January 2000
iii

Contents

Preface ...................................................................................................... vii

Executive Summary .................................................................................. ix

Findings Regarding Currency Abroad ....................................................................... ix

The Introduction of the 1996-Series New Currency Design (NCD).............................x

Findings Regarding Counterfeiting..............................................................................x

Innovations to Combat Counterfeiting...................................................................... xii

Conclusions and Recommendations.......................................................................... xii

1 Introduction........................................................................................... 1

1.1 Design of the Audit Plan ...................................................................................1

1.2 International Demand for the U.S. Dollar..........................................................3

1.3 The Difficulty of Measuring the Extent of International Counterfeiting............5

1.4 Organization of the Remainder of the Report ....................................................5

2 The New Currency Design: Introduction, Distribution, and Results. 6

2.1 Overview: Goals, Programs, and Results...........................................................6

2.2 Introducing the New Currency Design ..............................................................7

2.2.1 Potential Problems....................................................................................8

2.2.2 Objectives.................................................................................................8

2.2.3 Communications Media............................................................................9

2.2.4 Target Audiences....................................................................................10

2.2.4.1 Domestic Audiences..................................................................10

2.2.4.2 International Audiences.............................................................10

2.2.5 Campaign Effectiveness........................................................................12

2.3 Perception of the New Currency Design..........................................................13

3 Country Surveys of Currency Usage: The ICAP Trips .................... 14

3.1 Background for the Currency Surveys.............................................................14

3.2 Criteria for Country Selection..........................................................................15

3.3 Use of U.S. Dollars Abroad: Patterns ..............................................................16

3.3.1 Argentina ..............................................................................................19

3.3.2 The Former Soviet Union......................................................................21

3.3.3 Other Areas ...........................................................................................22

3.3.4 Remaining Geographic Uncertainties Regarding Currency Location ....24

3.4 Judging the Plausibility of Overseas Dollar Holdings from Country Surveys..25

3.5 Changing Conditions in Countries Surveyed ...................................................27

3.5.1 Transaction Technologies......................................................................27

3.5.2 Euro Banknote Introduction ..................................................................28

4 Models of Overseas Currency Demand and Usage ........................... 29

4.1 Data Sources....................................................................................................29

4.1.1 Major Wholesale Dealers of Banknotes ................................................29

4.1.2 Federal Reserve Cash Processing Data..................................................30

4.1.3 Currency and Monetary Instrument Reports (CMIRs)...........................30
iv

4.1.4 ICAP Trips and Other Institutional Information....................................32

4.2 Methods for Measuring Flows and Stocks of U.S. Currency Abroad ..............33

4.2.1 The Seasonal Method ............................................................................33

4.2.2 The Biometric Method ..........................................................................34

4.2.3 Wholesale Demand for Currency ..........................................................36

4.2.4 Summary: Reconciling the Estimates from the Various Methods .........41

5 The International Distribution of U.S. Banknotes ............................ 42

5.1 International U.S. Banknote Market Structure.................................................42

5.2 The Extended Custodial Inventory (ECI) Program ..........................................44

5.2.1 The ECI Pilot Program..........................................................................44

5.2.2 The Current ECI Program .....................................................................46

5.2.3 ECI Accomplishments...........................................................................47

6 Global Counterfeiting ......................................................................... 49

6.1 General Considerations....................................................................................49

6.2 Counterfeit Production Methods......................................................................51

6.3 Recent Experience with Counterfeiting ...........................................................52

6.3.1 Rates of Counterfeiting in Federal Reserve Statistics............................52

6.3.2 Counterfeiting Outside the United States ..............................................53

6.4 Counterfeiting in Key Countries and Regions .................................................58

6.4.1 Colombia...............................................................................................58

6.4.2 South Africa ..........................................................................................60

6.4.3 Italy .......................................................................................................60

6.4.4 Germany................................................................................................61

6.4.5 Russia....................................................................................................61

6.4.6 Vietnam.................................................................................................61

6.4.7 Middle East ...........................................................................................62

6.5 The Changing Nature of the Counterfeiting Threat .........................................62

7 Global Estimates of Counterfeiting.................................................... 65

7.1 Theoretical Work.............................................................................................66

7.2 Data Sources....................................................................................................67

7.2.1 Secret Service Data ...............................................................................67

7.2.2 Federal Reserve Data ............................................................................68

7.3 Estimating the Total Quantity of Counterfeits in Circulation Worldwide........69

7.3.1 Estimating the Minimum Stock of $100 Counterfeits in Circulation.....70

7.3.2 Using Federal Reserve and Secret Service Data to Estimate the Total

Stock of $100 Counterfeits in Circulation .............................................72

7.3.3 Extrapolating from $100 Counterfeits to All Counterfeits.....................73

7.4 The Next Step: How Unrepresentative Are Our Data? ....................................73

7.4.1 Hoarding: Some Empirical Evidence from the Team’s Travels.............73

7.4.2 Pools of Undetected Counterfeits ..........................................................74

7.4.3 Comparing the Country Distribution of Counterfeit Notes....................75

7.4.3.1Comparing the Counterfeiting Data............................................75

7.4.3.2Testing the Location of Counterfeits with Dollar Estimates in

Various Parts of the World....................................................78
v

7.5 Conclusion.......................................................................................................79

8 Summary and Conclusions................................................................. 80

8.1 Overseas Currency Holdings ...........................................................................80

8.2 Overseas Counterfeiting ..................................................................................81

8.3 Currency Distribution and Education Campaign .............................................82

8.4 Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................83

Appendix A................................................................................................ 85

Methods for Estimating the Stock of U.S. Currency Held Abroad....... 85

A.1.1 The Seasonal Method ......................................................................................85

A.1.1.1 Seasonality in Currency Holdings and in Banking Shipments ............86

A.1.1.2 Canada as the Benchmark for U.S. Domestic Behavior ......................86

A.1.1.3 The Seasonal Variation Technique......................................................88

A.1.2 The Biometric Method .....................................................................................90

Appendix B................................................................................................ 94

Hoarding, the Likelihood of Pools of Counterfeits, and the Longevity of

Counterfeits......................................................................................... 94

B.1 Hoarding..........................................................................................................95

B.1.1 Domestic Hoarding ................................................................................96

B.1.2 Statistical Models of Hoarding...............................................................97

B.2 Isolated Pools of Currency.............................................................................102

B.3 A Model of the Amount of Counterfeits Based on the Longevity of Notes ...105

References............................................................................................... 111
vii

Preface

For much of this century, United States currency has been used outside of this

country as a store of value and a medium of exchange by people facing economic and

political uncertainty. Estimates for as far back as 1960 have indicated that half of all U.S.

currency in circulation might be held abroad. That proportion has grown over much of

the past four decades and began to accelerate during the 1980s. Today, we estimate that

as much as 70 percent of all Federal Reserve notes in circulation, perhaps $250 to $350

billion, are now held abroad.

The holding and use of U.S. currency overseas has grown in the wake of high and

volatile inflation and economic and political instability in the former Soviet Union and

Latin America. In many of these economies, citizens and small businesses continue to

face unstable local currencies and underdeveloped banking and payment systems, making

it difficult to accumulate savings and make transactions in local currencies. As a result,

many residents of transition economies have chosen to carry out critical and large saving

and transaction functions in other currencies, including U.S. dollars.

While the billions of dollars held overseas represent a windfall to the U.S.

taxpayers in light of the billions of seigniorage revenues that are generated, their presence

makes an inviting target for counterfeiters. Counterfeiters range from organized

professionals with sophisticated printing facilities to casual amateurs using copying

machines or inexpensive computer printers. Counterfeiting is primarily carried out for

economic gain but may also be associated with other crimes, including drug trafficking,

illicit arms dealing and other terrorist or organized crime operations.

This study reaches three major conclusions about counterfeiting, for which the

U.S. Secret Service has had enforcement responsibilities since 1865. First, the problem is

somewhat more prevalent outside of the United States than it is inside (although the

levels are generally very low). Second, overseas banks and law enforcement agencies are

eager to develop expertise, technology, and communication links with the Secret Service

to detect and suppress counterfeiting activity. Third, foreign financial and law

enforcement organizations generally welcome increased Secret Service presence overseas

to coordinate and lead their efforts to detect and suppress counterfeiting activities in their

respective countries.
viii

This study was designed to be as comprehensive as possible and to incorporate all

available data in the charts, tables, and analyses. In some cases, information could only

be obtained in discussions with various governmental and commercial sector officials;

data gathered in such a way is inherently fragmentary. It should be noted, however, that

the models presented in this report used to estimate the share of currency held overseas

and the quantity of counterfeits in circulation generate results that are consistent with the

information provided by the teams’ interlocutors.

This report was jointly drafted by the staff at the U.S. Treasury Departmental

Offices, the U.S. Secret Service, and the Federal Reserve System for the Secretary of the

Treasury. The agencies represent an interagency group, the Advanced Counterfeit

Deterrence Steering Committee, which consists of staff from the Treasury Departmental

Offices, the U.S. Secret Service, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, and the Board of

Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Contributing to this report were Ira Polikoff,

Project Director for the International Currency Awareness Program, U.S. Department of

the Treasury; James Todak, Special Assistant to the Special Agent in Charge of the

Counterfeit Division, and Kevin Rogers, Special Agent assigned to the Counterfeit

Division, U.S. Secret Service; Ruth Judson, Economist, and Richard D. Porter, Deputy

Associate Director, Division of Monetary Affairs, Board of Governors of the Federal

Reserve System; and Jeffrey Pruiksma, Staff Director for Cash, and Jen Pastorick,

Supervisor, Cash Services Staff, Federal Reserve Bank of New York.
ix

Executive Summary

1⁄2 This study reports the results of an investigation of the use and counterfeiting of U.S.

currency abroad. The Treasury and the Federal Reserve conducted the investigation

pursuant to section 807 of PL 104-132, the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty

Act of 1996. The study extended the work of the International Currency Awareness

Program (ICAP), which was developed in part to aid the March 1996 international

introduction of the new-design 1996-series $100 note.

1⁄2 The investigation has established new sources of information on the international use

and counterfeiting of U.S. currency. Among these sources are high-level contacts in

various foreign banking and law enforcement institutions, which have permitted the

Federal Reserve and the Treasury to establish new working relationships and

channels for the timely transmission of information.

Findings Regarding Currency Abroad

1⁄2 Foreigners hold U.S. currency for the same reasons that many once held gold coins:

Dollars are a secure store of value when the purchasing power of the domestic

currency is uncertain or when other assets lack sufficient anonymity, portability,

divisibility, liquidity, or security. As a safe asset in an unpredictable world, dollars

often flow into a country to displace part of the domestic currency during periods of

economic and political upheaval and then remain there long after the crisis has

subsided.

1⁄2 Estimates by the Federal Reserve suggest that at the end of 1998, 50 percent to 70

percent of the $500 billion in U.S. currency outstanding, or $250 billion to $350

billion, was held outside the United States.

1⁄2 Because currency can quickly move throughout the world, often without being

detected, the determination of its location on any occasion is extraordinarily difficult.

Nonetheless, it is clear that the lion’s share of overseas currency is in developing

countries. We estimate that about 60 percent of U.S. currency held abroad is

distributed about equally among three regions of the world: the Western Hemisphere,
x

Africa and the Middle East, and Asia. The remaining 40 percent is held in Europe and

in the countries of the former Soviet Union and their neighboring trading partners,

such as Turkey.

1⁄2 The circulation of U.S. currency overseas provides benefits to both the United States

and the foreign users: U.S. taxpayers gain by effectively receiving an interest-free

loan in the amount of currency held overseas. Foreign dollar holders benefit by

acquiring an asset that is liquid, secure, and stable in value, characteristics that are

often unavailable in their own country’s currency during and after periods of turmoil.

The Introduction of the 1996-Series New Currency Design

(NCD)

1⁄2 A new currency design was introduced in 1996, beginning with the $100

denomination. The new design incorporated counterfeit-resistant features that make it

easier for dollar users to authenticate the notes without special equipment.

1⁄2 The incidence of counterfeiting of the new-design notes is dramatically lower than

that of the older-design notes: Among the pre-NCD $100s in the first half of 1999,

the Federal Reserve Bank of New York detected 166 counterfeits per million notes

processed, but among the NCD $100s in that period, it found only 20 counterfeits per

million notes processed.

1⁄2 An education campaign to apprise the international market of the new currency

design and the no-recall policy on older-series notes was broadly successful. As a

result, 1996-series and pre-1996-series notes are widely accepted in virtually all

markets.

Findings Regarding Counterfeiting

1⁄2 The international popularity of the U.S. dollar has also made it a popular target for

counterfeiters. The likelihood that a counterfeit note will be found in a batch of

otherwise genuine overseas notes, however, is generally quite small, on the order of 1

or 2 counterfeits in 10,000 notes, about the same ratio as is found inside the United

States. Maintaining this advantageous state of affairs requires vigilance.
xi

1⁄2 Worldwide counterfeit currency detection capabilities appear to be high. The audit

teams found that at most of the commercial banks and money exchanges, clerks

appeared to be able to detect counterfeit U.S. currency by hand examination of the

notes, the most common and effective method. The U.S. Secret Service routinely

arranges training programs on the detection of counterfeit currency in regions with

significant counterfeiting activity.

1⁄2 Since its inception in 1865, the Secret Service has been responsible for protecting the

integrity of U.S. currency abroad: Whenever a counterfeit note is detected or an arrest

made anywhere in the world, the Secret Service must be able to respond immediately

to develop investigative leads. Because that response will usually involve cooperative

efforts with the overseas law enforcement community, the Secret Service must

maintain an adequate international presence if it is to keep the international

counterfeiting threat at bay.

1⁄2 The Secret Service has found that the strategic placement of overseas personnel

promotes more aggressive police operations in the field, where agents are able to

respond more promptly and consistently. In the longer run, the relationships that

develop from such day-to-day interactions encourage the Secret Service’s law

enforcement counterparts to increase the priority given to the investigation of

counterfeiting. In locations where permanent placement is not feasible, the Secret

Service deploys task forces to target counterfeiters.

1⁄2 Substantial pools of counterfeit notes cannot circulate undetected for very long.

Extensive data-gathering, discussions with currency dealers, observation of currency

in circulation worldwide, and economic analysis all indicate that notes are exchanged

sufficiently often that they regularly move through financial institutions and exchange

houses, which we found to be generally capable of detecting counterfeits. Moreover,

although some currency is held “in mattresses” as a precaution against unforeseen

events, at least a small share of these notes is always being moved in and out of

general circulation. As a result, notes sampled in cash deposits at Federal Reserve
xii

offices reflect notes that have been in normal circulation along with notes that

recently left the “mattress.”

Innovations to Combat Counterfeiting

1⁄2 The Secret Service is piloting a web site that law enforcement agencies and currency

handlers can use to report counterfeits. When fully implemented, the web site will

provide a mechanism for the Secret Service and the Federal Reserve to track

worldwide counterfeiting.

1⁄2 The Federal Reserve Bank of New York has created a new means of distributing

currency overseas, called extended custodial inventories (ECIs). The ECI program

also provides an efficient mechanism for the international markets to recirculate fit

new-design notes and improves the repatriation rate of the older-design notes.

1⁄2 As a result of the ICAP trips and the establishment of ECIs in Europe and Asia, it is

now possible to determine which cities and countries are the first to receive

counterfeits in the wholesale distribution chain. This new intelligence permits the

Secret Service to respond more quickly and strategically to emerging threats.

Conclusions and Recommendations

1⁄2 The audit program of the Treasury and the Federal Reserve has established important

new sources of information on the use and circulation of genuine and counterfeit U.S.

banknotes abroad. In addition, relationships have been developed with the banknote

trading communities and law enforcement agencies that allow the Federal Reserve

and the Secret Service to work more effectively in the international arena. The

Federal Reserve and the Treasury believe that these benefits will grow as the program

continues.

1⁄2 The Secret Service will continue to draw upon the valuable information arising from

the joint audits to evaluate its international strategy.
xiii

1⁄2 The extended custodial inventory program has yielded more up-to-date information

on overseas counterfeiting and has encouraged the repatriation of old-design notes.

Thus, it should be continued and expanded.

1⁄2 Given the success of the new-design note in deterring counterfeiting, strategies to

accelerate the repatriation of old-design notes should be considered.

1⁄2 The public education campaign contributed to the smooth reception of the new-design

1996-series notes. In the future, dissemination of information on any new currency

design—especially training and educational material for both cash handlers and the

general public—should reach the international markets well ahead of the actual notes.

For the introduction of the remaining 1996-series denominations ($10s and $5s) in the

spring of 2000, the international emphasis should be on regions where these

denominations predominate, such as Latin America and the Caribbean.
1

1 Introduction

This study reports the results of an investigation of currency usage and

counterfeiting activities abroad. The study was undertaken by Treasury and Federal

Reserve officials pursuant to section 807 of PL 104-132, the Antiterrorism and Effective

Death Penalty Act of 1996. The study extended an earlier effort that preceded the

introduction of the 1996-series $100 note in March 1996, a project known as the

International Currency Awareness Program (ICAP). Through ICAP, the Treasury and the

Federal Reserve addressed three issues: Patterns of use and circulation of U.S. currency

overseas; counterfeiting of U.S. currency overseas; and appropriate planning for the

introduction of the new-design 1996-series $100 note. The successful introduction of the

new-design $100 was viewed as extremely important because it represented the first

significant redesign of U.S. currency in nearly sixty years.

Indeed, the Treasury and the Federal Reserve recognized that favorable overseas

reception of the 1996 note was critical because the majority of $100s in circulation were

believed to be held overseas (table 1.1). ICAP activities consisted of study trips to areas

of the world where dollars circulate and, later, the establishment of facilities to encourage

both recirculation of fit currency and repatriation of old-series currency. On the education

side, the trips gathered information on the educational materials that should be distributed

abroad and sought to inform market participants about the characteristics of the new

notes. Part of the motivation for the educational campaign was to avoid the kind of

confusion and panic that struck in Russia when the 1990-series $100 note was introduced.

In that case, the U.S. ambassador to Russia had to appear on local television to quash

rumors that older-series notes were to be recalled.

1.1 Design of the Audit Plan

The audit plan in this study takes account of all the information and understanding

that the Treasury and the Federal Reserve possess concerning overseas counterfeiting and

currency holdings. In accordance with the congressional mandate, the study is based on

three components: Models of U.S. currency usage overseas, models of counterfeiting
2

Table 1.1

U.S. Banknotes in Circulation, $100s in Circulation, and $100s Held Overseas

Billions of dollars, except as noted, at year-end

Year

Total

(1)

$100s

(2)

Share of $100s

in total

(percent)

(3)

$100s held

abroad,

wholesale

(4)

Share of $100s

held abroad,

wholesale

(percent)

(5)

1965 38.0 8.1 21.4 3.9 48.3

1970 50.8 12.1 23.8 5.7 47.5

1975 77.6 23.1 29.8 10.0 43.2

1980 124.8 49.3 39.5 23.8 48.4

1985 182.0 81.2 44.6 45.8 56.4

1990 268.2 140.2 52.3 85.7 61.1

1991 288.5 157.2 54.5 101.7 64.3

1992 314.8 177.1 56.3 114.6 64.7

1993 344.5 201.5 58.5 133.5 66.3

1994 382.0 229.1 60.0 156.9 68.5

1995 401.5 241.5 60.2 169.2 70.1

1996 427.1 261.4 61.2 186.6 71.4

1997 458.0 291.6 63.7 211.4 72.5

1998 492.2 320.1 65.0 228.0 71.2

Sources: Columns 1 and 2: Treasury Bulletin, various issues

Column 4: Federal Reserve Board Flow of Funds Accounts (Release Z.1).

abroad, and information obtained from country surveys with cash handlers and others

knowledgeable about the extent of currency usage and counterfeiting issues abroad.1

The Federal Reserve and the Treasury have information on these subjects from a

variety of sources, including U.S. Customs reports, shipments by overseas wholesalers

and published proxies for those shipments, estimates based on in-country surveys from

dollar–using countries, national surveys of domestic currency holdings, and a variety of

empirical models developed by the Federal Reserve that estimate overseas flows or

holdings based on realistic assumptions concerning international currency usage. On the

 

1

 In the early phases of this project, ICAP teams did carefully inspect or “audit” large samples of currency

in commercial banks for the presence of counterfeits. However, these “audits” uncovered very few

counterfeits, produced no other useful information, were costly to conduct, and were difficult to arrange.

As a result, large-scale currency inspections were discontinued, but on an ad hoc basis, the U.S. Secret

Service has inspected batches of counterfeits and suspected counterfeits on these overseas trips. From

time to time, at the team’s request, banks have offered genuine notes for the team’s inspection so that the

fitness, or condition, of such circulating notes could be directly established; on these occasions, the teams

have had another opportunity to look for counterfeits.
3

counterfeiting side, the U.S. Secret Service collects information from around the world

on counterfeits that have been passed or seized and related information from country

surveys. In addition, the Federal Reserve collects data on counterfeits found in deposits at

Federal Reserve Banks. Finally, using data on cash processing and on notes passed both

domestically and internationally, the Federal Reserve has developed models to estimate

the quantity of counterfeit currency in circulation.

1.2 International Demand for the U.S. Dollar

Due to its relative stability and near-universal recognition and acceptance, the

U.S. dollar functions as both a store of value and a medium of exchange when other

stable or convenient assets are not available. Thus, during times of economic or political

crisis, cash in a stable and familiar currency such as the dollar is often sought as a

portable and liquid hedge against possible devaluation. Similarly, dollars are a popular

medium of exchange in regional or cross-border trade when credit markets are

undeveloped.

The Federal Reserve supplies currency on demand, so the quantity of currency in

circulation increases when new demands originate anywhere in the world.2

 Currency in

circulation outside the Federal Reserve and the Treasury was about $500 billion at the

end of 1998. Current estimates indicate that the proportion held abroad is about 50

percent to 70 percent of the amount in circulation, or roughly between $250 billion and

$350 billion. Most of the currency in circulation is in the form of banknotes. Table 1.1

shows the amount of paper currency in circulation as well as the amount in the largest

active denomination, $100s. In value terms, the share of Federal Reserve notes held as

$100s has increased from around 21 percent at the end of 1965 to around 65 percent at

the end of 1998. In addition, the share of $100 notes estimated to be held outside the

 

2

 As a share of domestic monetary aggregates in the United States, currency is relatively small: it comprises

just over 40 percent of the narrow monetary aggregate M1 and about 10 percent of the broader monetary

aggregate M2. However, a large volume of currency is outstanding. Currency in circulation outside banks

at the end of 1998 was about $464 billion, or a little under $1,725 for every U.S. resident. Adding vault

cash held inside the United States buoys overall currency holdings to around $517. 6 billion or about

$1900 per capita. To keep the discussion in the text in round figures, we will use $500 billion as the 1998

end-of-year currency magnitude.
4

United States has also increased. As shown in the right-hand column of the table, the

overseas share of $100s has gradually risen to more than 70 percent at the end of 1998.

The international circulation of U.S. currency in Europe expanded after World

War I in the wake of the hyperinflation induced by the obligations arising from the Treaty

of Versailles.3

 At that time, U.S. currency was viewed favorably because the United

States was still on the gold standard while Great Britain, whose currency was the most

important rival to the dollar, remained off the gold standard until May 1925. Other

countries, such as Panama, adopted the dollar as their official currency. More recently,

dollar usage has expanded largely because of two events: The breakdown of communism

in the former Soviet bloc and episodes of high and volatile inflation in Latin America.

The degree of dollarization that develops during a crisis depends on a country’s

experience with dollars in the past and its economic circumstances. In particular, demand

for dollars appears to depend on two factors. First, dollar inflows are generally higher in

richer countries, which have the wherewithal to purchase dollars. Second, the degree to

which a country becomes dollarized also depends on the level of development of, and the

level of confidence in, the domestic banking system. The less confidence people have

that the value of their bank holdings in either dollars or local currency will be protected,

the more likely they are to want to hold dollars in cash. Similarly, the more developed the

banking system, the more likely it is that people will have a wide variety of options for

saving their money.

Because many holders of U.S. currency view it as a form of insurance against

future crises, they are reluctant to alter their dollar usage patterns even after the

immediate crisis is past. Thus, although changing circumstances may occur in both the

countries we visited and the ones we have yet to visit, underlying patterns of dollar usage

are likely to change only slowly in countries that use dollars. In countries that do not now

use dollars to a significant degree, it is difficult to predict if and when a crisis prompting

demand for a second currency might develop.

 

3

 It was around this time that the Federal Reserve began to collect information on overseas currency

shipments to and from Europe (Porter and Judson, October 1996, note 9).
5

1.3 The Difficulty of Measuring the Extent of International

Counterfeiting

The dollar’s strong international presence and popularity make it an inviting

target for counterfeiters: Where genuine dollars circulate and are accepted, counterfeits

also have a chance of being accepted. Inside the United States, jurisdiction over

counterfeiting cases is held by the Secret Service, which routinely receives information

about counterfeiting from the Federal Reserve, commercial banks, and local law

enforcement authorities. Outside of the United States, where, of course, it has no

jurisdiction, the Secret Service is both more dependent upon, and less connected to, other

sources of information. Further, procedures invoked when counterfeit notes are found

overseas vary widely. Thus, without ongoing, direct contact with its foreign lawenforcement counterparts, the Secret Service cannot assess the true nature of the

counterfeiting threat it faces abroad. Preliminary results from our investigations indicate

that Secret Service agents are now notified more promptly about suspected counterfeiting

through the information channels that have been developed.

1.4 Organization of the Remainder of the Report

The remainder of the report is organized as follows. First, Chapter 2 reviews the

introduction of the 1996-series new currency design (NCD). Chapter 3 discusses the

organization of the country trips and highlights of the information on currency usage

obtained from them. Chapter 4 presents the estimates of the quantity and location of U.S.

currency abroad. Chapter 5 discusses the business side of the international currency

operations and the Federal Reserve’s role in them. Chapter 6 explains how counterfeiting

works and what is known about the geographic distribution of counterfeiting activity

abroad. Chapter 7 presents a model and estimates of the overall potential size of

international counterfeiting activity. A final chapter provides a brief summary and

conclusion.
6

2 The New Currency Design: Introduction,

Distribution, and Results

The introduction of the new-design currency, while not a central responsibility of

the ICAP teams, was an important issue during this period. The new currency design

(NCD) was developed to counteract several developing problems related to counterfeiting

and authentication (determination that a note is not counterfeit). First, unlike other

currencies, the pre-1996 dollar designs had few counterfeit-resistant features that could

be easily checked by a dollar user. Thus, some dollar users in the international market

had a strong preference for uncirculated currency still packaged in the Bureau of

Engraving and Printing (BEP) wrappers.4

 While the Federal Reserve Bank of New York

could supply brand new currency to overseas users, it is more costly for dollar users to

return already-circulated currency and obtain new currency than it would be to simply

recirculate currency. Second, the pre-1996 currency design, while easily recognized by

users, had been essentially unchanged for six decades and was likely to become

vulnerable to increased counterfeiting because of advances in color printing, computer,

and electronic copying technology.

2.1 Overview: Goals, Programs, and Results

The goals for the new design covered three broad areas. First, since the redesign

was the first major change in U.S. dollar design in decades, a smooth introduction was

highly desirable. Second, the addition of counterfeit-resistant features that could be

detected with the naked eye was designed to make dollar users more comfortable that

they could authenticate their currency. By extension, it was hoped that dollar users would

be more willing to accept recirculated currency. Third, the addition of new counterfeitresistant features was expected to reduce the incidence of counterfeiting.

Two concrete steps were taken to achieve these goals, and the goals were met.

First, the U.S. Treasury Department conducted an international education program, which

is discussed later in this chapter and which facilitated the goal of a smooth introduction of

the new design. Second, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York established a network of

 

4 These bundles of new notes are called “cash packs” and contain 1,600 notes.
7

facilities to hold and redistribute U.S. dollars to the international market; these are

discussed in Chapter 5. These facilities, known as Extended Custodial Inventories (ECIs),

have aided in the recirculation of fit (already circulated) currency, which has lowered the

cost of using dollars for international users. They have aided the introduction of the newdesign notes and, when appropriate, the removal of older-design notes from circulation.

The third goal, reducing the incidence of counterfeiting, was also met, as indicated in

table 2.1, which shows that rates of counterfeiting experienced with the new design

through 1998 were less than one tenth of those of the older-series notes. The incidence of

counterfeiting of new-design notes is very low, and, as the new-design notes have

displaced older-design notes, overall counterfeiting rates declined by more than

25 percent from 1996 to 1999.

Table 2.1

Counterfeits Detected at FRBNY for $100 Notes, Pre-1996 and NCD

Counterfeits per million notes of same type processed

Year Total Pre-1996 NCD

1999 (through June) 43.5 166.1 19.8

1998 58.8 195.2 19.0

1997 66.6 158.0 7.5

1996 60.6 76.6 1.0

 Note: The Federal Reserve Bank of New York processes the largest volume of currency and is the only office that provides

information on domestic and foreign currency receipts separately.

The remainder of this chapter reviews the U.S. Treasury’s program to introduce

the new-design notes. Additional details on the Extended Custodial Inventory Program

and its results are in Chapter 5. Additional details about counterfeiting and the Secret

Service’s programs to reduce it are in Chapter 6.

2.2 Introducing the New Currency Design

The Department of the Treasury and the Federal Reserve are responsible for

producing and distributing currency, and also for informing dollar users about design and

policy changes related to the dollar.5

 The Treasury, including the BEP and the Secret

 

5

 The Treasury produces currency and is responsible for currency design. The Federal Reserve is the

Treasury’s agent for currency distribution.
8

Service, developed and conducted an education program with the help of the Federal

Reserve System, the State Department, and the U.S. Information Agency.

2.2.1 Potential Problems

The transition to the new series had the potential to be difficult for different

reasons in the domestic and international arenas. In the United States, it was possible that

citizens would be dissatisfied with the new design or even reject the note. In addition,

since counterfeiting is not a large concern domestically, it was possible that the expense

of the redesign would have been considered inappropriate. In foreign countries, there was

the prospect of rejection of the old notes along with uneasiness for the new ones. For

example, panic arose in Russia, one of the largest dollar-holding countries in the world in

the early 1990s, when new notes incorporating the security thread arrived. This is a

country that is hardly unique in its desire for U.S. currency, its preference for the crisp

new bills, or its recent experience with currency “reforms.” As late as 1993, a currency

reform there left many people with worthless rubles and bitter memories. Thus, it was

deemed crucial to reassure citizens of the former Soviet Union and other countries, some

of them heavily dollarized, about U.S. plans for a smooth transition to the new currency

design.

2.2.2 Objectives

Because of the concerns mentioned above, and because the redesign was the first

major change in U.S. currency in many decades, an effective public education campaign

was essential. The purpose of the campaign was to inform users of U.S. currency about

changes in design and to facilitate a smooth transition to the redesigned currency. The

public education campaign had four main objectives: first, promoting acceptance of the

redesigned currency; second, explaining the reasons for the redesign; third, familiarizing

cash handlers and users with the new features of the redesigned currency; and fourth,

assuring foreign users that there would be adequate supplies of the redesigned currency.

The messages communicated through this program had four key elements. First,

U.S. currency will continue to be easily recognizable as “American,” with notes

remaining the same size and color and retaining basically the same portraits and
9

vignettes. Second, the redesign maintains the security of the currency by staying ahead of

advances in technology. Third, all existing U.S. currency in circulation will remain valid.

The United States has never recalled its currency and will not do so now. Fourth, U.S.

currency will not be devalued. The latter two messages were extremely significant in

certain overseas markets for two reasons. First, virtually all other countries do eventually

recall older-design notes when new notes are introduced. Second, in many countries

where dollars are heavily used, the general public has had unpleasant experiences with

recalls, devaluations, or demonetizations of their local currencies.

2.2.3 Communications Media

In order for the program to work, information had to be transmitted accurately and

in a timely manner. To this end, the Treasury developed a Public Education Resource Kit

(PERK) and established a Global Information Center (GIC). The PERK was designed to

allow individuals to conduct educational programs effectively and independently. The

PERK materials included frequently asked questions and fact sheets, posters and

brochures illustrating the location of new security features on the notes, and press

releases, video, and Internet materials. The brochures were translated into fifteen

languages. The GIC’s responsibility was to gather, write, and disseminate accurate, timely

news stories, and provide interview opportunities concerning the redesign of U.S.

currency to worldwide media outlets. GIC was headquartered in the United States and

was supported by a network of correspondents in five key regions: Latin America,

Western Europe, Central Europe, the Middle East, and Asia/Pacific. The correspondents

were responsible for local translations and dissemination of centrally-created material,

and, in turn, relayed local perspectives and ideas back to GIC headquarters.

Based on lessons learned during the initial redesign of 1990-series notes, two new

information channels were employed. First, U.S. embassies provided notification to

various outlets of the 1996-series redesign prior to the first major announcement. Second,

national central banks were contacted directly in sensitive countries such as those in the

former Soviet Union.
10

2.2.4 Target Audiences

2.2.4.1 Domestic Audiences

Domestically, the public education campaign focused on several diverse groups

simultaneously. Messages were directed toward the general public, the news media and

various constituency organizations such as the American Bankers Association, the

National Retail Federation, the American Association of Retired Persons, and the

National Association of Chain Drug Stores.

2.2.4.2 International Audiences

Internationally, countries were assigned to one of three public-education

“maintenance” levels—low, medium, or high—according to their prospective receptivity

to the new design. The education initiatives in any one country were then designed

according to its assigned level of maintenance.

It was expected that countries in the low-maintenance group would be generally

unaffected by the design change because of either low dollar usage or general receptivity

on the part of the public, news media, and financial institutions. In these countries, the

Treasury planned for a relatively low level of individual attention; however, mechanisms

were put in place to respond to inquiries from various groups as well as to provide

individuals who could conduct presentations on an ad hoc basis. Countries such as Japan,

France, and Great Britain fell within this grouping.

In countries within the medium-maintenance group, commercial organizations

and the public would be comfortable with the changes to the currency, but the situation

might nonetheless have been fluid. In these countries, attention was paid to basic media

outreach and to opportunities for coverage to allay potential fears and possible concerns.

Specific activities included providing spokespersons with regular updates on new

developments and/or issues affecting the new currency. Countries in this category

included Latin American and Caribbean nations.

The high-maintenance group included countries where one or more of the

following characteristics could be found: high usage of U.S. currency, public disapproval

of the currency change, or inaccurate media coverage. In these countries, considerable
11

weight was put on the reason for the change, namely to create more secure notes that

would be more difficult to counterfeit, and the public was assured that older-series notes

would not be recalled. The same procedures for media contacts were used in the mediumand high-maintenance countries. In addition, “third-party contacts” were instrumental in

effectively augmenting the public education program in the high-maintenance countries.

These contacts were individuals or organizations that were credible opinion makers, able

to straightforwardly make the case that the United States was making an improvement to

its currency that would benefit all who wished to use it. This category included Russia,

some countries in eastern Europe, and much of the Middle East.

Obtaining the assistance of third-party contacts was central to the Treasury’s

strategy in the former Soviet Union. Having such endorsers added flexibility but also

carried the risk of miscommunication. On balance, though, the advantages dominated and

fell into three main categories. First, contacts could play roles that would be inappropriate

for the U.S. Government. For example, contacts could praise (and implicitly recommend)

a currency exchanger who offered a reasonable transaction fee. Second, local contacts

could add the weight of inherent credibility to U.S. messages. Third, local contacts could

perform other useful functions in reaching target audiences, such as distributing

materials, offering training and education, and responding to the public’s complaints or

questions.

The national central banks in Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan were particularly

helpful. For instance, the Central Bank of Russia not only distributed hundreds of

thousands of pamphlets and posters and hundreds of video tapes through its regional

branches but also conducted training sessions, issued press statements, met weekly with

U.S. Government representatives, and allowed its endorsement to appear in U.S.

advertising in Russia. Further, the Russian central bank worked with a number of

commercial banks to obtain an agreement that limited transaction fees on currency

exchanges.

Finally, in these “high-maintenance” markets, especially in the former Soviet

Union, experience indicated that news often traveled slowly from region to region. Thus,

regional information channels were employed where possible, and care was taken to
12

make the printed materials plentiful, clear, and easy for banks, exchange houses, and law

enforcement personnel to use.

2.2.5 Campaign Effectiveness

There were no major problems surrounding the introduction of the new currency,

and in general the program and the materials were well received. Indeed, the Central

Bank in Paraguay used the U.S. brochures as a model for the introduction of their newly

designed 50,000 guarani note.

There were two types of comments that suggested slight changes for future

currency design introductions. First, some banks indicated that the elapsed time between

the unveiling of the new note and its issue date was insufficient. Some banks and

exchange houses, particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean, did not receive the

relevant information until after the introduction of the new notes. In the future,

distribution plans for educational materials will take more careful account of the time

required for both shipping and distribution of these materials to various regions in the

world. The same institutions, especially the U.S. Information Agency and the U.S.

embassies and consulates, will continue to be used to distribute educational materials

abroad.

Second, some cash handlers requested specific training on the NCD notes. Both

cash handlers and law enforcement officials in the Dominican Republic expressed

interest in training on the technical features, including the security thread, the optically

variable ink (OVI), and the micro printing. In both instances, the Secret Service special

agent assigned to the team made arrangements to provide the assistance requested. Future

educational efforts will include additional technical advice.

As of December 31, 1998, the proportion of NCD notes in the stock of circulating

$100 and $50 notes was 66 percent and 49 percent, respectively.6

 These figures would

tend to indicate that a slow but steady transition is occurring and that our rollout strategy

has not been overly aggressive. However, it would be helpful to revise the message a bit

to advance the repatriation of older-series notes. To this end, a clear statement should be

 

6

 At this time, the NCD $100 had been in circulation for about twice as long as the NCD

$50.
13

prepared to explain that while older-series notes are still legal tender, the security features

of the new-series notes provide more protection against counterfeiting.

2.3 Perception of the New Currency Design

Without exception, financial institutions and law enforcement organizations

welcomed the introduction of the NCD banknotes with the added security features. They

were delighted that the United States, like many other countries, will now include

watermarks, OVI, and other overt features in the currency. Since most individuals

identify counterfeits by examining the feel of the paper and looking at the portrait, they

were pleased that the same paper and historical figures were used. Only a few banks were

disappointed that the color and size of the notes remained the same, but the issue here is

one of ease of denomination identification and not counterfeit protection. The only other

comments about the design centered on the location of the portrait. Some felt that moving

the portrait to the left rather than the right tended to hamper counterfeit detection since

right-handed cashiers hold a stack of notes with their left hand and flip through the notes

with the right hand, thus exposing the right side of the notes more thoroughly. Because

this is a feature that many tellers focus on, it was felt that the portrait would be better

placed on the right. However, this is not a critical flaw for two reasons: First, many tellers

use other methods for flipping through notes. Second, many other countries have detailed

designs on the left side of their currencies and cashiers have adapted their sorting

techniques accordingly. In summary, the overall reaction to the new design was quite

positive.
14

3 Country Surveys of Currency Usage: The

ICAP Trips

3.1 Background for the Currency Surveys

The 1996-series $100 note represented the most dramatic design change ever seen

in a Federal Reserve note, and some difficulties had followed the foreign introduction of

its predecessor, the 1990-series $100 note. 7 Hence, the Treasury and the Federal Reserve

sought to plan for a smoother international introduction in 1996. During 1994 and 1995,

teams from the Treasury and the Federal Reserve conducted a series of trips abroad with

the goal of addressing three questions: First, where and how do U.S. dollars circulate

outside the United States? Second, where and how do counterfeits circulate, and how are

they detected and handled outside the United States? Third, what should be done to make

the introduction of the 1996-series note as smooth and trouble-free as possible?

The teams usually consisted of officials from the Board of Governors of the

Federal Reserve System, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, the Secret Service, and

the Treasury. The teams met with officials from U.S. embassies, consulates, and related

institutions, officials of the host country finance ministries and central banks,

counterfeiting enforcement officials, currency dealers and handlers at banks, currency

exchanges, and valuables handling services, and various trade associations representing

these groups. In addition, other authorities, organizations, businesses, and individuals

were visited as conditions dictated.

In 1994 the teams first visited wholesale banknote distribution centers in Europe

and Asia to assess the reception that a newly designed $100 note might receive by the

banks and other institutions involved in distributing U.S. currency internationally. Next,

the teams visited two countries that were believed to have the largest dollar holdings,

Argentina and Russia.8

 Then, in September and October of 1995, a team visited the

Middle East, a region that historically has been a significant importer of dollars. The

countries visited on this trip were Turkey, Egypt, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab

 

7

 These notes, issued beginning in August 1991, featured a security thread and microprinting.

8

 As a precursor to the Russian trip, Treasury and Federal Reserve representatives also visited one of the

new countries that had been part of the former Soviet Union, Belarus.
15

Emirates. After the 1996 legislation, Treasury and Federal Reserve officials made three

trips to Asia to study dollar usage in eight economies: Cambodia, Hong Kong, Indonesia,

Korea, the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam.9

 In 1997, Treasury and Federal

Reserve officials also conducted a trip to four countries in Eastern Europe that were using

dollars in the process of moving from a centralized, Soviet-style organization of their

economies to market relationships: Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. In 1997 and

1998, two trips were also made to Latin America to inspect six countries that have had

varying degrees of dollarization over their history: Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican

Republic, Mexico, Panama, and Paraguay. Finally, in 1998 a very brief trip was taken to

South Africa, which has become an important source of counterfeits recently.

The ICAP visits have resulted in numerous senior-level banking relationships

between Treasury and Federal Reserve officials and commercial bankers, global and

regional wholesalers, and valuables handlers. These relationships support the exchange of

information, and can be instrumental in formulating responses to various international

currency crises.

3.2 Criteria for Country Selection

The teams selected the locations (table 3.1) for visits and follow-up contacts on

the basis of business, economic, and security considerations. Specifically, the teams

visited places that had large dollar inflows or outflows, and in which dollar activity was

otherwise indicated to be significant by Federal Reserve and Secret Service contacts and

reports. One exception was Colombia: It was selected because it is a major source for

counterfeits that are smuggled to the United States and successfully passed on to the

public. In some of these economies, dollars enter the economy only through wholesale

transit points; in others, dollars are a multipurpose asset and are used for savings,

domestic transactions, and trade with neighboring countries. Many countries fall in

between these two extremes.

 

9 A few smaller-scale trips piggybacked on other activities of Federal Reserve staff. For example, the Korea

trip was initiated when one member of the Board staff was on a consulting mission to the Bank of Korea

(BOK); he collected the relevant information as a byproduct of his other consulting activities for the

BOK.
16

Table 3.1

ICAP and Related Currency Trips

Location Time of visit(s)

Argentina October 1994

Bahrain September 1995

Belarus December 1994

Brazil May 1997

Bulgaria November 1997

Cambodia January 1997

Colombia October 1998

Dominican Republic October 1998

Egypt September 1995

Hong Kong January 1995, October 1996

Indonesia January 1997

Korea July-August 1998

Latvia November 1997

Lithuania November 1997

Mexico December 1996, April 1998

Paraguay May 1997

Panama October 1998

Philippines September 1996

Poland November 1997

Romania September 1998

Russia August 1995, June 1997

Singapore January 1995, January 1997

South Africa May 1998

Switzerland November 1994

Taiwan September-October 1996

Thailand January 1997

Turkey September 1995

United Kingdom November 1994

Vietnam October 1996

3.3 Use of U.S. Dollars Abroad: Patterns

The dollar is widely used in many countries as a store of value, a transaction

medium, and a unit of account even when it is not the official currency.10 In countries

with underdeveloped banking sectors, cash is used to settle transactions of all

 

10 For earlier estimates of the foreign component of currency stocks and flows and related issues, see, for

example, Avery, Elliehausen, Kennickell, and Spindt (1987), Blinder (1996), Feige (1996), Frankel

(1995), Lindsey (1994-95), Mueller (1994-95), Porter (1993), Porter and Judson (April and October

1996), Obstfeld and Rogoff (1996), Seitz (1995), Sprenkle (1993), and Summer (1990,1994).
17

magnitudes; in such countries with the additional burden of unstable currencies, U.S.

dollars are held in cash as a store of value, used for many transactions, and often are the

unit of account, especially for larger transactions. Even in some countries with developed

banking sectors and stable currencies, dollars are the preferred currency for travelers, for

cross-border trade, for settlement of large cash transactions, and for transactions in the

informal or gray sector.

The countries visited by the groups provided examples of the varying conditions

in which people choose to use and hold U.S. banknotes. Although the relative importance

of each varies with economic and political conditions, we found five basic motivations

for holding and using cash dollars. First, in times and places where the political or

economic situation is uncertain, dollars are held for security against inflation and general

calamity. Second, expatriate workers throughout the world often carry their earnings to

their home countries in dollars, and between visits home, some of these workers hold

dollars in cash rather than in a bank. Third, travelers to other parts of the world carry

dollars because they are easier to exchange than local currencies. Fourth, cross-border

trade in many areas is conducted largely in dollars. Fifth, the informal or “off the books”

sectors in many economies are highly dollarized.11

Although the circumstances in each country are unique, demand for U.S. dollars

(or indeed any other currency that circulates widely outside its home country) during a

crisis does follow certain patterns.12 A crisis leading to increased dollar usage typically

originates as growing fiscal deficits are eventually financed by rapid money creation,

which leads to inflation. Surging prices sharply reduce the purchasing power of the

domestic currency and the value of accumulated savings. Monetary and fiscal reforms are

proposed or promised, but, if they come at all, their arrival is usually slow and erratic.

Inflation is correspondingly erratic, which in turn generates uncertainty about the future

 

11 It is often asserted that a major source of demand for cash dollars is the world drug trade. This claim is

implausible. A high but plausible estimate of the total value of the worldwide drug trade would be about

$500 billion, with the amount in the United States about one-tenth of that. If currency turns over once a

week and all stages of the drug trade use dollars, the drug trade would still require only about $10 billion

in currency, or about 2 percent of the total quantity now in circulation.

12 Heymann and Leijonhufvud (1995) discuss the forces affecting currency holdings in countries

experiencing high inflation but not hyperinflation. See also Obstfeld and Rogoff (1996), Vegh (1992),

Savastano (1996), and Kamin and Ericsson (forthcoming).
18

purchasing power of both cash and bank holdings denominated in domestic currency.

Similarly, high and unstable inflation complicates the calculation and evaluation of any

large or long-term financial transactions or investments, such as leases or time deposits.

Residents of countries experiencing these crises naturally seek other, more stable

assets, and the dollar is often the most convenient and familiar of the available assets.

Similarly, they seek to set prices and conduct financial negotiations in terms that are less

likely to be affected by domestic inflation. Thus, as the inflationary process evolves, the

first use of the dollar is as the unit of account for large-scale and longer-term transactions

in the economy. As “dollarization” spreads, more transactions for large items like cars

and real estate are either priced in dollars or conducted in dollars. As the realization that

using dollars will prevent further losses spreads across the economy, dollar inflows

accelerate. In a simple model of this process, the demand for the foreign currency

(dollars) depends on the variability of inflation rates and on the difference between the

inflation rates of United States and the developing country. The larger the variability and

the difference, the greater will be the demand for dollars.13

The degree to which a country becomes dollarized and the degree to which

residents prefer cash dollars to dollar-denominated bank accounts depends on confidence

in the domestic banking system. Periodic bouts of inflation often wipe out the savings

held in domestic currency, which encourages flight to other assets. Interest rate premiums

and indexation of accounts for domestic inflation are alternatives to dollarization, but

they are only effective when people have confidence that they will provide full protection

against inflation. Similarly, allowing dollar-denominated deposits is not always sufficient

to eliminate a flight to the cash dollar: The bitter experience of having one’s foreign

currency account confiscated or devalued even once is enough to keep many people from

trusting banks for decades.

A country’s demand for cash dollars also depends on its economic circumstances:

In order to buy dollars, countries must have something of value to sell. Thus, richer

countries or countries with well-developed export sectors are more likely to be able to

afford to buy dollars.

 

13 See Obstfeld and Rogoff (1996, section 8.3)
19

Although dollars flow into countries when the domestic currency weakens or

political crisis looms, they often remain when the crisis passes. For example, an estimated

50 percent of the currency that flowed into Argentina in the late 1980s, into the Middle

East before Operation Desert Storm, and into Taiwan after the 1996 crisis in the straits is

still in those areas. Thus, it is reasonable to anticipate that dollars will remain abroad

even after local currencies stabilize in parts of Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union,

and Latin America.

3.3.1 Argentina

For the past several decades, Argentina has experienced high and chronic

inflation. In spite of eight major stabilization plans (an average of two per decade) and

countless other attempts at reform, Argentina never managed to reduce its annual

inflation to a double-digit rate for more than a year at a time until the 1990s. The surges

of hyperinflation in 1975 and in the late 1980s resulted in a persistent “dollarization” of

the economy. Beginning in the 1970s, dollars were increasingly used for settling current

transactions and as a unit of account. There may have been well over $20 billion in U.S.

banknotes in Argentina in the early 1990s and perhaps $25 billion or more now.14

The persistent inflation differential between the United States and Argentina

resulted in the displacement of the Argentinean currency by the dollar in local portfolios.

Figure 3.1 shows that the monthly inflation rates in Argentina relative to those in the

United States were sizable and often increasing before the 1991 stabilization program.

The dotted horizontal lines in the figure mark the relatively rapid differential inflation

 

14 Net flows of dollars reported to U.S. Customs on Currency and Monetary Instrument Reports (CMIRs) to

Argentina total over $40 billion from 1977 to 1997. Undoubtedly, some of this currency has been

repatriated back to the United States after moving from Argentina to neighboring countries and then

ultimately back to the states. While these statistics do not capture all of the flows back into the United

States, we can use the gross flows to Argentina over this period to make an estimate of the net amount in

the country. Currency experts believe that about 40 percent of the gross shipments to Argentina of about

$65 billion are likely to remain there. Using this as the basis, the implied amount in Argentina would be

around $25 billion from the CMIR statistics. See also Kamin and Ericsson (forthcoming).
20

Figure 3.1

The Differential between Inflation Rates in Argentina and the United States

Percent per month

250

200

150

100

0

50

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Inflation differential
21

rates of 10, 20, and 30 percent per month. The period shown since early 1977 in the

figure can be divided into four distinct periods. Inflation averaged around 62 percent per

month until mid-1982, when it began to increase until it reached nearly 30 percent per

month in mid-1986. The differential then dropped back before rising still higher in more

erratic fashion until it reached nearly 200 percent per month in July 1989, then slowed

somewhat but surged once again to nearly 100 percent per month in March 1990.

Thereafter, the Argentine government finally adopted reforms that have achieved lasting

success.

In April 1991, Argentina embarked on its most successful and ambitious

stabilization attempt, pegging their local currency to the dollar at one for one. As can be

seen in figure 3.1, the inflation differential after the reform averaged about zero and was

much less volatile. The austerity plan was accompanied by an opening of the economy to

the rest of the world. Trade reforms resulted in the virtual elimination of quantitative

trade restrictions. When the macroeconomic situation stabilized, inhabitants reduced the

rate at which they accumulated dollars, but did not immediately convert their stocks of

dollars to other assets. Indeed, it appeared that as capital flight was reversed, dollar cash

holdings increased to maintain portfolio balance. Moreover, residents continue to settle

large transactions in dollars. More recently, as uncertainties have been heightened in a

sequence of aftershocks from the Asian crisis, especially after the sharp devaluation of

the Brazil real in early 1998, Argentine officials announced that the country might give

up its own currency entirely and adopt the dollar as its official currency.

3.3.2 The Former Soviet Union

Belarus and Russia have suffered from high inflation, economic instability, an

underdeveloped banking sector, a history of confiscation of bank deposits and of

unwarranted and inequitable currency recalls, and, until recently, lack of convertibility

between local currencies and “hard” currencies such as the dollar. These conditions have

contributed to a high level of dollar use in transactions, accounting, and savings.15

Across Russia, the majority of households hold some dollars, and millions of households

 

15 Although the group visited only Belarus and western Russia, patterns of dollar usage are believed to be

comparable throughout the former Soviet Union.
22

use dollars as their chief store of value. The prevalence of dollars, the sophistication of

users, and the degree to which news and rumors about dollars spread is quite high in

Moscow and a few other financial centers but not elsewhere in Russia. The official

attitude toward the prevalence of the dollar in Russia is mixed. Although dollars may

be legally held in cash or in bank accounts, the Russian Central Bank supports

“de-dollarization,” or a return to the ruble.

Interestingly, in the absence of a suitable alternative medium for transactions,

dollars were used as a settlement medium within Russia and among countries that were

formerly part of the Soviet Union after the collapse of communism but before the

massive inflation of the 1990s. Though dollars had a substantial foothold in Russia, their

usage grew further during the rapid inflation. On average, Russians imported about

$2 billion per month in U.S. currency from about 1994 to 1996.16 More recently, in 1998

and 1999, dollar exports to Russia slowed somewhat, reflecting increased financing

difficulties within Russia after the unexpected default on foreign debt obligations in

August 1998. The event caused some wholesale currency banks to tighten the terms on

which they made short-term credit extensions to Russian banks. In addition, Russia raised

the tax on imported foreign currency. However, an important factor restraining currency

imports could well have been the softness in the world oil market over the early part of

this period, which reduced the resources available for dollar purchases from abroad.

3.3.3 Other Areas

Much of Eastern Europe remains highly dollarized. Dollars were estimated to

represent about half of the currency stocks in the two Baltic countries we visited, Latvia

and Lithuania. When the currency of Bulgaria, the lev, collapsed in 1996, falling to less

than one seventh of its purchasing power in dollars at the beginning of the year, the

country imported as much as $50 per person. The fourth country visited, Poland, appears

to be less dollarized than the others. But most commentators thought that the informal, or

“gray market” sector in this country, as in many other parts of the world, was highly

dollarized, although other currencies such as the German mark were also used. Moreover,

 

16Imports of dollars to Russia were probably high prior to 1994, but during the early 1990s, banks reporting

their shipments to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York were reporting intermediate destinations (e.g.,

London or Zurich) rather than final destinations (e.g., Russia).
23

a substantial part of the economy, ranging from 25 percent to more than 40 percent, was

thought to be in this informal sector.

In Western Europe, the banking sector is highly developed, and the domestic

currencies are stable. Thus, dollars are rarely used there as a store of value or means of

transaction. However, several large wholesalers are based in Western Europe; they

supply dollars to, and buy dollars from, correspondents in Eastern Europe, the Middle

East, and Africa and sell dollars to customers of their own branches for use in tourism

and business in other parts of the world.

Similarly, banks in Hong Kong and Singapore trade dollars with clients for travel

and for cash transactions, and they supply a large network of correspondent banks in

countries where cash dollars are used heavily, including Burma, Cambodia, China, India,

Indonesia, Korea, the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, and several East African

countries. Dollars are the currency of choice in Cambodia and used to a considerable

extent in Vietnam, especially in urban areas. Heightened political tensions between

Taiwan and China have led Taiwan residents to import substantial amounts of dollars for

use as precautionary savings. There appears to be an active trade in dollars between

China and many of its neighbors. In Indonesia, entrepreneurs, who tend to be ethnically

distinct immigrants, also hold substantial precautionary amounts of dollars.

All forms of dollar usage are represented in the Middle East. Throughout the

region, dollars are the preferred currency for travelers. In the Gulf States, local currencies

are stable, so dollars are reserved for cross-border trade and travel. Traders from the rest

of the Middle East and the former Soviet Union use dollars for their purchases. Residents

carry dollars when traveling outside the region, and expatriate workers carry dollars to

their home countries. In Turkey, dollars are used both for trade and travel and for

domestic transactions and saving because of persistent high inflation. In Egypt, dollars

are used very little except for travel.

Dollar usage has had a long history in Latin America and the Caribbean. Many

Latin American countries used dollars exclusively or in large part at one time in their

history: Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Panama, and Peru

fall under this heading. Residents of these countries began to use dollars for the same
24

reasons as in other countries, and the dollar is by far the most familiar of all foreign

currencies in Latin America.

3.3.4 Remaining Geographic Uncertainties Regarding Currency

Location

Although the teams were not able to visit every country in each region, it was

possible to make reasonable educated guesses about dollar usage for several of the

unvisited countries by drawing on a variety of economic intelligence and information

from various businesses and Secret Service contacts. For example, it seems clear that

there are large quantities of dollars circulating in parts of the former Soviet Union that

were not visited, such as Estonia, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, and in parts of Eastern

Europe. Similarly, there are strong indications that significant quantities of dollars are

used in Peru and Cuba.

In Asia, dollars are used for trade and savings, although gold is also used for

savings in both Asia and the Middle East. A substantial quantity of dollars apparently

flows into and out of China in connection with trading activity with Hong Kong, Russia,

Taiwan, and Vietnam. As for savings, during the 1995 trip to Turkey, the team found that

U.S. cash holdings might be as much as $10 billion, but such an amount would be only

about one-fifth of Turkish private holdings of gold.17 It is possible that U.S. banknotes

will gain on gold for several reasons. First, dollars are probably more liquid than gold in

almost all situations, especially emergencies. Second, gold has been a relatively poor

investment over much of this period. Finally, gradual shifts from commodity assets such

as gold to financial assets such as dollars and bank accounts are often a normal part of the

development process. In any event, information about the behavior of the more than

2 billion people in China and the Indian subcontinent could explain a great deal about the

true size of overseas holdings, and future currency trips to these areas will likely provide

that information.

 

17Worldwide private gold holdings, which totaled about $670 billion in 1997 in various forms, such as

jewelry, religious objects, bars, and coins, are much larger than total overseas U.S. currency holdings.
25

3.4 Judging the Plausibility of Overseas Dollar Holdings from

Country Surveys

The Federal Reserve estimates that approximately one-half to two-thirds of all

U.S. currency, or between $250 billion and $350 billion, is held outside the United

States.18 Since each dollar outstanding effectively represents an interest-free loan to the

U.S. Treasury, the value of the external dollar circulation in interest costs avoided is on

the order of $12 billion to $17 billion per year.19 As shown in table 1.1 above, the number

of dollars in circulation has been increasing steadily since 1980, and a sizable share of

this growth can be attributed to overseas demand. The dollar is thus a valuable export

whose quality, or integrity, should be protected. As with many products, users have

alternatives; in this case, they include the German mark, Japanese yen, Hong Kong

dollar, and Singapore dollar.

How plausible are the estimates that $250 billion to $350 billion of U.S. dollars

are held overseas? The nature of the aggregate estimate is the subject of the next chapter.

The precise amounts that are held abroad have been the subject of a great deal of

speculation for some time: As early as the 1920s, after the hyperinflation in Europe, the

Federal Reserve Bank of New York began publishing estimates of currency flows to

Europe.

Table 3.2 presents some preliminary results from the various Treasury and

Federal Reserve surveys. As expected, the per capita estimates tend to be higher in

countries that have experienced high rates of inflation, even when the peak inflation

experience occurred much earlier. The estimates suggest that the 1.2 billion residents in

the twenty-five countries visited held a little more than $100 on average. Since these

countries represent about one-fifth of the world’s population and appear to hold nearly

 

18See Porter and Judson (April and October 1996).

19Technically, dollars held abroad do not reduce the level of either Treasury borrowing or Treasury interest

payments. Rather, by expanding Federal Reserve liabilities (Federal Reserve notes outstanding) and,

commensurately, Federal Reserve assets (U.S. government securities), dollars held abroad increase the

quantity of Treasury liabilities held by the Federal Reserve and the amount of Treasury interest paid to

the Federal Reserve. Since, at the margin, all Federal Reserve earnings are returned to the Treasury, the

effect is that the Treasury avoids paying interest on the value of outstanding debt equal to the Federal

Reserve notes held outside the country. For example in 1994, the estimated $250 billion of dollars held

abroad yielded $13.6 billion (at 5.44 percent); this was 66 percent of the $20.7 billion paid to the

Treasury by the Federal Reserve.
26

Table 3.2

Foreign Holdings of U.S. Currency from Federal Reserve and Treasury Surveys

Economy

Amount of

currency

(billions of

dollars)

Population

(millions)

Average

recent

inflation

(percent)

Per capita

currency

holdings

(dollars)

GDP held in

the form of

U.S. currency

(percent)

Argentina 25 35.8 102.4 698 8.1

Belarus 3 10.4 62.6 288 5.8

Brazil 1 164.5 205.5 6 .1

Bulgaria 1 8.3 100.0 120 2.8

Cambodia 2 11.2 5.6 179 25.2

Colombia 2 38.6 23.7 52

Dominican Republic 1.5 8.0 21.3 188 3.9

Egypt 1 64.8 12.8 15 .4

Hong Kong 2 6.5 3.7 308 1.2

Indonesia 2 209.8 9.2 10 0.3

Korea 15 45.9 6.1 327 2.3

Latvia .5 2.4 243.6 208 5.5

Lithuania .5 3.6 136.5 139 3.6

Panama 2.0 2.7 1.0 648 11.1

Mexico 5 97.6 21.2 51 .6

Paraguay .1 5.6 16.9 18 .6

Philippines 2 76.1 9.6 26 1.0

Poland 1 38.6 39.9 26 .4

Romania 2 38.6 134.8 52 .8

Russia 60 147.3 133.2 407 7.7

Singapore 1 3.4 2.3 294 1.4

Taiwan 1 21.7 3.2 46 .3

Thailand .25 59.5 5.0 4 .1

Turkey 10 63.5 58.2 157 2.6

Vietnam 3 75.1 66.9 40 2.7

Total 143.9 1,239.5 ... ......

Average 6.3 49.6 62.7 116 3.3

 Note: The source data for the average annual inflation rate is based on monthly IFS data in most cases, and, where possible, tenyear average. In several cases, data were only available for shorter periods.

 The remaining data in the table were drawn from the CIA World Factbook web site. For the currency holdings, estimates were

provided during the team’s visits to each country, and are thus estimates as of the most recent trip to each country. ICAP teams in the

Middle East also found that about $15 billion was in the Persian Gulf in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait,

Iran, and Iraq. A similar amount was thought to be in India and Pakistan.

$145 billion in currency, the countries not yet visited might well hold enough dollars to

account for overseas holdings in the neighborhood of $250 billion to $350 billion. In

particular, table 3.2 does not include estimates for several countries in Latin America and

the former USSR with high dollar usage.

Thus, the country trips tend to confirm the relatively large estimates of overseas

currency. But one substantial area of uncertainty remains. Domestic survey evidence on
27

individual holdings of currency in the United States shows only about 10 percent of the

total U.S. currency stock as being located inside the United States.20 If 60 percent or so

were held abroad, this leaves 30 percent of the currency stock missing. The true domestic

figure is very likely larger than 10 percent, but the possibility of foreign holdings

substantially larger than 60 percent cannot be ruled out.

3.5 Changing Conditions in Countries Surveyed

Conditions in some countries have changed significantly since the teams’ visits.

For example, Hong Kong has reverted to China. Three important countries, Argentina,

Brazil, and Russia, have each been affected by recent financial crises, with Russia and

Brazil experiencing sharp depreciations of their currencies and Russia defaulting on

much of its external debt obligations. The precise patterns of dollar usage may have

changed as a result of these events, but many of the general patterns almost surely

remain, so the information from the trips is likely to remain generally valid. In addition,

the ongoing relationships and visits from residents of these countries provide periodic

updates. Several factors could, however, change the demand for dollars. The most

obvious of these are increasing use of electronic payments for transactions and the

upcoming introduction of euro-denominated banknotes.

3.5.1 Transaction Technologies

As countries develop and stabilize, noncash transactions and savings mechanisms

such as checks, credit cards, debit cards, and bank accounts can displace paper currency.

However, discussions during the teams’ trips indicate that people who have been driven

to dollar usage by crisis are often extremely cautious about moving away from the triedand-true dollar. At the wholesale level, payment systems that displace dollars are

embraced when credit systems and contract enforceability are established; these

developments occur more readily within countries than across borders.

 

20Both the direct survey evidence on currency usage in the United States (Porter and Judson April 1996)

and Sprenkle (1993) argue for small amounts such as this being held within the United States.
28

3.5.2 Euro Banknote Introduction

The introduction of the euro banknotes in January 2002 may provide an attractive

alternative to the dollar for many that seek a second currency.21 There are three groups of

people who now use dollars but might switch to euros at some point. First, residents of

the euro area who currently carry dollars when they travel outside their home countries

will no longer need dollars within the euro area and may be able to exchange euros just as

easily and cheaply as dollars outside this area if the euro succeeds as an international

currency.

22 These users might well switch to euros fairly quickly. Second, dollar users in

countries close to the euro area may find that euros are just as convenient, and, in some

cases, more convenient, than dollars. However, these users might need somewhat more

time to become accustomed to euros, and thus might not generate large movements to

euros and away from dollars for several years. Third, although residents of countries

experiencing political or economic crisis might in the long run prefer to hold euros,

second-currency-holding habits change only very slowly. Thus, this group of dollar users

is also unlikely to switch away from dollars very soon, if ever. Overall, current users of

dollars as a store of wealth will likely be cautious about switching to euros until the euro

becomes somewhat more established.

 

21The euro was introduced as a unit of account for most members of the European Union at the beginning

of 1999. Euro banknotes will not be issued until 2002.

22 Among other factors, the cost of exchanging money is a function of the volume exchanged in a particular

currency and location. Dollars are relatively cheap to exchange in many places because they are heavily

used.
29

4 Models of Overseas Currency Demand and

Usage

The Federal Reserve has developed several statistical models for estimating

stocks and flows of U.S. dollars abroad.23 The models indicate that between 50 percent

and 70 percent of U.S. currency is now held outside the United States and that the growth

in currency in circulation over much of the 1990s has been driven mostly by overseas

demand. These models use confidential data on currency shipments to and from the

Federal Reserve Bank of New York, data collected by the U.S. Customs Service through

their Currency and Monetary Instrument Report, data on cash processing at Federal

Reserve Banks, and less formal information collected during the study trips.

4.1 Data Sources

4.1.1 Major Wholesale Dealers of Banknotes

Currently, monthly reports on the volumes, sources, and destinations of incoming

and outgoing international currency shipments are provided to the Federal Reserve Bank

of New York by large commercial banks and other banknote brokers. These reports have

been provided since 1988, and were also provided for a period between World War I and

World War II.

About $150 billion in U.S. currency on net moved overseas via wholesale

banknote brokers in the eleven years from 1988 through 1998. Before 1992, the bulk of

the net value went to Latin America, primarily Argentina, which received a little more

than one-third of total net shipments from the United States to the rest of the world in the

1988–91 period. Since then, the onset of turbulence in the former Soviet Union has

sharply boosted shipments, especially to Russia. Indeed, the shipments have been so large

that, for the eleven years as a whole, the broad region of Europe, Russia, and the other

countries of the former Soviet Union has come to account for about five-sixths of net

U.S. currency shipments abroad. This growth was spectacular in the mid 1990s when

 

23See Porter and Judson (April and October 1996) for a comprehensive treatment of the various indirect

models that have been developed to estimate overseas holdings.
30

annual net flows to Russia from 1994 to 1996 averaged about $20 billion, or well more

than half of total net foreign shipments of U.S. currency in that period.

4.1.2 Federal Reserve Cash Processing Data

The most complete source of indirect information on currency flows is data from

currency processing performed at the Federal Reserve System’s thirty-seven Cash

Offices. The Cash Offices record by denomination and, to a limited extent, by series, all

currency received, processed, destroyed, and paid out or shipped to other Cash Offices.

These data do not differentiate between foreign and domestic flows, but by comparing

Cash Office reports on shipments of $100s and $50s with information from other sources,

we can enhance our knowledge of stocks and flows abroad. These data are particularly

useful in light of other data, which indicate that the vast majority of cash activity at

certain Cash Offices is due to foreign demand for U.S. currency.

4.1.3 Currency and Monetary Instrument Reports (CMIRs)

The most obvious direct source of information on currency flows across U.S.

borders is the Currency and Monetary Instrument Reports (CMIRs) required by the U.S.

Customs Service. In principle, these reports are a rich source of information because

individuals and firms making almost any shipment of more than $10,000 in cash across a

U.S. border are required to file a CMIR. Nonetheless, at least six factors indicate that

CMIRs are neither accurate nor thorough measures of large cash shipments outside the

banking sector.

First, because arriving travelers must pass through Customs but departing

travelers ordinarily do not, the CMIR data are biased toward measuring inflows of

currency. Departing travelers are occasionally informed of the filing requirement or are

targeted for enforcement purposes, but their responses are not adjusted statistically to

account for the large proportion of outgoing travelers who should, but apparently do not,

file CMIRs. For example, in 1994 the number of travelers entering the United States from

anywhere in the world was about the same as the number of travelers leaving (about 45
31

million), but in that year, about 170,000 arriving travelers filed CMIRs, whereas only

about 34,000 departing travelers did so.24

 Second, CMIRs do not capture shipments of $10,000 or less, activity that could

cumulate to a significant total. In 1994, excluding travel to Mexico and Canada, 18.7

million U.S. residents left the United States, and 19.2 million visitors entered. If these

travelers carried an average of $1,000 each, the unrecorded flows in each direction would

be relatively large, about one-half of the $32.8 billion of inflows and $39.1 billion of

outflows recorded on the CMIRs. For example, banking statistics seem to indicate that

U.S. currency goes only from the Caribbean to the United States; the currency going from

the United States to the Caribbean does not go through the international banking system

but in the pockets of American tourists and others, and most of it presumably goes

unrecorded. Flows for the neighboring countries, Canada and Mexico, also exhibit the

bias of one-way measurement: CMIRs record currency moving within the banking

system from Mexico to the United States, and from the United States to Canada, but

mostly not in the opposite directions. In all likelihood the net flows between the United

States and its neighbors in most time periods are relatively small.

Third, many shipments greater than $10,000 are likely to be misreported or not

reported at all. Although banks and other firms are accustomed to filing CMIRs and

probably do so fairly diligently, individuals are potentially less aware of these reports,

less willing to file them, or even eager to avoid them.

Fourth, the record-keeping system for CMIRs was designed to identify individual

transactions, not to develop accurate aggregate statistics on currency flows.

Fifth, the 1996 establishment of the extended custodial inventory (ECI) facilities

(see chapter 5) has distorted the information available from the CMIRs in two ways

relative to that available from wholesale sources: (1) The CMIRs do not record the

ultimate destination or origin of the currency being shipped, whereas the Federal Reserve

Bank of New York does, at least in principle.25 (2) The complete set of Federal Reserve

 

24Most likely as a result of this one-sided recording capability, net shipments of U.S. currency in the CMIR

statistics totaled only $340 million in the period from 1977 to 1996, a period over which all other

estimates of such flows increased by several orders of magnitude more.

25On shipments to the United States, the Bank attempts to determine the city in which the wholesale bank

first assembled the currency.
32

data (cash processing, the money stock, and the New York Reserve Bank confidential

data on shipments) capture all of the movements in and out of the ECIs, whereas the

CMIRs do not.26

In sum, CMIRs are an important source of data, but they probably do not provide

accurate aggregate data because of a one-sided system for collecting data, the omission of

some potentially large volumes of currency flows, and the inability to cope with

intermediate ECI transactions.

4.1.4 ICAP Trips and Other Institutional Information

The Federal Reserve estimates also draw on institutional knowledge of several

types, most having to do with patterns in the issuance and usage of the $100 note, the

largest denomination now issued by the Federal Reserve. Two facts about the use of

$100s suggest that the net new demand for them is coming primarily from abroad. First,

although $20s are in more common use than $100s in the United States, $100s now make

up nearly two-thirds of the dollar value of all U.S. currency outstanding. Second, the

Federal Reserve Cash Office for the New York City region, which is the primary supplier

of currency to foreign users, makes shipments of $100s that are unusually large relative

to its region’s share of nationwide vault cash, population, income, and deposits (table

4.1). The New York City Cash Office has accounted for seven-eighths of the net national

issuance of $100s from 1974 to 1998. At the same time, survey data on holdings of the

$100 bill indicate that U.S. residents hold, on average, less than one-third of a single bill

per person, while for every U.S. resident, about twelve $100 notes now circulate

somewhere in the world. In sum, the basic information we have from surveys and the

Federal Reserve Cash Offices about the circulation of $100 notes is consistent with

relatively low dollar use domestically and high use abroad.

 

26The CMIRs capture only the initial and final transactions in the circular flow of currency from and to the

United States. The Federal Reserve data capture all intermediate cases when the fit currency returns to the

ECI.
33

Table 4.1

District Shares of Nationwide Characteristics of Economic and Cash Activity

District

Vault

cash1 Population2

Personal

income3

Savings

and

transaction

deposits1

$100s

issued4

All

denominations

issued4

Boston 6.6 4.5 5.0 4.6 4.1 9.7

New York 10.1 11.4 13.8 12.6 88.2 86.1

Philadelphia 2.3 4.4 4.6 2.2 2.9 -0.7

Cleveland 9.4 6.8 6.4 8.5 4.4 12.9

Richmond 18.2 8.6 8.5 16.9 6.5 9.4

Atlanta 7.8 13.0 11.8 8.5 -14.4 -32.4

Chicago 11.2 10.7 10.9 12.1 13.3 28.2

St. Louis 3.2 3.5 3.3 4.1 3.8 4.1

Minneapolis 3.7 2.0 2.0 4.6 1.7 1.9

Kansas City 3.3 4.9 4.6 4.7 3.2 4.7

Dallas 5.6 8.7 8.0 5.2 0.9 -3.7

San Francisco 18.7 21.6 21.0 15.9 -14.7 -20.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1. 1998:Q4.

2. 1998.

3. Total personal income in 1998.

4. Value issued from 1974 to 1998 inclusive; authors’ calculations.

4.2 Methods for Measuring Flows and Stocks of U.S.

Currency Abroad

In terms of the geographic split in holdings, it is unwise to rely exclusively on

official data sources because they often miss significant currency flows. For example,

between two countries, currency often flows in one direction in the hands of travelers and

in the other direction through (recorded) wholesale shipments between banks.

4.2.1 The Seasonal Method

The seasonal method, as well as various other indirect methods discussed in

Porter and Judson (April and October 1996), is based on the idea that the usage of U.S.

currency abroad differs from its usage in the United States in some measurable respect.

The method relies on three assumptions: (1) The seasonal pattern currency demand in the

United States is the same as the seasonal pattern observed for demand in Canada, (2)

foreign demand for U.S. dollars has no seasonal pattern, and (3) international demand for
34

Canada’s currency is so small that the seasonal pattern of demand for Canadian currency

is a domestic phenomenon. Appendix 1.1 provides evidence on the veracity of these

assumptions and details about the model.

The seasonal method produces an estimate of the share of currency held abroad

that rises steadily from about 42 percent for 1960 to around 70 percent at the end of the

1980s and basically maintains this level over the 1990s (figure 4.1, top panel).27 The

estimated rise in the currency share abroad stems both from the drop in seasonal

amplitude within the United States and from an increase in that within Canada. Toward

the end of the period the share of currency abroad stabilizes, but the implied flows abroad

pick up sharply (figure 4.1, bottom panel) because of the large increase in overall

holdings.

4.2.2 The Biometric Method

The second estimation method is based on an approach used by biologists to

estimate the size of an animal population. Biologists, like bankers, can often only see a

small part of the “population” (animals or pieces of currency) at any one time. The

approach used by biologists is to capture a sample of the animals, mark them, release

them, and capture another sample later.28 Assuming that the marks do not affect the

animals' ability to survive, the share of marked animals in the (unknown) general

population will be the same as the share of marked animals in the recaptured sample. For

example, suppose that a biologist wants to estimate the number of fish is a pond. The

biologist catches 100 fish and marks them. Later, the biologist returns and catches

another 100 fish, of which 20 fish have the biologist's mark on them. This would suggest

that 20 out of 100 of the total fish population, or 20 percent, are marked. Since the

biologist knows that 100 of the fish are marked, the biologist might conclude that 100 is

20 percent of the total population, or that the population is 500. Appendix A.1.2 presents

the model in detail.

 

27These estimates are based on the banknote denominations common to the two countries, namely the $5,

$10, $20, $50, and $100 notes.

28This approach draws on studies in the 1890s by a Danish biologist, Carl Petersen.
35

Figure 4.1

U.S. Currency Abroad, Estimated by the Seasonal Method, Denominations

from $5 through $100

Percentage abroad

Net amount flowing abroad

Billions of dollars

Percent

100

80

60

40

20

0

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

1970 1980 1990 2000

30

25

20

15

10

5

0
36

This approach can be adapted to measuring U.S. currency abroad by combining

two kinds of information: (1) data from Federal Reserve Cash Offices on currency

shipped to and from local banks and (2) knowledge that most of the currency shipments

handled by the New York City Cash Office are to and from foreign banks. First, data on

currency flows at Federal Reserve Cash Offices provide virtually continuous “samples”

of currency. Although currency is not literally marked when it is processed at Federal

Reserve Banks, statistics for the pre-1990-series $100 note are maintained separately

from those for the 1990 and 1996 series. The 1990-series note contains an embedded

security thread; the 1996-series note has additional security features, including an

enlarged offset portrait, a water mark, and color-shifting ink. The 1990- and 1996-series

notes function as the marked animals. For example, when a pre-1996 note is “sampled,”

or returned to a Federal Reserve Cash Office, it is “marked” by being replaced with a

1996-series note. We know the number of 1996-series notes issued by each Federal

Reserve Cash Office, and we know how many return to the Cash Offices in later samples.

Second, we make use of the institutional fact that the cash shipments moving

through the New York City Cash Office are mostly to and from foreign banks, and the

New York City Cash Office handles most international shipments between commercial

banks and the Federal Reserve. Thus, if we can estimate the population of dollars in the

area served by each Cash Office, the currency abroad can be estimated as the population

in the New York City Cash Office area. Using the biometric method, we find that the

December 1998 share of $100s held abroad is around 75 percent. The comparable

estimate for $50s is about 53 percent. For lower denominations, insufficient data are

available to produce reliable estimates using this method.

4.2.3 Wholesale Demand for Currency

The Flow of Funds Section of the Federal Reserve Board and the Commerce

Department’s Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) jointly publish quarterly estimates of

international currency holdings that proxy for wholesale shipments of U.S. currency
37

(table 1.1, column 4).29 The published series represents an estimate of wholesale currency

shipments that move through the international banking system. Research by Porter and

Judson (April 1996) showed that such shipments constitute the vast majority of all

international currency shipments, with a relatively minor amount likely being transmitted

through the hands of individuals and firms and smaller financial institutions.

The upper panel of figure 4.2 shows the annual changes in the FR-BEA wholesale

measure of overseas holdings and changes in the currency component of M1. By

construction, the difference between the two series represents the increase in currency

held within the United States as well as the net increase abroad that occurs outside

wholesale distribution channels. Starting in the 1980s, the peaks and valleys of both

series tend to be aligned quite closely, a pattern suggesting that the growth of overall

currency in this period has been driven in very large part by movements in the wholesale

foreign component. During most periods, the FR-BEA estimate closely tracks (on a

dollar-for-dollar basis) the confidential series on wholesale currency shipments collected

by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York over the eleven-year period from 1988 to

1998. For example, the lower panel of this figure shows that the series described above in

section 4.1.1 predicts the change in the FR-BEA measure extremely accurately,

indicating that this proxy is a reliable indicator of wholesale shipments. The alignment of

the turning points in the two series, the actual and the predicted, is impressive, suggesting

that both tend to capture the same phenomena.30

 As indicated above, about 90 percent of wholesale shipments are of $100s and the

vast majority of these appear to originate and return to just one of the thirty-seven Federal

Reserve Cash Offices, the New York City office. Thus, the first working estimate of

wholesale currency shipments simply consisted of net shipments of $100s from the New

York cash office. Subsequent analysis by the Federal Reserve for the BEA suggested that

this choice could be improved by including data from the second most important Cash

Office for receiving international shipments, Los Angeles.

 

29The Federal Reserve began publication in December 1996 and the BEA in July 1997 and in each case

both levels and net flows are published. Earlier, the BEA published a similar concept but that series was

discontinued in the mid-1950s.

30The flows are predicted by the linear regression of net shipments of $100s from the NY and LA cash

offices on an intercept and the NY FRB series on net overseas wholesale currency shipments.
38

10

20

30

40

1970 1975 198 0 1985 1990 1995 2000

 0

 5

 10

 15

 20

 25

 30

$billions $billions

Change in Currency Componen t,left scale

Change in FR-BEA Wholesale Component o f Overseas Holdings, r ight scale

Figure 4.2

Changes in Overall Currency and Foreign Holdings

Predicting Overseas Currency Flows

10

20

30

40

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

$ billions $ billions

Annual change in currency

component (left scale)

Annual change in FR-BEA wholesale component

of overseas holdings (right scale)

$ billions

10

8

6

4

2

0

-2

1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

12

$ billions

10

8

6

4

2

0

-2

FR-BEA estimate of quarterly

change in overseas holdings

Predicted change based on

NY shipments series

12

Foreign Dimension of Overall Currency Movements
39

The FR-BEA estimate can be viewed in several different ways. First, as a

benchmark for the amount of $100s held overseas in the last few years, this estimate

closely matches the other estimates of the percentage of $100s held abroad. The FR-BEA

estimate of the share of $100s held outside the United States was 71.2 percent of total

$100s in circulation at the end of 1998, which is very close to the estimates for this period

obtained from the two methods discussed above, the seasonal (74.7 percent) and the

biometric (74.9 percent).31 Second, apart from these institutional considerations, the FRBEA estimates can be considered to represent international flows because they also

coincide with the outliers from a simple domestic money demand specification. Table 4.1

shows that, from 1974 to 1998 inclusive, the net amount of $100s originating in the

Boston Federal Reserve District as a share of all $100s issued was about the same as

vault cash, personal income, savings deposits, and transactions deposits at the end of the

period: Each component is approximately 5 percent, a figure about equal to the Boston

District’s share of U.S. population and income. Thus, the amount of $100s in this District

appears to be in line with what might be expected from domestic money demand

considerations within the District—that is, by and large, the $100s that were issued in this

District appear to have been used there.

The same alignment with local demand variables does not hold for three Federal

Reserve Districts whose holdings of $100s appear to be disproportionate to the

populations they serve within their boundaries: The New York District, which includes

the New York City Cash Office; the Atlanta District, which includes the Miami Cash

Office; and the San Francisco District, which includes the Los Angeles Cash Office. Over

the 25 year period shown in the table, the New York District issued 88.2 percent of all

$100s issued but had only 11.4 percent of the population; Atlanta, which had 13 percent

of the population, and San Francisco, which had 21.6 percent of the population, each

issued negative amounts of $100s on net, 14.4 percent and 14.7 percent respectively.

 Issuance in these three Federal Reserve Districts varies markedly from that in the

other nine Districts because of the international activity concentrated in three of the

 

31 This central tendency, 74.9 percent, for the biometric estimate combines the three methods that appear to

be converging at the end of the sample. On the basis of the time series experience with this estimator,

we believe that the excluded estimate will also eventually converge to the other estimates, so we choose

to discard it from consideration here.
40

offices: The New York Cash Office, which is best equipped for rapid processing and is

located close to major international airports, is the primary dispenser and receiver of

international currency for the country as a whole. For shipments from Latin America and

Asia via the Miami and Los Angeles airports, the Miami and Los Angeles Cash Offices

are primarily receivers of international shipments.

If the population served by each Cash Office is used as the benchmark for the

normal level of demand in that region, the two significant outliers are the New York and

Los Angeles Cash Offices. That finding was the deciding reason for selecting these two

offices in constructing the FR-BEA wholesale estimate. The assumption that all $100s

issued by these two offices are sent abroad requires that the quantity of smalldenomination notes sent abroad from these two offices as part of wholesale shipments

about matches, on net, the $100s used domestically in the regions served by these offices.

Unfortunately, this analysis cannot readily be applied to lower denominations. For

denominations lower than $100, notably the $20, which is the next most widely used

note, the estimates are far less clear-cut. In part, the variation in the quality of the results

for these two denominations represents differences in the way these two notes are used.

The $20 is a popular denomination in some developing countries such as Mexico and

other nearby Latin American countries, most likely because its purchasing power is

convenient for a wide array of transactions. Various indirect methods for estimating

overseas holdings suggest that the proportion of $20s held overseas is more than half. But

because the $20 seems to be more likely to circulate outside of recorded commercial

banking channels, the data on wholesale shipments that allow confirming estimates for

the $100 are much less enlightening for the $20, for two reasons. First, $20s are bulkier

and hence more expensive to ship than $100s. Indeed, data indicate that, unlike the $100,

only a tiny fraction of the $20s that are paid into circulation are shipped overseas.

Second, anecdotal information indicates that departing international travelers are far more

likely to carry $20s than $100s simply because the $20 is the primary denomination

dispensed from ATMs within the United States. In sum, while various indirect methods

for estimating overseas currency holdings suggest that more than half of $20s are

overseas, the direct evidence is scanty but perhaps suggestive of a much lower figure.
41

4.2.4 Summary: Reconciling the Estimates from the Various Methods

It is interesting and reassuring to note that these disparate methods yield very

similar quantitative results, especially for the key $100 denomination, which accounted

for about 65 percent of the total value of U.S. notes at the end of 1998. The biometric

method produces an estimate of 75 percent abroad, equivalent to the seasonal method’s

estimate of 74.7 percent abroad. These two estimates in turn are only a few percentage

points higher than the estimate from the wholesale note demand method, which is that

71.2 percent of $100s were abroad at the end of 1998. For $50s, the seasonal method

(54.5 percent held abroad) and the biometric method (53.0 percent held abroad) are also

in close agreement. It is too early to comment on $20s, as data sufficient to employ the

biometric method have yet to become available.
42

5 The International Distribution of U.S.

Banknotes

U.S. banknotes circulate freely throughout the world via bank and nonbank

channels. In most periods, a majority of dollars in international commerce move through

banking channels, which include local retail banks and major wholesale banknote dealers.

Transactions in this channel represent sales and purchases to and from the public and

wholesale banks. However, a significant volume of currency also moves across borders

outside banking channels, in the pockets and suitcases of travelers and traders. The

current audit program and the earlier ICAP efforts were undertaken to further our

understanding of these two markets. Unfortunately, no formal data collection system can

definitively measure the total dollar value or the location of the U.S. banknotes

circulating outside of the United States. In part, this situation arises because currency is

one of the most fungible commodities that exists: Countless travelers move significant

amounts of currency across various borders without notifying anyone.

5.1 International U.S. Banknote Market Structure

As with other financial instruments, U.S. banknotes are traded internationally

with small bid-ask spreads. While many financial institutions trade U.S. dollars for other

currencies in the international foreign exchange markets, no more than thirty institutions

worldwide participate actively in the wholesale buying and selling (including transport

and delivery) of physical U.S. banknotes. This group of wholesalers includes those who

are active globally and those who trade only in regional markets. Wholesale dealer banks

purchase from the Federal Reserve Bank of New York approximately 90 percent of the

U.S. dollars that are exported to the international markets. Most of the remaining

purchases are distributed among the offices of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco

and the offices of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta. The wholesalers purchase

banknotes to fill customer orders and the notes are shipped either directly to the customer

overseas or to distribution centers. Approximately 75 percent of the dollar value of U.S.

notes that the wholesale dealing banks purchase in the markets and return to the United

States is deposited for processing at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York; most of the
43

remaining repatriated notes are deposited at the Federal Reserve Banks of San Francisco,

Dallas, and Atlanta.

There are six locations worldwide that serve as the principal international

distribution and consolidation hubs for U.S. banknotes: One in the Western Hemisphere

(Buenos Aires), three in Western Europe (Frankfurt, London, and Zurich), and two in offshore Asian centers (Hong Kong and Singapore). Five of these sites have traditionally

been extremely active in the U.S. banknote business. Frankfurt became a major U.S.

banknote hub as a result of the growth of the Russian markets in this decade. The

preeminence of all these locations arises from their accessible transportation networks as

well as their historical focus on international commerce.

U.S. banknotes are distributed over international wholesale channels either as new

notes (bundled in blue plastic wrappers from the BEP), which is the preferred form for

the majority of international market participants, or as fit notes (recirculated banknotes)

in good condition. The preference for new notes reflects the associated lower shipping

and insurance costs together with the labor costs saved by not having to count and

authenticate the new notes. Most importantly, BEP notes are attractive to the international

market because their original wrapping and direct delivery from the Federal Reserve

Bank of New York assures that they are counterfeit-free.

In view of the disadvantages in handling used currency, not all of the U.S.

banknote distributors are willing to deal with second-hand notes. Those that are have

created a “redirect market” for them, but even then only the highest quality used notes are

deemed acceptable. While not a great deal of information is available about the size or

velocity of U.S. banknote transactions in the “redirect” segment of the international

market, it appears that the primary economic justification for dealing only with new notes

is to avoid the sizable costs incurred in fitness sorting and authentication of used notes.

The hesitancy of the banknote dealers to participate in the redirect market also stems

from concerns relating to the authentication of the banknotes. This apprehension is

especially true in markets such as Russia, where a $100 U.S. note is viewed as a

significant amount of money and, therefore, the possession of a counterfeit $100 U.S.

note may represent a major potential loss to an individual.
44

5.2 The Extended Custodial Inventory (ECI) Program

In 1996, the Federal Reserve introduced the Extended Custodial Inventory (ECI)

pilot program. It was established in response to the Treasury’s introduction of the newdesign banknote and recognition that an assured supply of U.S. currency abroad helps to

maintain stability in international financial markets throughout the world. The program

gave the Treasury an efficient and cost-effective means to distribute the new-design

banknotes to international markets and to facilitate the repatriation of old-design

currency.

5.2.1 The ECI Pilot Program

The 1996-Series Currency Introduction Plan provided for the establishment of an

Extended Custodial Inventory pilot program to facilitate the introduction of the newdesign currency, to expedite the repatriation of the old-design banknotes, and to promote

the recirculation of fit new-design currency. These objectives were to be accomplished by

(1) the strategic stockpiling of new-design notes at ECI sites (two in London and one

each in Frankfurt and Zurich), (2) the implementation of sorting requirements for newversus old-design notes, (3) the deposit of old-design notes at a Federal Reserve facility,

and (4) the redistribution of the resulting fit new currency to the international market.

An ECI is an overseas cash depot maintained by a private-sector bank that holds

currency for the Federal Reserve Bank of New York on a custodial basis in a segregated

area of its vaults. The Federal Reserve Bank of New York manages the ECI program and

bears the costs associated with providing management oversight and monitoring the

program. It coordinates the shipment and receipt of currency between Federal Reserve

facilities and the ECIs. All banknotes, while in inventory at an ECI, and during transit

between a Federal Reserve facility and an ECI, are carried on the books of the Federal

Reserve Bank of New York.

Each wholesale dealer bank that enters into an ECI arrangement maintains an

account at a Federal Reserve Bank. That account is debited whenever the bank sells

banknotes and the banknotes are paid out of the ECI inventory to its overseas customers.

Conversely, that account is credited when the bank purchases currency from its overseas

customers and deposits it into the ECI inventory.
45

The banks that operate the ECIs must meet the following requirements:

1⁄2 They must sort the currency they deposit into the ECI inventory into old-design and

new-design notes, and then sort the new-design notes into fit and unfit bundles;

1⁄2 The old-design and unfit notes must be sent back to a designated Federal Reserve

cash processing operation for verification and ultimate destruction;

1⁄2 Fit notes must be placed into the inventory for recirculation; and

1⁄2 They must report counterfeits detected to either the Secret Service or the appropriate

national law enforcement agency.

On balance, participating banks have generated net savings both from the

maintenance of ECI inventories on the books of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York

and from cost efficiencies that they have gained in transporting currency. Prior to the ECI

arrangement, these banks typically shipped currency to customers on a transaction-bytransaction basis. The ECI inventory has enabled them to make larger volume and higher

value shipments, thus reducing average shipping costs.

Banks that operate ECI sites bear the costs for insurance coverage that is required

and for staffing the ECI site, maintaining processing operations, and making the

necessary physical renovations to house the ECI. The banks are contractually obligated to

pass along any savings realized from operating ECIs to their customers. Nonetheless, the

global wholesale dealers have recognized that the ECI program has become a valuable

supplement to the private distribution network.

The pilot program accomplished its primary mission of providing for “orderly

markets” during the introduction of the new-design $100 banknote, particularly in the

European and former Soviet Union markets, by providing ready supplies of new $100

banknotes. The pilot program was intended to provide an incentive for the major market

participants to take an active role in the introduction of the new-design currency and the

repatriation of the old-design notes. This incentive would be derived from their on-site

control of the inventories that were carried on the books of the FRBNY. Despite

additional expenses incurred by the participants, competition increased and pricing
46

margins substantially narrowed because of the flexibility of controlling the transportation

of currency shipments.

Economists at the Federal Reserve evaluated the implicit costs and benefits of the

ECI program to the U.S. Treasury and concluded that the implicit cost of the program is

small compared with the benefit of potential additional seigniorage that might occur as a

result of increased overseas traffic in U.S. currency. The cost is even less significant

when viewed in light of continued confidence in the large stock of U.S. currency held

abroad. Even though the exact amount cannot easily be determined, it does appear that

the ECI program results in a net gain to the U.S. Treasury. Finally, the pilot provided

important new knowledge and information on the international flows of U.S. currency,

both genuine and counterfeit, which is critical to the Treasury, the Federal Reserve, and

the Secret Service.

In summary, the pilot represented a successful new approach in the Federal

Reserve System’s currency distribution and processing policies. It demonstrated that

partnership with the private sector can be a cost-effective and market-sensitive approach.

5.2.2 The Current ECI Program

Based on the experience of the pilot and on market participant comments, a twopart strategy was recommended for the next several years. In January 1998, the pilot was

concluded and the ECI program was placed into full operation. Five ECI operations were

established in Europe: Two in London, one in Frankfurt, and two in Zurich. These sites

serve the European and former Soviet Union markets, which currently hold $100 billion

to $140 billion in U.S. currency.

The ECI program has been an efficient vehicle for the international markets to

recirculate fit notes and circulate new-design notes while simultaneously expediting the

repatriation of older-design notes. Therefore, it was recommended that the ECI program

be expanded to serve the Latin American and Asian markets, which currently hold $50

billion to $70 billion each in U.S. banknotes and are projected to be the fastest growing

regions for U.S. currency over the next decade. Two ECI operations were implemented in

Hong Kong in April 1999. A feasibility study for establishing an ECI operation in Latin

America will be explored next.
47

5.2.3 ECI Accomplishments

The ECI program has facilitated the international distribution of new U.S.

banknotes, fostered the repatriation of old-design banknotes, promoted the acceptance of

fit (recirculated) new-design banknotes that results in operational savings and is reflected

in attractive market rates, and strengthened U.S. information-gathering capabilities on the

foreign use of U.S. currency and on the sources of external counterfeiting.

By stockpiling U.S. currency inventories in strategic international distribution

centers, banks and currency dealers overseas have an assured, immediate supply of U.S.

currency to meet banknote demands and to mitigate financial panics resulting from

financial or political disturbances. The ECI inventories also provide an overseas source of

U.S. banknotes that is not dependent on transoceanic transportation schedules or subject

to adverse weather conditions and time zone differences. The benefits of having ECIs in

Europe have been clearly demonstrated over the last two years in serving the volatile

banknote markets in Russia, which holds at least $60 billion in U.S. currency. More

generally, the ECIs have helped reduce the abrupt fluctuations in market prices for U.S.

currency, which frequently resulted from the lag between ordering and delivery of

banknotes from New York. In addition, the reporting requirements for the ECIs have

increased the stock of knowledge about international currency flows. ECIs are required to

report the origin and destination of wholesale currency shipments.

The ECIs in Europe and the Far East can play a significant role in assuaging

currency-related Y2K concerns since they can provide ready supplies of U.S. currency to

meet any last-minute purchases of currency associated with the century date change and

the coming millennium. Arrangements have been made with the institutions that operate

the ECIs to increase inventory levels during the year-end period to meet potential

increases in demand.

The ECIs have already become an important direct source of information on

external counterfeiting in two ways. Prior to ECI operations, limited processing and

verification of U.S. banknotes occurred in the international markets, and the majority of

the wholesalers’ purchases were simply forwarded to the Federal Reserve for deposit and

processing. The first improvement is that ECI operators have begun acquiring automated

processing and verification equipment and are working with the vendors to improve the
48

capabilities and sensor technologies that are now available in the commercial markets.

These capabilities permit ECI operators to detect the vast majority of counterfeit notes at

the point of entry into the wholesale banking stream, and to quickly relay the information

to the Secret Service, providing a valuable source of new intelligence about overseas

counterfeiting. Since the Secret Service receives information directly from European

ECIs, it has developed on-line capabilities to permit external access to the Counterfeit

Note Index and also to receive reports of counterfeits detected. The ECIs are among the

pilot sites for this new facility. The second improvement is that all notes forwarded to

FRBNY are labeled by city and country of origin. Thus, the origin of counterfeits

detected in ECI shipments to FRBNY can be determined and is now reported. The

European ECIs will soon begin furnishing the FRBNY with city and country-level

information for the counterfeits that are detected during verification, which will be

incorporated into the database.

In sum, the ECI program has been a success on all fronts: It has raised the

efficiency and stability of the U.S. dollar banknote market, it has increased the flow of

information about currency shipments, and it has allowed for more timely detection and

reporting of counterfeits. It is anticipated that the new ECI locations in Asia and Latin

America will provide similar benefits.
49

6 Global Counterfeiting

Given that so much genuine U.S. currency is overseas, a reasonable question is

how much counterfeit U.S. currency might also be circulating overseas? When the ICAP

teams were initially assembled in the mid 1990s, numerous reports suggested that vast

quantities of counterfeit dollars were circulating overseas. Some of these reports and

anecdotes came from commercial establishments seeking to sell their anti counterfeiting

products as a method for businesses to protect themselves. Other, more credible

organizations stated that vast amounts of counterfeit notes went undetected and remained

in the marketplace indefinitely. All such reports and anecdotes have been refuted by the

findings of the ICAP trips as well as by data from official sources, an indication that the

actual incidence of counterfeiting is relatively low. This chapter examines the economics

of counterfeiting, the mechanics of counterfeiting enforcement, the amount of

counterfeits that have been passed and seized in various international markets, and the

efforts by the Secret Service to respond to various counterfeiting threats. Chapter 6

attempts to place an upper bound on the quantity of counterfeit currency in circulation

using data collected by the Secret Service and Federal Reserve and an analysis of

circulation patterns for genuine and counterfeit currency.

6.1 General Considerations

Counterfeiting outside the United States is lucrative and increasingly easy because

of advances in computer technology. Since U.S. dollars are widely held and used in many

countries, counterfeiters have many opportunities to pass counterfeit dollars outside the

United States. Moreover, the punishment for producing and passing counterfeit dollars

outside the United States varies considerably in severity. The level of concern about

counterfeiting varied across the countries visited by the teams: Officials and business

people in some countries viewed counterfeits as a considerable threat while those in other

countries were more blasé, acknowledging that counterfeits are simply part of the

banknote business. Regardless of the level of concern, the figures for the incidence of

counterfeiting were remarkably consistent: Most banks detect no more than about 1

counterfeit note for every 10,000 notes they handle.
50

The capability to detect counterfeits is relatively high overseas and, in line with

the idea that counterfeits are part of the banknote business, the level of resources

expended on their detection is determined in cost-benefit terms. That is, banks displayed

varying detection practices depending on local labor costs, local counterfeit activity, and

the relative cost of missing a counterfeit. Training tellers to detect counterfeits is not

particularly difficult, and it is possible to find and train fully capable tellers even in

developing countries. In many countries, tellers have an incentive to detect counterfeits

because the value of undetected counterfeits is deducted from their pay. The incentives

for shopkeepers are similar: Accepting a counterfeit is likely to result in a direct loss. In

countries where dollars are a new asset, small banks might suffer a loss from

counterfeiting and then arrange for training to avoid further episodes. Similarly, banks

often sort lower-denomination notes only by machine or not at all, reserving the costly

but more accurate method of hand counting and verification for the $50 and $100

denominations. In general, counterfeits were typically viewed as an occasional but not

serious problem.

In addition to the traditional methods of record keeping, the Secret Service has

recently developed two systems to improve statistical reporting: The Counterfeit

Contraband System and the new Counterfeit Note Search Site on the Internet. The

Counterfeit Contraband System automates the collection of statistical and investigative

data regarding counterfeit currency. Information entered into the system is readily

available for analysis and is reconciled monthly. The system allows each Secret Service

office to see the data of all other offices to determine if and when an investigation moves

into another district. Monthly data are closed on the 15th of the following month,

allowing the timely use of current statistics.

The Counterfeit Note Search Site on the Internet allows authorized users to

specify the identifiers on a note to determine if it is counterfeit. If the note is counterfeit,

the classification number is given; if the note is not a known counterfeit, the user is

instructed to carefully examine the note for defects and to call the Secret Service office

listed on the screen for additional assistance. This site allows the Secret Service to obtain

counterfeit information more quickly than in the past. As the system is developed, the

Secret Service expects more foreign central banks and law enforcement departments to
51

use the system, thus incorporating more timely and complete information from a wider

array of countries.

Currency sent to Federal Reserve offices is checked for counterfeits, and any

counterfeits detected are forwarded to the Secret Service. The counterfeits detected by the

Federal Reserve constitute about 20 percent to 25 percent of all passed counterfeits

received by the Secret Service. The remaining 75 to 80 percent of counterfeits found are

reported to the Secret Service by commercial establishments, financial institutions, and

law enforcement authorities.

6.2 Counterfeit Production Methods

There is a wide range of methods for producing counterfeits and a

correspondingly wide range of required inputs and resulting output quality. Once

produced, the notes must either be distributed or passed to others for distribution, which

is a complicated undertaking when large volumes of notes are produced. A bank or an

individual might be fooled into accepting a batch of counterfeits once, but it seldom

happens more than that. Thus, the notes must be ever more widely dispersed.

Producing high-grade counterfeits requires substantial technical ability and access

to presses, inks, and, critically, high-grade paper, but printing technology is improving

even as costs decline. Lower-quality counterfeits can also be produced with methods

requiring much less skill and can be produced on color copiers or on personal computers

that are connected to inexpensive scanner and ink-jet printers.

 In rare cases, such as that of the “supernote,” very high grade counterfeits are

made using the intaglio printing process in a manner similar to that used by the BEP. The

Secret Service has seen a reduction in the necessary skills of a typical counterfeiter, from

knowledge of lithographic methods and experience with offset printing to a minimal

understanding of personal computers.

The Secret Service expects that the counterfeiting of U.S. currency will become

progressively easier as the technology improves and the cost of computer equipment

(including printers and scanners) decreases. Counterfeits produced on laser color printers

are likely to proliferate with the increased affordability of the printers. Similarly, the

growing use of the Internet will also affect counterfeiting. Once a currency note is
52

scanned and the resulting electronic image is enhanced, the image can be transmitted

electronically, including over the Internet, and printed in batches of any size by

individuals who lack specialized computer or graphics knowledge.

Of the counterfeit-currency printing operations suppressed inside the United

States during fiscal year (FY) 1998, 88 percent were inkjet processes, a phenomenal

increase from the FY 1995 level of 19 percent. Even though the quality of inkjet

counterfeits varies widely, and even though they are not at present being produced

outside of the United States in the same volume as they are domestically, the use of

computers in the production of counterfeit notes is likely to increase. Like color laser

printers and other personal computer components, inkjet printers are continually

increasing in quality and decreasing in price.

6.3 Recent Experience with Counterfeiting

Out of the nearly $500 billion in U.S. dollars in circulation at the end of 1998, the

Secret Service reported that about $43 million in counterfeit currency was passed to the

public, or about $1 for every $11,600 in circulation.32 Of that $43 million, almost all ($40

million) was passed in the United States, with the remainder passed overseas. In per

capita terms, then, the direct costs of counterfeiting are quite small, about 16 cents per

U.S. resident per year. It is also very small relative to the cost of check fraud: In 1995, the

latest year for which data are available, the cost of check fraud was $615 million, or

nearly twenty times the cost of counterfeiting in that year. In terms of enforcement, the

Secret Service counterfeit program in fiscal 1998 resulted in the arrest of 3,569 suspects

and the closing of 616 counterfeiting plants in the United States.

6.3.1 Rates of Counterfeiting in Federal Reserve Statistics

Tables 6.1 and 6.2 provide some evidence on the frequency with which

counterfeit notes are found in domestic and foreign deposits at Federal Reserve Banks.

Table 6.1 shows the overall results by denomination for 1998; the denomination with the

 

32 The Secret Service reported that additional quantities were “seized,” or confiscated before they entered

circulation. In this paper we focus on the figures for “passed” counterfeits. While seized notes pose some

threat before they are seized, passed notes clearly cause losses to the public.
53

Table 6.1

Dollar Counterfeiting Rates in Deposits at Federal Reserve Banks in 1998,

by Denomination

Denomination

Total notes processed

(millions)

Value of counterfeits

detected

(millions of dollars)

Counterfeits

detected in

 deposits (per million

notes processed)

1 9,177.5 .01 .9

2 13.4 .00 1.6

5 2,071.6 .08 7.9

10 2,384.7 .26 10.8

20 10,715.0 1.70 7.9

50 876.2 .51 11.6

100 1,072.5 6.32 58.8

Total 26,310.9 8.88 N/A

largest amount of counterfeits, both in dollar terms (about $6 million) and as a proportion

of notes processed (about 60 per million notes), was the $100 note. The number of

counterfeits found among each of the other denominations (per million notes processed)

was approximately 1 (for the $1 and $2 notes) and 10 (for each of the denominations

from $5 to $50). Table 6.2 breaks down the data for $100s detected at Federal Reserve

Banks over the last three years by note design and by origin of deposit. For both types of

notes over the whole period shown, the foreign share of detected counterfeits is rather

small, around 10 percent for 1996-series (New Currency Design, or NCD) counterfeits

and around 20 percent for older-series counterfeits. The bottom panel of table 6.2

provides data on the very highest grade counterfeits, the “supernotes.” As noted above,

supernotes are printed by the intaglio method, the same method used by the BEP to print

genuine notes. In this case, the counterfeit proportion of foreign deposits surpasses that of

domestic deposits.

6.3.2 Counterfeiting Outside the United States

Counterfeit U.S. currency is not just a domestic problem. An analysis of

counterfeit U.S. currency passed in the United States in fiscal 1998 reveals that

approximately 45 percent originated outside of the United States. Prior to 1996, contact
54

Table 6.2

Counterfeit $100s Detected in Deposits Processed at Federal Reserve, 1996-98Banks

Value (millions of dollars) Rate: number per million notes processed

Period Total Domestic Foreign Total Domestic Foreign

NCD (1996 series)

1996 .02 .02 .00 .2 .3 .0

1997 .50 .47 .03 4.6 6.3 .9

1998 1.58 1.48 .10 14.7 19.3 3.3

Total 4.67 4.24 .45 14.0 19.8 4.5

Pre-1996 series

1996 6.81 5.67 1.14 62.2 74.2 34.5

1997 6.72 5.16 1.56 63.0 69.3 48.5

1998 4.75 3.73 1.01 44.2 48.7 33.0

Total 18.28 14.56 3.72 56.5 64.0 38.7

High-quality pre-1996 series (“Supernotes”)

1996 17.3 22.4

1997 16.4 29.8

1998 16.2 21.8

Total

NA NA

16.6 24.7

with the Secret Service by foreign law enforcement officials (including INTERPOL) and

financial institutions can best be described as inconsistent. Generally speaking,

counterfeiting of U.S. banknotes has not been and still is not considered a significant

offense in most countries. In addition, there was neither a central repository for

counterfeit notes nor a coherent policy for reporting counterfeit activity.

Since the beginning of the ICAP program, many improvements have been

achieved in the Secret Service’s investigative techniques, data gathering, and above all in

relationships with the law enforcement and financial institutions. Field presence has

increased, and new offices have been established in key strategic locations. The Secret

Service now has permanent offices in fifteen cities: Bangkok, Berlin, Bogota, Hong

Kong, London, Manila, Milan, Montreal, Moscow, Nicosia, Ottawa, Paris, Pretoria,

Rome, and Vancouver. Through these offices, the Secret Service can more readily

respond to counterfeit inquiries, establish contacts with police agencies, offer expert

testimony, conduct interviews, and assist in overall investigations. The new offices have
55

already resulted in the seizing of substantial blocks of counterfeits and arrests that would

not have been possible without an immediate presence.

With the introduction of the additional offices and the new data collection systems

described in Section 6.1, it is now possible to obtain more comprehensive information on

the true state of counterfeiting in terms of production, longevity, and movement within a

given geographic region. The newer contacts, principally in Latin America, Russia, and

South Africa, coupled with the establishment of extended currency inventories, provide

more definitive information relating to criminal activity. As a result, seizures of

counterfeits as well as plant closures have increased.

In activities outside the United States, in fiscal 1998 the Secret Service reported

seizing $79.7 million in counterfeit currency, the closing of twenty-nine plants, and the

passing of $3.1 million in counterfeit currency. While the total of both seized and passed

currency is comparable to those for the United States (see table 6.4), many more

counterfeits are seized than are passed, according to statistics compiled from foreign

sources. Thus, this discrepancy in the Secret Service data is illusory since it reflects in

part the fact that information received on counterfeit U.S. notes passed overseas is much

less comprehensive than that received for notes passed within the United States. The

Secret Service believes that the true quantity of counterfeit notes passed abroad is more

likely comparable to that passed inside the United States.

Table 6.3 presents data on the ten most active countries over the last three fiscal

years, ranked by the total value of counterfeit currency that was reported to the Secret

Service as seized. With the exception of the United States in fiscal 1998, these figures are

dominated by the results on seizures. Indeed, Italy is the only country other than the

United States in which the amount passed in one year exceeded $1 million. Table 6.4

displays amounts passed and seized, by country, for fiscal 1998. As before, most of the

activity in the majority of the countries represents seizures of counterfeits.
56

Table 6.3

Top Ten Countries in Counterfeits Seized,

Fiscal Years 1996-98

Dollars

Economy Seized Passed

FY 1998

1. Italy 37,614,330 21,560

2. United States 29,942,874 39,954,290

3. South Africa 16,743,200 10,050

4. Germany 4,574,600 89,280

5. Turkey 3,700,300 4,015

6. Colombia 3,444,460 6,846

7. Taiwan 1,800,000 50

8. France 1,500,000 19,920

9. Canada 1,255,400 14,701

10. Dominican Rep. 1,203,400 41,350

FY 1997

1. United States 40,385,661 31,750,859

2. Pakistan 11,859,100 450

3. Italy 10,693,720 33,990

4. England 8,734,000 407,505

5. Argentina 4,307,950 43,160

6. Colombia 3,799,110 10,310

7. Germany 2,805,300 77,860

8. Portugal 2,472,100 8,600

9. South Africa 2,155,500 900

10. Mexico 2,002,520 186,810

FY 1996

1. United States 63,691,115 29,831,108

2. Colombia 36,87,1730 10,650

3. Italy 19,759,540 2,308,800

4. Germany 19,041,830 523,630

5. Yugoslavia 5,863,300 320

6. England 5,218,430 104,035

7. Greece 2,772,900 2,670

8. France 2,407,800 59,800

9. Canada 2,127,480 32,150

10. Sweden 2,066,000 300
57

Table 6.4

International Counterfeiting Statistics for Fiscal Year 1998,

Ranked by Total Dollar Value of Counterfeits Reported

Dollars

Economy Passed Seized Total

Italy 21,650 37,592,680 37,614,330

South Africa 10,050 16,743,200 16,753,250

Germany 89,280 4,574,600 4,663,880

Turkey 4,015 3,700,300 3,704,315

Colombia 6,846 3,444,460 3,451,306

Taiwan 50 1,800,000 1,800,050

France 19,920 1,500,200 1,520,120

England 280,360 1,061,900 1,342,269

Canada 14,701 1,255,400 1,270,101

Dominican Republic 41,350 1,203,400 1,244,750

Finland 2,700 1,092,500 1,095,200

Thailand 6,770 631,260 638,030

Azerbaijan 200 597,500 597,500

Poland 6,770 521,000 527,770

Egypt 20,220 451,520 471,740

Panama 72,990 373,000 445,990

Namibia 21,350 364,020 385,370

Greece 300 377,200 377,500

Netherlands 166,040 195,170 361,210

Belarus 300 325,800 326,100

The Gambia 0 250,100 250,100

Mexico 208,850 2,885 211,735

Georgia 0 200,000 200,000

Hong Kong 192,235 6,200 198,435

Kyrgyzstan 0 192,300 192,300

United Arab Emirates 184,900 0 184,900

Switzerland 171,191 12,300 183,491

Argentina 18,950 152,500 171,450

Israel 12,450 140,200 152,650

Monaco 144,500 200 144,700

Malawi 139,590 0 139,590

Spain 44,310 76,350 120,660

Albania 101,620 16,900 118,520

Austria 71,215 41,750 112,965

Venezuela 3,280 100,900 104,180

Total outside the United States 3,113,775 79,665,935 82,779,710

Memo:

Total inside the United States 39,954,290 29,942,874 69,897,164
58

6.4 Counterfeiting in Key Countries and Regions

Six countries and one region deserve special mention in enumerating the

responses that the Secret Service has developed to deal with the counterfeiting threats

posed abroad: Russia, Colombia, South Africa, Germany, Italy, Vietnam, and the Middle

East. Russia has the most U.S. currency of any country besides the United States and by

all indications produces a substantial quantity of counterfeits, some of which circulate

within Russia. Colombia registers on counterfeiting threat lists for one reason: It is a very

important supplier of counterfeit notes to the U.S. market. Relatively high quality

Colombian counterfeits have been successfully imported into the United States for

several decades. The South African threat arose much more recently but appears to be

growing relatively quickly. It was not on the list of countries (including the United

States) having activity levels in the top ten in 1996. But in 1997 it was ninth on the list

before moving up to third in 1998. Germany, Italy, and Vietnam have also been the sites

of notable developments. Finally, the Middle East has a significant quantity of both

genuine and counterfeit U.S. currency in circulation.

The Secret Service believes that the strategic placement of personnel overseas

promotes better police operations because it permits Secret Service agents to respond

more promptly and consistently. In time, the long-standing relationships that develop

from day-to-day interactions and the ability to focus consistently on ongoing problems

encourages foreign law enforcement counterparts to increase the priority given to this

type of investigation. In locations where a permanent presence is not possible, the Secret

Service employs task forces to target regions with large amounts of counterfeit currency.

6.4.1 Colombia

Colombia is important both because it is in the top ten countries by value of

seized counterfeits and because it is the most important source of counterfeits flowing

into the United States. During FY 1998, 36 percent of counterfeit currency passed within

the United States originated in South American countries and, of that, 97 percent came

from one country, Colombia. Because high volumes of Colombian counterfeits have been

entering the United States for many years, in 1997 the Secret Service established the
59

South American Task Force (SATF) in Bogota, Colombia.33 The SATF and the Secret

Service’s Miami Field Office, Bogota Resident Office, and Counterfeit Division have

been instrumental in training South American law enforcement agencies in the detection,

interdiction, and suppression of counterfeit U.S. currency. During the course of several

investigations, the SATF identified distribution networks, methods of concealment,

contraband exchange procedures, informants and target cities. In December 1998, the

Bogota Resident Office was expanded from one to two agents.

Many Colombian counterfeiters are able to avoid significant jail time when they

are arrested by simply paying an administrative fine. The fact that many of those arrested

are repeat offenders indicates that arrests are not much of a deterrent in Colombia. This

issue has been repeatedly addressed in various meetings with Colombian officials,

including the currency audit delegation from the Treasury and Federal Reserve to

Colombia in October of 1998.34

Table 6.5 highlights some of the SATF statistics for 1998, when Columbia ranked

fifth in overseas currency seized. While the arrest record represents an improvement in

part due to the presence of the resident agent in Bogota, as mentioned above, the

deterrent effect of arrests remains limited.

 

33The SATF consists of representatives from five law enforcement organizations: Departamento de

Investigaciones Judiciales de Inteligencia (DIJIN), the Colombian National Police, the Cuerpo Tecnico de

Investigaciones (CTA), the Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad (DAS), and the Secret Service.

34In September 1998, Secret Service officials were informed that changes in the Colombian penal code,

including an increase in the current six-year maximum conviction and the elimination of a defendant’s

ability to pay a fine in lieu of incarceration, have been proposed in the Colombian Congress.
60

Table 6.5

Counterfeiting Data for Key Countries

Country

Fiscal

year

Seized

(dollars)

Passed

(dollars) Arrests

Plant

suppressions

Colombia 1998 3,444,460 6,846 26 6

South Africa 1998 16,743,200 10,050 NA NA

1996 19,759,540 2,308,600 NA NA

1997 10,693,720 33,990 NA NA

Italy

1998 37,592,680* 21,650 NA NA

* Of this amount, about $30 million was seized in a single case.

6.4.2 South Africa

South Africa is becoming a major producer of counterfeit U.S. currency. For the

last two fiscal years, South Africa has been one of the top ten countries in the production

of counterfeit Federal Reserve notes. In fiscal 1998, only Italy and the United States

surpassed South Africa in the value of counterfeits seized within the country.

Representatives of South African Police and agents of the Secret Service, working under

the direction of the Secret Service Field Office in Rome, formed the South African Task

Force in 1998 to target this problem. In addition, the Secret Service established an office

in Cape Town early in 1999.

6.4.3 Italy

The Secret Service established the Milan Task Force in 1985 to combat an

existing counterfeiting problem in Northern Italy. Counterfeit notes produced in this area

have traditionally been of better than average quality, occasionally being produced using

intaglio printing processes. In 1996, the Secret Service expanded its presence in Italy by

adding a new permanent office in Milan. The additional Secret Service presence in Italy

has resulted in substantial arrests and seizures. Nonetheless, Italy has been one of the top

three producers of counterfeit currency during the past three fiscal years.
61

6.4.4 Germany

In 1996, the Bonn Resident Office became a permanent installation of the Secret

Service under the Paris Field Office. This office has established strong working

relationships with law enforcement agencies in Germany, Austria, and Poland. In

conjunction with their foreign law enforcement counterpart agents, the Bonn Resident

Office seized approximately $19 million, $3 million and $4.5 million, respectively, in

counterfeit U.S. currency in FY 1996, 1997, and 1998.

6.4.5 Russia

Counterfeiting activity in Russia is a major concern due to the large amount of

genuine United States currency in circulation there and, as such, must remain a major

focus for the Secret Service. Data from both Russian banks and the Federal Reserve

indicate that the incidence of counterfeits in circulation in Russia is similar to that found

elsewhere, contrary to misleading reports circulating in the mid-1990s. Nonetheless,

more recently, the Secret Service and other law enforcement agencies worldwide have

witnessed an increase in Russian defendants involved in counterfeit operations, and other

crimes, throughout Western Europe. The Secret Service opened an office in Moscow

early in 1999, which has strengthened its ability to conduct investigations and gather

evidence.

6.4.6 Vietnam

The ICAP visit to Vietnam in 1996 led to the development of ongoing liaisons

with the Ministry of the Interior for Vietnam. For some time the Secret Service had been

seeking the cooperation of the Vietnamese police, but with little success. During this

visit, the Minister of the Interior had questions about some recently received high-quality

counterfeits and was thus happy to arrange a meeting with the team. Officials from the

Ministry of the Interior were very open at the meeting and laid out many details on about

thirty cases involving a total of $344,600 in counterfeit U.S. currency during the last four

years. The Secret Service is hopeful that this level of cooperation will continue.
62

6.4.7 Middle East

A permanent office was established in Nicosia, Cyprus in 1996. This office has

oversight of all Middle Eastern Countries. Not unexpectedly, establishing and

maintaining contacts with many foreign governments in this part of the world is complex.

Officials representing the United States Government (law enforcement or otherwise) are

routinely received with caution. It has proven to be particularly difficult to pursue

counterfeiting in Lebanon and Syria, especially in the Bekaa Valley. Despite these

obstacles, Secret Service agents have made significant progress in developing sound

working relationships with a number of law enforcement agencies in this region. This

cooperative effort has been successful in leading to a number of plant suppressions and

seizures in Lebanon.

6.5 The Changing Nature of the Counterfeiting Threat

Historically, the Secret Service has been effective in keeping counterfeit

production in check in the United States, but it faces a constant battle to keep abreast of

improvements in technology that make counterfeiting easier and cheaper. A few years

ago, computer-generated notes were generally of poor quality. The computer printers of

that period were mostly dot matrix and the software available could not generate copies

of sufficiently high resolution to be deceptive. In contrast, it is estimated that 43 percent

of the households in the United States now have computers, most with full-color

monitors. Full-color inkjet printers have become a reliable and low-cost alternative to the

more expensive laser color printers, and are now readily available and highly affordable:

A good inkjet color printer can cost as little as $100, which is also about the cost of a

good color scanner. In 1997, the worldwide population of inkjet printers was 60 million,

a number that is expected to more than double by 2000 to 125 million. Basic economic

theory suggests that when entry costs into an industry fall, the number of firms willing to

supply a good will increase. Unfortunately, this proposition holds for counterfeits just as

it does for shoes.

The value of counterfeit currency passed in the United States over the three fiscal

years 1995–1997 was fairly stable; however, in FY 1998 it increased by about a third,
63

from around $30 million to around $40 million. Technological advancements in the

printing field have contributed to this increase. Since the emergence of newer methods of

Table 6.6

Inkjet Counterfeit Activity within the United States

Inkjet notes passed Plant suppressions Arrests

Fiscal

year

Value

(thousands

of dollars)

Share

(percent) Total Inkjet

Inkjet

share

(percent) Total

Inkjetrelated

Inkjetrelated

share

(percent)

1995 175 0.5 153 29 19 1,856 37 2

1996 760 3 198 101 51 1,137 176 10

1997 6,121 19 435 321 74 2,436 1,100 45

1998 17,050 43 616 547 88 3,569 2,618 73

producing counterfeit banknotes, the percentage of inkjet counterfeit notes has

dramatically increased, as seen in table 6.6. Many inkjet-produced counterfeit notes are

of lesser quality than notes produced on offset presses, but their quality is high enough to

deceive many commercial establishments. In addition, as shown in the middle columns of

table 6.6, the dramatic increase in the supply of inkjet counterfeits has led to a

concomitant sharp increase in plant suppressions and related arrests. It should be noted

that this phenomenon is not exclusively or even mainly a juvenile problem: Only 17

percent of today’s inkjet counterfeit cases involve juveniles.

Thus far, the problem of inkjet notes is largely a domestic one, reflecting the fact

that the United States has a knowledgeable and widely dispersed group of personal

computer users. However, as the personal computer revolution moves worldwide, it is

reasonable to predict that the inkjet counterfeit usage will follow.

In addition to the fact that it may be more difficult to find inkjet counterfeiters, it

is more difficult to prosecute and punish suspects who use computers to generate

counterfeit currency. Traditionally, there have been significant sentencing enhancements

for defendants based on the amount of counterfeit currency they have either produced or

passed. While the offset counterfeiter normally will produce a large amount of counterfeit

currency during each run because of the time and expense necessary to conduct each run,

the inkjet counterfeiter can efficiently make counterfeit currency in small batches. Thus,
64

although inkjet counterfeiters have the potential to produce large quantities of currency,

they are unlikely to receive heavy sentences because they are unlikely to have large

holdings of counterfeit notes at any one time.

In sum, fighting counterfeiting in the near future will be dominated by three

factors. First, the 1996-series notes will continue to displace older notes, and future

design changes in U.S. currency will render it even more resistant to counterfeiting.

These notes have been widely accepted, and are more resistant to counterfeiting. Second,

the technology used to produce counterfeit currency is becoming easier and cheaper to

use and acquire, making the use and awareness of counterfeit-resistant features more

important. Third, partly as a result of the earlier phase of this project, communication

among countries about counterfeiting is improving, making enforcement efforts more

efficient.
65

7 Global Estimates of Counterfeiting

This chapter presents the calculations that form the basis of a point estimate and

upper bound on the quantity of counterfeits in circulation. The estimates are based on

counterfeit data collected by the Secret Service and Federal Reserve together with current

understanding of circulation patterns for genuine and counterfeit currency. The value of

counterfeits in circulation is most likely around $70 million, or fewer than 12 in 10,000

notes, with about 60 percent of these held overseas. The upper bound is estimated to be

about $150 million, or about 3 in 10,000 notes.

Very good sample data on counterfeits are available from two sources that can be

considered independent in various dimensions. Both sources suggest that the incidence of

counterfeits in the population is quite small, on the order of one note in 10,000 for $100

notes.35 In order to develop appropriate confidence bounds for extrapolation, we

compare the data from these two sources. In addition, using currency-processing data, we

are able to estimate the degree to which the currency received by the Federal Reserve is

likely to represent the total population of currency outstanding. We also consider the

impact on the estimates of the currency that circulates only infrequently through Federal

Reserve processing centers. We conclude that it is unlikely that pockets containing large

numbers of counterfeits exist for very long outside the banking system.

In sum, then, counterfeiting is not currently a very serious problem. However,

historical evidence indicates that the level of counterfeiting remains low precisely

because it is diligently monitored and punished.36 As mentioned previously,

technological advances aid both the Secret Service, which is in charge of enforcing

counterfeiting laws, and the counterfeiters, who use all available tools to attempt to

perpetrate a very lucrative type of crime. Thus, counterfeiting will remain in check only

as the Secret Service is able to act vigorously to prevent it.

The first section describes a general economic model that explains the level of

counterfeiting. The second section reviews the data sources available, and presents

comparisons of the two major datasets. The third section presents our estimates. The

 

35We focus on $100 notes here because they account for about two-thirds of the value of currency in

circulation and about 80 percent of the value of counterfeits passed.

36This conclusion is also supported by the analytical model of counterfeiting that we consider in section 7.1.
66

fourth section presents estimates of how representative the notes that pass through the

banking system are and presents a model of currency circulation that demonstrates that it

is quite unlikely that a large pool of counterfeits can circulate undetected. The fifth

section concludes.

7.1 Theoretical Work

The few theoretical papers on the economics of currency counterfeiting conclude

that there are only two possibilities for long-run equilibrium, either very low or very high

levels of counterfeiting. There is no middle level of counterfeiting. More specifically,

given the actual level of enforcement against counterfeiting and the level of counterfeit

deterrence in the genuine notes, there are two alternative equilibria that the economy can

reach: Either counterfeit currency takes over, as in a situation in which Gresham’s law

holds, that is, bad money drives out good, or counterfeit notes hardly get any foothold

whatsoever (Lengwiler, 1997). In Lengwiler’s model, the equilibrium that actually occurs

is a function of the note's production cost (that is, the difficulty of counterfeiting it) and

its face value. The monetary authority is more likely to invest more in higher-cost notes

and thus insure a near-zero-counterfeiting equilibrium the higher is the cost of

counterfeiting and the higher is the value of the note. U.S. banknotes, especially the pre1996 series, had significantly fewer counterfeit protection devices than the banknotes of

many other industrialized countries and were low in value relative to other countries'

currency issues.37 However, as Green and Weber (1996) point out, the technology now

embedded in the new-design 1996-series $100 approaches that of other countries'

currency.

Clearly, if the high-counterfeiting equilibrium had some real-world relevance, one

would not observe the large demand for dollars that exists in most parts of the world.

Rather, the other, low-counterfeiting equilibria in Lengwiler’s model appear to be

consistent with the actual data on counterfeiting in which the frequency of counterfeits is

on the order of only 1 in 10,000. Interpreting these outcomes from the economic model

described above, it appears that the level of counterfeiting deterrents embedded in U.S.

 

37The highest denomination now issued is $100. In contrast, many other countries issue denominations with

values between $500 and $1000.
67

notes, combined with the level of law enforcement provided by the Secret Service and its

foreign counterparts, has been adequate to keep the economy operating at the low

counterfeiting state, given the two possible equilibria that could occur.

7.2 Data Sources

The two primary sources of data on counterfeiting are the Secret Service and the

Federal Reserve. In addition, this project has obtained some institutional knowledge from

banks, currency dealers, banknote shippers, and other officials responsible for currency

distribution and counterfeit detection around the world.

7.2.1 Secret Service Data

The Secret Service collects data on all counterfeits found in the United States as

well as all counterfeits they seize or receive abroad. For every counterfeit obtained, the

Secret Service records its characteristics and the location of its discovery. Their statistics

for notes that are seized before being put into circulation are kept separately from those

for counterfeits detected while in circulation. This distinction is important for the

estimates of counterfeits in circulation, in which we focus on the notes that were passed

(actually used in at least one transaction). While the number of notes seized is important

from a law-enforcement perspective, only the notes that were actually in circulation

generate an economic loss to the general public.

Although the Secret Service data are the most comprehensive available, the data

on the passing of counterfeit dollars outside the United States are incomplete for two

major reasons: First, counterfeit U.S. dollars found abroad may be retained by banks,

returned to customers, or held by local law enforcement authorities without being

reported to the Secret Service; second, the capacity of the Secret Service itself to detect

and seize counterfeit U.S. currency overseas is directly proportional to its ability to

develop connections with the relevant officials overseas--detection of counterfeits is

highest in countries where the Secret Service has the best ties with local law enforcement

agencies. As shown in the upper panel of table 7.1, the amount of counterfeit currency
68

Table 7.1

Data on Counterfeits for Calendar Year 1998

Millions of dollars except as noted

Domestic Foreign1 Total

Counterfeit $100s passed 26.5 2.2 28.7

Counterfeit $100s seized 26.5 53.3 79.8

All counterfeits passed 39.4 2.4 41.8

Secret

Service

All counterfeits seized 30.0 56.2 86.2

Counterfeit $100s detected 5.2 1.1 6.3

All counterfeits detected NA NA 8.9

Detection rate for counterfeit $100s,

notes per million 68.0 36.3 58.8

Federal

Reserve

System

Detection rate for all counterfeits, 

notes per million NA NA 22.2

 Note. “Seized” refers to counterfeit currency that was detected before being circulated, while “passed” indicates

currency that was determined to be counterfeit after entering circulation. Only passed currency represents a loss to the

public; seized counterfeits represent only a potential threat.

1

Includes foreign data for New York, Miami, El Paso, Houston, San Antonio, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.

passed (and detected) in the United States in 1998, $39.4 million, was comparable to the

amount the Secret Service seized (that is, intercepted before it was circulated) in the

United States, $30.0 million. Outside the United States, however, the amount of

counterfeit U.S. currency reported as seized is much higher than the amount reported as

passed ($56.2 million and $2.4 million respectively). Because some counterfeits found

outside the United States are not reported to U.S. authorities, the Secret Service believes

that the true amount of U.S. notes passed abroad is much larger than the reported amount

and perhaps comparable to the amount seized abroad.

7.2.2 Federal Reserve Data

Each of the thirty-seven Federal Reserve Cash Offices collects data on its cash

processing activities, including counterfeit detection. These data are useful in three ways.

First, the New York City Cash Office, which is the major port of entry and exit for

international shipments of U.S. dollars, has very recently gained the ability to identify the

city and country of origin for many of the counterfeits it receives. These data, which

cover notes that by definition have been returned to the United States, complement the
69

Secret Service data, which cover notes detected abroad or, in the taxonomy mentioned in

the introduction, are circulating but remain outside the Federal Reserve. Thus, the

correlation between these two sources can be used to calculate confidence bounds for the

population of notes in circulation as a whole. Because these data have been developed

only recently, however, we present only some preliminary results to demonstrate that the

samples reveal broadly similar distributions of counterfeits by country. Overall, the

Federal Reserve detects about 20 percent of all counterfeits reported to the Secret

Service.

The second use of Federal Reserve processing data comes from the fact that

separate statistics are recorded for three classes of notes: All pre-1990 series, the 1990

series, and the 1996 series.38 About 30 percent of all $100 notes outstanding passed

through Federal Reserve Cash Offices at least once in the twelve months after the

introduction of the 1996-series $100 note, but the notes processed are almost surely not a

random sample of all notes outstanding. Notes circulating within the United States are

likely to return to Cash Offices more quickly than overseas notes in remote areas and

areas where dollars are used more as a store of value than as a medium of exchange. The

information on the series date of notes, however, can be exploited to obtain estimates of

how much of the total currency population is in “active” circulation and how much might

be hoarded.

The third use of Federal Reserve processing data is the most direct: From

counterfeit detection rates and total processing figures, we can estimate the incidence of

counterfeits among the stock of dollars circulating actively.

7.3 Estimating the Total Quantity of Counterfeits in

Circulation Worldwide

We have made three sets of calculations to estimate the total amount of

counterfeit currency now in circulation. First, we generated a lower bound for the total

 

38The first 1990 series notes were issued in 1991 and include a security thread and microprinting. The

1996-series notes, of which only the highest three denominations, the $100, $50, and $20 have been

issued so far, were first issued in 1996, in the $100 denomination. Among the security features of the

latest series are a larger portrait, a reflective security thread, a watermark, additional microprinting, and

optically variable (color-shifting) ink.
70

number of $100 counterfeits based on Federal Reserve cash processing data. Second, we

generated an upper bound for $100 counterfeits by extrapolating from Federal Reserve

data to cover counterfeits found outside the Federal Reserve. Third, we generated a range

of plausible estimates for all denominations based on the relative incidence of $100

counterfeits and lower-denomination counterfeits. We conclude that the total value of

counterfeits in circulation at any moment is on the order of $70 million, or fewer than 1.5

notes in 10,000, and is highly unlikely to exceed $140 million, or fewer than 3 in 10,000.

Further, we conclude that the incidence of counterfeits is roughly the same inside and

outside the United States, and thus the distribution of counterfeits follows the estimated

distribution of genuine currency, which is estimated to be about 50 to 70 percent abroad

and the remainder within the United States.

7.3.1 Estimating the Minimum Stock of $100 Counterfeits in

Circulation

The Federal Reserve records how many of the counterfeit U.S. notes it detects

originated abroad and how many originated domestically. However, the exact amount of

U.S. currency held abroad is unknown, so we use a range of assumptions about how

much U.S. currency is abroad in estimating confidence bounds for the total number of

$100 counterfeits (table 7.2). For shares of currency held abroad ranging from 40 percent

to 70 percent, we present the counterfeit detection rate per million notes and the implied

value of counterfeit notes.39

The Federal Reserve processing data suggest that the total stock of $100

counterfeits outstanding is in the range of $15 million to $19 million, a figure we

consider to be a lower bound for several reasons. First, the notes sent to Federal Reserve

Cash Offices are a relatively “clean” sample of the population of all notes in circulation

 

39Although the estimates in Porter and Judson (October 1996) put the share of currency abroad between 55

and 70 percent, Feige (1996) presents estimates as low as 40 percent.
71

Table 7.2

Counterfeit $100 Stocks Implied

by 1998 Federal Reserve Processing Data

Location

Detection rate

(notes per

million)

Assumed share

at location

(percent)

Value of

genuine notes

(billions of

dollars)

Implied

counterfeits

(millions of

dollars)

Total 58.8 100 320.1 18.8

Domestic 68.0 60 192.1 13.0

Foreign 36.3 40 128.0 4.6

 Total . . . . . . . . . 17.7

Domestic 68.0 30 96.0 6.5

Foreign 36.3 70 224.1 8.1

 Total . . . . . . . . . 14.6

in that the notes have already passed through several detection “screens” before reaching

the Federal Reserve. If a counterfeit is deposited at a commercial bank, the probability

that it will remain in the stock of notes sent on to the Federal Reserve is less than one,

and most likely substantially less than one. Once a counterfeit finds its way to a

commercial bank, there are four distinct possibilities for its disposal. First, it could be (a)

accepted, sorted, and then resold or (b) sent to the Federal Reserve. In the latter case, it

would appear in the Federal Reserve processing data.40

Second, it could be confiscated as a counterfeit and reported to the police and

Secret Service. In this case, the note appears in the Secret Service's statistics but not in

the Federal Reserve's statistics.

Third, it could be returned to the depositor (although virtually no U.S. banks

return suspected counterfeits to depositors).41

Fourth, the bank could confiscate the note as counterfeit but either not report the

note to the police and Secret Service or not release it. Banks are often eager to retain a

few counterfeits for the purpose of training their own tellers. In some countries, banks are

permitted to report counterfeits and then retain the notes. This set of notes thus does not

 

40We assume that the Federal Reserve detects all counterfeits in shipments it receives. For a discussion of

this assumption, see Allison and Pianalto (1997).

41Nearly every central bank in the world, including the Federal Reserve, forbids this behavior on the part of

local banks and currency exchanges, but some evidence and our ICAP visits suggest that it occurs with

some regularity.
72

appear in the Federal Reserve statistics but may or may not appear in the Secret Service

statistics. Counterfeit detection at commercial banks is generally quite good, so we

believe that the majority of counterfeits that arrive at banks do not get shipped to the

Federal Reserve. The fact that the Secret Service receives four times as many passed

counterfeits as the Federal Reserve would seem to bear this out.

We believe that a counterfeit arriving at a foreign bank is less likely than a

counterfeit arriving at a U.S. bank to be delivered to the Secret Service or to make it into

a Federal Reserve deposit for two reasons. First, U.S. banks are more likely than their

foreign counterparts to contact the Secret Service directly. Second, on average, overseas

banks appear to check their dollar shipments more carefully for counterfeits, partly

because labor costs are so much lower in many countries with heavy dollar traffic. As a

result of the higher level of screening, the incidence of counterfeits from foreign deposits

is slightly less than half of that for domestic deposits in recent years (see table 7.2).

7.3.2 Using Federal Reserve and Secret Service Data to Estimate the

Total Stock of $100 Counterfeits in Circulation

We now return to the estimate of the total stock of counterfeits. As noted above, a

lower bound for the estimate of $100 counterfeits in circulation is $15 million to $19

million. Within the United States, four counterfeit $100 notes are detected outside the

Federal Reserve for each one found by the Federal Reserve. An estimate of counterfeit

$100s in circulation based on this ratio would be about $75 million to $100 million. This

estimate, however, should be viewed as an upper bound, for reasons similar to those

discussed above. The counterfeits found outside the Federal Reserve are, in general, of

lower quality and more easily detected (hence their detection outside the Federal

Reserve). Thus, they probably do not circulate for as long as the counterfeits that survive

until reaching the Federal Reserve.42 A middle-range value of about $50 million, or less

than 1 counterfeit $100 in every 6,000 $100 notes in circulation, is the most likely

estimate.

 

42Appendix B takes up the issue of the lifespan of a counterfeit.
73

7.3.3 Extrapolating from $100 Counterfeits to All Counterfeits

Table 7.1 indicates that $100 counterfeits are 68.7 percent of all counterfeits

recorded by the Secret Service and 70.8 percent of all counterfeits found by the Federal

Reserve. Extrapolation from the estimates for the $100 note suggest that the $50 million

baseline should thus be inflated by a factor of 1.41 to 1.46, for a total of about $70

million to $75 million, or 1.5 counterfeits in 10,000 notes. If we extrapolate from the

upper and lower bounds discussed above, the lower bound estimate for counterfeits of all

denominations is about $25 million, or 0.5 in 10,000 notes, and the upper bound is about

$140 million, or 2.8 in 10,000 notes.

7.4 The Next Step: How Unrepresentative Are Our Data?

The estimates constructed above rely heavily on the assumption that the samples

are representative. However, the samples could be unrepresentative along several

dimensions. First and most crucially, suspected counterfeit notes could perhaps find their

way into an isolated pool of currency that never reaches the banking system. Second,

notes from some countries could be returned for processing more readily than others.

Third, counterfeit detection capability could vary widely across countries.

In appendix B, two models show why notes are unlikely to remain outside the

banking system indefinitely. The first model (B.2) shows that notes in active circulation

almost surely return to the banking system relatively quickly. The second model exploits

cash processing data to estimate the shares of currency at home and abroad that might be

hoarded, that is, held out of circulation for several months or more. Both of these models

suggest that large quantities of counterfeits cannot hide anywhere for very long. With

regard to the third concern, the relatively close match between Secret Service data and

Federal Reserve data suggests that the country distribution of counterfeits is unlikely to

be radically different from what is observed in the available counterfeit data.

7.4.1 Hoarding: Some Empirical Evidence from the Team’s Travels

One cannot rule out the possibility that a large batch of counterfeits has been

inadvertently hoarded along with genuine notes, but a recent episode in Korea suggests

that fears about this problem are overdrawn.
74

After the sharp depreciation of the Korean won in the fall of 1997, Korea

introduced a program in which citizens were encouraged to deposit their dollar holdings

with the government to help resolve the financial crisis that had arisen that year. At the

time of the call for dollars, counterfeiting in Korea could have been a large problem.

Korea was one of the very few countries in Asia that had traditionally been willing to

accept fit (previously circulated) notes in its wholesale shipments of notes; wholesale

shipments are likely to contain counterfeits, whereas shipments of new notes are

necessarily free of them.

Under a program by the Korean government to acquire dollars and other assets,

the government collected $2.2 billion in U.S. currency from Korean residents during a

grace period in January and February 1998. During the grace period, the government

agreed to not question the source of any funds turned in. The dollars were all carefully

inspected for counterfeits. In this repatriation of stockpiled currency, which must be one

of the largest ever conducted, Korean officials found only 0.012 percent to be counterfeit,

or $264,000. That is, they found counterfeits at the rate of 1.2 counterfeits per 10,000

notes, a result on a par with counterfeit incidence elsewhere in the world.

Thus, this natural experiment suggests that the existence of significant stockpiles

of currency does not necessarily imply the existence of a serious counterfeiting problem.

More generally, since unexpected events continually lead individuals to draw upon their

precautionary holdings of currency, the stockpiled currency is always being sampled.

7.4.2 Pools of Undetected Counterfeits

Perhaps some counterfeits circulating abroad escape detection by circulating as

part of a pool of U.S. currency that (1) never enters the banking system or enters banks

that don’t detect the counterfeits and (2) in any case never returns to the United States,

where the counterfeits would almost certainly be discovered.

This is a highly unlikely set of conditions. On our visits, we observed that

counterfeit detection capabilities are very good at central banks, commercial banks, and

authorities charged with stopping counterfeiting and that the condition of the circulating

currency was reasonably good. These observations made it apparent that counterfeits do

not endlessly circulate outside the banking system in any of the markets we visited.
75

Currency is used for a wide range of transactions, but even in gray or black market

economies, it will eventually find its way into a commercial banking institution, most

likely after being used in relatively few transactions.43 We present a more formal model

of these ideas in appendix B.2.

7.4.3 Comparing the Country Distribution of Counterfeit Notes

Below we present two comparisons of three data sets that have been assembled

largely independently of one another. The comparisons point to similar estimates for the

distribution of counterfeits, which in turn suggest that, despite the shortcomings of the

data sets, they are representative of currency and counterfeiting activity worldwide. First,

we compare the counterfeiting data from the Federal Reserve with that from the Secret

Service. Second, we compare the counterfeiting data from the Secret Service with the

Federal Reserve estimates of the amount of genuine currency circulating overseas.

7.4.3.1 Comparing the Counterfeiting Data

In principle, the country-by-country data on counterfeits detected at the Federal

Reserve Cash Offices should be a subset of the Secret Service data. Under certain

conditions, moreover, the proportions of counterfeits detected by country and region

should be similar in both data sets. However, neither of these conditions holds exactly in

the data we present here, and as a result, the ratios do not exactly coincide, though most

observations do fall within two standard deviations of the mean absolute deviation.

Two conditions are necessary for the country-specific counterfeiting data sets to

exactly match both each other and the true country distribution of counterfeits. First, the

Secret Service’s ability to detect counterfeits would have to be exactly uniform across

countries, which is surely not the case given variation in staff size, relations with local

law enforcement, and other local factors. Second, the notes processed by the Federal

 

43One application of the isolated pools theory has been in stories that one or more governments hostile to

the United States had obtained genuine plates for printing U.S. currency and were producing a flood of

counterfeits to destabilize the dollar. Part of the scenario was the assertion that these counterfeits could

circulate endlessly and freely within the bounds of such countries. We have no way of confirming or

denying such stories. If closed countries do indeed have many counterfeits in circulation, it is impossible

to know so long as the system remains closed. The evidence and model we present here apply to open

markets. Moreover, in a closed system in which everyone is aware of the counterfeits, the loss to

consumers and potential for destabilization is not clear.
76

Reserve would have to be a random sample of the notes in circulation in a given country.

This condition is somewhat more likely to hold. Although some currency is held for long

periods, and some currency is selected for return to the United States because it is unfit,

our estimates below on hoarding suggest that notes circulate fairly randomly.

The Secret Service data used here cover only notes passed to the public; they do

not include notes seized, since these notes by definition were never in circulation. The

figures used here are for the latest available period, January–October 1998. Since the

Secret Service dataset includes counterfeits found by the Federal Reserve, the Secret

Service's figure for each country should be greater than the Federal Reserve's figure.

Countries are dropped if the Secret Service's records show fewer counterfeits than the

Federal Reserve's records.

Each point in figure 7.1 represents one country's share of the counterfeits detected

in each data set. Thus, a point at (5.0,10.0) would indicate that 5 percent of the

counterfeits detected at the New York Federal Reserve Cash Office came from that

country while 10 percent of the counterfeits detected by the Secret Service did. These

points would all lie on the 45-degree line if the relative detection rates between the two

data sets agreed and if the samples of notes processed were exactly representative of the

notes in circulation. The dashed lines represent a 95 percent confidence interval around

the 45-degree line. Since most of the points associated with the individual country pairs

lie within the confidence band, we cannot reject the hypothesis that the relative detection

rates in the two data sets are not significantly different from one another.
77

Figure 7.1

Shares of Counterfeits Found in Various Countries, January–October 1998

Percent

FRB NY

55

45

35

25

20

15

10

5

1

1 5 15 25 40

U.S. Secret Service

10
78

Table 7.3

Expected and Actual Distribution of Counterfeits

Percent except as noted

Region

(1)

Expected

counterfeits

(dollars)

(2)

 Actual

counterfeits

(dollars)

(3)

Currency

distribution

(4)

Counterfeit

distribution

(5)

Africa and the Middle East 387,182.80 311,825.00 20.0 16.1

Americas 435,580.70 400,734.20 22.5 20.7

Asia 338,785.00 298,966.00 17.5 15.4

Europe and the former USSR 774,365.60 924,604.00 40.0 47.8

7.4.3.2 Testing the Location of Counterfeits with Dollar Estimates in

Various Parts of the World

Are the data on counterfeit dollars found in various locations outside the United

States in basic agreement with our understanding of the distribution of all dollars in

broadly defined regions? Presumably, counterfeits cannot easily “hide” among genuine

notes when the number of counterfeits is relatively large. If the proportion of counterfeit

currency supply is growing in a region, holders of the currency will eventually learn

about the counterfeiting problem and become more wary of acquiring a counterfeit in

their day-to-day transactions. Thus, if counterfeit dollars are dispersed throughout the

world up to the point at which residents of any country would become suspicious of their

dollar holdings, the distribution of counterfeits across the world might match that of the

currency as a whole. The proposition ignores the costs of distributing counterfeits, which

are not necessarily likely to be evenly distributed across parts of the world.

Table 7.3 compares the percentage distribution of currency holdings in four

regions: Africa and the Middle East, the Americas, Asia, and Europe and the countries in

the former Soviet Union. This distribution combines the best judgmental information at

the Federal Reserve about the distribution of currency (column 4) with the Secret

Service’s data on the distribution of counterfeits that were passed into circulation
79

(column 5).44 Columns 2 and 3 list the expected and actual distribution of counterfeits

under the assumption it is proportional to currency holdings in these four broadly defined

regions. A standard statistical test of these data suggests that the counterfeit and currency

distributions match each other in terms of the relative amounts found in each of these

four regions.45

7.5 Conclusion

In sum, we estimate that about $70 million, or fewer than 1.5 counterfeits per

10,000 notes, might be in circulation at any one time. In addition, we consider a range of

$25 million to $140 million, or between 0.5 and 2.8 counterfeits in 10,000 notes, to be an

exhaustive confidence interval. It is indeed possible that a large number of counterfeits

could be injected into the financial system, but they would likely be detected and

removed fairly quickly given what we know about cash transactions and the banking

system. We believe that the close correlation between the country distribution of currency

holdings and the counterfeits detected by the Federal Reserve and the Secret Service is

strong evidence that both counterfeit detection and incidence fall within a small range

throughout the world.

 

44The counterfeits that could not be assigned to any region by the Secret Service were assigned according to

the distribution of those that could be assigned. Information on seized (never circulated) notes is not used

because they are irrelevant to the question of interest, which is how easy or difficult it would be to pass

counterfeits.

45 The test statistic of the null hypothesis that the points lie on the 45 degree line has a value of 1.0 and is

distributed as a chi-square with 3 degrees of freedom.
80

8 Summary and Conclusions

This study reports the results of a joint Treasury and Federal Reserve

investigation of currency usage and counterfeiting activities abroad. Activities consisted

of study trips to areas of the world where dollars circulate and, subsequently, the

establishment of facilities to encourage both recirculation of fit currency and repatriation

of old-series currency. The audit plan that we have used in this study takes account of all

of the available information and understanding that the Treasury and Federal Reserve

possess concerning overseas counterfeiting and currency holdings. Following the

Congressional mandate, it is based on three components: Models of U.S. currency usage

overseas, models of counterfeiting abroad, and information obtained from country

surveys with cash handlers and others knowledgeable about the extent of currency usage

and counterfeiting issues abroad.

8.1 Overseas Currency Holdings

For some time, U.S. dollars have been the currency of choice internationally. In

countries with underdeveloped banking sectors and unstable currencies, U.S. dollars are

held in cash as a store of value, are used for transactions, and act as the unit of account,

especially for larger transactions. Although dollars flow into countries when the domestic

currency becomes very unstable or political crisis looms, they do not necessarily flow out

when the crisis passes. Even in some countries with developed banking sectors and stable

currencies, dollars are the preferred currency for travelers, for cross-border trade, for

settlement of large cash transactions, and for transactions in the informal or gray sector.

The Federal Reserve supplies currency on demand and implicitly accommodates

new demands that originate anywhere in the world. Various procedures developed by

Federal Reserve staff suggest that about $250 to $350 billion of the $500 billion in

banknotes in circulation are held overseas. Although the circumstances in each country

are unique, demand for U.S. dollars (or indeed any other currency that circulates widely

outside its home country) during a crisis does follow certain patterns. In a simple model

of this process, the demand for the foreign currency (dollars) depends on the volatility of

inflation and the differential between the inflation rate in the United States and the

developing country. The degree to which a country becomes dollarized and the degree to
81

which residents desire cash dollars rather than dollar-denominated bank accounts depends

on confidence in the domestic banking system. The quantity of cash dollars demanded

also depends on a country’s experience with dollars in the past and its economic

circumstances.

Although estimates about overseas currency holding are necessarily imprecise, a

confidence interval estimate in the neighborhood of $250 to $350 billion brackets most of

the direct and indirect information we have on such holdings. To go the next step and try

to attach numbers to individual countries or to regions is considerably more difficult. For

one thing, most currency held outside the United States is used for transactions so it is in

constant circulation and as a consequence repeatedly moves across various borders.

While the Federal Reserve data and CMIRs provide information on shipments to and

from various countries and the United States, there is no information about currency

movements between other countries, nor is there reliable information about smaller

quantities of currency leaving the United States or moving outside of wholesale channels.

Our best guess is that about 20 percent each of overseas holdings are in the Western

Hemisphere, the Far East, and in the Middle East and Africa. The remaining 40 percent is

in Europe, including the former Soviet Union and some of its trading partners such as

Turkey.

8.2 Overseas Counterfeiting

Given that so much genuine U.S. currency is overseas, how much counterfeit U.S.

currency is also abroad? Numerous news reports in the mid-1990s suggested that vast

quantities of counterfeit dollars might be circulating overseas. Inside the fifty states and

territories, the Secret Service has jurisdiction over counterfeiting cases, and information

about counterfeiting is routinely channeled to the Secret Service. Outside the United

States, however, the Secret Service has no jurisdiction over counterfeiting cases

involving U.S. currency. Further, information and procedures invoked when counterfeit

notes are found overseas vary widely.

During the visits to the different countries, the level of concern about

counterfeiting varied, but banks and other financial institutions detected one or only a few

counterfeit notes of every 10,000 notes they processed. Outside the United States, in FY
82

1998 the Secret Service reported the seizure of $80.6 million, the suppression of twentynine counterfeit plants, and the passing of $3.2 million in counterfeit U.S. currency. This

discrepancy between the passed and seized figures overseas reflects in part the fact that

data on counterfeit U.S. notes passed overseas are inherently partial: The Secret Service’s

knowledge about counterfeiting of U.S. dollars is more complete in countries where they

have better ties with local law enforcement agencies.

While counterfeiting rates are currently relatively low, it does not follow that one

should be sanguine about the future. The nature of counterfeiting appears to be moving

from an activity involving offset printing to one involving computers and attached

printers, for which prices are falling and technology and accessibility are rising. For

example, of the counterfeit currency printing operations suppressed inside the United

States during FY 1998, 88 percent were produced by inkjet printers, a phenomenal

increase from the FY 1995 figure of 19 percent. While the inkjet phenomenon is only

beginning to register internationally, there is every reason to believe that it will spread

abroad. Given these technology changes, concomitant improvements in both banknotes

and Secret Service procedures are needed merely to stay ahead of the advancing

counterfeiting threats. In addition, improvements in Secret Service capabilities are

necessary, including more field offices and improvements in the traditional methods of

record keeping. In terms of the former, the Secret Service has increased foreign offices

and task forces significantly since the ICAP trips began in 1994. On the latter, the Secret

Service has recently developed two new systems to improve statistical reporting: The

Counterfeit Contraband System and the Counterfeit Note Search Site on the Internet.

8.3 Currency Distribution and Education Campaign

Historically, new BEP notes have been attractive to the international market for

one reason: Their newness guarantees they are counterfeit-free. The 1996-Series

Currency Introduction Plan provided for the establishment of an Extended Custodial

Inventory Pilot program to facilitate the introduction of the new design currency,

expedite the repatriation of the old design banknotes, and promote the recirculation of fit

new design currency. In addition, the ECI program was to facilitate information flows

about the circulation of both genuine and counterfeit currency. Both of these goals have
83

been realized: Currency circulation and redistribution have become more efficient, and

the European and Asian ECIs have already also become an important direct source of

information on external counterfeiting, as the Secret Service receives information directly

from ECI operators regarding counterfeit notes detected during their verification process.

In addition, the ECIs provide a natural safety valve to deal with potential

increases in currency demand related to concern about the century date change. By

stockpiling U.S. currency inventories in strategic international distribution centers, banks

and currency dealers overseas have an assured, immediate supply of U.S. currency to

meet banknote demands resulting from financial or political disturbances and to mitigate

financial panics.

The Department of the Treasury and the Federal Reserve have a duty to inform

and educate all users of U.S. currency about prospective changes to the currency,

including policies with regard to the treatment of older-series notes. In general, the

worldwide education program has been successful in disseminating information about

currency changes and must be continued.

8.4 Conclusions and Recommendations

There are five main conclusions. First, the audit program of the Treasury and the

Federal Reserve has been successful in establishing new sources of information on the

use and circulation of genuine and counterfeit U.S. banknotes abroad. Relationships have

been developed with the banknote trading and law enforcement communities, allowing

the Federal Reserve and the Secret Service to work more effectively in the international

arena. The Federal Reserve and Treasury expect these benefits to grow as the program

continues.

Second, the ECIs have worked well in providing more up-to-date information on

overseas counterfeiting threats and encouraging the repatriation of old design notes.

Thus, the ECIs should be extended and expanded.

Third, due to the success of the new-design note in deterring counterfeiting, more

aggressive strategies that will foster the repatriation of old design notes should be

considered.
84

Fourth, the Secret Service has obtained valuable information through the audit

program, and will continue to draw upon information arising from the audits to evaluate

its international strategy.

Finally, the public education campaign did contribute to the smooth reception of

the new design 1996-series notes. Dissemination of information on any future new

currency design should reach the international markets well before the new notes do. In

particular, additional emphasis should be placed on future public education campaigns to

ensure early delivery of training and educational material for both cash handlers and the

general public. For the introduction of the remaining 1996 currency series, the international emphasis should be placed on those regions where lower denominations of U.S.

currency ($10 and $5 notes) predominate, for example, Latin America and the Caribbean.
85

Appendix A

Methods for Estimating the Stock of U.S.

Currency Held Abroad

A.1.1 The Seasonal Method

The seasonal method, as well as various other indirect methods discussed in

Porter and Judson (April and October 1996), is based on the idea that U.S. currency held

abroad is used differently from U.S. currency held at home in some measurable respect.

The average measured characteristic of currency, say X , will be a weighted average of

the characteristic for the domestically held currency, d X , and of that for the foreign-held

currency, f X , as follows:

 (1) d f X = βX + (1− β )X

where the weight β is the domestic share of total currency outstanding, and 1− β is the

foreign share. By observing the overall behavior of currency wherever it is located, we

know X. We exploit various data to infer d X or f X , thus allowing an estimate of the

shares of currency held at home ( β ) and abroad (1− β ). The seasonal method uses

relative seasonal variations in the currency circulating in the United States and Canada to

infer overseas holdings of dollars. Four assumptions underlie this method:

1⁄2 The seasonal pattern in domestic demand for U.S. dollars is similar to the seasonal

pattern of demand within Canada for Canadian dollars

1⁄2 Foreign demand for U.S. dollars has no significant seasonal pattern

1⁄2 The circulation of Canadian dollars outside of Canada is negligible, so that the

demand for Canadian dollars can be attributed solely to domestic demand

1⁄2 U.S. currency is not used to a substantial degree inside Canada.

Under these assumptions, the share of U.S. currency abroad can be deduced by

comparing the seasonality of Canadian currency in circulation to the seasonality of all

U.S. currency in circulation. If foreign holdings exhibit seasonality similar to that of
86

domestic holdings, the estimate generally provides a lower bound on the share of

currency held abroad.

A.1.1.1 Seasonality in Currency Holdings and in Banking Shipments

One factor undercutting any seasonality in foreign holdings is the unpredictable

timing of foreign national crises, which tend to precipitate large dollar inflows to the

affected nation. In addition, transaction costs may discourage foreign users from

returning to the United States those dollars received in routine exchanges that may have a

seasonal pattern. If foreign currency holdings have relatively little seasonality and have

tended to increase relative to domestic holdings, then overall seasonal variations in U.S.

currency holdings should have diminished. Strong support for such a hypothesis comes

from a comparison of the seasonal variations in the currency component of M1 for the

five-year periods at the beginning and end of the sample. The seasonal fluctuations for

the last five-year period are much fainter and sharply reduced from what they had been in

the first five-year period (figure A.1).46

A.1.1.2 Canada as the Benchmark for U.S. Domestic Behavior

Canada is a suitable benchmark for comparison for two basic reasons. First,

Canadian currency is not used outside of Canada to any significant degree. Second,

because the United States and Canada have a similar set of major holidays and school

vacations and share many customs, the seasonal variations in retail sales and in

consumption in the two countries are similar; hence the induced domestic demand for

their respective currencies should also have about the same seasonal pattern. This

similarity implies that any difference between the seasonal variation in total demand for

U.S. currency and that for Canadian currency likely reflects foreign demand for U.S.

currency. In addition, Canada’s set of denominations is similar to that in the United

States, and the bilateral exchange rate is sufficiently close to 1 that pairwise comparisons

of individual denominations or combinations of denominations in the two currencies can

be considered.

 

46 The results are plotted through February of the next year, i.e. February 1994 and February 1999. This

selection displays the full range of seasonal variation around year-end.
87

Figure A.1

Stock of U.S. Currency in Two Periods, not seasonally adjusted

Ratio scale, billions of dollars

1994–98

(right scale)

1959–63

(left scale)

Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec.

320

340

360

380

400

420

440

460

34 480

33

32

31

30

29

Ratio scale, billions of dollars

Dec.
88

A.1.1.3 The Seasonal Variation Technique

Typically, the currency component of M1 is seasonally adjusted with a model in

which the unadjusted series is viewed as a product of three terms: A trend-cycle term, a

seasonal term, and an irregular, or noise, term. The seasonal term in the unadjusted series

(the reciprocal of the seasonal factor) is around 1 in periods without a discernible

seasonal influence; it registers its largest values above 1 in periods of significant seasonal

increases of currency, which occur around Christmas and the summertime vacation

period; and it is typically the furthest below 1 after such periods, when the seasonal term

typically declines sharply. Given the assumptions above, the model for the domestic and

foreign holdings of currency can be written as follows. First, overall currency holdings

can be modeled as the product of a trend-cycle (and irregular) component and a seasonal

component in the respective (domestic and foreign) locations. In symbols let S be the

seasonal term and T be the trend term so that

(1.1) d f d f T St t = + T T t t S S t t

where the superscript d is associated with the multiplicative currency components held

domestically, the superscript f is associated with those components held outside the

country, and the subscript t denotes time. The left side of equation 1.1 represents the

overall unadjusted currency series as the product of the trend-cycle and seasonal terms,

while the right side displays a parallel decomposition for the domestic and foreign

components. If we let βt be the fraction of the overall trend held domestically, and

1− βt the fraction held abroad, then equation 1.1 can be rewritten as

(1.2) (1 ) d f TS T T t t tt t t = +− β β S S t t
89

Canceling Tt from both sides of equation 1.2,

(1.3) (1 ) d f Stt t = +− β β S S t t

Observe that equation 1.3 is an example of equation 1, with the seasonal term

playing the role of the X variable in that definitional equation. Finally, assuming that the

foreign seasonal component is always equal to 1 (that is, foreign demand does not vary

seasonally), we can simplify equation 1.3 slightly:

(1.4) (1 ) d Stt t = +− β β St

Given values for the seasonal terms, equation 1.4 becomes a single equation in

one unknown, βt . We can solve for βt provided that the seasonal terms in equation 1.4

do not equal 1. In periods without a seasonal influence (which is when St = 1 and St

d

 = 1),

any value of βt is consistent with equation 1.4, so we cannot identify a unique value for

βt . Thus, the method is capable of generating sensible estimates at some frequencies

(including the annual frequency) but not at all frequencies.

The best estimate of the model is obtained by measuring the seasonal variation

around Christmas, specifically from the seasonal high that is reached in currency in

December to the seasonal low in February. This period of the year is the one in which the

seasonal variation in currency is best aligned with the seasonal variation in transactions

(retail sales). Formally, we take equation 1.4 and rewrite the time subscript t as m,y

(where m refers to the mth month in the yth year) and set βt to β . Then subtracting

equation 1.4 for February from equation 1.4 for the preceding December and collecting

terms in β , we find that the share of currency held domestically is

(1.5) , ,1

, ,1

( )

( )

dec y feb y

d d

dec y feb y

S S

S S β +

+

− = −
90

To calculate this equation with actual values, we assume, for the reasons given

above, that Canadian data can be used to estimate what the relative seasonal variations in

the United States would be without any foreign holdings of currency. Given a seasonal

adjustment procedure, we can use the estimate of the overall seasonal component for each

of the denominations that use banknotes exclusively in the two countries, namely $5s,

$10s, $20s, $50s and $100s. We use the banknote figures for the United States to estimate

the numerator in equation 1.5 and use the analogous term for Canada to estimate the

denominator; with the value for β , the domestic share, the share held abroad is then

calculated as 1− β .

47

A.1.2 The Biometric Method

For any geographic area, the total population of notes to be estimated, N, can be

expressed in relation to three known numbers: M, the total number of marked notes; n,

the number of notes in a sample; and m, the number of marked notes in a sample.

Assuming that the notes circulate freely and randomly, so that the sampled proportions of

marked notes are representative of the notes circulating in the area chosen, Petersen’s

approach (Porter and Judson, October 1996, note 22) tells us that the sample proportion

of marked notes is equal to the proportion of marked notes in the whole population:

(1.1) M m

N n =

With the total number of notes in the population, N , in some geographic area (for

example, a Federal Reserve Cash Office’s area) as the only unknown in this relationship,

we can solve for it as

(1.2) M

m

n N =

 

47The irregular term in the seasonal decomposition can be viewed as being confined within the trend term.

Adding an explicit irregular term does not alter the results.
91

We have used the Petersen method to obtain estimates of Federal Reserve 1990-

series $100 and $50 notes circulating in the United States and abroad ($50s with the

embedded security thread were introduced in 1992). We know the total number of

marked notes, M, from outflows of the 1990-series $100s and $50s from each of the

Federal Reserve Cash Offices; and we know the ratio of total sampled notes to marked

sampled notes, n/m, from notes that are received from circulation at each Cash Office.

Because almost all currency sent to and received from foreign countries goes

through the New York City Cash Office, we provisionally assume that this office is the

foreign pool and the rest of the offices together constitute the domestic pool. We estimate

total notes in circulation throughout the United States excluding New York City, say

Nxny , by applying equation 1.2 to the pool consisting of all the offices outside New York

City. Then, to obtain an estimate of total domestic currency circulation (that is, including

New York City), Nd, we scale up to account for the population served by the New York

City Cash Office:

(1 / ) d xny ny xny N = N + pop pop

where ny pop is the population served by the New York City Office, and xny pop is the

population served by the rest of the Cash Offices combined.

We can estimate the foreign share of currency holdings in two different ways,

depending on whether total notes are determined as the sum of the notes in all the Federal

Reserve Districts, say

N = Nny + Nxny ˆ

That is, we either use an estimated number of notes ( Nˆ ) or we can condition on

the actual total of notes in circulation, say N . Unlike the biologists, we do know N ,

apart from what has been lost or destroyed.48 Using Nˆ , the estimate for total notes, we

 

48A difference between this problem and the biometricians’ is that they capture and count marked species

over discrete time intervals, whereas the Federal Reserve continuously processes currency. Thus, our
92

calculate the number of notes held in the United States as Nd , and the share of notes

abroad is just N f = N − Nd ˆ . This method has the advantage of using parallel estimates

for domestic and foreign circulation. Using the actual N , the share of currency abroad is

estimated as Nf / N, which has the advantage of using our knowledge of the total amount

of currency in circulation for each of the denominations.

Table A.1.2

Biometric Estimates of Currency Held Abroad

End-of-year figures, percent

$50s $100s

Value used for total stock of notes

Year

Type of notes

used as “marked” Estimated Actual Estimated Actual

1997 1996 only 60.6 75.2 59.2 76.2

1990 and 1996 44.6 47.8 73.0 77.0

1998 1996 only 23.3 64.1 58.7 74.1

1990 and 1996 45.5 48.4 72.7 77.4

The range of estimates for each denomination (see table A.1.2) can be considered

outer bounds for the true figures because of the way they represent hoarded notes. The

biometric method is able to estimate only the population of notes actively in circulation;

the bank notes that are hoarded do not circulate and hence cannot be part of the estimates

of n/m for any location. When the foreign share is estimated as the ratio of notes

circulating in the foreign pool to all notes outstanding, the implicit assumption is that all

uncounted notes are in the domestic pool, which is presumably not true; thus, the estimate

is a lower bound of currency held abroad. Similarly, estimating the foreign share as the

number of notes in the foreign pool over total measured notes implicitly assumes that

notes are hoarded in the same proportion that they circulate. In this case, if notes are

 computations should, in principle, use a lag of the quantity of new notes in circulation to account for the

fact that notes released during the sample period are not actually part of the pool for the whole period. In

practice, lags do not appear to matter. For estimates of notes that are lost and destroyed, see Laurent

(1974).
93

hoarded disproportionately abroad, the estimate could be higher; however, the estimate

for $100s is about 70 percent, and we find it unlikely that more than 70 percent of the

hoarded notes in the world are hoarded abroad. Thus, we consider this estimate an upper

bound.49

 

49The estimates appear to be relatively robust to alternative assumptions about the location of the foreign

pool. Little changes if, as part of the foreign pool, we include two other cities, Los Angeles and Miami,

that are believed to have significant foreign currency activity. Generally, if we try to align the District

biometric estimates with the relevant economic variables that influence domestic currency location, we

obtain estimates of domestic holdings that are similar to the aggregate biometric estimates.
94

Appendix B

Hoarding, the Likelihood of Pools of Counterfeits,

and the Longevity of Counterfeits

This appendix considers the speed with which currency and counterfeits circulate

when they are actively used in transactions as well as when they are held as a store of

value for long stretches of time or are hoarded. In the first section of the appendix, a

review of Federal Reserve cash processing data, survey data, and statistical models

indicates that a substantial share of the stock of currency in circulation is hoarded for

long periods of time both within and outside the United States. Since counterfeit currency

generally circulates along with genuine currency, the hoarding phenomenon for genuine

currency carries over pari passu to counterfeit currency.

A claim is periodically made that large isolated pools of dollars with high

concentrations of counterfeits exist in various places outside the United States. Interviews

with many banks indicate that the existence of such pools is highly unlikely, and the logic

and data to bolster this conclusion are presented in section B.2. The third section takes

another approach to determining the stock of counterfeits, calculating it as a function of

the number of counterfeits found in a given year and the average life of a counterfeit

note. Here again the existence of hoarded notes is an important factor in reconciling all of

the relevant information.

The focus throughout the appendix is on $100 notes. As in the Lengwiler (1997)

model, counterfeiters have an incentive to focus their efforts on important targets like the

$100 U.S. note because it gives them a higher return than other denominations or

currencies. In addition, the ICAP trips and other information indicate that $100s are used

as a store of wealth in many parts of the world, including the United States, as much as

they are used as a medium of exchange. To the extent that they are a store of wealth,

$100s are less likely than other notes to circulate, and this characteristic will increase the

time it will take before counterfeit $100s are detected in bank deposits.

This report supports the idea that the worldwide capability to detect counterfeit

currency remains high. The model developed below in sections B.1 and B.3 provides a
95

complementary estimate of the amount of global and domestic counterfeiting based on

the length of life of a note (its longevity) for counterfeit and genuine notes. The estimates

made by this approach buttress the size estimates in Chapter 7. Nonetheless, the Secret

Service does take issue with the model in one respect: It does not believe that the upper

limits of the length of life for counterfeit notes as determined by this model are

representative of the information that it has on such note lives based on its investigative

field reports. These reports indicate that counterfeits do not survive for very long in

circulation, presumably for the reasons described in B.2. This interpretation is consistent

with the Secret Service’s belief that the vast majority of counterfeit notes are detected and

removed from circulation within a matter of a relatively few transactions. While the

model in B.1 and B.3 is compatible with this possibility, the overall life of an average

counterfeit note in the estimated model is significantly longer than these investigative

field reports would indicate. Thus, while the Secret Service acknowledges that some

pockets of hoarding do exist, it believes that the models laid out in B.1 and B.3

overestimate the extent to which hoarding affects the overall longevity of counterfeit

notes.50

B.1 Hoarding

Both anecdotal and formal data indicate that substantial hoarding of currency

takes place, even in the United States. Much more is known about domestic hoarding

because data from surveys, anecdotes, and Federal Reserve cash processing activity can

be combined. For foreign hoarding, however, cash processing activity and some simple

models also yield some insights. We estimate that, worldwide, about 40 percent of all

U.S. banknotes might be hoarded at any one time.

It is important to note at this point that the concept of “hoarding” is a slippery

one. Few banknotes are held forever, but many are held longer than a week or two, which

 

50Further work would be required to reconcile the differences on the average longevity of counterfeit notes

between that in the Secret Service reports and the estimates in the longevity model. In essence,

reconciliation would require that the longevity model be modified to allow for either differences in the

proportions of hoarded and actively circulating notes or for differences in the time spent in a hoard in the

counterfeit population from that in the genuine population. Put simply, the longevity model bases its

estimates in large part on the behavior of the genuine note population that the Secret Service believes is

not indicative of that for the counterfeit note population.
96

is the typical length of time that banknotes used in transactions are held. Here “hoarding”

applies to all notes held for saving. The issue of the length of time a banknote might be

hoarded is addressed toward the end of the section.

B.1.1 Domestic Hoarding

Anecdotal, survey, and cash processing evidence strongly suggests that currency

is hoarded, or held as a means of saving outside the banking system, within the United

States and, thus, that the rate of overall currency circulation is slower than might be

expected.51 Anecdotal evidence emerges whenever a work stoppage (or other disruption

of income flows) lasts long enough for individuals to start drawing on their accumulated

savings, which may include cash held at home. At such times, older-vintage notes

commonly reappear in active circulation.

Comparing survey data to currency stocks show that much more currency is in

circulation than is held for everyday use. Assuming that only one-third of all currency is

held within the United States, the domestic stock in March 1999 was $575 per capita. In

contrast, survey respondents report holdings of around $100 per capita, or less than onefifth the level of currency in circulation.52 The surveys further indicate that currency turns

over about 40 times per year, or about once every nine days. This rate is sufficient for

$575 per person to finance $23,000 per year in expenditures ($575× 40 = $23,000), or

around $2,000 more than total per capita expenditures for the survey. Since survey

evidence suggests that only about 20 percent of expenditures are made with currency as

opposed to checks and credit cards, an average turnover rate of 8 times per year rather

than 40 would be more consistent with the evidence.53 Most of the dollar volume of

transactions in the United States is in $20s, and $100s last about four times as long as

$20s, which implies that the speed of circulation of $100s is probably about one-fourth

 

51For discussions of hoarding, see, for example, Akerlof and Milbourne (1978), Boeschoten and Fase

(1992), Dotsey (1988), and Selden (1902).

52A large part of the $475 per person difference is likely held as a form of tax evasion, though some other

portion might be held just as a precaution for emergencies. Currency pays no interest, but its liquidity is

unmatched. This store-of-value motive and not money laundering (associated with drugs and other

similar crimes) is the typical explanation economists give to the relatively high amounts of currency per

capita found in the United States and Western Europe.

53Porter and Judson (April 1996, table 1, line 10).
97

that of $20s.54 Thus, the survey data for transactions, most of which is in $20s, combined

with cash processing data on the relative lifetimes of $20s and $100s suggest that the

annual turnover rate for $100s ought to be in the neighborhood of 2 rather than 40.

For $100s circulating in the United States, Federal Reserve cash processing

statistics are consistent with a turnover rate of 2 times per year. Domestically held $100s

are processed by the Federal Reserve an average of 1.38 times per year. Although notes

also turn over outside the Federal Reserve, current practice in the banking industry is to

return currency to Federal Reserve Banks rapidly. Under ordinary circumstances,

valuables handlers (e.g., Brinks and Wells Fargo), acting as agents of a bank, pick up the

cash from the various retail outlets that have commercial accounts with the bank and

deposit the cash at a Federal Reserve office. Thus, the annual turnover rate for $100s

outside banks is not likely to be much higher than the 1.38 observed at the Federal

Reserve, and it is very unlikely that it exceeds 2 or 3.

B.1.2 Statistical Models of Hoarding

We present two statistical models of hoarding: The first uses only the data

discussed in the previous section, and the second exploits the fact that a new-design $100

note was introduced in 1991.

For the first approach, we investigate a broad array of outcomes involving the

fraction of hoarded notes and the circulation times for both hoarded and actively

circulating notes. Let β be the fraction of actively circulating notes and 1− β the fraction

of hoarded notes. The distribution of actively circulating and hoarded notes could follow

a distribution such as the bell-shaped normal curve, but for simplicity, let us assume that

each of these distributions is concentrated at one point, the first passage time, which is

the average time it takes for the note to first reach the Federal Reserve after entering

general circulation. Table B.1 gives the combinations of hoarded and actively circulating

notes, and the average first-passage times in months before they reach the Federal

Reserve, that are consistent with the observed first-passage time of 8.7 months

 

54See, for example, table 8 of Parke and Gillis (1991).
98

Table B.1

Combinations of First-Passage Times for

Actively Circulating and Hoarded Notes

Consistent with the Observed Turnover of

$100s

Cash in active

circulation

(percent)

Interval before

hoarded notes

reach Federal

Reserve

(months)

Interval before

actively

circulating

notes reach

Federal Reserve

(months)

4 9 1.5

593

694

20 10 3.5

23 11 1

25 10 4.8

25 11 1.8

26 10 5

30 12 1

33 12 2

43 13 3

44 12 4.5

45 15 1

50 12 5.4

50 13 4.4

50 14 3.4

50 15 2.4

50 16 1.4

53 14 4

60 15 4.5

60 18 2.5

60 21 0.5

62 18 3

63 15 5

65 23 1

68 24 1.5

70 22 3

75 21 4.6

75 24 3.6

75 27 2.6

75 30 1.6

75 33 0.6

76 22 4.5

78 36 1

81 33 3

84 36 3.5

85 41 3

90 42 5
99

 (corresponding to the turnover rate of 1.38 per year). The points are computed for

several thousand combinations of first-passage times for actively circulating and hoarded

notes. These combinations cover a range of 0.5 month to 5.5 months in 0.1 month

increments, for a total of 51 values for actively circulating notes, and from 6 months to 48

months by 1 month increments for a total of 43 values for hoarded notes.

Given these alternative first-passage times for each kind of note, and assuming

that β ranges from 0.00 to 1.0 in increments of 0.01 (101 distinct points in all), the total

number of different possible outcomes is more than 220,000. Of these, about 3.8 percent

(35 out of 221,493) had first passage times of 8.7 months (table B.1). For example, if

β = 0.45, which corresponds to the assumption that 45 percent of the notes are in active

circulation, the hoarded notes have a first-passage time of 15 months and the circulating

note has a first-passage time of 1 month: 8.7 = 0.45×1+ 0.55×15 .

The results naturally embody a trade-off between the speed of circulation for

hoarded and actively circulating notes, with one increasing as the other decreases. This

point is clearly seen by holding β fixed, as happens for 4 values of β (25, 50, 60, and

75), each of which has multiple combinations of hoarded and active circulation firstpassage times that equal these particular values of β . For example, when β equals 50

percent, the hoarded times increase from 12 months to 16 months as the active circulation

times decrease from 5.4 months to 1.4 months. Each of the 38 combinations in the table

generates the observed turnover rate, so without other information on the process, we can

not discriminate more finely among the most likely possibilities. A value of around 60

percent for β aligns these results with those from the second hoarding model, which we

consider next.

In the second model, a share, h , of the currency stock is hoarded in a given year,

and a share, α, of the hoarded stock is turned over every year. The currency processed is

a random sample of the active notes only. The key ingredient in this model is that a newdesign $100 note was introduced in 1991. After this date, all old-series $100s arriving at

Cash Offices were replaced with new-series $100s. We have eight years of data (1991–

98), and two unknowns, h and α. If the population of notes is n and notes are drawn

(processed) randomly with replacement, then the probability that a note gets processed in

one draw is 1/n. The probability that a note is drawn after n draws is thus
100

)

n

1 1 - ( 1 - p

The only notes that can be processed are in the active share of the pool, A. Since

the draws are independent, the number of notes replaced, say, r, is just equal to An times

the probability that one note will be replaced:

p

1 r = A n 1 - 1 - 

n

           

Dividing both sides by n and denoting time-varying variables with the subscript t

we obtain our basic equation, in which R, the share of notes replaced, is a function of A,

the active share of the population; of n, the total note population; and of p, the number of

notes processed:

t p

t

t

1 1

R = A 1- 1- 

n A

           

The stock of $100s outstanding grew fairly rapidly in this period. We assume,

however, that the share of notes hoarded remained constant. After the first year, R is

defined as a value net of note growth. Moreover, one must account for the fact that some

notes enter the active pool and some leave. If α is the share of inactive notes that re-enter

the active pool each period, R after the first period is defined as

1 ( ) a

t t R I Gn m−> ≡ −

where I is the number of new notes issued, G is the growth rate of the stock of notes, and

ma

 and m

h

 are active and hoarded stocks of new-series notes respectively, with ma defined

as follows:
101

( ) 1

1 1 ( (1 ) ( / ) a h hh

m m mm t t tt m m GA m n t t tt α α − =−≡− − + + − −

Given the two parameters, we conduct a grid search to find the best fit. We

estimate the parameters separately for notes circulating within and outside the United

States. We do not know the total number of notes circulating in each area, so we estimate

the parameters for a range of assumptions about the share of notes held abroad. As in

previous work (Porter and Judson, April and October 1996), we treated the New York

Cash Office as the “foreign” office since we know that it handles the bulk of foreign

shipments.

The objective functions are well behaved but fairly flat. In general, they indicate

that hoarding is unlikely to be important for very long, and that turnover is likely to be

high. For example, for the case in which 50 percent of currency stocks are assumed to be

abroad, we find that α, the turnover rate for inactive currency, is 0.6 for domestic

currency and 0.99 (corner solution) for overseas dollars. We find that the share hoarded is

0.19 at home and is effectively zero (again a corner solution) overseas.55 For other

assumptions, the highest share of hoarding found is 0.69, and the lowest turnover is 0.47.

We conclude that large quantities of notes are highly unlikely to stay out of circulation

(and hidden from counterfeit detection) for very long.

Given these estimates, and if we assume that the turnover rate is 0.6 for domestic

notes and that it holds over time, we find as a consequence that the implied lifetime of a

hoarded note is about 18 months. In terms of table B.1, this age estimate implies that

about 60 percent of the notes are in active circulation and that the average lifetime of an

actively circulating $100 note is 21⁄2 months to 3 months, the shaded entries in this table.56

 

55It might seem counterintuitive that overseas notes emerge from the hoarding state more readily than

domestic notes. A 1989 survey of notes circulating domestically and internationally found that foreign

and domestic notes had similar age and degree-of-use profiles. Such a pattern indicates that the notes

were active to about the same degree both domestically and overseas. Since currently a large portion of

U.S. currency is held abroad in rather undeveloped economies where currency is used extensively, the

turnover rate may be higher abroad simply because currency is a relatively more important source of

payment there than in the United States.

56Two other assumptions are embedded in this estimate. We assume that once a hoarded note re-enters

circulation, its active lifetime is 1 month. Second, a hoarded note that enters circulation in the first year

has a lifetime of 9 months, midway between its minimal life in the hoard of 6 months and the highest

possible estimate.
102

B.2 Isolated Pools of Currency

The logic behind the conclusion in section 7.4.2 of the main text—that notes

cannot remain in circulation for relatively long periods—is readily laid out. Since most

transactions are between unrelated individuals, the assumption that successive

transactions are statistically independent from each other is plausible. To make the

analysis tractable, we also assume a constant, low probability that after any transaction, a

given banknote will remain outside the financial sector. After all, apart from transactions

between individuals, most currency transactions are with retail establishments, and most

retailers generally deposit or sell all but “seed” cash—in particular, all

large-denomination notes—at financial institutions or exchange houses on at least a daily

basis.

Survey evidence suggests that currency actively circulating both within and

outside the United States turns over (is exchanged) on average about once a week.57 If the

note is used in one transaction per week, and successive transactions are independent, the

probability, p, that the note will continue to recirculate after w weeks has a joint binomial

distribution with probability w p . Thus, the complementary event that a given note is

returned to a financial institution after w transactions is w 1− p .

This result would be the end of the story if financial institutions were always

successful in detecting counterfeits, but they are not. Hence, we need to allow for the

possibility that a counterfeit will be mistakenly accepted in a deposit. Let ω be the

probability that the financial institution correctly removes the counterfeit from

circulation, with 1−ω being the probability that it fails to remove it. From data on the

prevalence of counterfeits in deposits at the Federal Reserve we will estimate

ω empirically. Given these assumptions, the probability that a note circulate for w weeks

and then be successfully removed from circulation is (1 ) w − p ω .

From the form of this function we see that, unless the detection capabilities in the

banking system are poor, (1 ) w − p ω will approach ω after a relatively short time.

Although ω is strictly less than 1, it is close to 1, so the rough probability that the note

 

57See Porter and Judson (1996) and Feige (1996).
103

will be detected approaches 1. This result holds even if p is close to unity because it is

always less than 1 and is raised to the power w (see figure B.1). For example, consider

the extreme case in which p is high, say, 0.9 (figure B.1, bottom right panel), in which

case the odds are 9 to 1 that a note will recirculate. Even in this case, the probability is

greater than 1⁄2 that after 7 weeks the note will hit the banking system; and the probability

is greater than 0.95 that after 29 weeks the note will stop recirculating.58 A more

plausible assumption would be to assume that p = 0.1, so that most transactions are with

retail vendors and not with “hand-to-hand transactors.” In this case, the probability that

the note will be returned to a financial institution approaches 1 almost immediately

(figure B.1, top left panel). These values tend to bolster our assumption that counterfeit

notes in active circulation are likely to move out of circulation relatively quickly. Even if

we relax the assumption about how often $100s turn over, from every week to a slower

pace of every month, the results would still hold if we simply put a new label on the

horizontal axis of months, not weeks. In that case, and given 50-50 odds that a note

would go to a financial institution, the probability that the counterfeit would be detected

by the fifth month would rise above 0.95 (figure B.1, top right panel).

If notes turn over more frequently than once per week, the time elapsed during the

first passage to a financial institution would be even shorter. In some countries, cash

dollars are the dominant medium of exchange, even for small daily purchases. In this

case, notes could turn over as fast as once per day on average, and if they did, the 29

weeks for the first passage of a note to a financial institution (in the extreme case, with

 

58The point at which the curve (for p = 0.9) intersects the horizontal line with the probability equal 0.95. Of

course, if enough banks were lax and returned counterfeits to depositors, the longevity of a counterfeit

would be extended. Because we can not rule out such dereliction in some places, even if it is typically

discouraged, we must acknowledge the possibility that notes could circulate longer before being

destroyed. In this case, however, the proper classification of the note may become somewhat unclear if

the note is generally recognized as a counterfeit. In the limit, the note would be better placed among the

seized class and not the passed class of notes if the note fools no one.
104

Probability = 0.1 of recirculating

after each transaction

Probability = 0.5 of recirculating

after each transaction

Probability = 0.7 of recirculating

after each transaction

Probability = 0.9 of recirculating

after each transaction

Probability

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

Destruction probability Destruction probability

Weeks Weeks

Weeks Weeks

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

95 percent probability 95 percent probability

Probability

1.0

Figure B.1

Note Longevity

Destruction probability Destruction probability

95 percent probability 95 percent probability
105

p = 0.9) would be cut to 1/7 of the time, or a little over 4 weeks. Conversely, if notes turn

over more slowly on average because of hoarding, it will take more time for a counterfeit

note to reach the banking system.

Once currency hits the banking system, it naturally flows to regional financial

processing centers and is routinely repatriated in large quantities. Thus, currency does not

generally recirculate in large amounts, most probably not in amounts any greater than is

found in Federal Reserve deposits from foreign sources. Further, it is quite unlikely that

banks recirculate counterfeits either to other banks or to their customers. While the bank

pays no additional penalty if another bank or the Federal Reserve finds a counterfeit, its

reputation can suffer if customers find the bank giving out counterfeits. In sum, we find it

unlikely that counterfeits can circulate for long outside the banking system and thus

outside reasonably sophisticated counterfeit detection—for no more than a year in the

extreme cases in which the notes are held as a store of wealth.

B.3 A Model of the Amount of Counterfeits Based on the

Longevity of Notes

The analysis in section 7.3 of the main text relies on the rates at which

counterfeits are found in currency deposits at Federal Reserve Banks. Implicit in this

analysis is the treatment of the longevity of a counterfeit. Here we present a

complementary analysis of the counterfeiting problem that explicitly takes into account

the length of life of a counterfeit note.

To see why the longevity of counterfeits affects the analysis of counterfeiting

statistics, consider an extreme case in which a single counterfeit is in circulation at all

times, with a new note produced each day to replace the single note that is confiscated

each day. In a 365-day year, 365 counterfeits would be found, but the stock of

counterfeits circulating at any time would be just 1. Thus, the number of counterfeits

found in a year (in the example, 365) multiplied by their longevity in years (in the

example, 1/365) gives the correct estimate of the stock of counterfeits circulating at any

time. Put another way, if counterfeits are continually created but have a lifespan of only a

few days, the stock of counterfeits in circulation will necessarily be a small fraction of the
106

total that are captured in a given year. In short, we need to examine the longevity of

counterfeits in one way or another to properly estimate the amount in circulation.

Counterfeits, like genuine notes, are quite likely to reach Federal Reserve Cash

Offices within a few transactions. In that context, counterfeit notes are detected rapidly.

However, this observation by itself does not imply that the average counterfeit note in

circulation has a lifetime of only a few weeks or days. The lifetime of the average note

will be a weighted average of the lifetime of an actively circulating counterfeit and the

average lifetime of a hoarded counterfeit, where the weights are the relative shares of

counterfeits in each category. 59 As noted above, the share of notes held as hoards kept

out of active circulation is probably substantial, and thus the average life of a counterfeit

is heavily influenced by the length of time the average hoarded note stays out of active

circulation. .

In fact, Federal Reserve cash processing data can help resolve this issue. Assume

first that the stock of counterfeits in circulation as a share of genuine currency in

circulation is roughly constant. Then the number of counterfeits that are detected and

removed from circulation each year should be roughly equal to the number that are

placed into circulation. The findings on the longevity of counterfeit $100s are consistent

with data on the longevity of genuine notes. Table B.2 lays out the possibilities, with the

longevity of counterfeit notes ranging from 1 month to 12 months and the amount of

$100s held domestically ranging from 60 percent down to 30 percent (and the

corresponding foreign percentage ranging from 40 percent up to 70 percent).60 The

analysis in section B.2 suggests that a typical counterfeit that circulates will likely be

detected in most instances in a matter of, say 12 weeks (3 months), a period comparable

to that which the Secret Service believes to be the longevity of lower-quality counterfeits.

But evidence from a small sample of data on certain relatively rare, high-quality

counterfeits (“super notes”) indicates that such notes might be able to circulate for a

 

59We are implicitly assuming that the relative proportions of hoarded and actively circulating notes is the

same as that of genuine notes. Such a symmetry assumption is the simplest assumption that we can make

and appears consistent with the available evidence.

60The Federal Reserve’s estimates for $100s are all much closer to a 70 percent or even 75 percent share

abroad, but we include this broader range to indicate the possibilities.
107

Table B.2

Estimated Stock of $100 Counterfeits For Various Longevity

and Share Abroad Assumptions

Longevity

Implied

counterfeits in

U.S.

(millions of

dollars)

Share of genuine

notes in U.S.

( percent)

Implied

counterfeits

abroad

(millions of

dollars)

Implied total

counterfeits

(millions of

dollars)

Implied value

per 10,000

$100s in

circulation

60 1.5 3.7 .1

1 month 2.2 30 5.2 7.4 .2

60 4.4 11.0 .3

3 months 6.6 30 15.5 22.1 .7

60 8.8 22.1 .7

6 months 13.2 30 30.9 44.2 1.4

12 months 60 17.7 44.2 1.4

26.5 30 61.8 88.3 2.8

 Note: $100s outstanding: $320.1 billion (December 1998); counterfeit $100s passed in 1998: $26.5 million.

considerably longer period than the typical counterfeit, about 31⁄2 years. But supernotes

constitute perhaps about 31⁄2 percent of all counterfeit $100s that are passed. Thus, if we

assume that the lower-quality counterfeits last 3 months and the higher-quality

counterfeits last 31⁄2 years, the average lifespan of a counterfeit $100 would increase

11⁄2 months, to 41⁄2 months.61 Thus, in the table B.2, we consider 41⁄2 months and a 30

percent domestic share as the most plausible estimate. This assumption about longevity

and share abroad corresponds to a total worldwide stock of counterfeits of about $33

million, or about 1 in 10,000 genuine notes, the normal level for all notes in circulation.62

This figure falls in the lower end of the range set out in section 7.3.2, where the estimate

was $50 million and the range was $15 million to $100 million.

Genuine notes circulate, return to Reserve Banks, and sometimes recirculate; their

average lifespan is about 8 years.63 In contrast, counterfeits end their lives when they are

 

61That is, if rare counterfeits lasted 32 years and the others lasted 3 months, the average lifespan would be

0.035× 3.5 + 0.965× 0.25 = 0.367 per year, or 4 to 5 months.

62The calculations for counterfeits found domestically were done separately from those found in foreign

locations. However, the differences were so small that we need report only the combined estimate.

63The estimate is probably on the high side. A 1989 survey found such an estimate, but the rate at which

$100s have been received from circulation has increased significantly since then, suggesting an average

age more in the neighborhood of 52 years. The eight-year life does not take into account “forced death,”
108

detected, which, at the very latest, is on their first (and only) trip to a Federal Reserve

Cash Office. Cash processing data from the first year following the introduction of the

1996-series $100 note indicate that about one-third of the total notes outstanding at the

beginning of the period were replaced, which means that one-third of the notes reached

the Federal Reserve at least once. If counterfeits circulate at least as fast as genuine notes,

then, on average, counterfeits remain in circulation for at most about three years before

being detected. However, notes within the United States return to Federal Reserve Cash

Offices more frequently than notes outside the country because of the higher cost of

moving the overseas notes.64

Table B.3 shows the same figures as in table B.2, but for all denominations. For

example, an estimated longevity of 3 months would imply a total amount of counterfeits

in the world of between $16.6 million and $33.3 million. The stock of counterfeits

estimated from a longevity of 6 months and a foreign share of all U.S. currency at 70

percent—$66.5 million—is very close to the estimate in section 7.3.3 of $70 million to

$75 million. Similarly, our upper bound of one year and $133 million is very close to the

earlier upper-bound estimate of $140 million, and our lower-bound estimate of $25

million suggests a longevity of 2 months to 3 months.

The result might seem to contradict the fact that lower-denomination notes

circulate more rapidly than higher-denomination notes. But overseas, lowerdenomination notes reach financial institutions less frequently than others and tend to be

less carefully inspected for counterfeits. Such notes represent only about 10 percent of the

notes handled by wholesale banks, and it takes longer for a sufficient number to

accumulate before they can be repatriated. As a result, lower-denomination counterfeit

notes tend to be detected later.

 which occurs when the Federal Reserve wants to encourage users to remove older series notes from

circulation sooner, as it has for the pre-1990 and pre-1996-series notes recently.

64While we cannot cite life cycles for specific notes, we do have evidence from the recent Treasury trips,

for example, that new $100 notes paid out from the New York Bank in April 1996 were deposited at the

Los Angeles branch of the San Francisco Bank, through Hong Kong in less than 6 weeks, and were still

in pristine condition. Research conducted in 1989 with notes circulating inside and outside the United

States suggested that the circulation rates outside of the United States were the same as those inside.
109

Table B.3

Estimated Stocks of Counterfeits For Various Assumptions about Longevity

and Share Abroad

Longevity

Implied

counterfeits in

U.S.

(millions of

dollars)

Share of genuine

notes in U.S.

(percent)

Implied

counterfeits

abroad

(millions of

dollars)

Implied total

counterfeits

(millions of

dollars)

Implied rate per

10,000 notes of

counterfeits

60 2.2 5.5 .1

1 month 3.3 30 7.8 11.1 .2

60 6.7 16.6 .3

3 months 10.0 30 23.3 33.3 .7

60 13.3 33.3 .7

6 months 20.0 30 46.6 66.5 1.9

12 months 60 26.6 66.5 1.4

39.9 30 93.1 133.0 2.7

 Note: Total stock of all denominations: $492.2 billion (December 1998); counterfeits detected: $39.9 million passed within the

United States.
111

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