to insure production as long as possible. How much is growing is important only to the extent that it will indicate that growth is less than home

requirements, and that the farm needs more woodland or

restricted use, if annual cutting and growth are to

balance.

(2) Woodland on farms where home use is unimportant,

such as in coal producing centers, wtiere no periodic

harvest is contemplated, and no good markets exist for

wood products. The interest of the fanner in such a

woodland is confined to use of the products for posts

and rough lumber. Probably he cuts posts only as needed,

and logs for rough lumber at indeterminate intervals to

replace or repair farm buildings. In other words, there

is no regular cropping and the woodland's place in farm

economy is simply as a reservoir for materials needed in

an emergency. Protection and the efficient utilization

of species are the only subjects that require consideration.

(3) Probably the most common class of farm woods; the

best timber has been removed and most of the remaining

trees are culls or are otherwise undesirable. A plan of

management for such woodland does not involve rates of

growth or suggest the cutting of any particular size of

trees. The first recommendation would be to make improvement cuttings as rapidly as possible, putting the land

and growing stock in a condition to produce both quantity and quality. Present growth rates and regulation

will have no place in this class of woods for a number

of years to come.

(4) Woodlands where there are more trees per acre than

should be present to insure the best growth as, for example, trees ranging from 16 to 30 inches in diameter,

totaling over 120 square feet of basal area per acre,

ilere again, present growth rate is unimportant. The fanner, to get maximum yields, should first remove the surplus trees v/hich will mean cutting heavier than the indicated productive rate. Overstocked woods may be unproductive as woods that are proportionally understocked.

(5) %odland that is well-stocked, but not overstocked,

with usable trees and large enough to supply at least

home needs. The fanner has sufficient interest and knowledge to follow a plan of regular or periodic harvest.

Only for this class are complete and detailed management

plans involving regulated cutting based on growth applicable.

No great amount of written nnaterial is necessary under any of the above conditions. A

few paragraphs covering the principal recommendations, plus a supplennentary map as a

reminder of what the farmer should do in his

woods, is all that is needed. The map can be

tacked up in a conspicuous place in the barn or

toolshed for future guidance»

The sample map and plan shown here is of a

woodland in class 5. The farmer, Mr. Olson,

for whom^ this plan was miade had been cutting

timber for his own fuel and posts for the past

10 years. He had comipletely covered his 44

acres and had confined his harvest to misshapen

and poorly formed trees of the less desirable

species; he has been practicing good silviculture.

With the help of a forester, he inade a cruise of

the timber and fronn the inform.ation obtained,

the following facts were considered in developing the management plan:

(a) More efficient harvesting operations could

be done by working on a small area each winter.

The topography indicated ten natural blocks,

ranging from 3. 5 to 5. 5 acres each (5 to 12

blocks would have been equally acceptable)« By

cutting in one block each year, thus getting over

his entire woods in 10 years, he would be handling his wood crop on a 10-year rotation..-^^

(b) The inventory of the average acre in Olson's

woodland showed the following distribution of

tree diamieters:

Diameter Number of Trees

From table 24 there are too many trees in

the 10-, 12-, and 14-inch classes, and too few

in the smaller and larger diameter groups. The

recommendation, therefore, was to cut heaviest

in those classes where there was an excess,

thereby increasing the proportion of trees in

those sizes which were deficient.

iameter Number of Irees Diame

4 16 16

6 17 18

8 15 20

10 30 22

12 25 24

14 15

/^Foresters will recognize the word rotation as used

here should read cutting cycle. Tl\e operation described

corresponds to what is defined in agriculture as a rotation, hence no attempt was made to introduce a new

term.
WOODLAND MANAGEMENT 73

WOODLAND HARVEST PLAN

(JOHN OLSON)

(44 ACRES)

4.0acres ^. NX 3.5acres / ,.-^ / \ l\ \4.5acres

^\ .^ v40acreô A / /fe As acres/

V vry » A\ ^ /4JO acres/ / /

\^^ ^40acreô A / /'© /àBacres /

^-\ \ \® W / ®/ /

\ \ \ \ \ A // ®

^

y ^ j 5.0acres ^^\

/ASBcres j , — "V

{Pasture") " (Cropland)

1945-1946-Cut 15 cords fuelwood (60-fO trees) from Block JK^

1946-1947- Cut 15 cords fuelwood (60-rO trees) from Block "B*

and so on each year until entire woodland is covered.

FUEL WOOD -Take from poorly formed trees lo"- 14" in diameter,

(additional fuelwood from tops of saw lo¿ trees, dead trees and thinnings)

FENCE POSTS -Take anywhere as needed for home use.

LOGS - Take when needed or when market is ^ood from oak \€ or more

in diameter, at rate of 4,000 bd. ft. per year It is recommended fhat

this annual ¿rowth be permitted to accumulate for about 5 years

at which time 20,000 bd.ft. can be cut. (About five lô'-ao" trees

ec^ual 1,000 bd, ft.

PROTECT FROM FIRE AND LIVESTOCK

(c) The woodland is producing at an annual

rate of 50 cubic feet per acre(table 23), or 2200

cubic feet for the 44 acres. Mro Olson cuts 21

cords of fuel and about 1 20 posts annually for

use on the farm. Reduced to cubic feet (Appendix B), this home consuraption amounts to 1800

cubic feet.

(d) Apparently, if Mr. Olson is to cut no more

than current growth, there is but 400 cubic feet

or 2, 000 board feet in excess of home needs.

The forester pointed out, however, that there

is over one cord of limbs--topwood--for every

1, 000 board feet of sawlogs, and another cord

or more of fuelwood in each block that can be

taken from dead trees and thinnings. These are

not chargeable to the growth, hence the annual

cutting budget will look about like this:

Fuelwood (21 cords): Cubic feet1.5 cords from poorly formed trees 1,200

5 cords from topwood 400

1 cord from dead trees, thinnings 80

Fence posts (120) ..... 120

Sawlogs (4,400 bd. ft.) 880

Total cut 2,680

Topwood, dead trees, and thinnings not

chargeable to growth 480

Net growth 2,200

(e) Mr, Olson had no previous experience with

sawtimber and did not think of trees in terms of

board feet. Neither did he pile his fuelwood and

hence did not measure it in cords. The indicated

cut, therefore, was given in numbers of trees

as well as in volume.

The principles applied to the development of

this sample plan are applicable to many other

farm woodlands, yet the details of any single

plan are bound to be different. No two woods

are exactly alike, nor are the farmers who work

in them. To be usable the plan must fit the land,

fit the timber, fit the farm labor, the needs of

the farm and the market possibilities.

WOODLAND ECONOMICS

VALUATION

Most farmers, as well as other private owners, have thought of woodland only in terms of

cash value of the standing timber on the land.

Not enough attention has been directed to the

fact that woodland is capable of producing a

wood crop indefinitely in a manner similar to

the corn or grain crops on properly managed

cropland.

Trees grow and add new wood each year. Once

the wood capital has been built up, the source

of inconne can be sustained indefinitely, simply

by harvesting the annual growth. A tract of land

capable of producing a net income of $2. 50 per

acre per year is, assuming interest at 5 percent, worth $50 per acre. Therefore, if a purchaser is satisfied with 5 percent on his investment, he can afford to pay $50 per acre for land

producing $2. 50 annually, whether it be in standing timber, grain crops, or pasture.

Thus, farm woodland as a unit of the farm

business is subject to the sanne economic forces

as other parts of the farm. Misused cropland,

misused pasture, or misused woodland all deteriorate in value because they are incapable of

maintaining a high sustained annual production.

The landowner's judgment of land use and value

is in direct proportion to his understanding of

proàuctive capacity of that land.

A measure of the return possible from handling farmi timber as a crop is shown by the records that were kept by woodland owners in

Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, and Ohio.

Eighty-nine of these records, covering from

2 to 6 years operation, 1940-1945, are summarized (table 25). The three columns represent

the average annual return per farm from 25

woods ranging from $3. 86 to $66 per acre (highincome group), 25 woods returning from -$3.70

to $0. 37 (low-income group), and 39 woods

ranging from $0. 39 to $3. 83 per acre mediumincome group.

The accounting procedures used in keeping

and summarizing the records were as follows:

Income values for products consumed at home

were credited in amounts equal to their cost if

purchased by the farmer. Noncash expense,

which includes the operator's or family labor,

team, tractor, and annual depreciation on equipment, were charged at current rates for comparable services. Cash expenses represent

actual out-of-pocket costs as a result of the

woods operation; sinnilarly, cash income reflects actual returns from sales.

Buzz saws and maple sirup evaporators are

the only equipment capitalized, because they

are the only types used exclusively in woodland

work. Only the operating costs of tractors and

machinery purchased primarily for use in other

fanning enterprises are charged against the

woodland. Capital charges also include interest

on present value of the land and standing timber.

This may be a questionable charge in accounting,

when the usual practice is to compute annual

interest on the basis of original costs of the property rather than present worth. The justification

for departure from the standard practice in farm

woodland accounting is that the original cost of

the land seldom took the tinnber values into account. As a rule, the considerations involved

in the actual transfer of farm land are based on

values for producing annual and forage crops.

In any accounting procedure, inventory increases or decreases must be taken into consideration. With a woodland property, where an

owner might show a high return as the result of

an overcut of his growing stock, inventory

changes are especially pertinent. If the v/oods

capital is stable, as it is under good management practices, there is no drastic change in

inventory, hence the necessity of considering

volume differences in the growing stock is eliminated. The records summarized, therefore,

reflect only regulated timber harvests. If an

individual account book showed an exceptionally

heavy cut, either the record was discarded entirely or else the returns and the expenditures

were adjusted to cover the accounting period.

Stumpage sales require separate consideration

in calculating labor return. Obviously, if a

farmer sells stumpage with little or no expended

labor, his labor return per hour should not reflect the income from stumpage. This explains

the reason why stumpage is handled as a separate

item of income, later to be deducted from the net

profit when computing the labor return.

Three commonly accepted methods of showing

monetary returns from agricultural use of land

are: (1) Annual net profit per acre or per farm,

(2) rate of interest earned by the investment,

and (3) operator's return per hour of labor.

The first two consider the farm as a business

and consequently are adapted to commercial

agriculture. They appeal to the owner of a

tenant-operated farm. In the woodland phase of

the farming operation, however, the third

method has some advantages over the other two.

75
76

TABLE 25.--AverQ

FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

annaal income and expense of ^9 farm wooalands, Indiana^ Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, and Ohio

Item

High-income

woods (25)

Medium-income

woods (39)

Low-income

woods (25)

L Home-use income:

(a) Posts

(b) Lumber

(c) l^ei

(d) Other

Total

Income from sales:

(a) Posts

(b) Logs and lumber

(c) Fuel

(d) Other

Total

Stumpage sales

Total gross income

Noncash expense:

(a) Labor

(b) Team

(c) Equipment operation

(d) Ec^iipment depreciation

Total

Cash expense:

( a) Labor

(b) Tools and Equipment

(c) Processing

(d) Materials

Total

Taxes

Interest (capital value @ 3 percent)

Total expense

Net income^

Dollars

5.99

50.58

93.83

5.74

Dollars

5.96

49. 56

85. 33

L49

Dollars

9.93

28.02

69.11

,57

156. 14 142. 34 107.63

2.

2.80

25.50

55.95

350.17

2.56

6.05

6.10

2.25

2.96

1.44

3.91

6.31

434, 42 16. 96 14.62

3. 103.46 24.66 2.60

4. 694.02 183.96 124.85

5.

102, 04

23.58

11.69

13.69

43.43

6,68

5.00

2.11

48.70

7.24

4.34

2.00

151.00 57.22 62.28

6.

25.71

.67

15.78

17.99

60. 15

7.61

.12

14. 39

1.88

24.00

7.68

.20

7,86

4.16

19.90

7. 14.21 8.13 10.01

8. 111.54 37.08 46.27

9/ 336. 90 126.43 138.46

10. 357.12 57.53 -13.61

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Area in average farm--acres

Area in managed woods--acres

Capital value, woodland, growing stock

and equipment--dollars

Net return per acre ^ —dollars

Rate of interest earned on capital ^ --percent

Return per hour of labor * --dollars

246

42

3,718.00

8.50

12.6

1.33

192

30

1,236.00

1.92

7.6

.67

272

58

1,542.00

-0.23

2.1

.26

Line 4 minus line 9.

Line 10 divided by line 12-

(Line 8 plus line 10) x 100, divided by line 13.

^m of lines 10, 5a and 6a minus line 3, divided by total man-hours of

High incomej 287 man-hours; medium income, 125 man-hours; low inctxne.

labor as follows:

153 man-hours:
WOODLAND ECONOMICS 77

For example, as a means of selling farm-woods

management, it is more convincing to say, '^For

every hour you work in your woods, Mr., Farmer,

you earn $1. 35, " than to tell him he earned 12

percent on his investmient. It is something tangible, something understandable to anyone who

has worked for wages. Also, a dairy fariner

who obtains 75 percent of his net income from,

operations connected with the sale of milk, but

only 8 percent from his woodland products, will

not be impressed with the woods enterprise.

This sanne farmer's record shows, however,

that he nets only $1. 00 per hour from his dairy

operations as against $1. 75 for the timie he

spends in the woods.

In spite of favorable factors of hourly returns,

agricultural accountants recognize that woods

work and the labor incom.e therefrom is supplemental to the labor of other farm operations. It

competes only as the use of land coinpetes and

it is impossible for a farmer to be productively

employed during the entire year in a small patch

of woods.

In final analysis, therefore, woodland

management will be sold on the basis of giving

the highest return for the use of certain land.

That this land generally consists of the least

productive soil of the farm, plus the fact that

woods work can be done at any time of year to

supplement other income, also serves to demonstrate the value of woodland in the farm

economy.
78 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

INCOME AS REFLECTED BY MANAGEMENT

A study of table 25 discloses extensive variation in efficiency of operation and managerial

ability. This can be expected in the farnri

woodland when the skills and equipment required to handle timber are not uniform.

Every fanner is able to plow and harvest

corn and milk cows in a reasonably satisfactory manner and has, as a rule, at least

fairly good equipment to handle such operations. The same is not always true in harvesting the wood crop. Because of poor or inadequate equipment, the net return may be

negative. Training f'armers to efficiently

handle their woodland crop, therefore, is an

important phase of agricultural extension.

Low returns, however, do not always indicate a lack of skill. A farmer who starts

treating his woodland as a crop oftentimes

takes over a rundown piece of timber. Because

of past misuse, uneconomical silvicultural

measures must precede the thought of any

immediate income. The situation is similar

to rebuilding a badly depleted and weed-infested field: the investment in labor and materials during the first few years may be

greater than the income.

Even though the income sumiTiary shows

the capital value per acre of the three groups

to be consistent with income--about $80, $40,

and $25--a correlation between income and

site is not always evident. The adjectives

high, medium, and low, therefore, should

not be construed as describing the productive

capacity of the woodland. Some very ordinary

farm woods in terms of species, size, and

stocking produce surprisingly high returns

when the operator fully utilizes his own labor

in getting out wood products. On the other

hand, good quality timber sold as stumpage

does not always show a high net income.

In spite of the sound presumption that a

good site will produce more wood per acre

annually than a poor one, an analysis of the

returns indicates that site is sometimes

overrated as an income factor. Growing wood

is important but its utilization is equally so.

Cords or board feet grown per acre per year

do not show up as financial gains until they

are cut and brought to a goodrnarket. The

outstanding deduction that can be drawn from

the records is that when farmers harvest posts,

logs, fuel, and other products for sale, they

make the highest income; if they do not, they

frequently lose money, site notwithstanding.

The apparent relation between high valuation

per acre and income also is misleading as it

affects inventories. Often the carrying of a

large inventory of wood on the stuncip is costly,

and one of the best records covered a farm

where the owner makes heavy cuts each year.

In financial terms, he does not permit unused

capital to accumulate; in the language of

foresters, he keeps the merchantable material

cut down to the annual growth. Such a woodland likewise will tend to be perpetuated in

event of a change in ownership. The lack of a

concentration of ripe and overripe timber will

not encourage clear-cutting either by the

subsequent owner or a stumpage buyer.

Many operators do not work in their woods

each year, another factor which reduces their

income. An examination of the summary

shows that the average farmer in the highincome group worked at the'rate of 6. 8 hours

per acre annually, whereas those in the

medium and low groups spent 4. 1 and 2. 6

hours respectively per acre per year. The

truism, the more one works the more one

earns, applies to farm woodland management

as well as to other enterprises.

Where a farmer attempts to operate more

woodland than his labor can handle efficiently,

he has but two courses of action: either he can

sell stumpage, or he can let the growth accumulate. Neither alternative is productive

of high returns. Although not immediately

evident.from the income summary, the size

of the farm woodland apparently is correlated

with income. Eighty-eight of the woodlands

recorded in the table ranged from 4 to 185

acres in size. When these are divided into

the three groups based on area, it is evident

that the annual net income per acre decreases

as the size of the woods increases (table 26).

TABLE 26.--Relation between size of woodland and net

income per acre

Size of woodland

(acres)

Number in

group

Average net income

per acre

4 - 20

21 - 40

41 - 185

33

31

24

1:4.07

3.70

3.21

^^Tlie eighty-ninth woodland is one of 239 acres on a

1,400 acre farm. Tliis farm is a commercial enterprise,

operated by a salaried manager, and the woods is used

as an outlet for the hired labor in slack seasons. As

such it contributes a net income of ÎI4.90 per acre, returns 12.5 percent interest on the investment, and for

4 years had a labor return of fl.00 per man-hour.
WOODLAND ECONOMICS 79

DEFERPv-ED RETURNS

Sometimes the returns from forest management are not always determinable on an annual

basis. If the income is deferred until some future date, a fair consideration of values necessitates the use of compound instead of simple

interest« Specific exanaples to illustrate the use

of a few common formulae are given:

Example 1: A plantation established 30 years ago cost a

farmer S20 per acre, including planting stock, labor,

and protection (fencing). What is his present investment per acre, considering only the first cost and interest at 4 percent?

Cn^C^ (l.Op^)^

= 20 (1.04'°)

-20 (3.24)

^ $64,80

Example 2: A badly misused woodlot must be given complete protection for 10 years before a cut can be made.

Total cost of fencing amounts to $150. What must the

first harvest net the owner in order that he can break

even on the fencing costs, with interest at 3 percent?

Cn= 150 (1.03^°)

= 150 (1.34)

= $201.00

Example 3: With interest at 5 percent, what is the

value of a managed woodland producing crop of sawlogs

every 5 years, the logs having a net value of $150?

C =.

150

(l.Op^-l)

150

(1.05' - 1)

^ C - Initial capital; original cost or investment,

income value.

n - Number of years or number of payments.

Cn - Final capital; future value; end cost or value

of investment after (n) years. -

p - Rate of interest chargeable or earned.

a - One of a series of equal periodic amounts of

money, either income or outgo.

(l.Op^) - Consult compound interest tables (Appendix

D) for numerical values.

(1.28 -1)

= $535.71

Example 4: The farmer in example 2 has yearly taxes of

25 cents per acre to pay on his woodland, in addition

to the fencing cost. What will be his total investirent

in taxes per acre at the end of the 10-year period?

C^^ a (l.Op^-1)

(LOp -1)

- .25 (1.03'^-1)

.03

^ .25 (.34)

.03

= $2.82

(Note that after the woods is producing an income

each year, taxes will be paid out of earnings, and compound interest need not enter into the calculations.)

Example 5: What rate of interest was earned from an

Osage-orange hedge which 20 years after establishment

produced fence posts valued at $300 net, considering

the land it occupied was worth (cost) $80, total cost

of establishment was $20, and taxes and maintenance

were tl.OO per year?

1.0p" = Û2 (Obtained by transposing

formula used in example 1.)

but, Cn = [Yn (yield in dollars) -jS (sale value of land -f E)]

and, C = [C (cost of establishment) +

S^ (cost of land (soil) + E)]

"E" being a capital fund which will yield

sufficient interest to pay annual expenses.

In this case, annual expense was $1.00,

hence E =: T_Qû or 120.00

then j 0^20 ^ 300 + 80 -h 20

-^•^P 20 + 80 + 20

-^ 3. 33

therefore p = 6^ (plus) (from interest tables,

Appendix D. )
80 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

COMPARISON WITH OTHER FARM ENTERPRISES

The income derived from the products of the

farm woods compares favorably with other farm

products. Specialized crops like tobacco planted

on the best land and requiring a large investment in fertilizer and labor yield much higher

returns per acre, while some of the commonly

produced small grains like oats frequently net

considerably less than wood products.

But the woodland also has its specialized

crops, such as Christmas trees and maple sirup.

Any readily marketable product like these,

%vhich can be processed by farm labor up to the

point of retail consumption, can be grown, harvested, and naarketed with good financial success.

Although the concept of wood as an annual crop

generally has not been introduced in farm acTABLE 21,"Farm business reports^ central ana western

Wisconsin^ 194^

Average of Average of

Item 25 farms on 53 farms on

heavy soils light soils

Income Dollars Dollars

Home use 644.00 629.00

Sales and other 6,020.00 4,969.00

Inventory increases -- 251. OQ

Total gross income 6,664.00 5,849.00

Elxpenses

Cash and noncash 3,677.00 3,545.00

Taxes 168.00 132.00

Interest on investment 877.00 680.00

Total expense 4,722.00 4,357.00

Net income 1,942.00 1,492'. 00

Area per farm--acres 162 263

Iteturn per acre--dollars IT 98 5.29

Interest on capital--

percent 12 11

Beturn per hour--dollars 0.58 .48

counting procedures, a comparison of income

from woodland v/ith total income from other

crops is possible. Table Z7, summarizing 1944

farm-account records frora 78 farms in Wisconsin whose principal income was derived from

livestock and dairyings gives an opportunity to

make such a coinparison. Farm prices during

that year are comparable to those reflected by

the accounts in table 24, and the type of farnning

is simTlar to those farms summarized in the

\voodland records.

Because of the greater investinent in land,

building, machinery, and livestock, the average

returns per acre and interest on investment

fronn cultivated crops and livestock is greater

than farni-v/ood products. Table 27 includes

products from the best land on the farm.s. The

woodland income, on the other hand, reflects

returns principally fromi rough, steep, or poorly

drained land which would permanently produce

little in grain, hay, or pasture. Current governnrient subsidies for crop production also augmented the income on the Wisconsin farms.

The labor income from woods work, however,

is greater than in many other farm pursuits. As

was previously emiphasized, farmers who work

in their woods receive a good wage rate, even

though the woodland income is small as naeasured

against the total farm income.

How much farm labor will the woods profitably

employ? Obviously this question has no single

answer. The 89 woodlands previously referred

to consuined 1 to 36 man-hours of labor per acre

annually. The operator of a Christmas-tree business might expend 5 or 6 days per acre every

year in planting, shearing, and harvesting his

crop. According to Preston,"^ experience in other

regions shows that with a reasonably good piece

of woods, one-half to one man-day per acre is a

satisfactory average figure to use in estimating

annual labor requireinents of woodland management.

"Farm %od Crops," John F. Preston, WcGraw-Hill, 1949.
WOODLAND ECONOMICS 81

INTEGRATION WITH OTHER FARM ACTIVITIES

There are no sound physical or economic

reasons why woodland management cannot be

integrated with the management of cropland,

pastures, and livestock. An accurate determination of the capabilities of the farm land will

delineate those portions best suited to cultivated

crops, to pasture, and to woodland. Economicallys returns for the labor spent in woods work

are favorable in comparison with other activities.

The reasons why good management of woodland is not generally practiced by more farmers

are largely ones of concept, attitudes, and a

lack of woods appreciation on the part of operators. Until there is a general appreciation of

what constitutes good land use, until trees and

their products are looked upon as agricultural

commodities, and until the farmer takes the

same degree of interest in his woodland that he

does in the rest of his cropland, the farm woods

will continue to be fenced into the pasture and he

will sell a few merchantable trees to the first

buyer of stumpage that comes along.

Many farraers adopt the attitude that they do

not have time to work in the woods. This attitude is more valid with dairying than with other

types of farming because there is greater competition for land and labor. Many dairymen have

limited pasture and feel they must carry livestock on every available acre, including the

woodland. The dairy farmer's chores and milking are year-round activities as compared to

the cash grain or general farm which has a light

work load during the winter.

The one very desirable feature of the wood

crop as compared with others is that it does not

become mature at any special time. Timber harvesting is not compulsory on any particular day,

week, or year, and no losses will result if it is

left until the press of other farm work is at a

minimum. In that respect it is an excellent outlet for unemployed labor and even with dairying",

there are parts of days in the winter when the

farmer is not doing chores. From about 10:00

a.m. to 4:00p.m. , with the exception of ôpreading

manure, making repairs, and going to town, are

hours which are not always consunned in useful

activities. In that connection, working in the

woods can become a habit the same as going to

town.

Distaste for woods work plus the overemphasized dangers of working in the timber also contribute to the reasons why the wood crop is giver

a low priority on so many farm.s. Much of this

distaste may be the result of poor tools and

equipment, because pulling a poorly fitted saw

through a large log or attempting to chop with a

dull axe is hard work. Nationalsafety Council

statistics support the fact that woods work is

dangerous. In all types of accidents it is the

careless person and not the novice who is recorded in the statistics. Good tools, reasonable

precautions, and a few easily acquired woods

techniques make timber work no more arduous

or dangerous than many other farm operations.

Marketing problems frequently are suggested

as reasons why farmers are not interested in

their timber crops. This has been discussed pre040.00

1915 1920

Corn-Average Yearly Price of #3 Yellow-Chicago

Reference^ "Agricultural Statistics" U, S. D. A.

---Hardwood Logs-Average all Species, f.o.b. Mill, Eastern U.S.

References^ U. S. D. A. Tecti. Bui. 626 and Statistical Bulletins

"Stumpage and Log Prices"

Comparison of yearly price fluctuations of and

hardwood logs, 1910 - 43.

viously and it was shown that marketable products ,

an understanding of the value of products, and

perhaps some centralized organization through

which to pool the products, will eliminate many

of the difficulties experienced by farmers.

The stability of the timber market has been

as good as most other commodities. In the chart

it can be seen that the fluctuation in hardwood

logs during 1910-43 was less than it was for

corn. If farm woods are managed to produce

wood products continuously, even greater stability of log prices should result. And when the

farm owner sells his logs as he does his grain,

milk, and livestock instead of something to be

moved from the land once in a lifetime, the.

curve for prices of logs will show an upswing.
82 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

"The man who has a piece of woodland where

during the winter months he cuts his firewood

and fencing and a few logs for the repair of

buildings and implements, and during certain

years when prices are high cuts some logs for

the neighboring sawmill, but at the same time

looks after the piece of woods, clears it of dead

timber and other rubbish, thus keeping out fire

and insects, and otherwise makes an effort to

keep the land covered with forest--such a man

practices forestry. His forest mtay be smiall or

large, his ways of doing may be simple and imperfect, the trees may not be the best kind for

the particular locality and soil, they may not be

as thrifty as they should and could be; but nevertheless here is a man who does not merely destroy the woods nor content himself with cutting

down whatever he can sell, but one who cares

for the woods as well as uses them, one who

sows as well as harvests. He is a forester, and

his work in the woods is forestry. "

FILIBERT ROTH,

Teacher, philosopher

and pioneer American

forester
APPENDIX

APPENDIX A

UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS

LENGTH

Inches Links Feet Yards Rods Chains^ Mile

1

7.92

12.

0.126

1

1.515

4.55

25.

100.

0.083

.66

1

0.028

.22

.33

1

0.005

.04

.06

.18

1

4.

320.

0.01

.015

.045

.25

1

-

36. 3.

16.5

66.

5280.

0.0005

198.

792.

5.5

22.

1760.

.0031

.0125

_ 80. 1

^Surveyor's Chain - 66 feet in length.

AREA

Square inches Square links Square feet Square yards Square chains Acres

1 0.016

- 1

2.295

20.66

10,000

0.007

.435

1

9.

4,356

43,560

0.111

1

484.

4840.

0.0002

.002

1

10.

_

62.72

144.

1296. .0002

a

1

DIMENSIONS OF PLOTS

Feet Rods Qiains

Area Side of

square

Radius of

circle

Side of

square

Radius of

circle

Side of

square

Radius of

circle

1 acre

1/2 acre

1/4 acre

1/5 acre

1/10 acre

208.7

147.6

104.3

93.3

66,0

117.7

83.3

58.9

52.7

37.2

12.65

8.94

6.32

5.66

4.00

7.14

5.05

3.57

3.19

2.26

3.16

2.24

1.58

1.41

1.00

1.78

1.26

.89

.80

.56

83
84 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

APPENDIX B

APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS, FOREST PRODUCTS

1 cubic foot (in the round)

1 bd. ft. ( 1' X I' X 1 " solid wood)

1 cord (stacked wood 4' x4' x8' )

1 post (5" X 7M

1 tie (6">tô"x80

M. ft. Bd. ft Cord Post Tie

-- 5 0.013 L 0,20

.20 -- .0025 .20 .033

10.. 400 " 80. 20.

1. 5 .013 -- ,20

5. 30 .05 5. ..

Forest products are not subject to absolute

conversion. For example^ a cubic foot is

equal to 12 board feet in theory, but in actual

practice a cubic foot as represented in a tree

produces only about 5 board feet, because of

loss in slabs, edgings, and processing waste.

For trees less than 16 inches in diameter

there are only 3 to 4 board feet per cubic

foot; for trees above 20 inchvii», the ratio may

be 6 or more, increasing as the diameter increases. See also the following table, adapted

from Lake States Forest Experiment Station

data, for variation in the contents of a cord.

SOLID CONTENTS OF STACKED CORD OF UNPEELED HARDWOODS

Kind of

It-foot wood

Straight and smooth

Sticks

less than

6 inches in äiameter

200 bd. ft.

85 cu. ft.

Sticks

6 to 12 inches in

diameter

40) bd. ft.

91 cu. ft.

Sticks

more than

12 inches in diameter

500 bd. ft.

98 cu, ft.

Slightly crooked and

rough 75 ft. 82 ft. 89 ft.

Crooked and rough

including branches 60 cu. ft. 70 cu. ft. 75 cu. ft.
APPENDIX 85

APPENDIX C

BOARD FOOT CONTENT OF LOGS

Diameter LENGTH OF LOG IN FEET

inside bark

small end Seribner decimal C rule Doyle rule 5^ International rule 3/

(in tens ) i^

(inches) 6 8 10 12 14 16 8 10 12 14 16 8 10 12 14 16

Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd.

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.

6 0.5 0,5 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 10 10 15 15 20

7 .5 1 1 2 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30

8 1 1 2 2 2 3 8 10 12 14 16 15 20 25 35 40

9 1 2 3 3 3 4 13 16 19 22 25 20 30 35 45 50

10 2 3 3 3 4 6 18 23 27 32 36 30 35 45 55 65

11 2 3 4 5 5 7 25 31 37 43 49 35 45 55 70 80

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 32 40 48 56 64 45 55 70 85 95

13 4 5 6 7 8 10 41 51 61 71 81 55 70 85 100 115

14 4 6 7 9 10 11 50 63 75 88 100 65 80 100 115 135

15 5 7 9 11 12 14 61 76 91 106 121 75 95 115 135 160

16 6 8 10 12 14 16 72 90 108 126 144 85 110 130 155 180

17 7 9 12 14 16 18 85 106 127 148 169 95 125 150 180 205

18 8 11 13 16 19 21 98 123 147 172 196 110 140 170 200 230

19 9 12 15 18 21 24 113 141 169 197 225 125 155 190 225 260

20 11 14 17 21 24 28 128 160 192 224 256 135 175 210 250 290

21 12 15 19 23 27 30 145 181 217 253 289 155 195 235 280 320

22 13 17 21 25 29 33 162 203 243 284 324 170 215 260 305 355

23 14 19 23 28 33 38 181 226 271 316 361 185 235 285 335 390

24 15 21 25 30 35 40 200 250 300 350 400 205 255 310 370 425

25 17 23 29 34 40 46 221 276 331 386 441 220 280 340 ^0 460

26 19 25 31 37 44 50 242 303 363 424 484 240 305 370 435 500

27 21 27 34 41 48 55 265 331 397 463 529 260 330 4D0 470 540

28 22 29 36 44 51 58 288 360 432 504 576 280 355 430 510 585

29 23 31 38 46 53 61 313 391 469 547 625 305 385 465 545 630

30 25 33 41 49 57 66 338 423 507 592 676 325 410 495 585 675

In the eastern United States the board foot contents of logs are measured by one of three different log rules

or scales.

^ The Scribner Rule is based on diagrams which intend to show the actual board feet that can be sawed from logs of

varying lengths and diameters.

The original rule was published over a century ago, but subsequently the last digit was dropped and the figures

rounded off to the nearest 10 board feet. TFie rule is in general use in Wisconsin and Minnesota and in national

forests. It is now known as "Decimal C" as given above.

^ The Doyle Rule is based on the formula (TÂ 1 ^^ L = Board feet, in which D is the diameter of the small end of the

log, inside the bark in inches, and L is the length in feet. In spite of its inaccuracies when applied to small logs,

'this rule is used almost exclusively in scaling hardwoods of the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys, and in the southern

pine region. It underscales average-sized logs by about 30 board feet.

^ The International Rule is the most accurate rule yet devised but unfortunately does not have the widespread use

of the others. The figures given will come quite close to actual board feet that can be derived from sound logs by

saws which cut 1/4 inches of kerf (saw-dust). It has been adopted by statute in Michigan. The formula, .8D (D-2)

will give values closely approximating the board feet in 16-foot logs.
86 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

APPENDKD

COMPOUND INTEREST TABLE

Values of 1. Opn

Number

of years

When interést rate, p , equals

-

(n) 2 2% 3 Z% 4 ^2 5 SVz 6 eA

1 1.02 1.02 1.03 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.05 1.06 1.06

2 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13

3 1.06 1.08 1.09 1.11 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.17 1.19 1.21

4 1.08 1.10 1.13 1.15 1.17 1.19 1.22 1,24 1.26 1.29

5 1.10 1.13 1.16 1.19 1.22 1.25 1.28 1.31 1.34 1.37

6 1.13 1.16 1.19 1.23 1.26 1.30 1.34 L38 1.42 1.46

7 1.15 1.19 1.23 1.27 1.32 1.36 1.41 1.45 1.50 1.56

8 1.17 1.22; 1.27 L32 1.37 1.42 1.4a 1.53 1.59 1.66

9 1.19 1.25 1.30 1.36 1.42 1.49 1.55 1.62 1.69 1.76

10 1.22 1.28 1.34 1.41 1.48 1.55 1.63 1.71 1.79 1.87

20 1.4S 1.63 1.80 1.98 2.19 2.41 2.65 2.92 3.21 3.52

30 L81 2.09 2.42 2.80 3.24 3.74 4.32 4.98 5.74 6.62

40 2.2) 2.68 3.36 3.95 .4.80 5.81 7.04 8.51 10.29 12.42

50 2.69 3.43 4.38 5.58 7.10 9.03 11.46 14.54 18.42 23.33

60 3.28 4.39 5.89 7.87 10.51 14.02 18.67 24.84 32.99 43.82

70 3.99 5.63 7.91 11.11 15.57 21.78 ^.42 42.43 59.08 83.80

80 4.87 7.20 10.64 15.67 23.04 33.93 49.56 72.4Ô -- --

90 5.94 9.22 14.30 22.11 34.11 52.53 80.73 — -- —

100 7.24 11.81 19.21 31.19 ^.50 81.58 — -- -- --
APPENDIX

APPENDIX E

APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF TREES REQUIRED

TO YIELD SPECIFIC UNITS OF MATERIAL

87

Tree

diameter 1 cord^ 1 unit^ 1 tie^ 1 fence

1,000 board feet lumber*

(inches) fuelwood pulpwood 6" X 8" 4 inch top Nfedium-height Tall

hardwoods hardwoods Pine

Number Number Number Number Number Number Number 6 20 27 - 0.50 «

8 10 12 - .25 - - -

10 6 7 „

.10 19. 12 4 3 1. .06 20 15 10. 14 3 2 .75 .04 12 8 6.2 16

18

2

1.5 -

«50

.33 -

9

7

6

4

4.3

3.

20

22

24

1.3

1

- - - 6

5

3.5

3

2.5

1.8

26

28

- - - -

4

2.5

2

1.5

1.5

1.2

** - 2 1.3 1.0

^ 3 inch sticks and larger.

^ 160 cu. ft, of unpeeled stacked wood — southern pine«

3 Side lumber taken from larger bolts in addition to ties, (see Appendix I). Also, 1 cord of topwood and 1/3

cord ol slabs are obtainable for every 10 ties.

* See volume tables (Appendix J) for more accurate tables. About 1 ccrd of slabs is available from every 1 000

bd. it. of lumber sawed. In addition, the tops of heavy-crowned trees with short merchantable lengths will yield

up to 4 ^«^ds of fuelwood per 1,000 M ft. of sawlogs; tall forest-gra.n trees will yield 1 cord or less in topwood per 1,000 bd, ft. ^
88 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER îvlISSISSIPPI REGION

APPENDIX F

AREA OF CIRCLES (BASAL AREA)

Diameter Number of trees

class

(inches) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40

Sq. Sq. Sq. Sq. Sq. Sq. Sq. Sq. Sq. Sq. Sq. Sq. Sq.

ft. ft. ft. ft- ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.

4 0.09 0.17 0.26 0.35 0.44 0.52 0.61 0.70 0.79 0.87 1.7 2.6 3.5

6 .20 .39 .59 .79 .98 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 3.9 5.9 7.8

8 .35 .70 1.0 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.1 3.5 7.0 10.5 14.0

10 .55 1.1 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.4 4.9 5.5 10.9 16.4 21.8

12 .79 L6 2.3 3.1 3.9 4.7 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 15.7 23.6 31.4

14 1.1 2.1 3.2 4.3 5.3 6.4 7.5 8.5 9.6 10.7 21.4 32.1 42.8

16 1.4 2.8 4.2 5.6 7.0 8.4 9.8 11.2 12.6 14.0 27.9 41.9 55.9

18 1.8 3.5 5.3 7.1 8.8 10.6 12.4 14.1 15.9 17.7 35.3 53.0 70.7

20 2.2 4.4 6.5 8.7 10,9 13.1 15.3 17.5 19.6 21.8 43.6 65.4 87.3

22 2.6 5.3 7.9 10.6 13.2 15.8 18.5 21.1 23.8 26.4 52.8 79.2 -

24 3.1 6.3 9.4 12.6 15.7 18.8 22.0 25.1 28.3 31.4 62.8 - -

26 3.7 7.4 11.1 14.7 18.4 22.1 25.8 29.5 33.2 36.9 73.7 - -

28 4.3 8.5 12.8 17.1 21.4 25.7 29.9 34.2 38.5 42.8 - - -

30 4.9 9.8 14.7 19.6 24.5 29.4 34.4 39.3 44.2 49.1 - - -

32 5.6 11.2 16.8 22.3 27.9 33.5 39.1 44.7 50.3 55.8 - - -

34 6.3 12.6 18.9 25.2 31.5 37.8 U.l 50.4 56.7 63.0 - - -

36 7.1 14.1 21.2 28.3 35.3 42.4 49.5 56.5 63.6 70.7 - - -

38 7.9 15.7 23.6 31.5 39.4 47.3 55.1 63.0 70.8 78.7 - - -

40 8.7 1Z.4 26.2 34.9 43.6 52.3 61.5 69.8 78.5 87.3 - - -

By substituting feet in length for number of trees this table also gives cubic-foot contents of cylinders. Tlius,

a log 8 ft. long having an average diameter of 20 in. contains 17.5 cu. ft.
APPENDIX

APPENDIX G

BOARD MEASURE

89

Size

(inches)

Length of piece in feet

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Bd. Bd, Bd, Bd. Bd, Bd, Bd. Bd.

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft- ft1x3 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

1x4 2 2.6 3.3 4 4.6 5.3 6 6.6

1x6 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1x8 4 5.3 6.6 8 9.3 10.6 12 13.3

1x10 5 6.6 8.3 10 11.6 13.3 15 16.6

1x12 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

2x4 4 5.3 6.6 8 9.3 10.6 12 13.3

2x6 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

2x8 8 10.6 13.3 16 18.6 21.3 24 26.6

2x10 10 13.3 16.6 20 23.3 26.6 30 33.3

2x12 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

2x14 14 18.6 23.3 28 32.6 37.3 42 46.6

3x6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

3x8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

3x10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

3x12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60

3x14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70

4x4 8 10.6 13.3 16 18.6 21.3 24 26.6

4x6 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

4x8 16 21.3 26.6 32 37.3 42.6 48 53.3

4x10 20 26.6 33.3 40 46.6 53.3 60 66.6

4x12 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80

6x6 18 24 30 36 42 m 54 60

6x8 24 32 4Ö 48 56 64 72 80

6x10 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

6x12 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120

8x8 32 42.6 53.3 64 74.6 85.3 96 106.6

8x10 40 53.3 66.6 80 93.3 106.6 120 133.3

8x12 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160

10x10 50 66.6 83.3 100 116.6 133.3 150 166.6

10x12 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

12x12 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
90 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

APPENDIXE

APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS OF COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT WOODS ^

Lumber i3er Loffs—Der M*

Cubic foot Cord 4' 5Í:4^x8»^ 1,000 board feet^ Bd.Ft. "green"

Species

Green Air Green Air Green Air

dry dry dry 12" 18" 24"

1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000

Pounds Pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds

Ash, white 48 41 4.3 3.7 4.0 3.4 11.0 7.7 6.6

Aspen 43 26 3,9 2.3 3.6 2.2 10.8 7.6 6.4

Basswood 42 26 3.8 2,3 3.5 2.2 9.5 6.6 5.6

Beech 54 43 4.9 3.9 4.5 3.7 12.7 8.9 7.5

Birch, yellow 57 43 5.1 3.9 4.8 3.5 13.2 9.2 7-8

Birch, white 50 38 4,5 3.4 4.2 3.2 - -

Cedar, red 37 33 3.3 3.0 3.1 2.7 - -

Cedar, northern white 28 22 2.5 2.0 2.3 1.8 - -

Cherry, black 45 35 4.0 3.2 3.8 2.9 10.5 7.3 6.2

Cottonwood 49 28 4.4 2.5 4.1 2.3 10.7 7.5 6.3

Elm, white, red 55 36 5.0 3,2 4.6 3.0 12.0 8.2 7.0

Gum, red, black 50 34 4.5 3.0 4.2 2.8 10.5 7.3 6.2

Ffeckberry 50 37 4.5 3.3 4.2 3.1 11.3 7.9^ 6-7

Hemlock 50 28 4.5 2.5 4.2 2.3 11,0 7.8 6.5

Hickory 63 51 5.7 4.6 5.3 4.2 14.7 10.3 8.7

Locust, black 58 48 5.2 4.3 4.8 4.0, 13.4 9.3 -

Maple, hard 59 42 5.3 3.8 4.6 3,6 12.9 9.0 7.6

Maple, soft 47 35 4.3 3.2 3.9 2.8 11.0 7.8 6.5

Oak, red 63 44 5.7 4.0 5.2 3.7 14.8 10.3 8.8

Oak, white 62 46 5.6 4.1 5.2 3,9 14.4 10.0 8.5

Pine, Norway (red) 42 31 3.8 2.8 3.5 2.6 9.7 6.8 5,7

Pine, short leaf 52 36 4.7 3.2 4.3 3.0 10.4 7.2 6.1

Pine, white 36 25 3.2 2.3 3.0 2.1 9.0 6.3 5.3

Poplar, yellow (tulip) 38 28 3.4 2.5 3,2 2.3 8.8 6.1 5.2

Spruce 34 28 3.0 2.5 2,8 2.3 7.7 5.4 4.6

Sycamore 52 34 4.7 3.0 4.3 2.9 11.9 8.3 7.1

Tamarack (larch) 47 37 4.2 3.0 3.9 3.1 - -

Walnut, black 58 38 5.2 3.4 4.8 3.2 11.9 8.3 7,1

^ From USDA Farmers' Bulletin 1210, and "Wood Handbook," Forest Products Laboratory. Values for green wood may

vary up to 20 percent due to lack of definition of what is "green." Air-dry values assume 15 percent moisture and

will not vary over 10 percent; add or subtract 1/2 percent weight of wood for every 1 percent change in moisture

content.

^ Derived by multiplying cubic foot weights by 90, giving approximate weight of a stacked cord.

^ Full-sized pieces; reduce proportionally for finished lumber which is not full dimension.

* Doyle log rule; diameter inside bark, small end.

TRANSPORTATION ITEMS

1 l/2-ton truck, standard chassis will

haul: 1 to 1 l/Z standard cords of wood; 500

to 1,,00G board feet of logs, depending on size,

species, etc. , 35 to 45 crossties. All assumes

a load of double-rated capacity.

Railroad: Roughly 6, 000 board feet sawlogs

per gondola or flat car; 16,000 to 20,000 board

feet lumber, 18 to ZO cords of wood, or 300 to

350 ties per box car. Minimum carload weights

are 34, 000 lbs. for lumber, 50,000 lbs. for

logs. Car capacities: 45,000 to 60,000 lbs.
APPENDIX 91

APPENDIX I

RAILROAD TIES

Ties and additional side lumber obtainable from bolts of various dianneters - 8 to 8 1/E feet long

Log diameter--

inside bark,

small end

(inches)

Cross ties

Side lumber —

minimum boards

4 inches wide

9

Number

1

Grade

i

Board feet

Little or no

side lumber

or 1 2

10 1 3 5

or 1 4 5

11 1 4 10

or 1 S 5

12 1 5 15

13 1 5 20

14 2 3 15

2 3 35

15

or

1

1

5

3 20

16

1

1

5

3 20

or 2 4 25

17 2 5 30

2

1

3

5 30

18 or 3 3 35

or 2 5 45

19

or

2

1

4

5 30

4 3 40

20

or

1

2

4

5 45

or 3 5 45

21 3 5 50

22

2

1

3

5 55

or 5 3 25

4 4 60

23

or

3

2

3

5 30

24 4 5 70

25

7 3 30

or 5 5 45

Based on diagrams, with values checked by a tie sawyer. Values are maximum which could be derived from cylindrical,

straight, sound logs. Probably will not run so high under usual milling conditions.
92 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

RAILROAD TIES AND ADDITIONAL SIDE LUMBER OBTAINABLE FROM STANDING TREES

OF VARIOUS DIAMETERS AND HEIGHTS i

1 cut^ 2 cuts2 3 cuts 2

a B. H.

(inches)

Cross ties Add.

side

lumber

Cross ties Add.

side

lumber

Cross ties Add.

side

Number Grade Number Grade Number Grade lumber

12 3 8 2

3 8

1

2

3 8

4 6 3 2

13 4 12 3

4 12

5 15 4 3

14 5 21 4

5 27

15 5 15 2 5 23

2

4

5 29

16 5 30 2 5 41 3 5 49

17 3 21 2 3 2 3

1 5 48 2 5 57

4 1 3 1 3

18 3 22 1 4 1 4

1 5 49 2 5 64

2 4 34 2 3 2 3

19 2 4 56 2

1

4

5 83

20 2 5 41 1 3 1 3

3 5 63 4 5 90

21 2 3 2 3 4 3

1 5 30 3 5 55 3 5 65

1 3 1 3 2 3

22 2 5 33 4 5 58 1

4

4

5 82

23 1 3 3 3 4 3

2 5 50 3 5 83 4 5 108

24 1 4 2 3 2 3

2 5 50 4 5 83 6 5 111

4 4 41 1 3 4 3

25 4 4 4 4

2 5 91 2 5 115

26 2 3 2 3 4

0

2 5 40 5 5 79 6 5 113

Based on diagrams. Values are maxinwm which can be derived from cylindrical, straight, sound logs with optimum

efficiency of sawing and milling. Upper diameters determined fron form class taper of mixed hardwoods in Lake

States,

^ 1 tie cut equals 9 ft. above stump; 2 cuts - 17 ft.; 3 cuts - 26 ft.
APPENDIX

APPENDIX J

VOLUME TABLES

93

The first three tables in this appendix are

adapted from Tables for Estimating BoardFoot Volum.e of Timber, Form class 78, by

Me savage and Girard, United States Forest

Service, 1946. They are for use in obtaining

the approximate gross board foot contents

of standing trees by each of three rules --

International, Scribner, and Doyle (Appendix

C). Diamete'rs are measured outside the bark

at breast height, 4 1/2 feet from the ground

(d.b.h.). Merchantable height is that part of

the main trunk above the -stump, as liraited by

large branches, small diameter, or defornnity

which prohibits use as saw timber (see p. 68).

The tables give approximate volumes for

tree trunks of average taper, i.e. , the diameter at breat height is about 20 percent

greater than the diameter at 16 feet. For tall,

columnar trunks with only 10 to 15 percent

difference between the breast high diameter

and the diameter at 16 feet, multiply by 1.25.

For comparatively short-stemmed trees

having 25 to 30 percent difference between

d.b.h. and diameter at 16 feet, multiply by

0.80.

Because of the characteristic form of beech

and henalock, modification also should be made

if applied to these two species:

Beech - multiply by 1. 2

Hemlock - multiply by 0.85

Rule of Thumb

If tables are not available, approximate

volume (Scribner) can be obtained in terms

of d.b.h. by applying the simple formula:

Board feet (Scribner) = d (d + x), in which

d = d.b.h. in inches,

and X = "+3 for 3M log trees (56 feet merchantable height)

= 0 for 3 log trees (48 feet merchantable height)

= -3 for 2% log trees (40 feet merchantable height)

= -6 for 2 log trees (32 feet merchantable height)

= -9 for VA log trees (24 feet merchantable height)

In other words:

For 3 log trees, squaring the diameter gives board feet,

Scribner.

For 3% log trees, add 3 to d.b.h. and multiply by d.b.h.

For 2Î4, 2, or 154-log trees, subtract 3, 6, or 9, respectively,

from d.b.h. and multiply by d.b.h.
94 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

VOLUME PER TREE -- INTERNATIONAL RULE

Tree

Qi âniG ter

Merchantable 'height in feet

(inches) 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96

Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft.

10 36 48 59 66 73 __

11 46 61 76 86 96 -- _,

12 56 74 92 106 120 128 137 _.

13 67 90 112 130 147 158 168 „„ --

14 78 105 132 153 174 187 200 __ __

15 92 124 156 182 208 225 242 " -- -. --

16 106 143 180 210 241 263 285

17 121 164 206 242 278 304 330 __ _-

18 136 184 233 274 314 344 374 __ -_

19 154 209 264 311 358 392 427 =.- __

20 171 234 296 348 401 440 480 511 542 — -

21 191 262 332 391 450 496 542 579 616

22 211 290 368 434 500 552 603 647 691 ._

23 231 318 404 478 552 608 663 714 766 _.

24 251 346 441 523 605 664 723 782 840 __

25 275 380 484 574 665 732 800 865 930 — —

26 299 414 528 626 725 801 877 949 1,021

27 323 448 572 680 788 870 952 1,032 1,111 .„

28 347 482 616 733 850 938 1,027 1,114 1,201 1,280 1,358

29 375 521 667 794 920 1,016 1,112 1,210 1,308 1,398 1,488

30 403 560 718 854 991 1,094 1,198 1,306 1,415 1,517 1,619

31 432 602 772 921 1,070 1,184 1,299 1,412 1,526 1,640 1,754

32 462 644 826 988 1,149 1,274 1,400 1,518 1,637 1,762 1,888

33 492 686 880 1,053 1,226 1,360 1,495 1,622 1,750 1,888 2,026

34 521 728 934 1,119 1,304 1,447 1,590 1,727 1,864 2,014 2,163

35 555 776 998 1,196 1,394 1,548 1,702 1,851 2,000 2,156 2,312

36 589 826 1,063 1,274 1,485 1,650 1,814 1,974 2,135 2,298 2,461

37 622 873 1,124 1,351 1,578 1,752 1,926 2,099 2,272 2,444 2,616

38 656 921 1,186 1,428 1,670 1,854 2,038 2,224 2,410 2,590 2,771

39 694 976 1,258 1,514 1,769 1,968 2,166 2,359 2,552 2,744 2,937 40 731 1,030 1,329 1,598 1,868 2,081 2,294 2,494 2,693 2,898 3,103
APPENDIX J 95

VOLUME PER TREE -- SCRIBNER RULE

Tree Merchantabl(3 height in feet

diameter

(inches) 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96

Bd, Bd. ßdl Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd.

ft. ft. /*. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.

10 28 36 44 48 52 -- -- — — — —

11 38 49 60 67 74 -- -- -- -- -- --

12 47 61 75 85 95 100 106 -- -- — --

13 58 76 94 107 120 128 136 — — -- --

14 69 92 114 130 146 156 166 -- -- — --

15 82 109 136 157 178 192 206 — -"

-- ""

16 95 127 159 185 211 229 247 -- -- — -

17 109 146 184 215 246 268 289 — — -- --

18 123 166 209 244 280 306 331 -- -- -- ""

19 140 190 240 281 322 352 382 — -- -- * -

20 157 . 214 270 317 364 398 432 459 486 -" """

21 176 240 304 358 411 450 490 523 556 — -

22 194 266 338 398 458 504 549 588 626 -- --

23 214 294 374 441 508 558 607 652 698 — --

24 234 322 409 . 484 558 611 665 718 770 -- --

25 258 355 452 534 617 678 740 799 858 -- ~~

26 281 388 494 585 676 745 814 880 945 .- -

27 304 420 536 636 736 811 886 959 1,032 — —

28 327 452 578 686 795 877 959 1,040 1,120 1,190 1,261

29 354 491 628 746 864 953 1,042 1,132 1,222 1,306 1,389

30 382 530 678 806 933 1,028 1,124 1,224 1,325 1,421 1,517

31 411 571 731 871 1.011 1,117 1,223 1,328 1,434 1,541 1,648

32 440 612 784 936 1,089 1,206 1,322 1,432 1,543 1,661 1,779

33 469 654 838 1,001 1,164 1,209 1,414 1,534 1,654 1,783 1,912

34 498 695 892 1,066 1,239 1,373 1,507 1,636 1,766 1,906 2,046

35 530 742 954 1,141 1,328 1,473 1,618 1,757 1,896 2,044 2,192

36 563 789 1,015 1,216 1,416 1,572 1,728 1,877 2,026 2,182 2,338

37 596 836 1,075 1,290 1,506 1,670 1,835 1,998 2,160 2,324 2,488

38 629 882 1,135 1,366 1,596 1,769 1,942 2,118 2,295 2,466 2,637

39 666 935 1,204 1,449 1,694 1,881 2,068 2,251 2,434 2,616 2,799

40 703 988 1,274 1,532 1,791 1,993 2,195 2,384 2,574 2,768 2,961
96 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

VOLUME PER TREE -- DOYLE RULE

Tree

diameter Pilerchantable height in feet

(inches) 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96

Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd. Bd.

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft.

10 14 17 20 21 22 -- -- -- '- .- —

'11 22 27 32 35 38 __ -- -- -- __ --

12 29 36 43 48 53 54 56 »- .- -- —

13 38 48 59 66 73 76 80 -- -- -- —

14 48 62 75 84 93 98 103 -- -- .- _-

15 60 78 96 108 121 128 136 — -- — --

16 72 94 116 132 149 160 170 _- __ -- _»

17 86 113 140 161 182 196 209 -- -- -- —

18 100 132 164 190 215 232 248 -- — ^» --

19 118 156 194 225 256 276 297 -- -. «- -.

20 135 180 225 261 297 322 346 364 383 — .-

21 154 207 260 302 344 . 374 404 428 452 __ «_

22 174 234 295 344 392 427 462 492 521 -- --

23 195 264 332 388 444 483 522 558 594 -- --

24 216 293 370 433 496 539 582 625 668 -- --

25 241 328 414 486 558 609 660 709 758 -- --

26 266 362 459 539 619 678 737 793 849 __ __

27 292 398 505 594 684 749 814 877 940 -- -.-

28 317 434 551 650 750 820 890 961 1,032 1,096 1,161

29 346 475 604 714 824 902 980 1,061 1,142 1,218 1,294

30 376 517 658 778 898 984 1,069 1,160 1,251 1,339 1,427

31 408 562 717 850 983 1,080 1,176 1,273 1,370 1,470 1,570

32 441 608 776 922 1,068 1,176 1,283 1,386 1,488 1,600 1,712

33 474 654 835 9^4 1,152 1,268 1,385 1,497 1,609 1,734 1,858

34 506 700 894 1,064 1,235 1,361 1,487 1,608 1,730 1,866 2,003

35 544 754 964 1,149 1,334 1,472 1,610 1,743 1,876 2,020 2,163

36 581 808 1,035 1,234 1,434 1,583 1,732 1,878 2,023 2,173 2,323

37 618 860 1,102 1,318 1,534 1,694 1,854 2,013 2,172 2,332 2,492

38 655 912 1,170 1,402 1,635 1,805 1,975 2,148 2,322 2,491 2,660

39 698 974 1,250 1,498 1,746 1,932 2,118 2,298 2,479 2,662 2,844

40 740 1,035 1,330 1,594 1,858 2,059 2,260 2,448 2,636 2,832 3,027
APPENDIX J 97

PULPWOOD VOLUME 1 (NORTHERN CONIFERS) ^

D. B. H. Usable height. in feet

(inches)

8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64

Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords

4 0.004 0.008 -- -- -- -- -- _.

5 .010 .018 0.027 -- -- _- __ _-

6 .018 .030 .043 0.058 __ -- -- __

7 .025 .039 .056 .074 0.093 -- -_

8 ,032 .050 .070 .092 .116 0.138 __ __

9 .040 .061 .085 .112 .140 .168 _> --

10 .049 .074 .101 . 132 .167 .200 0.239 0.270

11 .059 .087 .119 .155 .195 .233 .280 .320

12 .070 .100 .138 .180 .225 .271 .324 .365

13 .082 .116 .158 .206 .257 .310 .370 .417

14 .095 .134 .179 233 291 .351 .419 .472

15 _- «- .200 .260 .325 .393 .469 .528

16 -- -- .222 .290 .361 .437 .521 .587

17 _- -- .245 .320 .399 M3 .577 .650

18 .- .» .270 .350 .439 .531 ' .634 .715

19 -- -- .295 .382 .480 .581 .693 .781

20 _- -- .321 .416 .522 .632 .755 .851

21 _- -_ -. .452 .566 .685 .818 .922

22 -- -- — .490 .612 .739 .883 .995

23 -- -- -- -- .659 .796 .950 1.07

24 -- -- _- _- -- .855 1.02 1.15

25 -- -- .-- -- — .914 1.09 1.23

^ Volume above a 1-foot stump in standard unpeeled cords. Usable 8-foot bolts to a variable top diameter not

less than 4 inches inside the bark.

^ From Technical Note No. 241, Lake States Forest Experiment Station.

PULPWOOD VOLUME ^(SOUTHERN PtNE)^

D. B. H. Usable height in feet

(inches) 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64

Cu, Qi. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Cu. Qi. Cu. Cu.

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft- ft.

6 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.8 4.3 4.8 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

8 -- 3.6 4.6 5.5 6.4 7.3 8.3 9.1 10.1 11.0 -- -- _- --

10 -- -- 6.8 8.2 9.5 10.8 12.3 13.6 14.9 16.3 17.7 19.0 20.4 --

12 -- -- -- 11.2 13.0 14.9 16.7 18.6 20.5 22.3 24.2 26.0 27.9 29.8

14 -- _- _- -- 16.8 19.3 21,7 24.0 26.5 28.9 3L3 33.7 36.1 38.5

16 -- -- -- -- -- 23.8 26,9 29.8 32.8 35.8 38.8 4L7 44.7 47.7

^ Volume above stump in cubic feet, by 4-foot lengths to a variable top diameter of 5 inches outside the bark.

To obtain cords or units of wood divide sum of cubic volumes above by: 90 for a 128 cu. ft. cord, 102 for a 144

cu. ft. cord, and 113 for a 160 cu. ft, cord.

This table also will give approximate cubic feet contents of any species of trees whose diameters at one-half

merchantable height range from 73 to 83 percent of the diameter at breast height.

Adapted from tables prepared by Southern Forest experiment Station.
98 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

APPENDIX K

VOLUME IN TREE TOPS (HARDWOODS)

Fuelwooci above merchantable stem ^ * ^

D. B. H.

(inches)

Height above merchantable stem in feet (Total height minus merchantable height)

20 30 40 50 60 70

Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords

12 _,. 1/10 1/10 1/6 1/6

14 --- 1/10 1/6 1/6 1/4 1/4

16 1/10 1/10 1/6 1/4 1/3 1/3

18 1/10 1/6 1/4 1/3 1/3 1/2

20 1/10 1/4 1/3 1/2 1/2 2/3

22 1/6 1/4 1/3 V2 2/3 3/4

24 1/6 1/3 1/2 2/3 3/4 1

26 1/4 1/2 2/3 3/4 1 1 1/6

28 V3- 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/6 1 1/4

30 1/3 2/^ 3/4 1 1 1/4

For estimating approximate volume of stacked fuelwood in tops and branches above merchantable height. Merchantable

height is the distance above the stump to an 8 inch top or where the rrerch an table stem is otherwise limited by large

branches or defects.

Adapted from "Timber Cruising," Girard and Gevorkiantz, U. S. Forest Service, 1939, using converting factor of

67 cubic feet per cord.
A horizon, 7

Accountings woodland, 75-77

Acid soils, 17, 24

Alkaline soils, 17

AiTimate, 38

Area--

basal, 65, App» F

converting factors, App. A

of plots, 65, App. A

Aspect, 7

Axes, 55

B horizon, 7

Back fire, 28

Barns, 61

Barrels, 51

Basal area, 65, App. F

Beach grass, 23

Beaver, 39

Biltmore stick, 66

Biotic factor of site, 7

Black walnut, 43

Blocks, cutting, 72

Board foot--

converting factors, 70,

App. B, E

defined, 41

in logs, 41, App. C

in trees, App. J

weight o£; App. H

Board ineasure, 41, App. G

Bolts--

stave, 51

tie, 45, App. I

Broadleaf trees, 59

Browsing, 34

Brush--

control, 37-39

disposal, 56

Buildings, farm, 59-61

Burning, 27-28

Cambium, 5, 6

Cat face, 42

Calcareous soils, 7

Carrying capacity, livestock, 35

Cellulose, 5, 62

Chain saws, 55

Chain, surveyor's,- App. A

Charcoal, 50

Chlorophyl, 5

Chord foot, 51

Christmas trees, 14, 21, 50

Clear-cut, 11, 12

Clearing land, 37

Climax type, 9

Competition, 7

Compound interest, 79,App,

D

Conifers, 2, 17, 59

INDEX

Construction, building, 59-61

Contact sprays, 31

Contour furrows, 21

Contract, timber sale, 54

Controlled burning, 10

Controlled, grazing, 36

Conversion tables, 61, App.

A, B

Cooperage, 51

Cooperative marketing, 52

Coppice, 12

Cord--

defined, 47, 51

converting factors, App. B,

E

weight per, 47, App. H

Cordwood, in trees, App. E,

J

See also Fuelwood

Creosote, 63

Crook, 42

Crop yields, 23

Cross-haul, 56

Cross ties. See Ties.

Cruise, 65

Cruiser stick, 66

Cubic feet--

c onverting factor, App.. B

of cylinders, App. F

volume table, App. J

weight per, App. H

Cultivation, 22

Cull-percent, 68

Cut--

determination of, 69

regulation of, 71

Cutting cycle, 72

Cuttings, for planting, 19

D.b.h. , 41

DDT, 31

Decay, 33, 62

Decimal C, Scribner log rule,

App. C, J

Deciduous, 17

Deer, 39

Defect, 42, 68

Deferred returns, 79

Density, 61, 69

Diameter breast high, 41

Diameter class, 65, 71

Dimension stock, 41

Direct seeding, 18

Diseases, tree, 29, 32

Dote, 42

Doyle log rule, App. C, J

Drainage, soil, 7

Drying luraber, 60

Durability of wood, 62

Ecology, 9-10

Economics, 75-81

Erosion, 16, 22, 27, 34

Exotic trees, 17

Exposure, 7, 69

Farm buildings, 60

Farm construction, 59-61

Farm woodland classes, 72

Fence posts--

general, 19, 52, 62

converting factors, App. B

durability, 62

preservation, 63

Fencing, 36

Fertility, soil, 7, 17

Fertilizer, 17

Fire--

general, 27-29

back, 28

crown, 29

ground, 28

surface, 28

suppression, 28

Firebreaks, 27

Firewood. See Fuelwood.

Flooring, 59

Food, plant, 5

Forest fires, 27-29

Framing, 59

Freezing, nursery stock, 19

Freight, 53, App. H

Frost crack, 42

Fuelwood--

general, 47

converting factors, 47,

App. B, E

use on farmL, 52, 59

volume tables, App. E, K

weight, 47, App. H

Fungi, 32, 62

Girdling, 13

Grades, lumber, 42

Grape vine removal, 15

Grazing, 34-36

Group selection, 12

Growing stock, 7, 69

Growth--

general, 5, 11, 56, 75

standing tin:iber, 67-70, 75

relative rate, 19, 56, 61,

62

Hardwood lumber, 42, 59, 61

Hardwoods, 1, 59

Harvesting, 52, 55, 56

Hauling, 54, 56, App. H

Heartwood, 6, 61-63

Heat value, wood, 47

Heeling-in, 21

Herbicides, 38

99
100 FORESTRY HANDBOOK FOR THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI REGION

Home use, wood, 52, 59-61

Improvement cutting, 13

Income, 52, 75-80

Increment, 69

Infiltration, 27

Insecticides, 31

Insects, 28-31

Interest--

compound, 79, App. D

simple, 75

International rule, App. C, J

Intolerant trees, 7, 71

Inventory, timber, 65-68

Joists, 59

Kerf, App. C

Killing trees, 37-39

Knots, 42

Labor requirements, 80

Labor return, r75, 80

Lead arsenate, 31

Length, conversions, App. A

Lignin, 5, 62

Livestock, 34-38

Log--

grades, 41, 44

rules, 41, App. C

Logging, 55, 56

Logs--

cutting of, 55

weight of, App. ^H

Lumber--

board measure, 41, App. G

construction, 42, 59

drying time, 6l

durability, 62

grades, 42

in logs, 41, App. C

in trees, App. E, J

piling, 60

preservation, 63

side, from ties, 45, App. I

use on farm, 52, 59

weight of, App. H

yard, 43

Management plans, 72

Management, woodland, 65,

72, 78

Maple sirup, 35, 48

Marketing, 52

Maturity, 11

Measurement--

fuelwood, 47, App. K

lumber, 42, App. G

piling, 46

poles, 46

pulpwood, 51, App. J

railroad ties, 45, App, I

sawlogs, 41, App. C

stave baits, 51

standing timber, 65-68,

App. J

Merchantable height, 66,

Mice, 7, 19, 39

Mineral requirements, 7

Mulching, 19, 22

Nailing hardwoods, 61

Natural reproduction, 8, 11

Nicotine sulfate, 31

Nursery stock--

handling, 19

size, 17, 18

Osmose process, 63

Pasture--

carrying capacity, 35

improvement, 37

production, 35

Pentachlorphenol, 63

Phloem, 5

Piling, 46

Piling, lumber, 60

Pines, identification, 3

Plans, management, 72

Plant g rowth, 5

Plant succession, 9-10

Planting - -

c utting s, 19

machines, 22

methods, 19, 21

mixtures, 17

season, 20

seed spots, 18

shelterbelts, 23

species, 16

stock, 17-19

stripped coal land, 24

windbreaks, 23

wind erosion, 22

Plots, sample, 65, Ápp= A

Plowing in trees, 22

Poisoning trees, 38

Poisonous plants, 36

Poles, 46

Posts. See Fence posts.

Porcupine, 39

Pow^er sa^vs, 55

Preservation, wood, 63

Pressure treatments, 63

Prevention, fire, 27

Prices, timber, 41, 81

Production cost, lumber, 41

Products, woodland, 41-55

Protection--

disease, 29, 32

fire, 27, 28

grazing, 34-36

insects, 29-31

rodents, 39

Pruning, 14

Pulpwood, 19, 51

volume tables, App. J

Rabbits, 39

Rafters, 59

Railroad car capacity, App. H

Railroad ties. See Ties.

Regulation of cut, 71

Reproduction, 7, 11, 12

Returns, financial, 75-80

Rick of wood, 47

Rodents, 19, 39

Roof boards, 59

Root-top ratio, 18

Rot, 42

Rotation, 72

Rules, log, 41, App. C

Runoff, 27, 34, 35

Sample plots, 65, App. A

Sapwood, 6, 62

Sawlogs, 41

Saws, 55

Scale, log, 41, App. C

Scale stick, 41

Scribner Decimal G rule,

App. C, J

Seam, 42

Seasoning lumber, 6l

Seed spots, 18

Seed trees, 11

Seedlings, 17

Selection, cutting method, 11

Shake, 42

Shearing pine, 14

Sheathing, 59

Shelterbelts, 23, 24

Shipping weights, forest

products, App. H.

Side lumber from ties, 45,

App. 1

Siding, 59

Sills, 59

Silviculture, 11-25

Sirup, maple, 35, 48, 80

Site, 5

Site preparation, 21

Slabwood, App, E

Slash disposal, 56

Slope, direction, 7

Snowshoe hare, 39

Sodium arsenite, 38

Sodium chlorate, 38

Softwoods, 59

Soil--

development, 7

losses, 27, 34, 35

ncioisture, 5
INDEX 101

Spacing, 21, 24

Specific gravity, wood, 61,

App. H

Specifications, wood products, 41-51

Sprout growth, 12, 37

Squirrels, 18, 39

Stave bolts, 51

Steeping process, 64

Stock, planting. See Nursery

stock.

Stocking, 69-71

Stomach sprays, 31

Strip-mines, 24

Studding, 59

Stumpage, 43, 53

Stumps, walnut, 43

Subsoil, 7

Succession, plant, 9-10

Sustained yield, 71, 75

Sweep, 42

Syrup. See sirup.

Thinning, 13

Ties--

bolts, 45

converting factors, App. B

in trees, App. I

railroad, 45, App. J

specifications, 45

Timber--

inventory, 65-68

prices, 82

Tire-tube method, 63

Tolerance, 8

Tools, logging, 54-56

Topsoil, 7

Topwood, App. K

Transplants, 18

Transportation, App. H

Treatment, to preserve

wood, 63-64

Tree growth, 5

Tree names, 1

Trees per acre, 21, 71

Truck capacity, App. H

Use, wood, on farms, 52,

59-64

Utilization, 59-64

Valuation, 75-77

Value s - -

pasture, 35

timber, 75, 80, 82

Veneer, 19, 44

Vines, 15

Volume tables, 67, App, J

Walnut, black, 43

Weeding, woodland, 12

Weight, wood, 47, App. H

Wild animals, 39

Wildlings, 17, 19

Windbreaks, 23, 24

Wind-erosion planting, 22

Wolf tree, 13

Wood--

heat value, 47

use on farm, 52, 59-64

weight of, 47, App. H

Wood preservation, 63, 64

Woodland--

classes of, 72

improvement, 13-15

management, 65-73, 78

pasture, 34-36

Xylem, 5

Yellow-bellied sapsucker, 39

Yield--

grass, 35

timber, 69-70

Zinc chloride, 64