U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Titanium Recycling in the United States in 2004

By Thomas G. Goonan

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 1196–Y

FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES
II

U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2010

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Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Goonan, T.G., 2010, Titanium recycling in the United States in 2004, chap. Y of Sibley, S.F., ed., Flow studies for recycling metal commodities in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1196, p. Y1–Y16, available online at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1196-Y/.
III

FOREWORD

As world population increases and the world economy expands, so does the demand 

for natural resources. An accurate assessment of the Nation’s mineral resources must 

include not only the resources available in the ground but also those that become available 

through recycling. Supplying this information to decisionmakers is an essential part 

of the USGS commitment to providing the science that society needs to meet natural 

resource and environmental challenges.

The U.S. Geological Survey is authorized by Congress to collect, analyze, and 

disseminate data on the domestic and international supply of and demand for minerals 

essential to the U.S. economy and national security. This information on mineral 

occurrence, production, use, and recycling helps policymakers manage resources wisely.

USGS Circular 1196, “Flow Studies for Recycling Metal Commodities in the 

United States,” presents the results of flow studies for recycling 26 metal commodities, 

from aluminum to zinc. These metals are a key component of the U.S. economy. Overall, 

recycling accounts for more than half of the U.S. metal supply by weight and roughly 

40 percent by value. 

Marcia K. McNutt

Director
IV

CONTENTS

Foreword .......................................................................................................................III

Abstract........................................................................................................................Y1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................1

Global Geologic Occurrence of Titanium.......................................................................4

World Production ............................................................................................................4

Production Processes ......................................................................................................4

Mining, Concentrating, and Ilmenite Upgrading Processes.......................................5

Semifabrication Processes (Metal).............................................................................6

Titanium Sponge (for Alloy, Metal, and Powder Products)..................................6

Titanium Ingot, Unwrought, Wrought, and Casting Products...............................6

Ferrotitanium Products..........................................................................................7

Manufacturing Processes ...........................................................................................7

Steel (Titanium-Containing Alloys)......................................................................7

Assemblies ............................................................................................................8

End Use of Titanium-Containing Metals........................................................................8

Prices...............................................................................................................................9

Sources and Disposition of Titanium Scrap....................................................................9

Old Scrap ...................................................................................................................9

Old Scrap Generated ...........................................................................................10

Old Scrap Unrecovered .......................................................................................10

New Scrap ................................................................................................................11

All Scrap...................................................................................................................11

Processing of Titanium Scrap .......................................................................................12

Titanium Scrap Trade....................................................................................................12

Outlook .........................................................................................................................12

References Cited ...........................................................................................................13

Appendix—Definitions.................................................................................................15
V

FIGURES

1. U.S. titanium-containing products flow in 2004............................................Y2

2. World titanium production in 2004...................................................................4

3. Titanium production flows ...............................................................................5

4. Titanium sponge production through Kroll process.........................................6

5. Ferrotitanium production..................................................................................7

6. Consumption of gross titanium alloys by the U.S. steel industry.....................8

7. U.S. apparent titanium sponge and scrap consumption ...................................9

8. Titanium sponge prices from 1994 through 2004...........................................10

9. Titanium scrap prices from 1994 through 2004..............................................11

10. Sources of U.S. titanium scrap imports in 2004 .............................................12

11. Titanium scrap and sponge consumption and ingot production from 1972

through 2004...................................................................................................13

TABLE

1. Salient statistics for titanium flow in the United States in 2004 ....................Y3
VI

CONVERSION FACTORS

Multiply By To obtain

Mass

gram (g) 0.03527 ounce avoirdupois (oz)

kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)

metric ton (t, 1,000 kg) 1.102 short ton (2,000 pounds)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as 

follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as 

follows:

°C=(°F-32)/1.8
Y1

FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Titanium Recycling in the United States in 2004

By Thomas G. Goonan

In 2004, 98 percent of the titanium contained in the U.S. 

titanium mineral concentrate supply progressed through the 

pigment sector of the titanium market. The remaining 2 percent 

flowed to miscellaneous other uses, including the metal sector. 

Since all titanium scrap is generated and recycled (the primary 

subject of this report) within the titanium metal market sector, 

the flows of titanium through the pigment sector are not reported 

here.

This study provides a snapshot (fig. 1) of the flow through 

the U.S. economy of recoverable titanium metal (contained in 

various titanium-containing metal forms) in 2004 and identifies 

sources of U.S. titanium metal supply and distribution with 

particular emphasis on the flow1 of titanium contained in scrap.

The useful semifabricated titanium metals products that 

manufacturers need are wrought shapes and castings that 

contain the appropriate chemical analysis (alloy content). The 

steel industry is also a consumer of titanium, usually in the form 

of ferrotitanium, scrap, and sponge. In 2004, the U.S. steel and 

other industries together consumed about 7,000 metric tons (t) 

of titanium contained in titanium-bearing metal products (17 

percent of estimated U.S. titanium metal consumption).

The supply of wrought and cast metal is generated through 

process steps that convert titanium concentrate into titanium 

metal sponge, which may or may not be subsequently combined 

with titanium scrap and master alloys of other elements (when 

required) to generate titanium and (or) titanium-alloy ingot 

products that can be shaped to the needs of the customer.

In 2004, titanium ingot makers consumed sponge titanium 

and titanium contained in purchased and other [in-house and 

(or) downstream] scrap returns. In 2004, the ratio of sponge 

consumption to scrap consumption in the United States was 

0.95. The ratio of sponge to scrap for ingot production was 

about 1.47. With adjustment to the 37,000 t of ingot produced 

for net imports containing 1,000 t of titanium and a net stock 

decrease of ingot containing 1,000 t of titanium, 38,000 t of 

titanium entered semifabrication (castings and wrought and 

unwrought shapes). Semifabricators distributed products 

1

As a general rule, flow information (numbers associated with arrows in 

the diagrams) is derived from disparate data sources with differing levels of 

quality and is not as precise as the reporting indicates. One should view the 

reported values relative to each other, rather than for the precision of the data.

ABSTRACT

As one of a series of reports that describe the recycling of 

metal commodities in the United States, this report discusses 

the titanium metal fraction of the titanium economy, which 

generates and uses titanium metal scrap in its operations. 

Data for 2004 were selected to demonstrate the titanium 

flows associated with these operations. This report includes 

a description of titanium metal supply and demand in the 

United States to illustrate the extent of titanium recycling and 

to identify recycling trends.

In 2004, U.S. apparent consumption of titanium metal 

(contained in various titanium-bearing products) was 45,000 

metric tons (t) of titanium, which was distributed as follows: 

25,000 t of titanium recovered as new scrap, 9,000 t of titanium 

as titanium metal and titanium alloy products delivered to the 

U.S. titanium products reservoir, 7,000 t of titanium consumed 

by steelmaking and other industries, and 4,000 t of titanium 

contained in unwrought and wrought products exported. 

Titanium recycling is concentrated within the titanium metals 

sector of the total titanium market. The titanium market is 

otherwise dominated by pigment (titanium oxide) products, 

which generate dissipative losses instead of recyclable scrap. 

In 2004, scrap (predominantly new scrap) was the source of 

roughly 54 percent of the titanium metal content of U.S.-

produced titanium metal products (fig. 1).

INTRODUCTION

Titanium mineral concentrates are the product of titanium 

mining and beneficiation and provide the raw material for the 

two most important types of product that the titanium industry 

produces—titanium oxides for pigment applications (in paint, 

paper, plastic and other) and titanium metal and alloys for 

cast and wrought product applications largely in aerospace 

(airframes, engines, and landing gear) and, to a lesser degree, 

in developing applications (such as medical implants, process 

tanks, roofing, and substitution for stainless steel). Titanium 

is also used in industries unrelated to pigment or metal—for 

example, for welding rod coatings, heavy media separation 

processes, and a variety of titanium-based chemicals. Titaniumbased catalysts are used in olefin polymerization.
Y2 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES Figure 1. Diagram showing the flow of titanium contained in various metal forms in the United States in 2004. Values are rounded to the nearest thousand metric tons of contained titanium. The addition of the parts may not equal the totals owing to 

independent rounding. (Source: Gambogi, 2006.)

DOMESTIC SUPPLY OF PRIMARY

AND SECONDARY TITANIUM METAL

DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTIC SUPPLY OF PRIMARY

AND SECONDARY TITANIUM METAL

Ingot 

production

37

Sponge 

consumed

21

Scrap 

consumed

22

Unwrought 

and 

wrought 

products 

net exports

4

Ferrotitanium 

net imports

3

New scrap 

generated

25

Consumption of titanium metal

by steel and other industries 

(dissipative loss)

7

Net scrap 

exports

1

Ingot 

stock 

change

1

Unwrought 

and wrought 

products 

stock 

change

<1

Semifabrication of 

titanium unwrought 

and wrought metal

products

38 Ingot 

net 

imports

1

Old scrap generated:

Aerospace............2Other.....................1

Total.....................3

Products to:

Aerospace ..... 12Other................. 8

Total................. 20

Titanium 

metal 

products 

reservoir 

net 

change

+6

Titanium scrap 

unrecovered

3

Net scrap 

stock change

2

Titanium scrap supply

28
TITANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 Y3

containing 24,000 t of titanium (20,000 t to U.S. aerospace 

and other industries and 4,000 t to exports) and generated new 

scrap containing 14,000 t of titanium. The manufacturers that 

received the semifabricated products that contained 20,000 t 

of titanium produced products for the U.S. titanium product 

reservoir, which contained 9,000 t of titanium, and generated 

an additional quantity of scrap containing about 11,000 t of 

titanium. The total new scrap generated from semifabrication 

and further manufacturing contained 25,000 t of titanium, 

which flowed to the U.S. titanium scrap supply.

About 3,000 t of titanium contained in old scrap became 

available in 2004 from the obsolescence of product assemblies, 

of which 2,000 t was generated by the aerospace industry 

and 1,000 t was generated by others (Joseph Gambogi, U.S. 

Geological Survey, written commun., May 13, 2009). There 

is little reporting on the use of old scrap in titanium recycling. 

New scrap is preferred for use and trade because the quality is 

controllable (Suisman and Wasserman, 1989). This generates 

a tendency for old scrap to hibernate (to remain in place or 

to be stockpiled). High-quality purchased and internally 

generated scrap tends to flow to ingot production. Lower 

quality scrap and some indeterminate amount of old scrap 

tend to flow to ferrotitanium production, which is essentially 

a clean-blend-and-melt operation that combines titanium 

scrap and iron scrap.

The amount of titanium contained in imported product 

assemblies that embody airframes, turbine blades, and 

other metal applications is not known. The titanium metals 

product reservoir theoretically (estimate details discussed 

below) generated 35,000 t of titanium as old scrap. However, 

without reported information about old scrap flow, it was 

not possible to estimate the fraction that was recovered and 

unrecovered. Likewise, it was not possible to estimate the old 

scrap recycling efficiency, recycling rate, or the new-scrap 

to old-scrap consumption ratio for U.S. titanium product 

production. Salient titanium flow statistics for 2004 are 

summarized in table 1.

Because there are no data regarding the proportion of 

old scrap and new scrap, and production data for sponge 

and ferrotitanium are withheld to avoid disclosing company 

proprietary data, the statistics provided in table 1 are not 

comparable with those for other commodities in Circular 

1196. The statistics in table 1 reflect what happened in 2004 

with respect to all scrap, old and new taken together, and are 

consistent with the definitions put forth in the appendix of 

this report.

In 2004, 22,000 t of titanium contained in all scrap was 

consumed by U.S. titanium metal producers.

There are some generalizations that can be made about 

titanium scrap handling, as follows: 

1. Recycling of new and home titanium scrap is robust and 

largely complete.

2. Demand for titanium products and supply of old scrap 

have both been growing.

The obstacles to using old scrap to fulfill greater general 

demand for titanium-containing alloys are quality related. 

Future research by alloy makers and scrap processors was 

expected to be directed to overcoming these obstacles.

Table 1. Salient titanium metal flow statistics for the United States in 2004.

[Values are in thousand metric tons of contained titanium, unless otherwise specified]

All titanium metal scrap:..............................................................................................................

Consumed ................................................................................................................................. 22

Exports...................................................................................................................................... 10

Export value .............................................................................................................................. $56 million

Imports...................................................................................................................................... 9

Import value .............................................................................................................................. $54 million

Generated .................................................................................................................................. 28

Old scrap, theoretical ................................................................................................................ 3

New scrap.................................................................................................................................. 25

Ratio of new to old scrap consumed ......................................................................................... Greater than 7

Recycling efficiency, as percent of all scrap supply ................................................................. 91 percent

Recycling rate, all scrap consumed as percent of apparent titanium supply............................. 52 percent

Unrecovered.............................................................................................................................. 3

Titanium metal:............................................................................................................................

Apparent consumption:.............................................................................................................

By semifabricators of wrought and unwrought products.................................................... 38

By steelmaking and other industries................................................................................... 7

Total............................................................................................................................... 45

Apparent supply........................................................................................................................... 42
Y4 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

GLOBAL GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE OF 

TITANIUM

Titanium is one of the transition elements in group IVB 

of the periodic table, along with zirconium and hafnium. 

Titanium has a strong affinity for oxygen, forms oxides and 

oxysalts, and has no tendency to concentrate in metallic 

iron or to form sulfides. The principal titanium minerals 

form primarily as products of the crystallization of igneous 

magmas and as recrystallization products in metamorphic 

rocks. Rutile deposits occur as local concentrations in igneous 

and metamorphic rocks, in veins associated with igneous and 

metamorphic rocks, and as concentrations in sedimentary 

rocks and unconsolidated sediments derived from weathering 

of rutile-bearing rocks (Klemic and others, 1973).

Titanium tends to be incorporated in three common 

titanium minerals—ilmenite (FeTiO3), rutile (TiO2), and 

sphene (CaTiSiO5). Ilmenite accounts for more than 90 

percent of the titanium-bearing constituents of igneous 

rocks. The greatest abundance of titanium is in rocks that 

contain less than 52 percent silica, including iron silicates, 

magnesium silicates, and alkaline (containing calcium, 

potassium, and sodium) rocks.

In crystallizing magmas, ferrotitanium oxides form in 

two ways:

1. By direct precipitation of ilmenite or ilmenite-hematite 

solid solution or ulvospinel-magnetite (TiFe2O4) solid 

solution; the earliest formed oxides have the highest 

titanium-to-iron ratios.

2. By breakdown of iron-bearing pyroxenes [(Mg, Fe, Ti) 

Si2O6] at low oxygen pressures to form ilmenite and 

iron-free pyroxene.

The high specific gravities of these minerals indicate that 

they can be separated by gravity methods from more common 

light metals that surround them. The indices of refraction of the 

three varieties of titanium dioxide minerals are a measure of 

the opacity of these crystalline forms. This is of importance in 

their primary use as pigments because the “covering power” of 

the pigment is related to the opacity of its constituents.

WORLD PRODUCTION

More than one-half of the world’s titanium mineral 

production is from ilmenite, leucoxene (altered ilmenite), 

and rutile from beach-complex placer deposits in Australia, 

India, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and the United States. A 

fluvial placer deposit in Sierra Leone also has produced a 

substantial quantity of rutile (Cristie and Brathwaite, 2007). 

Most of the remaining supply is recovered from hardrock 

ilmenite deposits in Canada, China, and Norway. Figure 2 

shows world production for titanium minerals by type and 

country of origin in 2004.

In 2004, 8.17 million metric tons (Mt) of materials 

(ilmenite, leucoxene, rutile, and titaniferrous slag) containing 

3.26 Mt of titanium (66 percent from ilmenite and leucoxene, 

28 percent from titaniferrous slag, and 6 percent from rutile) 

was produced worldwide.

PRODUCTION PROCESSES

This section of the report describes the details of the 

many titanium production processes, which taken together 

(fig. 3) transform titanium-containing ores into value-added 

products.

Figure 2. Diagram showing world production of titanium 

by mineral type and location in 2004. Values are in metric tons 

of contained titanium are rounded to three significant figures. 

The addition of the parts may not equal the totals owing 

to independent rounding. W, withheld to avoid disclosing 

company proprietary information. (Source: Gambogi, 2006.)
TITANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 Y5

MINING, CONCENTRATING, AND ILMENITE 

UPGRADING PROCESSES

This section covers the processing of titanium-containing 

oxide minerals (which are generally associated with other 

heavy minerals) into titanium and byproduct mineral 

concentrates. The principal product of mining operations is 

a mixture of heavy minerals. The mining method selected 

depends on the location of the deposit. Dredging is suitable for 

beach deposits; dry-land deposits are scraped and screened. 

The next step is wet concentration, where the materials are 

put through a system of spirals and cones to separate the 

high specific gravity materials (which contain the titanium 

and other heavy minerals) from the low specific gravity 

minerals (which are rejected and used for reclamation). The 

separated heavy minerals are then dried before undergoing 

magnetic separation. The ilmenite and leucoxene minerals 

are slightly magnetic and can be separated from the 

remaining heavy minerals by means of magnetic separation. 

Additional magnetic and electrostatic separation produces 

the coproducts, which include monazite, rutile, zircon, and 

others depending on the nature of the original mineral deposit 

(Australia Bureau of Agriculture and Resource Economics, 

2008).

Figure 3. Diagram showing the production flows of titanium from extraction through placement into 

end-use service. (Sources: Gambogi, 2006; Australia Bureau of Agriculture and Resource Economics, 

2008.)
Y6 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

SEMIFABRICATION PROCESSES (METAL)

There are three principal titanium-containing 

semifabricated metal products that are supplied to 

downstream manufacturers. These include titanium sponge, 

titanium ingot (which supplies unwrought, wrought, and cast 

products), and ferrotitanium (an alloy made specifically for 

steelmaking). Because this report focuses on titanium metals 

flows, there will be no discussion of the semifabrication and 

manufacturing process for titanium compounds, including 

oxides for pigment applications.

TITANIUM SPONGE (FOR ALLOY, METAL, AND 

POWDER PRODUCTS)

Titanium sponge production begins with a feed of titanium 

tetrachloride formed from the Kroll process, a process that 

chlorinates titanium oxide concentrate. The Kroll process has 

not changed very much since its commercialization in 1948 

and is still used to convert titanium tetrachloride to titanium 

metal sponge. Figure 4 shows the steps of the Kroll process.

In the first step of the Kroll process, a vacuum is created 

in a clean and dry stainless steel retort. Next, inert argon 

gas is pumped into the retort under reduced pressure. Then, 

magnesium metal [15 to 30 percent more than the chemical 

requirement necessary to reduce the titanium in titanium 

tetrachloride (TiCl4) gas to titanium metal] is placed into the 

retort. TiCl4 gas is slowly fed into the retort where it reacts 

with the magnesium metal to produce titanium sponge and 

magnesium chloride (MgCl2). The MgCl2 is periodically 

removed from the retort as reduction proceeds over several 

days. In the final step, the retort contains the titanium sponge, 

some unreacted magnesium, and some MgCl2, at which 

point, either the titanium sponge is removed and the retort 

undergoes an inert gas sweep followed by acid leaching or the 

retort undergoes vacuum distillation to remove the unwanted 

magnesium products and the titanium sponge is mechanically 

removed from the retort. The titanium sponge is then melted, 

sometimes with scrap and (or) alloying elements, to produce 

an ingot with a specified chemistry (Gerdemann, 2001).

Titanium in various forms can be treated by patented 

processes to produce titanium powders of different types. 

Powder metallurgy techniques use pressure and temperature 

to create near-net shapes, thus conserving metal loss from 

machining of wrought products made from ingot material.

TITANIUM INGOT, UNWROUGHT, WROUGHT, AND 

CASTING PRODUCTS

Titanium ingot production involves blending and melting 

such input materials as sponge, scrap, and master alloys, usually 

under inert gas or vacuum, and may require several remelts 

to obtain the desired purity of a titanium metal product or the 

desired chemical makeup of a titanium alloy. The resulting 

ingots are worked by mechanical processes (analogous to 

steel mill practices) into billet and slab, which in turn undergo 

additional physical alteration to obtain saleable wrought 

forms, such as bar, foil, and plate. These forms are fabricated 

into specific parts and shapes, which manufacturers assemble 

Figure 4. Diagram showing the steps of the Kroll process for the production of titanium sponge. 

(Sources: Australia Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2001; Gerdemann, 2001.)
TITANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 Y7

with nontitanium materials to make products such as airframes 

and engine turbines. This kind of processing generates a large 

volume of home scrap and new (prompt) scrap, which usually 

returns to the ingot production step.

FERROTITANIUM PRODUCTS

Ferrotitanium can be produced either from ilmenite 

or from primary and secondary metal. In recent years, the 

availability of titanium scrap on the market has increased, and 

production of ferrotitanium from secondary raw materials has 

subsequently gained ground (German Federal Environmental 

Agency, 2001, p. 520).

Ferrotitanium is usually produced by melting ferrous 

scrap and titanium scrap and metal in an induction-melting or 

electroslag furnace (fig. 5). Ferrous units are purchased to a 

specification in the form of mild steel solids. Titanium scrap 

includes various forms such as scrap metal castings, wrought 

products, and turnings and (or) chips (otherwise known 

as swarf) from machining processes. Prior to melting the 

material in a furnace, large lumps of scrap are reduced in size, 

and swarf is pulverized and then degreased and dewatered 

(German Federal Environmental Agency, 2001, p. 521).

Furnace charges are calculated based on the analysis 

of the raw materials. When melting is complete, the molten 

metal is tapped into an ingot mold. After cooling, the ingot is 

transferred to other operations such as breaking, crushing and 

grinding to achieve the required product size

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Semifabricated titanium-containing products 

(ferrotitanium, metal ingots, and powders) must undergo 

further manufacturing to produce products that provide 

serviceability in a desired end-use application. Ferrotitanium 

and titanium metal and scrap are used in steelmaking. 

Titanium-containing ingots and powders are processed into 

castings, forgings, and mill products.

STEEL (TITANIUM-CONTAINING ALLOYS)

In 2004, about 7,000 t of titanium (about 16 percent 

of estimated U.S. titanium consumption) was consumed 

by U.S. steelmaking and other industries. Figure 6 shows 

the distribution (by steel product) of gross titanium alloys 

consumed by the U.S. steel industry from 1980 through 2004.

Carbon steel.—In 2004, 4,200 t (48 percent) of titaniumcontaining alloys used within the U.S. steelmaking activity 

was consumed in the production of carbon steel. From 1985 

through 2004, titanium use in carbon steel production has 

grown at an average annual rate of 24 percent. Titanium 

modifies the properties of carbon steels by metallurgical 

control of grain size (smaller crystals), precipitation 

strengthening, and sulfide shape control. Microalloying 

with small amounts of titanium makes the product stronger 

(permitting weight reduction), more easily formed (cutting 

manufacturing costs), and less susceptible to corrosion 

(extending product life) (Key-to-Metals, 2008). Because 

titanium partitions to slag under oxidizing conditions, 

it is usually imparted to steel (previously deoxidized by 

manganese and silicon) as a ladle addition.

Stainless and heat-resisting steel.—In contrast to carbon 

steel, in which titanium additions were found to impart 

significantly improved properties in steel applications since 

1987, titanium use in stainless and heat-resisting steel has 

always been important. In these types of steel, titanium is added 

because it competes successfully with chromium, a principal 

component in stainless steel, for the residual carbon retained 

in the alloy. Chromium carbide migrates to grain boundaries 

at elevated temperatures, degrading the strength and corrosionresistance of the steel. Titanium additions prevent the formation 

of chromium carbide, enabling the steel to retain the desired 

properties at elevated service temperatures.

In 2004, 3,100 t (36 percent) of titanium alloy used 

within the U.S. steelmaking activity was consumed in the 

Figure 5. Diagram showing the process flow for the 

production of ferrotitanium. (Source: German Federal 

Environmental Agency, 2001.)
Y8 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

the market with about 45,000 t of titanium metal. Figure 7 

shows U.S. apparent consumption of titanium sponge and 

scrap, for the period 1975 through 2004.

In 2004, about 38,000 t of titanium metal contained in 

ingot was consumed by U.S. semifabricators (castings and 

wrought and unwrought) of titanium products. With regard 

to the sponge fraction of ingot production, the aerospace 

sector of the economy consumed 60 percent of the output; the 

remainding 30 percent was consumed by other applications 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2006). The end-use allocation for 

scrap is not reported.

Titanium sponge use in U.S. aerospace applications 

from 1975 through 2004 has been cyclical, averaging about 

14,300 t of titanium annually. These data do not include the 

titanium contained in net exports for assemblies (parts) for 

aircraft or for net exports of assembled aircraft. In 2007, 

U.S. exports of aircraft and aircraft parts exceeded imports 

of the same by a factor of three (in terms of value) (Kogon, 

2007). This suggests, but certainly does not prove, that the 

United States may be a net exporter of titanium contained 

in aircraft assemblies. New aircraft designs are showing 

large-scale increases for titanium use (RTI International 

Metals, Inc. 2007, p. 7). The annual average growth trend 

for sponge use by “Other” was 4.7 percent per year for 

the same period. The annual growth rate trend for titanium 

scrap use in U.S. industrial applications (1975–2004) was 

about 4 percent.

production of stainless and heat-resisting steel. From 1985 

through 2004, titanium alloy usage in stainless and heatresisting steel production has followed the growth in the 

usage of the steel at an average annual rate of 2 percent.

Other steel.—The exact nature of the applications in 

this category of titanium alloy use is unknown. However, the 

average annual rate growth rate of 45 percent for the period 

from 1985 through 2004 is greater than that for carbon steel, 

which seems to indicate that steels in this category are realizing 

the same improvements in their strength-to-weight ratio that 

titanium-modified carbon steels attain. In 2004, 1,400 t (16 

percent) of titanium alloy used within the U.S. steelmaking 

activity was consumed in the production of other steel alloys.

ASSEMBLIES

Titanium product assemblies are products that partly 

comprise semifabricated titanium-containing materials, 

which may include titanium metal or titanium alloys. For 

example, titanium alloys are used by manufacturers to 

make airframes, chemical processing tanks, and turbines. 

Titanium metal product semifabrication and manufacturing 

of assemblies generate scrap, both during processing (new 

and home scrap) and after economic life (old scrap).

END USE OF TITANIUM-CONTAINING 

METALS

In 2004, U.S. primary titanium metals producers supplied 

Figure 6. Diagram showing the distribution of gross titanium alloys consumed by the U.S. 

steel industry, by steel product, from 1980 through 2004. (Source: Gambogi, 2006.)

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

TITANIUM-CONTAINING ALLOY, IN METRIC TONS

YEAR
TITANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 Y9

metal included, retain their mass while in service. They may 

lose economic utility but little or none of their mass. These are 

candidates for recycling, and there is a ready supply of these 

materials. The second necessary condition is that the cost of 

identifying, collecting, processing, and transporting scrap 

materials must be low enough to provide a profit margin for 

an entity that would perform those tasks. Metals are relatively 

scarce and thus generally have prices high enough to cover the 

recycler’s costs and provide the recycler’s required margin. 

During periods of low prices for titanium metal scrap, margins 

for scrap processors may decrease, and the cost of collection for 

certain scrap types may become prohibitive, thereby reducing 

the recovery of titanium from scrap. When titanium metal scrap 

prices are relatively high, titanium recovery from scrap would 

be expected to increase. This section examines the sources and 

distribution of recyclable titanium scrap, both new and old.

In 2004, about 3,000 t of titanium (contained in old 

scrap) was generated from the U.S. titanium product reservoir 

(Joseph Gambogi, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 

May 13, 2009). In addition, roughly 25,000 t of titanium 

was recovered from new scrap. While the use of old scrap is 

mostly undocumented, most of the recovered new and home 

scrap is recovered and recycled, either domestically or by 

foreign entities through scrap trade.

OLD SCRAP 

Old titanium scrap includes obsolete parts, such as 

parts from aircraft and heat exchangers. In general, obsolete 

PRICES

From 1994 through 2004, titanium sponge nominal 

prices averaged $7.91 per kilogram with variance of ±15 

percent (fig. 8). The constant dollar price of titanium sponge 

declined by about 1 percent per year on average, while 

reported U.S. consumption of titanium sponge increased by 

about 2.3 percent per year.

The average nominal dollar price of scrap from 1994 

through 2004 was $2.54 per kilogram with variance of ±84 

percent, almost fivefold that for sponge (fig. 9). The constant 

dollar price of scrap increased by about 28 percent per year. 

However, without the spike in constant dollar scrap prices 

for 2003–06, which was owing to the convergence of several 

economic factors (the end of sales from the national stockpile 

and strong steel and aerospace demand), the average constant 

dollar scrap price growth might have been much less. This was 

also the period when the United States was a net exporter of 

titanium waste and scrap. The principal destinations for U.S. 

exports of titanium scrap were Japan and the United Kingdom.

SOURCES AND DISPOSITION OF 

TITANIUM SCRAP

There are two necessary conditions for recycling to take 

place. First, there must be a supply of material. Many materials 

dissipate with use and cannot be recycled—for example paint 

(which contains titanium pigment). Many metals, titanium 

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

 YEAR

METRIC TONS CONTAINED TITANIUM

Figure 7. Chart showing U.S. apparent consumption of titanium sponge and scrap, with 

refinement by economic sector (for sponge), from 1975 through 2004. (Source: U.S. Geological 

Survey, 2006.)
Y10 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

and expressed as a percentage. In 2004, the recycling rate 

for titanium metal could not be calculated because of critical 

missing data.

The new to old scrap recovery ratio in the United States 

is the ratio of the percentage of titanium metal in new scrap 

recovered to the percentage of titanium metal in old scrap 

recovered in U.S. titanium metal production. In 2004, the 

new-scrap to old-scrap ratio for the United States could not 

be calculated because of missing data, but was greater than 7, 

based on the data reported in figure 1.

OLD SCRAP GENERATED

In 2004, the U.S. Geological Survey estimated that 3,000 

t of titanium metal contained in old scrap was generated as 

end-of-life material from the U.S. reservoir of titanium 

products in service (Joseph Gambogi, U.S. Geological 

Survey, written commun., May 13, 2009).

OLD SCRAP UNRECOVERED

Old scrap unrecovered could be located in several places. 

It could be abandoned in place (hibernating) pending suitable 

titanium scrap is not effectively utilized because only about 2 

percent of ingot production uses old titanium scrap. However, 

some obsolete parts are used to manufacture wrought titanium 

to the SAE International aerospace material specification 

(http://aerospace.sae.org/) after rigorous selection (Ishii and 

others, 2000).

Old scrap recycling efficiency is defined as the amount 

of old scrap recovered and reused relative to the amount 

available to be recovered and reused—that is, consumption 

of old scrap (COS) plus exports of old scrap (OSE) divided 

by old scrap generated (OSG) plus imports of old scrap 

(OSI) plus a decrease in old scrap stocks (OSS) or minus 

an increase in old scrap stocks, measured in weight and 

expressed as a percentage. In this analysis, consumption 

of old scrap is equal to the measured titanium recovered 

from old scrap. In 2004, the domestic old scrap recycling 

efficiency for titanium metal could not be calculated because 

of critical missing data.

The recycling rate is that fraction of annual apparent 

metal supply that is derived from scrap—that is, consumption 

of old scrap (COS) plus consumption of new scrap (CNS) 

divided by apparent copper supply (AS), measured in weight 

Figure 8. Chart showing titanium sponge prices from 1994 through 2004. Values are in dollars 

(nominal and 1994 dollars) per kilogram. The nominal price is taken as the average of Japanese 

and Russian landed duty-paid unit values based on imports for consumption into the United 

States. Constant dollars are based on discounting nominal dollar prices using the Producer Price 

Index (1994 basis), which applies to mill prices. (Sources: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau 

of Labor Statistics, 2009; Joseph Gambogi, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., March 

4, 2009.)

$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

$7.00

$8.00

$9.00

$10.00

$11.00

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

PRICE, IN NOMINAL OR CONSTANT DOLLARS PER KILOGRAM

YEAR
TITANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 Y11

ratio to express the relationship of the amount of material 

required to generate a final part (Michaels, 2008). It is 

essentially the reciprocal of useful material recovery for 

aerospace part fabrication. For example, a “buy-to-fly” ratio 

of 7:1 translates to a recovery factor of 14 percent and a 

scrap generation rate of 86 percent. It was estimated that 

the “buy-to-fly” ratio for the aerospace sector in 2004 was 

about 5:1 and that useful product amounted to about 20 

percent of 12,000 t of titanium delivered to the sector or 

2,400 t of titanium, and that new scrap generated from the 

sector contained about 10,000 t of titanium.

ALL SCRAP

Throughout the Circular 1196 series of recycling 

reports, it has been possible to generate some standard 

recycling statistics (see appendix) based on information 

about the split between the use of old scrap and new 

scrap. The exact split for titanium, however, is unknown. 

Therefore, some new statistics, which are somewhat 

analogous to the other reports, are offered here with respect 

to the new scrap plus old scrap collective, that is “all scrap” 

(table 1).

economic incentives (scrap prices) to warrant collection 

and processing; it might have been collected and placed in 

landfills, which would potentially conserve it for a time of 

better prices; or it might have been dissipated during use. The 

3,000 t reported in figure 1 as old scrap unrecovered is the 

amount that would balance inputs and outputs reported in the 

figure and is therefore an artifact of the accounting process of 

the materials flow.

NEW SCRAP

Titanium scrap supply in 2004 contained 28,000 t of 

titanium (fig. 1). Of this amount, 25,000 t of titanium was 

contained in new scrap, of which 56 percent was generated 

in semifabrication operations, and 44 percent was generated 

from downstream manufacturing operations. In 2004, 

20,000 t of titanium contained in semifabricated products 

was supplied to downstream manufacturing operations, 60 

percent going to aerospace applications, and the remaining 

40 percent allocated to other applications.

Within the aerospace sector, there is a high level of 

scrap generation during the production of final-use parts, 

such that the sector has evolved the term “buy-to-fly” 

Figure 9. Chart showing titanium scrap prices from 1994 through 2004. Values are in dollars 

(nominal and 1994 dollars) per kilogram. The nominal price is taken as taken as that reported 

by Platts Metals Week for unprocessed turnings of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Constant dollars are based 

on discounting nominal dollar prices using the Producer Price Index (1994 basis). (Sources: 

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009; Joseph Gambogi, U.S. Geological 

Survey, written commun., March 4, 2009.)

$0.00

$1.00

$2.00

$3.00

$4.00

$5.00

$6.00

$7.00

$8.00

$9.00

$10.00

$11.00

$12.00

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

PRICE, IN NOMINAL OR CONSTANT DOLLARS PER KILOGRA

M

YEAR
Y12 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

The all-scrap recycling efficiency is calculated as 

follows:

,

which equals:

.

In 2004, the all scrap recycling efficiency was 91 percent.

The all-scrap recycling rate is that fraction of annual 

apparent metal supply that is derived from all-scrap 

consumption divided by apparent titanium supply, measured 

in weight and expressed as a percentage. In 2004, the 

recycling rate for titanium all titanium-containing scrap was 

52 percent of apparent titanium metal supply.

PROCESSING OF TITANIUM SCRAP

The collection and handling of new titanium metal scrap 

are fairly straightforward. New scrap is generated during 

semifabrication and manufacturing operations and consists 

of such items as clippings, stampings, and turnings. These 

are usually segregated by material specification and returned 

to furnace operations where the scrap is matched and melted 

into a product with the desired chemistry.

Old (obsolete) scrap originates when products that are 

within the reservoir of products in service are no longer 

economical to use. In the past, old titanium scrap has had 

a tendency to hibernate because the stringency of titanium 

metal and alloy specifications mitigated its use. In recent 

years, more old scrap is being recovered, but not to the point 

of reliable reporting.

TITANIUM SCRAP TRADE

Titanium contained in various forms and mixtures flows 

through the international scrap trade (fig. 10). In 2004, 10,000 

t of titanium scrap was exported from the United States, and 

9,000 t of titanium scrap was imported. Japan provided the 

greatest percentage of U.S. titanium scrap imports (27 percent).

OUTLOOK

Owing to the superior high-temperature strength 

and corrosion resistance of titanium metal and titanium 

alloys, titanium likely will continue to be in demand 

on a worldwide basis. The titanium market was highly 

volatile for the period from 1972 through 2004, showing 

a 26 percent variance about the average for sponge 

consumption, 28 percent about the average for ingot 

production, and 37 percent about the average for scrap 

consumption. Supplies seem adequate, although titanium 

sponge prices in 2004 were more than twice what they 

were in 1994 (in constant dollars). From 1972 through 

2004, the average annual growth for U.S. titanium ingot 

production was about 2 percent. For the 33-year period, 

the average annual consumption growth rates for scrap and 

sponge, the major components of ingots, were 5.0 and 0.8, 

respectively, inferring that the U.S. titanium metals market 

is viable and growing and that more and more scrap is 

being utilized to make these metal products (fig. 11).

Titanium recycling can be expected to continue for these 

principal reasons: 

1. The titanium metal market is growing (for example, 

aircraft being constructed after 2008 call for more 

titanium those manufactured before 2008, and new uses 

for titanium in industrial and consumer goods are being 

developed) and likely will continue to generate scrap 

(new and old).

2. About 200 aircraft per year were expected to become 

obsolete after 2005 (Burchell, 2006).

3. The scrap-to-sponge ratio has been increasing as 

improvements in titanium scrap recovery systems have 

made scrap a more acceptable source of raw materials 

for ingot production.

Pressure from titanium industry stockholders to improve 

corporate performance likely will continue, which often 

Figure 10. Chart showing sources of U.S. titanium scrap 

imports, by country, in 2004. Values are in gross metric tons 

and percentage of total imports. (Source: Gambogi, 2006.)

Taiwan

641

(7%)

Japan

2,340

(27%)

Israel

268

(3%)

Germany

1,620

(18%)

France

941

(11%)

Canada

835

(9%)

Other

972

(11%)

United Kingdom 

1,210

(14%)
TITANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 Y13

means cost reduction through incremental technological 

improvements to enhance product recoveries. Stakeholders 

can be expected to push for improved resource efficiencies 

through recycling mandates where the economics may not 

justify recycling. U.S. and worldwide titanium processing 

capacity has been expanding, which should increase titanium 

recycling and exports of U.S. titanium scrap (Gorse, 2006).

REFERENCES CITED

Australia Bureau of Agriculture and Resource Economics, 

2008, Research and development in titanium—

Implications for the titanium metal industry of 

Australia: Australia Bureau of Agriculture and 

Resource Economics, accessed October 20, 2008, 

at URL http://www.abareconomics.com/interactive/

08_ResearchReports/Titanium/htm/chapter_2.htm.

Australia Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 

2001, Titanium metal—A market analysis: Australia 

Department of Industry, Science and Resources Emerging 

Industries Occasional Paper 7, February 2001, 28 p.

AZoM TM.com Pty. Ltd., 2009, Titanium alloys—Alpha, 

beta, and alpha-beta alloys: AZoM TM.com Pty. 

Ltd. Web site, accessed February 27, 2009, at URL 

http://www.axom.com/Details.asp?ArticleID=915.

Burchell, Bill, 2006, Recycling aircraft—Overhaul 

and maintenance: Aviation Week, March 

24, accessed December 30, 2008, at URL 

h t t p : / / w w w. av i a t i o nwe e k . c o m / aw / g e n e r i c /

s t o r y_ g e n e r i c .j s p ? c h a n n e l = o m & i d = n e w s /

om206pam.xml.

Cristie, Tony, and Brathwaite, Bob, 2007, Mineral 

commodity report 16—Titanium: New Zealand 

Ministry of Economic Development, Crown Minerals 

Web site, accessed September 26, 2008, at URL 

http://www.crownminerals.govt.nz/cms/pdf-library/

minerals/minerals-overview-pdfs-1/report16_titanium.pdf.

Gambogi, Joseph, 2006, Titanium, in Metals and 

minerals: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 

2005, v. I., p. 78.1–78.17. (Also available online at 

http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/

titanium/titanmyb05.pdf.) 

Gerdemann, S.J., 2001, Titanium process technologies: 

Advanced Materials and Processes, July, 3 p., accessed 

October 1, 2008, at URL http://www.itponline.com/

index_files/ASMarticle.pdf.

German Federal Environmental Agency, 2001, Integrated 

pollution prevention control—Reference document on best 

available techniques in the non ferrous metals industries: 

European Commission, 755 p., accessed November 3, 2008, 

at URL http://www.bvt.umweltbundesamt.de/archive/

nonferrousmetalbrefe.pdf.

Gorse, Mathieu, 2006, French plant to cash in on 

aircraft recycling boom: Agence France-Presse 

Figure 11. Chart showing titanium scrap and sponge consumption and ingot production from 

1972 through 2004. (Source: Gambogi, 2006.) 

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

METRIC TONS OF MATERIAL CONSUMED

YEAR

1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002
Y14 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Web site, accessed January 29, 2010, at URL 

http://www.spacewar.com/reports/French_Plant_To_

Cash_In_On_Aircraft_Recycling_Boom.html.

Ishii, Mitsuo, Kimura, Kinichi, and Kinoshita, Kazuhiro, 

2000, Titanium products as environmentally 

friendly materials: Nippon Steel Technical Report 

81, January, accessed December 30, 2008, at URL 

http://www.nsc.co.jp/en/tech/report/pdf/8120.pdf.

Key-to-Metals, 2008, Cast steel—Quenched and tempered 

low-alloy steel: Key to Metals AG knowledge 

article, accessed November 18, 2008, at URL 

http://steel.keytometals.com/Articles/Art87.htm.

Klemic, Harry, Sherman, P.M., and Cooper, Margaret, 1973, 

Titanium, in Brobst, D.A., and Pratt, W.P., eds., United 

States Mineral Resources: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 820, p. 653–665, accessed January 

29, 2010, at URL http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/djvu/PP/

pp_820.djvu.

Kogon, Maurice, 2007, U.S. aerospace export potential—

Trends in U.S. exports and world demand: International 

Business Issue Forum, Torrance, Calif., February 22, 

2007, Presentation, 19 p., accessed March 20, 2009, at 

URL http://www.californiaspaceauthority.org/images/

Powerpoint/USAeorspaceexports.ppt#256, 1.

Michaels, Kevin, 2008, Outlook for the aerospace metals 

market: American Metals Market Annual Aerospace 

Metals Conference, 2d, April 16, 2008, Pittsburgh, 

Pa., Presentation, 22 p., accessed May 4, 2009, at URL 

http://www.aerospace.com/downloads/speeches/

speech_65.pdf.

RTI International Metals, Inc., 2007, New programs 

take flight: RTI International Metals, Inc., 

64 p., accessed January 14, 2009, at URL 

http://rtiintl.s3.amazonaws.com / RTI-Reports /

RTI_AR-2007.pdf.

Suisman, Michael, and Wasserman, Leonard, 1989, 

Recycling of titanium, in Properties and selection—

Nonferrous alloys and special purpose materials, v. 2 

of Metals Handbook (10th ed.): Materials Park, Ohio, 

ASM International, p. 3376–3379, accessed January 

29, 2010, at URL http://storage.worldispnetwork.com/

books/ASM_Metals_Handbook,Vol_02.pdf.

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009, 

Producer price index—Commodities: U.S. Department 

of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, accessed March 18, 

2009, at URL http://data.bls.gov/.

U.S. Geological Survey, 2006, Titanium, in Kelly, T.D., and 

Matos, G.R., comps., Historical statistics for mineral 

and material commodities in the United States: U.S. 

Geological Survey Data Series 140, accessed May 12, 

2006, at URL http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/.
TITANIUM RECYCLING IN THE UNITED STATES IN 2004 Y15

APPENDIX—DEFINITIONS

apparent consumption. Primary plus secondary production 

(old scrap) plus imports minus exports plus adjustments 

for U.S. Government and industry stock changes.

apparent supply. Apparent consumption plus consumption 

of new scrap.

hibernating scrap. Scrap that has reached the end of its useful 

economic life but has not been collected (remains in place) 

pending conditions that warrant the effort to collect it.

home scrap. Scrap generated as process or runaround scrap 

and consumed in the same plant where it was generated. 

It does not enter into trade and is not considered in this 

study.

master alloys. Alloys containing a primary element at 

levels more than 10 percent by weight. They serve as an 

intermediate material source in the manufacture of other 

alloys, or to deoxidize liquid metal baths.

mine waste. Rock materials having that are not ore grade at 

an ore deposit.

new scrap (prompt scrap). Scrap produced during the 

manufacture of metals and articles for both intermediate 

and ultimate consumption, including all defective 

finished or semifinished articles that must be reworked, 

and is obtained from a facility separate from the primary 

producer. Examples of new scrap are borings, castings, 

clippings, and turnings. Included as new scrap is prompt 

industrial scrap—scrap obtained from a facility separate 

from the primary processor. Excluded from new scrap is 

home scrap that is generated as process scrap and used 

in the same plant.

new-to-old-scrap ratio. New scrap consumption compared 

with old scrap consumption in the United States, 

measured in weight and expressed as new scrap divided 

by old scrap.

nominal price. The price at the time of sale.

obsolete (end-of-service-life). A material becomes obsolete 

when it no longer provides the desired services or when 

other services are valued more than those provided by 

the material in question.

old scrap. Scrap including (but not limited to) metal articles 

that have been discarded after serving a useful purpose. 

Typical examples of old titanium metal scrap are 

obsolete airframes, engine turbine blades, and chemical 

processing tanks. This is also referred to as postconsumer 

scrap and may originate from industry or the general 

public.

old scrap exports. The amount of old scrap exported from 

the United States in a subject year.

old scrap generated. The metal content of obsolete products 

from the U.S. product reservoir that theoretically 

becomes available for recycling in a subject year.

old scrap imports. The amount of old scrap imported to the 

United States in a subject year.

old scrap recovered and used. Equals old scrap reported 

as recovered. Also equals old scrap generated less 

old scrap unaccounted for less old scrap deposited in 

landfills.

old scrap recycling efficiency. The amount of old scrap 

recovered and reused relative to the amount available 

to be recovered and reused. Defined as consumption of 

old scrap (COS) plus exports of old scrap (OSE) divided 

by old scrap generated (OSG) plus imports of old scrap 

(OSI) plus a decrease in old scrap stocks (OSS) or minus 

an increase in old scrap stocks, measured in weight and 

expressed as a percentage:

.

old scrap unrecovered. Scrap that might have been 

abandoned in place (hibernating), collected and 

landfilled, or dissipated during use. It is the difference 

between theoretical scrap generated and actual scrap 

collected and processed for sale to the global pool of 

manufacturers.

product reservoir. The stock of titanium-bearing materials 

serving consumer needs. When materials within the 

product reservoir reach their end of life (meaning end 

of utility), they become eligible for utility upgrade, one 

method of which is recycling as old scrap.

recoverable titanium. The flows reported here are for 

recoverable titanium, that is, in terms of the titanium 

contained in products. There are dissipative losses to air 

water and land throughout the system, but these are not 

quantified. This approach makes the system appear to 

balance, but the reality is that more titanium (to cover the 

dissipative losses) than is reported is required to produce 

the product reported.

recycling. A process to reclaim a metal (titanium) in a usable 

form from scrap or wastes. This includes recovery as 

the refined metal or as alloys, compounds, or mixtures 

that are useful. Examples of recycling are recovery of 

titanium from titanium-bearing alloys, such as Ti-6Al6V-2Sn.

recycling rate. The fraction of the apparent metal supply that 

is scrap on an annual basis. It is defined as consumption 

of old scrap (COS) plus consumption of new scrap 

(CNS) divided by apparent supply (AS), measured in 

weight and expressed as a percentage:

COS + CNS

AS

×100 .

scrap consumption. Scrap added to the production flow of a 

metal or metal product.

supply of recoverable titanium. The sum of new (prompt) 

scrap, old scrap recovered, old scrap imports, and old 

scrap stock decrease. This supply serves the domestic 

and foreign demand for scrap.
Y16 FLOW STUDIES FOR RECYCLING METAL COMMODITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

swarf. A conglomerate of fine metallic particles, chippings, 

and shavings removed by cutting and (or) grinding tools. 

Swarf may contain a residue of cutting oil, which is 

generally removed prior to recycling .

titanium-containing assemblies. Products that contain 

multiple materials only some of which contain titanium. 

An aircraft is an example. The titanium-containing 

portions might include a spar in the airframe and turbine 

blades in an aircraft’s engine. When the United States 

imports assemblies, the distribution of the content of 

these materials is frequently unknown.

volatility. A system that generates data (in this report, for 

the titanium market) can be statistically described by 

common statistical parameters, such as the mean and the 

variance abut the mean. In general, systems that generate 

point distributions with variances of more than 20 percent 

(as the titanium market system does) can be described as 

highly volatile. Such a system likely will show supply 

and demand mismatches at various moments in time, 

and these likelt will generate wide price variance from 

moment to moment.