1 

UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT 

EASTERN DISTRICT OF MICHIGAN 

SOUTHERN DIVISION 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 

 Plaintiff, Case No. 14-cr-20677 

 Hon. Matthew F. Leitman 

v. 

ANTONIO AMAR FULLER, 

 Defendant. 

_________________________________/ 

OPINION AND ORDER GRANTING DEFENDANT’S MOTION TO 

SUPPRESS EVIDENCE (ECF #14) 

 On October 11, 2014, Defendant Antonio Fuller (“Fuller”) was walking 

alongside a road in Superior Township when two Washtenaw County Sheriff 

Deputies stopped him for questioning. The deputies were seeking to execute an 

outstanding arrest warrant against a man named Gerald Warlix (“Warlix”), and one 

of the deputies mistakenly believed that Fuller was Warlix. Fuller informed the 

deputies that he was not Warlix and produced identification confirming that fact. 

Nonetheless, the deputies continued to detain Fuller in order to check whether 

there were any outstanding warrants for Fuller. While one of the deputies 

conducted the warrant check, the other deputy approached Fuller to perform a pat 

down search. Fuller stated that he did not consent to being patted down, and when 

the deputy touched Fuller’s arm, Fuller fled on foot. The deputies eventually 

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caught Fuller, subdued him, and found a loaded handgun in Fuller’s pocket. 

Because Fuller had previously been convicted of a felony, he was not permitted to 

possess the gun. 

The government has charged Fuller with one count of being a felon in 

possession of a firearm in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(1). (See ECF #7.) 

Fuller has now moved to suppress all of the evidence seized from his person on 

October 11, 2014 (the “Motion to Suppress”). (See ECF #14.) The Court 

concludes that the deputies had no lawful basis to continue detaining Fuller after 

they determined that he was not Warlix and that the evidence seized from Fuller 

was the fruit of the unlawful continued detention. The Court further determines 

that suppression is the appropriate remedy for this Fourth Amendment violation. 

Accordingly, the Court GRANTS Fuller’s Motion to Suppress. 

 

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FACTUAL FINDINGS

 The Court held evidentiary hearings on the Motion to Suppress on February 

6 and March 9, 2015. (See Hearing Transcript I, ECF #23, and Hearing Transcript 

II, ECF #24.) Fuller was present for the hearing, but he did not testify. Based on 

all of the evidence presented at the hearings, the Court makes the following factual 

findings:1

A. While Looking for Warlix, the Deputies Detained Fuller and Quickly 

Determined That He Was Not Warlix 

1. On the evening of October 11, 2014, Washtenaw County Sheriff 

Deputies Joseph Montgomery (“Deputy Montgomery”) and Paul Corrie (“Deputy 

Corrie,” collectively the “Deputies”) were on patrol near MacArthur Boulevard 

and Wiard Boulevard in Superior Township, Michigan. (See Tr. I at 7-10, 67; Pg. 

ID 132-35, 192.) They were in full uniform and were driving a marked 

Washtenaw County Sheriff’s vehicle. (See id. at 11-12, Pg. ID 136-37.) 

2. The Deputies were looking for a man named Gerald Warlix. (See id.) 

Warlix was a suspect in a stolen vehicle investigation, and a warrant had been 

issued for Warlix’s arrest. (See id.) 

 

1

 The Court provides supporting citations as examples of material in the record 

that supports the Court’s findings. By providing a specific citation, the Court does 

not mean to imply that the cited evidence is the sole support in the record for a 

particular finding. The Court’s findings are based upon the totality of the evidence 

presented at the two evidentiary hearings. 

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3. Deputy Montgomery was familiar with Warlix because he had 

previously arrested Warlix on Wiard Boulevard. (See id. at 12-13, Pg. ID 137-38.) 

4. As Deputy Corrie drove the vehicle on Wiard Boulevard, Deputy 

Montgomery observed a black man walking along the side of the road. (See id. at 

12, Pg. ID 137.) 

5. Deputy Montgomery thought that the pedestrian was Warlix. (See id.

at 13, Pg. ID 138.) The pedestrian was the same race and approximately the same 

height, weight, and age as Warlix, and the pedestrian was walking in 

approximately the same area as Montgomery’s prior interaction with Warlix. (See 

id. at 13, Pg. ID 138.) 

6. Deputy Montgomery told Deputy Corrie that he thought that the 

pedestrian was Warlix. (See id. at 14, Pg. ID 139.) 

7. The pedestrian was not Warlix; he was Fuller. (See id. at 19, Pg. ID 

144.) 

8. Deputy Corrie pulled the vehicle to the side of the road and parked the 

vehicle in front of Fuller. (See id. at 14-15, Pg. ID 139-40.) Deputy Montgomery 

then exited the vehicle, approached Fuller, and began speaking to him. (See id. at 

15, Pg. ID 140.) 

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9. The manner in which Deputy Montgomery communicated with Fuller 

indicated to Fuller – from the very beginning of their encounter – that Fuller was 

required to engage with him (Deputy Montgomery).2

 (See id. at 62, Pg. ID 187.) 

10. Deputy Montgomery addressed Fuller as “Gerald Warlix.” (See id. at 

15, Pg. ID 140.) 

11. Fuller responded that he was not Warlix, and he identified himself as 

“Antonio Fuller.” (See id. at 15, Pg. ID 140.) 

12. Deputy Montgomery, who had been joined by Deputy Corrie on the 

side of Wiard Boulevard, asked Fuller to produce identification. (See id. at 16-17, 

Pg. ID 141-42.) 

13. Fuller handed Deputy Montgomery his identification, and Deputy 

Montgomery reviewed the identification. (See id. at 18-19, Pg. ID 143-44.) The 

identification indicated to Deputy Montgomery that the person to whom he was 

speaking was Fuller. (See id.) 

14. As soon as Deputy Montgomery completed his review of Fuller’s 

identification, he was satisfied that person with whom he was speaking was Fuller 

and was not Warlix. (See id.; see also id. at 45, Pg. ID 170.) At that point, Deputy 

Montgomery had completed the task that he set out to accomplish when he 

initiated the stop. 

 

2

 Deputy Montgomery acknowledged this precise fact during the evidentiary 

hearing before the Court. (See id. at 62, Pg. ID 187.) 

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15. Deputy Corrie heard Fuller identify himself as Fuller and not Warlix. 

(See id. at 74-75, Pg. ID 199-200.) Deputy Corrie was also satisfied that the 

person with whom Deputy Montgomery was speaking was Fuller and not Warlix. 

(See id.; see also id. at 95, Pg. ID 220.) Deputy Corrie had never met Fuller and 

was not familiar with Fuller’s name. (See id. at 74, Pg. ID 199.) 

B. Deputy Montgomery Recognized Fuller’s Name Because One Year 

Earlier Deputy Montgomery Had Investigated Assault Allegations 

Against Fuller. But at the Time the Deputies Stopped Fuller, Deputy 

Montgomery Did Not Know Whether Fuller Had Ever Been Charged 

for the Alleged Assault 

16. Deputy Montgomery recognized Fuller’s name. (See id. at 18, Pg. ID 

143.) Deputy Montgomery recalled that he had been the officer in charge of an 

investigation in which Fuller had been a suspect. (See id. at 19, Pg. ID 144.) 

17. Specifically, Deputy Montgomery remembered that in November 

2013, he received a complaint that Fuller had physically assaulted a young man 

during a game of pick-up basketball (the “November 2013 Incident”). (See id. at 

21-22, Pg. ID 146-47.) The complaint also alleged that Fuller threatened the 

young man by wielding a knife and lifting up his shirt to reveal a handgun in the 

waistband of his pants. (See id.) Deputy Montgomery took the statements of 

witnesses and submitted a report about the November 2013 Incident to the 

Washtenaw County Prosecuting Attorney (the “Prosecuting Attorney”). (See id. at 

22, Pg. ID 147.) 

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18. By March 2014, the Prosecuting Attorney still had not issued any 

charges against Fuller in connection with the November 2013 Incident. That 

month, the Prosecuting Attorney asked Deputy Montgomery to conduct additional 

investigative work on the case. Specifically, the Prosecuting Attorney directed 

Deputy Montgomery to contact the alleged victim and obtain a better description 

of the knife that Fuller allegedly brandished. (See id. at 24, Pg. ID 149.) 

19. The March 2014 request from the Prosecuting Attorney – asking 

Deputy Montgomery to gather additional information – was the last thing that 

Deputy Montgomery recalled hearing from the Prosecuting Attorney about the 

November 2013 Incident. (See id. at 46, Pg. ID 171.) 

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C. Even Though Deputy Montgomery Had No Idea Whether Fuller Had 

Been Charged With Any Crime Nor Whether There Was an 

Outstanding Warrant for Fuller, Deputy Montgomery Decided to 

Continue to Detain Fuller to Run a Warrant Check 

20. As Deputy Montgomery spoke to Fuller on the side of Wiard 

Boulevard on October 11, 2014, Deputy Montgomery had no idea whether Fuller 

had been charged with any crime in connection with the November 2013 Incident. 3

(See Tr. II at 17, Pg. ID 288.) In fact, Deputy Montgomery asked Fuller about the 

status of the investigation because he (Deputy Montgomery) did not know whether 

there was an outstanding warrant for Fuller. (See Tr. I at 25, Pg. ID 150; see also 

Tr. II at 28, Pg. ID 299.) 

21. Deputy Montgomery nonetheless decided to continue to detain, and 

did continue to detain, Fuller in order to check whether Fuller had an outstanding 

arrest warrant. (See Tr. I at 49, Pg. ID 174; see also id. at 44, Pg. ID 169 (“he’s not 

free to leave until I determine [whether] he has a warrant”).) 

 

3

 It turns out that in April 2014, the Prosecuting Attorney did bring an assault and 

battery charge against Fuller in connection with the November 2013 Incident. (See 

Tr. II at 20-21, Pg. ID 291-92.) Deputy Montgomery had been identified as the 

officer in charge of that case (see id. at 18, Pg. ID 289), but he did not recall that 

fact (nor did he recall the criminal charges) as he spoke to Fuller on the side of 

Wiard Boulevard in October 2014. (See id. at 17, Pg. ID 288.) Notably, the 

criminal charges against Fuller had been dismissed several months before Deputy 

Montgomery encountered Fuller in October of 2014. (See id. at 24, Pg. ID 295.) 

Additional facts concerning the criminal charges that were filed against Fuller and 

their significance to this motion are discussed below in Part C. 

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22. At the time Deputy Montgomery decided to conduct the warrant 

check, he did not affirmatively believe that there was an outstanding warrant for 

Fuller; he simply did not know whether Fuller was the subject of an outstanding 

warrant.4

 (See, e.g., Tr. I at 24, 46, 49; Pg. ID 149, 171, 174; see also Tr. II at 26, 

28-29, Pg. ID 297, 299-300.) 

23. At the point Deputy Montgomery decided to continue his detention of 

Fuller to run the warrant check, the Deputies had no reason to believe that Fuller 

had committed any criminal conduct on the day of the encounter – i.e., on October 

11, 2014. (See id. at 49, 95; Pg. ID 174, 220.) Fuller’s behavior during the 

encounter did not make the Deputies suspicious that Fuller was engaged in 

criminal activity. (See id.) 

24. Moreover, Fuller complied with all of Deputy Montgomery’s 

instructions up to the point that Deputy Montgomery decided to run the warrant 

check. (See id.) 

 

4

 At one point during the evidentiary hearings, Deputy Montgomery testified that 

he “actually did believe that there was a warrant out for [Fuller’s] arrest.” (Tr. I at 

43, Pg. ID 168.) The Court declines to credit this testimony. Instead, the Court 

credits Deputy Montgomery’s repeated acknowledgment that he “did [not] know 

one way or the other whether an arrest warrant had been issued” (id. at 24, Pg. ID 

149); that he “didn’t know whether or not there was any warrant” (id. at 46, Pg. ID 

171); that he “d[id] not know if there [wa]s a warrant” (id. at 49, Pg. ID 174); and 

that he “didn’t know whether ... a warrant was outstanding” (Tr. II at 26 Pg. ID 

297). 

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D. Deputy Montgomery Began to Conduct a Pat Down Search of Fuller, 

Fuller Fled on Foot, and the Deputies Caught and Arrested Him 

25. Deputy Montgomery handed Fuller’s identification to Deputy Corrie 

so that Deputy Corrie could run the warrant check. (See Tr. I at 18, Pg. ID 143.) 

26. While Deputy Corrie began running the warrant check, Deputy 

Montgomery informed Fuller that he was going to conduct a pat down for 

weapons. (See id. at 25, Pg. ID 150.) Based on his recollection of the allegations 

about the November 2013 Incident, Deputy Montgomery thought it was possible 

that Fuller might be carrying a weapon at the time of their encounter on Wiard 

Boulevard. (Id.) 

27. Fuller then backed away from Deputy Montgomery, looked to his left 

and right, and extended his hands in front of himself. (See id.) 

28. Deputy Montgomery became concerned that Fuller was going to 

either fight or flee. (Id.) 

29. Deputy Montgomery instructed Fuller to relax, and he moved around 

to Fuller’s side. (See id.) Deputy Montgomery then placed one of his hands on 

Fuller’s shoulder and one hand on Fuller’s elbow in order to calm Fuller down. 

(See id. at 26, Pg. ID 151.) 

30. Fuller informed Deputy Montgomery that he did not consent to being 

searched. (See id.) 

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31. Fuller then broke free from Deputy Montgomery’s grip and began 

running down Wiard Boulevard. (See id. at 26-27, Pg. ID 151-52.) 

32. Deputy Montgomery yelled to Deputy Corrie that Fuller was fleeing, 

and both Deputies pursued Fuller on foot. (See id. at 27, Pg. ID 152.) Deputy 

Corrie commanded Fuller to stop, but Fuller continued running. (See id. at 28, Pg. 

ID 153.) Deputy Corrie ultimately caught up to Fuller and tackled him to the 

ground. (See id. at 29, Pg. ID 154.) Deputy Montgomery handcuffed Fuller while 

Fuller was laying face-down on the ground. (See id. at 30, Pg. ID 155.) 

33. Deputy Montgomery then conducted a pat down of Fuller and found a 

loaded handgun in Fuller’s back pocket. (See id.) Deputy Montgomery placed 

Fuller under arrest. (See id. at 31, Pg. ID 156.) 

34. The Deputies escorted Fuller back to their patrol vehicle. (See id.) 

Once the Deputies secured Fuller in the patrol vehicle, Deputy Montgomery 

finished running the warrant check on Fuller and determined that there was no 

outstanding warrant for Fuller. (See id. at 31-32, Pg. ID 156-57.) 

 

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ANALYSIS

 Fuller now seeks suppression of the evidence seized from him on the ground 

that the evidence was the fruit of his unlawful detention. For the reasons explained 

below, the Court concludes that suppression of the evidence is warranted. 

A. Fuller Was Seized Immediately When Deputy Montgomery Began 

Questioning Him 

The Fourth Amendment prohibits “unreasonable searches and seizures” by 

government officials. U.S. CONST. Amend. IV. A person is seized within the 

meaning of the Fourth Amendment when a government official, “by means of 

physical force or show of authority, has in some way restrained [his] liberty.” 

Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 16 (1968). The test for whether a seizure has occurred 

is whether “a reasonable person would have believed that he was not free to leave.” 

United States v. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 554 (1980). “[I]n order to determine 

whether a particular encounter constitutes a seizure, a court must consider all the 

circumstances surrounding the encounter to determine whether the police conduct 

would have communicated to a reasonable person that the person was not free to 

decline the officers’ requests or otherwise terminate the encounter.” Florida v. 

Bostick, 501 U.S. 429, 438 (1991). “In addition, an individual must actually 

submit to the show of authority to be seized within the Fourth Amendment.” 

United States v. Williams, 615 F.3d 657, 663 (6th Cir. 2010). 

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The Government contends that the encounter between Fuller and Deputy 

Montgomery was a purely consensual one, not a seizure. (See ECF #26 at 14-18; 

Pg. ID 364-68.) But Deputy Montgomery’s own testimony belies that argument. 

Deputy Montgomery never testified that the encounter was consensual; that Fuller 

could have chosen not to respond to his questions; nor that Fuller was free to leave 

at any time. On the contrary, Deputy Montgomery repeatedly testified that Fuller 

was not free to leave. (See Tr. I at 44, 48-49, 65; Pg. ID 169, 173-74, 190.) 

More importantly, while Deputy Montgomery testified that his initial 

encounter with Fuller was “cooperative” (Id. at 18, Pg. ID 143), he expressly 

conceded – and the Court finds as a matter of fact – that “the manner in which 

[Deputy Montgomery] initially communicated with Fuller” indicated to Fuller that 

Fuller was “required to engage” with him. (Id. at 62, Pg. ID 187; emphasis 

added.) Deputy Montgomery did not merely ask Fuller if he was “willing to 

answer some questions,” Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491, 497 (1983) (no seizure if 

officer asks person if he will answer questions); instead, as Deputy Montgomery 

admitted, his words, tone, and actions – “the manner in which [he] communicated 

with Fuller” – conveyed to Fuller that Fuller was obligated to stop and speak with 

him. Accordingly, a reasonable person in Fuller’s position would have believed 

that he was not free to leave. See Mendenhall, 446 U.S. at 554 (a seizure occurs 

where an officer uses “language or a tone of voice indicating that compliance with 

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the officer’s request might be compelled.”) Indeed, the Government has not cited a 

single case in which any court has found a citizen-officer encounter to have been 

consensual where, as here, the officer admitted that the citizen was not free to 

leave and admitted that his manner of communication conveyed that fact to the 

citizen.5

 

The Government counters that Deputy Montgomery’s testimony merely 

revealed his subjective intent concerning whether Fuller was free to leave and that 

his intent is irrelevant to a proper seizure analysis. (See ECF #26 at 16-17, Pg. ID 

366-67.) While it is generally true that an officer’s subjective intent in detaining 

an individual is not relevant to the Fourth Amendment seizure analysis, see United 

States v. Campbell, 486 F.3d 949, 954 (6th Cir. 2007), the subjective intent of an 

officer is relevant “to the extent that intent has been conveyed to the person 

confronted.” United States v. Rose, 889 F.2d 1490, 1493 (6th Cir. 1989). Here, 

 

5

 The Government compares the interaction between Deputy Montgomery and 

Fuller to the citizen-police encounters found to be consensual in United States v. 

Carr, 674 F.3d 570, 573-74 (6th Cir. 2012) and United States v. Campbell, 486 

F.3d 949, 956-57 (6th Cir. 2007). (See ECF #26 at 16-18, Pg. ID 366-368.) But 

those cases are distinguishable. In Carr, the Sixth Circuit noted that the officers 

did not communicate to the citizen in a tone or manner that conveyed that 

compliance was required. See Carr, 674 F.3d at 574. In Campbell, the officer first 

inquired if the citizen was “okay” – a question that implies concern for the 

citizen’s welfare and that would tend to put a citizen at ease rather than cause the 

citizen to believe he was not free to leave – and then told the citizen that he would 

“like” to see the citizen’s identification “just to log that I talked to him.” Campbell, 

486 F.3d at 952, 956. 

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Deputy Montgomery not only subjectively intended to detain Fuller, but he also 

conveyed that intention to Fuller: 

THE COURT: ... [I]s it fair to say that your – the manner in 

which you communicated with Mr. Fuller from the beginning 

indicated to him that he was required to engage with you? 

DEPUTY MONTGOMERY: Yes, your Honor. 

(Tr. I at 62, Pg. ID 187; emphasis added.) Because Fuller submitted to Deputy 

Montgomery as “required” when the questioning began, Fuller was seized under 

the Fourth Amendment from that point forward. 

B. The First Portion of the Seizure – to Determine Whether Fuller was 

Warlix – Was Lawful Because It Was Supported by Reasonable 

Suspicion 

The Fourth Amendment permits a law enforcement officer to conduct a 

temporary investigatory seizure – known as a Terry stop – if the officer 

“reasonably suspects that the person apprehended is committing or has committed 

a criminal offense.” Arizona v. Johnson, 555 U.S. 323, 326 (2009). More than an 

“inchoate and unparticularized suspicion or ‘hunch’” is needed to justify a Terry

stop. Terry, 392 U.S. at 27. Rather, the officer must have a “reasonable suspicion” 

of criminal activity based on “specific and articulable facts.” Id. 

Deputy Montgomery had reasonable suspicion to stop Fuller for the sole 

purpose of determining whether he was Warlix. The Deputies were actively 

looking for Warlix because he was a suspect in a stolen vehicle investigation, and 

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there was an outstanding warrant for Warlix’s arrest. (See Tr. I at 12, Pg. ID 137.) 

Deputy Montgomery was familiar with Warlix because he had previously arrested 

Warlix on Wiard Boulevard. (See id. at 12-13, Pg. ID 137-38.) Deputy 

Montgomery believed that Fuller was Warlix because Fuller was the same race and 

approximately the same height, weight, and age as Warlix, and because Fuller was 

walking in approximately the same area as Deputy Montgomery’s prior interaction 

with Warlix. (See id. at 13, Pg. ID 138.) Under these circumstances, Deputy 

Montgomery had a reasonable, articulable suspicion that Fuller was Warlix and 

that Warlix had engaged in criminal activity. Deputy Montgomery’s initial seizure 

of Fuller was therefore justified. Cf. United States v. Tellez, 11 F.3d 530, 532-33 

(5th Cir. 1993) (police officer had reasonable suspicion justifying Terry stop where 

officer knew that there was an outstanding warrant for the defendant’s arrest). 

C. Deputy Montgomery’s Continued Detention of Fuller – After He 

Determined that Fuller Was Not Warlix – Was Unlawful 

1. An Officer May Not Extend a Seizure to Conduct Additional 

Investigation After the Officer’s Reasonable Suspicion is 

Dispelled 

“The Fourth Amendment allows police to detain a suspect on reasonable 

suspicion only for as long as it takes for the police to test the validity of their 

suspicions.” United States v. Davis, 430 F.3d 345, 357 (6th Cir. 2005). “Officers 

may not detain citizens once their suspicions, however reasonable initially, have 

been dispelled.” Center for Bio-Ethical Reform, Inc. v. City of Springboro, 477 

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F.3d 807, 829 (6th Cir. 2007). Accordingly, “once ... any underlying reasonable 

suspicion [is] dispelled, the ... detention generally must end without undue delay.” 

United States v. Edgerton, 438 F.3d 1043, 1047 (10th Cir. 2006). More 

specifically, an officer may not extend an investigatory stop in order to obtain 

additional information about an individual – such as by requesting/reviewing 

paperwork or running a warrant check – after the officer’s reasonable suspicion for 

the stop has been dispelled.6

 A line of cases from the United States Court of 

Appeals for the Tenth Circuit provides a particularly helpful example of this rule in 

practice. 

In United States v. McSwain, 29 F.3d 558 (10th Cir. 1994), the Tenth Circuit 

held that an officer could not continue to detain a motorist to check the motorist’s 

license and criminal history after the officer’s reasonable suspicion that the 

motorist committed a traffic violation had been dispelled. In that case, Utah 

Highway Patrol Trooper Dennis Avery (“Trooper Avery”) stopped a vehicle 

driving with what he believed to be a partially-obstructed registration sticker. As 

Trooper Avery approached the vehicle, he observed that the vehicle’s sticker was, 

in fact, not obstructed and that the sticker was valid and not expired. Nonetheless, 

Trooper Avery detained the driver to review his license and to conduct a criminal 

 

6

 However, an officer may continue a detention if something that occurred during 

the stop – and before the initial reasonable suspicion dissipated – gives the officer 

additional reasonable suspicion. See, e.g., United States v. Bailey, 302 F.3d 652, 

657-58 (6th Cir. 2002). 

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history check, which revealed that the driver had a suspended driver’s license and a 

lengthy criminal record. Trooper Avery then obtained the driver’s consent to 

search the vehicle and found a gun and a bag containing cocaine. The driver was 

charged with several offenses, and he moved to suppress the gun and cocaine on 

the ground that they were the fruit of an unlawful detention. The Tenth Circuit 

agreed: 

Trooper Avery’s reasonable suspicion regarding the validity of 

[the driver’s] temporary registration sticker was completely 

dispelled prior to the time he questioned [the driver] and 

requested documentation. Having no objectively reasonable 

articulable suspicion that illegal activity had occurred or was 

occurring, Trooper Avery’s actions in questioning [the driver] 

and requesting his license and registration exceeded the limits 

of a lawful investigative detention and violated the Fourth 

Amendment. 

Id. at 561-62 (internal citations and punctuation omitted). 

The Tenth Circuit reached a similar conclusion in Edgerton, supra. In that 

case, Kansas State Trooper Andrew Dean (“Trooper Dean”) stopped a vehicle 

because he could not read its registration tag and believed the tag was obstructed in 

violation of Kansas law. When Trooper Dean approached the vehicle, he 

determined that the tag was not obstructed and that it had appeared unreadable only 

because it was dark outside. Trooper Dean was able to read the tag by shining his 

flashlight on it, and he determined it was valid. Nonetheless, Trooper Dean 

continued to detain the driver and asked for her license and registration. Trooper 

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Dean then obtained the driver’s permission to search the vehicle, in which he 

ultimately found cocaine. The Tenth Circuit held that the driver’s continued 

detention even after Trooper Dean was able to discern the validity of the 

registration tag was unlawful: 

Once Trooper Dean was able to read the ... tag and deem it 

unremarkable, any suspicion that [the driver] had violated 

[Kansas law] dissipated because the tag was ... “in a place and 

position to be clearly visible.” At that point, McSwain instructs 

us for better or worse that Trooper Dean, as a matter of 

courtesy, should have explained to [the driver] the reason for 

the initial stop and then allowed her to continue on her way 

without requiring her to produce her license and registration. 

Edgerton, 438 F.3d at 1051. 7 

 In contrast, when an officer detains a suspect based on reasonable suspicion 

and that reasonable suspicion is not dispelled during the stop, the officer may run a 

warrant check during the stop. That is exactly the distinction that the Tenth Circuit 

drew in United States v. Lyons, 510 F.3d 1225 (10th Cir. 2007). In that case, 

Kansas Highway Patrol Trooper Jarett Ranieri (“Trooper Ranieri”) stopped a 

 

7

 See also State v. Diaz, 850 So.2d 435 (Fla. 2003) (reversing conviction for 

driving with a suspended license where officer detained defendant and requested 

his license after the officer dispelled his suspicion that the defendant’s vehicle’s 

tags were expired); People v. Redinger, 906 P.2d 81, 86 (Colo. 1995) (suppressing 

evidence where officer detained defendant and asked for information after officer 

dispelled his suspicion that the defendant’s vehicle lacked a license plate or 

temporary registration plate); State v. Chatton, 463 N.E.2d 1237, 1240 (Ohio 1984) 

(suppressing evidence where “officer, having detained [defendant] for a suspected 

traffic violation, continued to ... detain [defendant] for the purpose of determining 

the validity of [defendant’s] driver’s license once the officer no longer had reason 

to suspect that [defendant] was committing any traffic violation”). 

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20 

vehicle that he witnessed driving with an illegible license plate. As Trooper 

Ranieri approached the vehicle, he confirmed that the expiration tag on the license 

plate was illegible. Trooper Ranieri requested the driver’s license, checked the 

driver’s criminal history, and learned that the driver had prior drug offenses. 

Trooper Ranieri obtained the driver’s consent to search the vehicle and ultimately 

discovered a large quantity of cocaine. The driver was charged with multiple drugrelated offenses, and he moved to suppress the cocaine on the ground that his 

detention for the purpose of running a criminal history check was unlawful. 

Distinguishing McSwain and Edgerton, the Tenth Circuit held that because 

Trooper Ranieri’s reasonable suspicion that the driver had violated Kansas law was 

not dispelled during the stop, Trooper Ranieri was permitted to check the driver’s 

criminal history during the stop: 

The officers in McSwain and Edgerton were justified in 

stopping the defendant’s vehicle based on a reasonable 

suspicion that a traffic violation was occurring but that 

suspicion evaporated once they observed no violation had 

occurred. Once their suspicion evaporated, the officers had no 

reason to continue to detain the vehicle or its occupants and 

therefore their subsequent actions (requesting the drivers’ 

documents, running a criminal history check, inquiring about 

travel plans and seeking consent to search) were unlawful. This 

case stands in sharp contrast. Ranieri’s suspicion for stopping 

[the] vehicle (illegible expiration tag) did not evaporate, but 

was confirmed, once he stopped [the] vehicle. Therefore, 

Ranieri’s detention of [the driver] while performing a [criminal 

history] check ... did not violate the Fourth Amendment. 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 20 of 44 Pg ID 411
21 

Id. at 1236. This line of Tenth Circuit helpfully illustrates a clear distinction: an 

officer may run a warrant check during a lawful Terry stop if his reasonable 

suspicion supporting the stop has not yet evaporated, but once the officer’s 

reasonable suspicion has been dispelled, the officer may not continue to detain the 

suspect – even for a short time8

 – to run such a check. 

The decisions of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit are 

consistent with this distinction. For instance, in United States v. Young, 707 F.3d 

598 (6th Cir. 2012), the Sixth Circuit upheld an officer’s decision to run a warrant 

check during the course of a valid Terry stop, but the reasonable suspicion 

supporting the stop had not evaporated when the officer conducted the check. The 

officer in Young stopped the suspect based on reasonable suspicion that the suspect 

was trespassing and/or loitering. See id. at 603-05. At the beginning of the stop, 

the officer obtained the suspect’s license and commenced a warrant check. See id. 

at 605. Later in the stop, the suspect offered an explanation for his presence on the 

property in question that, if accepted, could potentially have dispelled the officer’s 

suspicion that the suspect’s presence was unlawful. See id. The Sixth Circuit said 

that it had no need to consider the veracity and/or sufficiency of that explanation 

 

8

 Cf., United States v. Lopez, 443 F.3d 1280, 1285-86 (10th Cir. 2006) (fiveminute detention to check for warrant unreasonable where officer lacked 

reasonable suspicion for stop); Royer, 460 U.S. at 498 (an individual “may not be 

detained even momentarily without reasonable, objective grounds for doing so”) 

(emphasis added).

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 21 of 44 Pg ID 412
22 

because the officer had already started the warrant check before the suspect 

offered the explanation. See id. Thus, the warrant check commenced while 

reasonable suspicion remained intact. 

In contrast, in Davis, supra (which arose in a different context), the Sixth 

Circuit held that officers violated the Fourth Amendment when they continued to 

detain the defendant to investigate possible drug trafficking even after a drugsniffing dog failed to alert to the presence of narcotics, thereby dispelling the 

officers’ reasonable suspicion: 

Once the drug-sniffing dog was brought to the scene and failed 

to alert positively to the presence of narcotics in the vehicle, the 

officers’ suspicions that Davis was in possession of narcotics 

were dispelled.... Given that the police had no reason to 

continue to suspect that Davis possessed narcotics, delaying 

Davis’ vehicle an additional hour in order to permit a second 

examination of the vehicle ... was unreasonable.... [T]o delay 

Davis another hour in order to permit a second search of the 

vehicle simply delayed the release of Davis and his vehicle 

without any investigatory purpose. Such a delay is specifically 

prohibited by the Fourth Amendment. 

Davis, 430 F.3d at 356 (internal citations omitted).9

 Likewise, in United States v. 

Gross, 662 F.3d 393 (6th Cir. 2011), the Sixth Circuit disapproved of a police 

officer’s decision to “continue to detain [a suspect] in order to run a warrant 

 

9 See also Center for Bio-Ethical Reform, 477 F.3d at 829 (finding a Fourth 

Amendment violation where local law enforcement officers detained suspects for 

an investigation by FBI officers, even after the local law enforcement officers’ 

initial investigation dispelled their suspicions that the suspects were engaged in 

criminal activity). 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 22 of 44 Pg ID 413
23 

check” where the suspect did not behave suspiciously during the stop and where 

the officer had “no reasonable grounds to suspect that there might be an 

outstanding warrant....”10 This Court is not aware of any case in which the Sixth 

Circuit has permitted police officers to continue to detain a suspect for the purpose 

of running a warrant check after reasonable suspicion for stopping the suspect has 

evaporated. 

In sum, the cases from the Tenth Circuit, the Sixth Circuit, and the highest 

courts of Florida, Colorado, and Ohio (see n. 7, supra) firmly establish that as soon 

as an officer’s reasonable suspicion for a stop is dispelled, the officer may not 

further detain a suspect in order to obtain additional information through a warrant 

check or records review. The Court now applies this principle to the case at hand. 

2. Deputy Montgomery’s Continued Detention of Fuller in Order to 

Run a Warrant Check Was Unlawful Because Deputy 

Montgomery’s Reasonable Suspicion Was Dispelled As Soon as 

He Realized that Fuller Was Not Warlix 

Deputy Montgomery’s reasonable suspicion for stopping Fuller – i.e., his 

suspicion that Fuller was Warlix – was completely dispelled as soon as Deputy 

Montgomery finished his review of Fuller’s identification. (See Tr. I at 18-19, 45; 

 

10 Gross is not exactly on point because it is not a case in which officers initially 

made a lawful stop that was supported by reasonable suspicion and then continued 

to detain the defendant once that suspicion evaporated. Instead, the stop was 

unlawful from its inception. But Gross nonetheless casts serious doubt on the 

lawfulness of Deputy Montgomery’s continued detention of Fuller in order to run 

the warrant check. 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 23 of 44 Pg ID 414
24 

Pg. ID 143-44, 170.) At that point, Deputy Montgomery understood that the 

person to whom he was speaking was not Warlix. (See id.) 

Once Deputy Montgomery’s reasonable suspicion was dispelled, Deputy 

Montgomery had no objectively reasonable basis to continue to detain Fuller. 

Indeed, Deputy Montgomery admits that he did not suspect that Fuller had 

committed a crime that day. And Deputy Montgomery also admits that, prior to 

his decision to extend the stop to conduct the warrant check, Fuller did not behave 

suspiciously. Accordingly, as soon as Deputy Montgomery realized that Fuller 

was not Warlix, the detention had to end. See Edgerton, 438 F.3d at 1047 (once 

underlying suspicion is dispelled, detention “must end without undue delay”). 

The Government insists that Deputy Montgomery did have reasonable 

suspicion to justify his continued detention of Fuller. The Government argues that 

when Fuller identified himself, Deputy Montgomery remembered Fuller as the 

suspect from the November 2013 Incident and reasonably believed that Fuller had 

an outstanding warrant arising out of that incident. (See ECF #26 at 23, Pg. ID 

373.) Thus, the Government contends, Deputy Montgomery had reasonable 

suspicion to continue detaining Fuller in order to conduct a warrant check. (See 

id.) 

The Government’s argument is flawed in two critical respects. First, as the 

Court found as a matter of fact, Deputy Montgomery did not affirmatively believe 

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25 

that there was a warrant for Fuller’s arrest. On the contrary, Deputy Montgomery 

had no idea whether there was such a warrant (see, e.g., Tr. II at 26, Pg. ID 297); 

he simply wondered whether Fuller may be the subject of a warrant. Deputy 

Montgomery did not even have the sort of “hunch” that, itself, falls short of 

reasonable suspicion. See Terry, 392 U.S. at 27 (reasonable suspicion requires 

more than an “inchoate and unparticularized suspicion or ‘hunch’”). 

Second, even if Deputy Montgomery had believed that there was a warrant 

for Fuller, such a belief would have been pure speculation. As Deputy 

Montgomery spoke to Fuller, he remembered the following: that (1) in November 

of 2013 (nearly one year earlier), he took a report from a person who claimed that 

Fuller committed an assault and brandished a knife; (2) he submitted an incident 

report to the Prosecuting Attorney around that same time; (3) around March of 

2014, the Prosecuting Attorney asked him to complete additional investigative 

work, and he did so; and (4) he had not heard anything about the matter in the 

roughly six months since March of 2014. (See Tr. I at 19-24, Pg. ID 144-49.) For 

all Deputy Montgomery knew, the Fuller matter could have gone many different 

directions in the six months since Deputy Montgomery completed his follow-up 

work. As set forth in the table below, many of those directions would not have 

resulted in an outstanding warrant for Fuller at the time Deputy Montgomery 

stopped him on Wiard Boulevard: 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 25 of 44 Pg ID 416
26 

Possible Status of Fuller Matter Based on 

Deputy Montgomery’s Knowledge as of 

October 2014 

Warrant 

Status 

Prosecuting Attorney declined to charge Fuller 

after reviewing additional information requested 

from Deputy Montgomery 

No warrant 

Prosecuting Attorney charged Fuller with 

offense; Fuller appeared for proceedings; and 

proceedings not yet concluded 

No warrant 

Prosecuting Attorney charged Fuller; Fuller 

appeared for proceedings; proceedings concluded 

through conviction; and sentence completed (or, 

if probationary sentence, in process of being 

served) 

No warrant 

Prosecuting Attorney charged Fuller, and Fuller 

was acquitted of charges No warrant 

Prosecuting Attorney charged Fuller and sent 

warrant to Washtenaw County Sheriff’s office 

where it sat unserved for months 

Warrant 

Prosecuting Attorney charged Fuller and Fuller 

failed to appear for proceedings Warrant 

 As he stood speaking with Fuller, Deputy Montgomery could only have 

guessed as to which path the Fuller matter had taken. Deputy Montgomery had no 

reasoned basis on which to conclude that the matter had proceeded down one of 

the paths that would have resulted in an outstanding warrant. Indeed, he had at 

least some reason to doubt that a warrant had ever been issued. Deputy 

Montgomery recalled that the Prosecuting Attorney did not file charges against 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 26 of 44 Pg ID 417
27 

Fuller based upon his initial report and, instead, insisted upon evaluating additional 

evidence before deciding whether to charge. Against this background, any belief 

by Deputy Montgomery that there was an outstanding warrant for Fuller would 

have been mere speculation and would have fallen far short of reasonable 

suspicion. 

 That is exactly what the Sixth Circuit concluded in Williams, supra. In that 

case, Columbus Police Department Officer Robert Vass (“Officer Vass”) detained 

a suspect whom he believed to be trespassing. Officer Vass had previously 

arrested the suspect for an unrelated infraction. Officer Vass asked the suspect 

whether he had any outstanding warrants, and the suspect admitted that “there 

might be one.” Officer Vass then patted down the suspect and discovered a gun. 

The district court granted the suspect’s motion to suppress the gun on the ground 

that Officer Vass lacked reasonable suspicion to detain the suspect. On appeal, the 

government argued that even if Officer Vass lacked reasonable suspicion that the 

suspect was trespassing, the seizure was nonetheless justified because Officer Vass 

had reasonable suspicion that the suspect had an outstanding warrant. The Sixth 

Circuit affirmed the suppression of the gun. The Sixth Circuit held that Officer 

Vass’ speculation that there may have been a warrant for the suspect – “based 

solely on the fact that [the suspect] previously had been charged with a crime” – 

did not amount to reasonable suspicion: 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 27 of 44 Pg ID 418
28 

[Officer] Vass’s subjective suspicion that [the suspect] might be 

wanted on a warrant was a mere hunch. The fact that a person 

has previously been arrested cannot provide objective 

reasonable suspicion that he missed a court appearance; 

otherwise, officers could detain anyone they know to have 

pending criminal charges. 

Williams, 615 F.3d at 667 & 669. Deputy Montgomery’s conjecture that Fuller 

had an outstanding warrant was even more speculative than in Williams, as Deputy 

Montgomery did not even know whether criminal charges had been filed against 

Fuller. As the Sixth Circuit stated in Williams, such “guesswork is not remotely 

enough for reasonable suspicion.” Id. at 667. 

The Government counters that based on Deputy Montgomery’s experience 

with the Washtenaw County criminal justice system, he reasonably could have 

believed that there was a warrant for Fuller in October of 2014. Specifically, the 

Government notes that Deputy Montgomery testified that, in his experience, (1) it 

was not uncommon for there to be a delay between the submission of an officer’s 

report and charges being filed, and (2) authorities did not always actively seek to 

execute outstanding warrants. (See ECF #26 at 23, Pg. ID 372 (citing Tr. I at 22-

24, 56-58; Pg. ID 147-49, 181-83).) Thus, the Government insists, Deputy 

Montgomery could reasonably have believed that there was an unexecuted warrant 

for Fuller. This argument is unavailing. Notwithstanding Deputy Montgomery’s 

understanding of the system, he had no reasoned basis on which to conclude that 

Fuller had ever been charged with a crime and no reasoned basis for drawing any 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 28 of 44 Pg ID 419
29 

conclusions about the status of a possible warrant for Fuller (if one had ever 

issued). For all of the reasons explained above, Deputy Montgomery did not have 

reasonable suspicion to believe that there was a warrant for Fuller, and thus his 

continued detention of Fuller to run a warrant check was unlawful. 

D. Deputy Montgomery’s Attempt to Pat Down Fuller Was Unlawful 

Because It Was Not In Connection With a Lawful Detention 

“When an individual is subject to a lawful investigative detention, an officer 

may conduct a limited frisk or pat-down of that person for weapons if the officer 

has a reasonable suspicion of criminal activity and a reasonable belief that the 

suspect is armed and dangerous.” United States v. Brown, 20 Fed. App’x 387, 388 

(6th Cir. 2001) (citing Terry, 392 U.S. at 30); see also United States v. Roach, 958 

F.2d 679, 682 (6th Cir. 1992). An officer may not conduct a pat down, however, if 

the officer does not have a lawful basis to detain the suspect. See, e.g., United 

States v. Corona, 661 F.2d 805, 807 (9th Cir. 1981) (“In order to conduct a patdown search, a police officer must be entitled to stop the person to be searched.”); 

see also United States v. Evans, 947 F.Supp.2d 895, 900, 908 (E.D. Tenn. 2013) 

(suppressing evidence discovered during pat down where officers lacked 

reasonable suspicion that defendant had committed a crime). Deputy 

Montgomery’s attempt to pat down Fuller was impermissible because his 

reasonable suspicion to detain Fuller had previously evaporated. Thus, by the time 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 29 of 44 Pg ID 420
30 

Deputy Montgomery began the attempted pat down, he had no lawful basis to 

continue to detain Fuller. 

Deputy Montgomery testified that he needed to pat down Fuller in the 

interest of “officer safety.” (See Tr. I at 25, Pg. ID 150.) But Deputy Montgomery 

became mindful of officer safety only after he realized that the person to whom he 

was speaking was Fuller and not Warlix – i.e., after his reasonable suspicion for 

the stop had been dispelled. (See id.) An officer may not create the circumstances 

necessitating a pat down by unlawfully detaining (or unlawfully continuing to 

detain) a suspect without reasonable suspicion. Cf. Rodriguez v. United States, 135 

S. Ct. 1609, 1616 (2015) (recognizing that officer safety does not justify search 

when officer’s investigation into other crimes “detours” from purpose of initial 

stop). Because Deputy Montgomery lacked a reasonable basis to continue 

detaining Fuller, Deputy Montgomery could not lawfully search Fuller on the 

ground that during the continued detention Fuller posed a potential threat to officer 

safety. 

E. Evidence Seized After Fuller’s Flight Was Fruit of the Poisonous Tree 

“The ‘fruit of the poisonous tree’ doctrine ... bars the admissibility of 

evidence which police derivatively obtain from an unconstitutional search or 

seizure.” United States v. Pearce, 531 F.3d 374, 381 (6th Cir. 2008). However, 

evidence obtained following an unlawful search is not the fruit of the poisonous 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 30 of 44 Pg ID 421
31 

tree if its discovery results from “an intervening independent act of a free will 

sufficient to purge the primary taint of the unlawful invasion.” Wong Sun v. 

United States, 371 U.S. 471, 486 (1963). To assess whether evidence is fruit of the 

poisonous tree, a court must consider whether “the unlawful conduct has become 

so attenuated or has been interrupted by some intervening circumstances so as to 

remove the ‘taint’ imposed upon the evidence by the original illegality.” United 

States v. Crews, 445 U.S. 463, 471 (1980). The Supreme Court has identified three 

factors to guide this inquiry: (1) the amount of time between the illegality and the 

discovery of the evidence; (2) the presence of intervening circumstances; and (3) 

the purpose and flagrancy of the illegal conduct. See Brown v. Illinois, 422 U.S. 

590, 603-04 (1975). “No single factor in this analysis is dispositive of 

attenuation.” United States v. Beauchamp, 659 F.3d 560, 573 (6th Cir. 2011). 

None of these factors, either individually or collectively, dissipates the taint 

of Deputy Montgomery’s unlawful detention of Fuller. For the reasons discussed 

below, the evidence that the Deputies seized from Fuller is the fruit of the 

poisonous tree. 

1. Amount of Time Between the Illegality and the Discovery of the 

Evidence 

“There is no ‘bright-line’ test for temporal proximity.” United States v. 

Wolfe, 166 Fed. App’x 228, 234 (6th Cir. 2006) (quoting United States v. Reed, 

349 F.3d 457, 463 (7th Cir. 2003)). However, Sixth Circuit has held that the 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 31 of 44 Pg ID 422
32 

discovery of evidence was not attenuated from unlawful police conduct where only 

a few minutes passed between the conduct and the discovery. See, e.g., United 

States v. Lopez-Arias, 344 F.3d 623, 630 (6th Cir. 2003) (taint of illegal conduct 

not attenuated by lapse of 30 minutes); United States v. Richardson, 949 F.2d 851, 

859 (6th Cir. 1991) (taint of illegal conduct not attenuated by lapse of 20 minutes). 

Although the record is not clear on precisely how long Fuller’s encounter 

with the Deputies lasted, the lapse of time between Fuller’s unlawful detention and 

the Deputies’ discovery of the evidence could not have been more than several 

minutes. That insignificant lapse of time was insufficient to attenuate the taint of 

Deputy Montgomery’s unlawful conduct. See Lopez-Arias and Richardson, supra. 

2. Presence of Intervening Circumstances 

“[T]he type of intervening events that serve to attenuate police misconduct 

are those that sever the causal connection between the illegal [seizure] and the 

discovery of the evidence.” United States v. Shaw, 464 F.3d 615, 628-29 (6th Cir. 

2006). The Government contends that Fuller’s flight from the Deputies was an 

intervening circumstance that severed the causal connection between Deputy 

Montgomery’s conduct and the discovery of the evidence. (See ECF #26 at 8-13, 

Pg. ID 358-63.) The Court disagrees. 

The Government cites United States v. Allen, 619 F.3d 518 (6th Cir. 2010), 

in support of its argument. (See id. at 8, Pg. ID 358.) In Allen, the Sixth Circuit 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 32 of 44 Pg ID 423
33 

explained that “if a suspect’s response to an illegal stop is itself a new, distinct 

crime, then the police constitutionally may arrest the suspect for that crime.” Id. at 

525 (internal citation and punctuation omitted). The Government also cites several 

unpublished Sixth Circuit cases for the same proposition.11 The Government 

insists that Fuller committed a new crime when he fled from the Deputies. 

Specifically, the Government contends that Fuller violated Mich. Comp. Laws § 

750.81d(1), which prohibits an individual from “resist[ing], obstruct[ing], 

oppos[ing], or endanger[ing] a person who the individual knows or has reason to 

know is performing his or her duties.” Thus, the Government argues, even if 

Deputy Montgomery’s continued detention of Fuller was unlawful, Fuller’s flight 

violated M.C.L. § 750.81d(1) and therefore purged the taint of Deputy 

Montgomery’s conduct. (See ECF #26 at 8-13, Pg. ID 358-63.) 

The Government’s argument suffers from a fatal flaw: Fuller did not violate 

M.C.L. § 750.81d(1). That provision prohibits an individual from resisting or 

obstructing only lawful police conduct. See, e.g., M.C.L. § 750.81d(7)(a) (“As 

used in this section ... ‘[o]bstruct’ includes the use or threatened use of physical 

 

11 See United States v. King, 466 Fed. App’x 484 (6th Cir. 2012) (declining to 

suppress evidence where defendant’s high-speed vehicular flight from allegedlyillegal stop gave officers probable cause to arrest him for new, independent crime); 

United States v. Castillo, 238 F.3d 424, 2000 WL 1800481 (6th Cir. Nov. 28, 

2000) (unpublished) (same); United States v. Jefferson, 182 F.3d 919, 1999 WL 

519298 (6th Cir. July 15, 1999) (unpublished) (declining to suppress evidence 

where defendant used force against officer while fleeing from allegedly-unlawful 

stop in violation of Tennessee law). 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 33 of 44 Pg ID 424
34 

interference or force or a knowing failure to comply with a lawful command”) 

(emphasis added); People v. Moreno, 814 N.W.2d 624, 629 (Mich. 2012) (holding 

that M.C.L. § 750.81d(1) “did not abrogate the [common-law] right to resist 

unlawful police conduct”). Thus, an individual does not violate M.C.L. § 

750.81d(1) when he resists or opposes unlawful police conduct. That is exactly 

what Fuller did. As discussed above, Deputy Montgomery’s continued detention 

of Fuller was patently unlawful. Thus, Fuller’s flight from the unlawful detention 

was not a violation of M.C.L. § 750.81d(1). 

The Government insists that even if Fuller did not actually violate M.C.L. § 

750.81d(1), the Deputies had probable cause to believe that he did, and this 

probable cause justified the Deputies’ seizure of Fuller following his flight (and the 

Deputies’ ultimate discovery of the evidence).12 (See ECF #26 at 5-8, Pg. ID 355-

58.) This argument also fails. The Deputies did not have probable cause to 

suspect that Fuller violated M.C.L. § 750.81d(1). To the contrary, it should have 

been obvious to them that they could not continue to detain Fuller after they 

determined that Fuller was not Warlix. Indeed, as noted above, at the time the 

Deputies stopped Fuller it was well-established that “[t]he Fourth Amendment 

allows police to detain a suspect on reasonable suspicion only for as long as it 

 

12 “Probable cause exists if the facts and circumstances known to the officer 

warrant a prudent man in believing that an offense has been committed.” Henry v. 

United States, 361 U.S. 98, 102 (1959). 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 34 of 44 Pg ID 425
35 

takes for the police to test the validity of their suspicions.” Davis, 430 F.3d at 357. 

Under these circumstances, it would be too great a stretch to conclude that Fuller’s 

flight gave the Deputies probable cause to believe that Fuller resisted or obstructed 

lawful police conduct.13 See Hardy v. City of Milwaukee, --- F.Supp.3d ---, 2015 

WL 816998 at **16-24 (E.D. Wisc. 2015) (holding that officers did not have 

probable cause to arrest a suspect who fled from an unlawful detention because the 

detention was plainly unlawful and Wisconsin law prohibited resisting only lawful 

police orders); Thornton v. City of Macon, 132 F.3d 1395, 1400 (11th Cir. 1998) 

(rejecting argument that officers had “arguable probable cause” to arrest suspect 

for obstructing them where officers unlawfully detained suspect and Georgia law 

prohibited only obstruction of lawful police conduct).

This case differs from Allen, King, Castillo, and Jefferson, supra – the cases 

in which the Sixth Circuit held that a defendant’s flight following an unlawful 

 

13 It should have been equally obvious to both Deputies that Fuller’s continued 

detention was unlawful and that Fuller’s flight was not a crime. Although Deputy 

Montgomery led the Deputies’ encounter with Fuller, Deputy Corrie heard Fuller 

identify himself, and he was satisfied that the person they had stopped was Fuller 

and not Warlix. (See Tr. I at 74-75, Pg. ID 199-200.) Deputy Corrie did not 

recognize Fuller’s name. (See id.) Deputy Corrie had absolutely no basis on 

which to conclude that there was an outstanding warrant for Fuller. Deputy Corrie 

also had no reason to believe that Fuller committed a crime on the day of the 

encounter, nor that Fuller did anything during the stop to give the Deputies 

additional reasonable suspicion to continue detaining Fuller. (See id. at 95, Pg. ID 

220.) Thus, Deputy Corrie had no reason to believe that Deputy Montgomery 

could lawfully continue to detain Fuller and compel Fuller to submit to a pat down. 

Accordingly, Deputy Corrie (like Deputy Montgomery) should have known that 

Fuller was not disobeying a lawful order when he fled on foot. 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 35 of 44 Pg ID 426
36 

initial seizure did constitute an intervening act that warranted a second seizure of 

the defendant. In each of those cases, the defendant fled the allegedly-unlawful 

stop in a manner that gave the officers probable cause to believe that the suspect 

committed a new, distinct crime. See Allen, 619 F.3d at 526 (defendant 

“attempt[ed] to escape from police by leading the officers on a high-speed chase,” 

which “constituted a new, distinct crime”); King, 466 Fed. App’x at 486 (officer 

witnessed the defendant commit at least seven different violations – including 

operating a vehicle into oncoming traffic and exceeding 70 miles per hour in a 25 

mile per hour zone – during a high-speed vehicular flight); Castillo, 2000 WL 

1800481, at *6 (defendant used a motor vehicle to “recklessly” flee in apparent 

violation of several traffic laws); Jefferson, 1999 WL 519298, at *4 (defendant 

used force against officer while feeling an allegedly-unlawful stop in violation of 

Tennessee law).14 These cases do not apply here because Fuller’s flight did not 

constitute a new crime (and did not give the Deputies probable cause to 

believe so). 

 

14 The Sixth Circuit noted in Jefferson that Tennessee law prohibits the obstruction 

of an officer, “even an officer who is unlawfully attempting to stop or arrest a 

person.” 1999 WL 519298, at *4 (emphasis added). The officer in Jefferson

therefore had probable cause that the defendant violated Tennessee law, regardless 

of the constitutionality of the original stop. In contrast, and as discussed above, the 

Deputies lacked probable cause to arrest Fuller for violating M.C.L. § 750.81d(1) 

because that provision prohibits the obstruction of an officer only if that officer is 

engaged in lawful conduct. 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 36 of 44 Pg ID 427
37 

The D.C. Circuit’s recent decision in United States v. Brodie, 742 F.3d 1058 

(D.C. Cir. 2014), confirms that flight on foot is not an intervening cause sufficient 

to attenuate the taint of an unlawful detention where the flight does not constitute a 

new crime. In that case, two officers observed Eric Brodie (“Brodie”) exit a house 

that belonged to a murder suspect in police custody. Believing that Brodie might 

be an accomplice of the murder suspect, the officers decided to stop and identify 

him. When one of the officers instructed Brodie to put his hands on a nearby car, 

Brodie initially complied. However, a few seconds later, Brodie fled. The officers 

eventually caught Brodie and discovered that he possessed three guns and crack 

cocaine. After he was criminally charged, Brodie moved to suppress the weapons 

and drugs. The Government argued that even if the officers illegally seized Brodie 

when he complied with their command to put his hands on the car, Brodie’s flight 

purged the taint of the unlawful detention. The D.C. Circuit disagreed: 

The government contends that Brodie’s flight ... w[as] [an] 

intervening circumstance[] that purged the taint. As those 

events flowed directly from the seizure, however, it is hard to 

spot any attenuation. See United States v. Wilson, 953 F.2d 

116, 127 (4th Cir. 1991). There are indeed a number of cases 

where courts have found attenuation in a defendant’s response 

to illegal police conduct. But in those decisions the court found 

that the defendant had committed a new crime, e.g., United 

States v. Bailey, 691 F.2d 1009, 1015-18 (11th Cir. 1982), or 

had at least fled in a manner posing serious risks to the public 

safety – typically a vehicular flight leading to a high-speed car 

chase, e.g., United States v. Boone, 62 F.3d 323, 324 (10th Cir. 

1995). 

... 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 37 of 44 Pg ID 428
38 

Plainly we need not get into the soundness of these cases: 

Brodie fled on foot, and the manner of his flight in itself posed 

no incremental threat to anyone. 

... 

In short, the government has not met its burden to show 

attenuation between the illegal seizure and the discovery of the 

guns and drugs. 

Brodie, 742 F.3d at 1063-64. 

 As in Brodie, the Government has not shown attenuation here. The 

Deputies’ discovery of the evidence flowed directly from their unlawful detention 

of Fuller. Fuller’s flight was not a new, distinct crime, and Fuller fled on foot, in a 

manner that did not pose an incremental threat. Under these circumstances, the 

taint of the unlawful detention was not purged by Fuller’s flight. 

3. The Purpose and Flagrancy of the Illegal Conduct 

The purpose and flagrancy of an officer’s illegal conduct is “particularly” 

important to the fruit of the poisonous tree analysis. Williams, 615 F.3d at 669. 

“[T]he purposefulness factor is met when the unlawful action is investigatory, that 

is, when officers unlawfully seize a defendant ‘in the hope that something might 

turn up.’” Id. at 670 (quoting Brown, 422 U.S. at 605). An officer’s conduct is 

flagrant if it violates well-established legal rules. See, e.g., Gross, 662 F.3d at 405-

06. Also relevant is whether the illegal conduct was calculated “to cause surprise, 

fright, and confusion.” Brown, 422 U.S. at 605. However, a finding of 

“purposeful and flagrant misconduct is not limited to situations where the police 

2:14-cr-20677-MFL-RSW Doc # 29 Filed 08/11/15 Pg 38 of 44 Pg ID 429
39 

act in an outright threatening or coercive manner.” Shaw, 464 F.3d at 630 (internal 

punctuation omitted). 

Deputy Montgomery’s continued detention of Fuller was, by his own 

admission, investigatory. Indeed, Deputy Montgomery concedes that he continued 

to detain Fuller in order to investigate whether “there could be an outstanding 

warrant for Mr. Fuller based on [the] November 2013 [I]ncident.” (Tr. I at 56, Pg. 

ID 181.) Deputy Montgomery’s testimony makes clear that he continued to detain 

Fuller “in the hope that something” – i.e., an outstanding warrant – “might turn 

up.” Brown, 422 U.S. at 605. Deputy Montgomery’s conduct, therefore, was 

purposeful. 

Moreover, Deputy Montgomery’s continued detention of Fuller was 

flagrantly unlawful. Deputy Montgomery violated the long-settled rule that a 

police officer must end a Terry stop as soon as his reasonable suspicion evaporates. 

See Davis, 430 F.3d at 357. Deputy Montgomery’s violation of this rule cannot be 

excused as good faith or mere negligence. At best, Deputy Montgomery guessed

that the Prosecuting Attorney may have decided to charge Fuller and that a warrant 

for Fuller may have remained unexecuted. Guessing is not good faith. 

Deputy Montgomery’s continued detention of Fuller was especially reckless 

because he should have been aware that there was no warrant outstanding for 

Fuller. As noted above, long before Deputy Montgomery encountered Fuller on 

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Wiard Boulevard, the Prosecuting Attorney had both charged Fuller with assault 

and battery and dismissed that charge. Deputy Montgomery was the officer in 

charge of that case. (See n. 3, supra.) As the officer in charge, he had a clear 

responsibility to keep abreast of the proceedings. Indeed, an officer in charge is 

tasked with communicating with witnesses; serving subpoenas on the witnesses; 

and attending certain court proceedings. (See Tr. II at 22, 24; Pg. ID 293, 295.) 

And although Deputy Montgomery claims that he has no memory of playing any 

role in the Fuller case once it reached state court, there some reason to believe that 

Deputy Montgomery did, in fact, serve a witness subpoena in that case15 – which 

should have signaled to Deputy Montgomery that Fuller’s criminal case was in 

process and that no warrant was outstanding. Yet Deputy Montgomery had no 

idea that the charges against Fuller had been dismissed several months before he 

encountered Fuller on Wiard Boulevard in October of 2014. Deputy 

Montgomery’s abject failure to learn and remember the status of his own recent 

case led him to violate Fuller’s Fourth Amendment rights. 

 

15 Deputy Montgomery testified that a representative of the Prosecuting Attorney 

recently informed him that he (Deputy Montgomery) had, in fact, served a 

subpoena on the alleged victim in Fuller’s criminal case. (See Tr. II at 27, Pg. ID 

298.) Deputy Montgomery testified that he had no memory of doing so. (See id.) 

However, Deputy Montgomery did not say for certain that he did not serve the 

subpoena, and serving a subpoena is consistent with what one would expect of the 

officer in charge of the case. (See id. at 24, Pg. ID 295.) 

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For all of the reasons discussed above, the evidence that the Deputies seized 

from Fuller is the fruit of the poisonous tree. 

F. Suppression of the Evidence Is Appropriate 

“The fact that a Fourth Amendment violation occurred ... does not 

necessarily mean that the exclusionary rule applies.” Herring v. United States, 555 

U.S. 135, 140 (2009). Exclusion is not appropriate “when the police act with an 

objectively reasonable good-faith belief that their conduct is lawful ... or when 

their conduct involves only simple, isolated negligence.” Davis v. United States, 

131 S. Ct. 2419, 2427-28 (2011). Suppression is warranted, however, when police 

misconduct is “deliberate, reckless, or grossly negligent.” Herring, 555 U.S. at 

144. Thus, exclusion is an appropriate remedy when it “would result in 

appreciable deterrence” of police misconduct and “the benefits of exclusion 

outweigh its costs.” Davis, 131 S. Ct. at 2436. That is the case here. 

As discussed in Part E, supra, Deputy Montgomery did not act in good faith 

when he continued to detain Fuller to check for an outstanding warrant even 

though he had no idea whether Fuller was the subject of a warrant. Suppression 

here will serve to deter the police from detaining suspects (or prolonging 

detentions) based upon such unsupported speculation. 

The Deputies’ second seizure of Fuller – i.e., the seizure following Fuller’s 

flight – was equally culpable. Michigan law clearly established that it was not a 

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crime for a citizen to resist unlawful police conduct. See Moreno, 814 N.W.2d at 

629. Any reasonable officer would have known that Deputy Montgomery’s 

continued detention of Fuller was unlawful; that Fuller’s flight was not a crime; 

and that the Deputies therefore lacked probable cause to seize Fuller based on his 

flight. 

And if, somehow, the Deputies were not culpable, then the Washtenaw 

County Sheriff’s Office (the “Sheriff’s Office”), their employer, plainly was. First, 

the Sheriff’s Office was aware of the criminal charge against Fuller from the very 

day it was filed – because another deputy signed the criminal complaint as the 

complaining witness. But, at least according to Deputy Montgomery, nobody 

bothered to tell him about the charge even though the charging document identified 

him as the officer in charge. (See Tr. II at 20-21, Pg. ID 291-92.) Second, if, as 

one would expect, the Sheriff’s Office received communications from the state 

court regarding Fuller’s case (such as notices for jury selection and notice of 

dismissal of the charges),16 the Sheriff’s Office failed to keep Deputy Montgomery 

informed about the status of the case. Finally, the Sheriff’s Office appears to have 

regularly allowed issued warrants to sit unexecuted for many months without ever 

telling the officers on the case that the warrants had been issued. (See Tr. I at 57-

 

16 Deputy Montgomery testified that the Sheriff’s Office ordinarily would receive 

important communications from the state court regarding the status of a case like 

Fuller’s. (See id. at 22, Pg. ID 293.) 

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58, Pg. ID 182-83.) That is precisely why Deputy Montgomery says he believed 

that it was possible that a warrant may have been outstanding for Fuller without his 

knowledge. (See id.) The Sheriff’s Office’s practice thus forces deputies to guess 

about the status of the suspects they have investigated and leads to situations – like 

the one before the Court – in which a deputy feels the need to detain a suspect to 

dispel his uncertainty as to whether a warrant exists. The practice, in short, 

recklessly creates a risk that deputies will unlawfully detain citizens. That further 

supports suppression here. Cf. Herring, 555 U.S. at 156 (“If the police have been 

shown to be reckless in maintaining a warrant system ... exclusion would certainly 

be justified....”). 

Finally, declining to suppress here would create a perverse incentive for 

officers. Not excluding the evidence seized from Fuller would reward Deputy 

Montgomery (and others in his position) for remaining ignorant of the status of 

their own cases and would encourage them to use their uncertainty as a basis for 

unlawfully detaining suspects. See Gross, 662 F.3d at 405 (expressing concern 

about resolving motion to suppress in a manner that would create “perverse 

incentives” for officers to detain suspects in order to check for outstanding 

warrants). Suppression would deter that unreasonable conduct and would create 

the proper incentives for officers to keep abreast of the basic information 

concerning their own cases. 

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CONCLUSION

 For the reasons stated in this Opinion and Order, IT IS HEREBY 

ORDERED that Fuller’s Motion to Suppress (ECF #14) is GRANTED. 

 s/Matthew F. Leitman 

 MATTHEW F. LEITMAN 

 UNITED STATES DISTRICT JUDGE 

Dated: August 11, 2015 

 I hereby certify that a copy of the foregoing document was served upon the 

parties and/or counsel of record on August 11, 2015, by electronic means and/or 

ordinary mail. 

 s/Holly A. Monda 

 Case Manager 

 (313) 234-5113

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