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NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS

HANDROOK

U. S. Deportment of Agricnitnre Hondbook No. 6

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 6 JANUARY 1951

NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS'

HANDBOOK

by FRED C. SIMMONS, logging specialist

NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION

FOREST SERVICE

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE - - - WASHINGTON, D. C, 1951

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 75 cents
Preface

THOSE who want to be successful in any line of work or business

must learn the tricks of the trade one way or another. For most

occupations there is a wealth of published information that explains

how the job can best be done without taking too many knocks in the

hard school of experience. For logging, however, there has been no adequate source of information that could be understood and used by the

man who actually does the work in the woods.

This NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK brings together what the young or inexperienced woodsman needs to know about

the care and use of logging tools and about the best of the old and new

devices and techniques for logging under the conditions existing in the

northeastern part of the United States. Emphasis has been given to the

matter of workers' safety because the accident rate in logging is much

higher than it should be.

Sections of the handbook have previously been circulated in a preliminary edition. Scores of suggestions have been made to the author

by logging operators, equipment manufacturers, and professional foresters. Without this large amount of helpful advice from persons too

numerous to mention by name, this handbook could not have been

prepared.
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

Contents

-^^ -^^

The ax: Page

Choosing an ax 1

Quality of steel 2

Quality of handle 2

The hang of the ax 2

Ax sizes 3

Care of the ax 3

How to fit a handle 3

How to sharpen your ax 4

Use of the ax 5

Cautions 6

The crosscut saw:

How to fit a crosscut 10

Saw clamps 10

Jointing the cutter teeth 12

Jointing the rakers 12

Filing the rakers 13

Swaging the rakers 13

Setting the cutter teeth 13

Filing the cutter teeth 14

Handles 15

Use of the crosscut 15

The bow saw:

Saw frames 17

Saw blades 18

How to sharpen the bow-saw blade 18

Jointing 19

Filing rakers 19

Setting 20

Filing cutters 20

Honing 20

Use of the bow saw 21

Some pointers 21

Power saws:

Circular saws 23

Drag saws 25

Chain saws 25

Chain-saw power 27

Buying a chain saw 28

Care of chain saws 29

Operation of the chain saw 32

Wedges and their use :

Felling and bucking wedges 33

Splitting wedges 34

Explosive wedges 35

Splitting wood 36

The froe 36

Peavies, cant hooks, and pulp hooks : Page

The peavy 39

Cant hooks 40

Pulp hooks 41

Tools for peeling wood :

The spud 43

Drawshaves or timbershaves 45

Shaving horses 45

Felling :

Direction of fall 47

Clear working space 48

Making the undercut 48

Making the backcut 50

When the tree falls 50

Leaning trees 51

Rotten trees 52

Felling with the chain saw 52

Getting down lodged trees 53

Lay-out of the felling job 55

Size of felling crew 55

Conservation in felling 56

Limbing and bucking:

Limbing 57

Cutting pinned-down saplings 58

Bucking 58

Pulpwood and millwood 58

Sawlogs 59

Size of crew 61

Bucking at the landing 61

Bucking for integrated logging 63

Skidding with horses:

Lay-out of the skidding job 66

Skidding equipment 67

For light logs and poles 97

For heavier logs 68

Devices to reduce friction 69

Devices to keep logs clean 70

Logging harness 72

Woods horses 73

Use in skidding 73

The teamster's job 73

Care of horses 75

Feeding 75

Skidding with tractors:

Types of tractors for logging 77

Logging tractor accessories 78

Winches 79

Chokers and choker hooks 80

ni
Skidding with tractors—Continued Page

Ground skidding methods 80

Skidding with pans 81

Skidding with scoots 82

Skidding with tractor arches 83

Use of the arch 84

ExpcrimcntaJ tractors developed by the Forest Service. . 85

Safety in tractor driving 86

Wire rope and accessories:

Type and size of rope 89

Unwinding wire rope 89

Seizing rope ends 91

Fittings for wire rope 92

The ferrule 92

The loop 93

Hooks and chokers 95

Blocks 96

Care of wire rope 98

Kinks 98

Lubrication 98

Inspection of wire rope 99

Cable logging:

Ground skidding 101

Skyline logging 101

High-lead systems 104

Rigging 106

Yarders 106

Safety in cable logging 107

Loading:

Loading short bolts 109

Loading sawlogs 112

Loading tree-length logs 119

Preloaders,.. 120

Unloading long logs 121

Safety in loading 121

Log hauling in winter:

Winter haul roads 123

Snow roads 123

Log hauling in winter—Continued page

Winter haul roads—Continued

Iced roads 125

Road maintenance 125

Construction of sleds 126

Snubbing devices for down-grade hauls 128

Upgrade hauls 129

Motive power for winter hauling 130

Safety in winter hauling 130

Construction of all-weather roads:

Planninga woods road 131

Locating the road 132

Clearing 133

Earth excavation 136

Rock excavation 138

Surfacing 139

Drainage 139

Bridges 142

Crib work for retaining walls 143

Road maintenance 143

Tramways 144

Safety in road construction 144

Logging trucks:

Type of truck 147

Size 147

Tandem axles 147

Front-wheel drives 148

Cab-over-cngine trucks 148

Truck bodies 148

"Piggyback" loading 149

Truck driving 150

Checking the vehicle 150

Loading 150

Driving practices 151

Care of tires 151

Safety in hauling with trucks 152

Glossary :

Logging terms 153
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

THE AX

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The ax is probably the most important of all the

tools that the logger uses. Time studies in the north

woods show that the pulpwood cutter uses his ax

almost half of his working time. The sawlog cutter

uses his about one-third of his working time. It is

therefore important that the woodsman have an ax

that is well suited to the work he is doing, that it be

kept in good cutting condition, and that he know

how to use it.

SINGLE BITS

CHOOSING AN AX

There are about a hundred different patterns and

weights of axes in use. Ten patterns popular in the

Northeast are shown in figure 1.

Choice of ax pattern is largely a matter of local

habit and individual preference. In general, the

wider blades are better suited for use with softwoods and the narrower ones for hardwoods. But

NEW ENGLAND

OR

CONNECTICUT

DOUBLE BITS

YANKEE OR

DAYTON

MICHIGAN MAINE JERSEY

MICHIGAN PENNSYLVANIA

OR WESTERN

REVERSIBLE

Figure 1.—Popular ax patterns.

WEDGE SWAMPING
any one of them will do good work after a man is

used to it. The important things to keep in mind in

choosing an ax are the quality of its head, the quality

of its handle, and the way the two are put together.

Quality ofSteel

The head should be of properly forged and tempered steel—neither too hard nor too soft. The topgrade ax of any reputable manufacturer will meet

this requirement. Some of the cheaper grades do

not. The difference between the cost of the best tool

and a poorer one is easily justified from the standpoint of the logger. Recent developments in smelting, forging, and tempering steels have made it

possible to turn out good axes consistently from

one piece of steel.

Quality ofHandle

The handle should be perfectly straight so that it

will line up straight with the cutting edge of the

blade. The single-bit handle, of course, has a certain

up-and-down curve in it, but it should not bend to

either side. Rapid-growth hickory is the favorite

wood for ax handles. Tests have shown that so long

Figure 2.—A good ax handle should have a straight grain

running the entire length of the handle.

as this wood has the proper density (not more than

16 growth rings to the inch or specific gravity of

not less than 0.8) it makes little difference whether

the wood is white or red hickory. In the best handle

the rings are parallel to the blade and run through

the entire length of the handle (fig. 2).

Red oak and white ash are frequently used for ax

handles in the North. Both make good handles.

Sugar maple is also good for straight handles, but

not for curved ones. In any case the wood should

be straight-grained, smooth, and free from knots,

bird pecks, or other defects. An enamel coating may

conceal such defects.

The Hang ofthe Ax

The ax handle should be fitted properly, with the

head well down on the shoulder of the handle (fig.

3). Above all, the head should be alined absolutely

straight with the handle (fig. 4).

Figure 3.—The ax head shouldfit well down on the shoulder

of the handle.

Line of sight

from here

Should come

out here

Figure 4.—The ax head and handle must he in line.

The actual "hang" of the ax is a matter of ax

pattern and individual preference. Some choppers

prefer the head hung so that when the ax is placed

on edge on a flat surface the middle of the blade

and the end of the handle touch (fig. 5). The New

England and Jersey single-bit and Pennsylvania

double-bit patterns are adapted to this method of

hanging.

Figure 5.—How an ax hangs. Notice where the blade touches

the line.

Most choppers prefer a blade hung so that contact with the flat surface is made about two-thirds

of the way down the blade (fig. 6). The Maine and

half-wedge single-bit and the Michigan and reversible double-bit patterns naturally hang in this

manner.

Figure 6.—A popular method of hanging an ax.
The double-bit axes, of course, should be hung

at right angles to the handle. Measured from any

point at the center of a straight handle, the distances

to the bottom corners of the two bits should be

equal.

Ax Sizes

The four ax sizes most popular in the Northeast

are:

1. Double-bit, iVi- to 4-pound head, straight

handle 28 to 34 inches long (fig. 7). This is the old

favorite of the north woods logger. He likes its

Figure 7.—A double-bit ax.

swing and balance. One blade is usually kept thin

and razor sharp for most efficient chopping, and one

somewhat "stunt" —thicker near the edge—for

rough work where it might hit metal or stone, or

in glass-hard wood like frozen hemlock knots or

maple containing mineral streak. Some Adirondack

choppers hang their double-bit axes on curved

handles. This makes it easier to use the chopping

bit.

2. Single-bit, 3í^- to 4-pound head, curved handle

28 to 34 inches long (fig. 8). This is probably the

favorite ax in the agricultural areas of the NorthFigure 8.—A single-bit ax,

east. The single blade is kept thin and sharp. It can

be stuck into a log or stump when the ax is not in

use without endangering people around it. The

poll can be used for driving wooden wedges and

stakes. But, with one possible exception in which

it is claimed that the ax is designed and tempered

for that use, the single-bit ax should never be used

for driving steel wedges.

3. "Boy's ax," single-bit, 2VA- to 2^/^-pound head,

curved handle 26 to 28 inches long (fig. 9). Introduced by French-Canadian pulpwood cutters, this

little ax has become popular with a great many of

our native woodsmen, especially for cutting small

softwood. It has the advantages of the bigger singleFigure 9.—A single-bit **boy*s ax.'*

bit but is smaller, lighter, and shorter, and can be

used in close quarters, as is frequently necessary in

limbing and cutting brush.

4. "Cruiser's ax," double-bit 2VA- to 2í^-pound

head, straight handle 26 to 28 inches long. This

little ax was originally developed for use by timber

^

Figure 10.—A light ^*cruiser*s ax.'*

cruisers and sportsmen on treks into the woods. It

is widely used on logging jobs in the small timber

along the Maine coast and in southern New

England.

CARE OF THE AX

How to Fit a Handle

Most experienced choppers prefer to hang their

own axes. Even when factory-hung axes are bought

and given the best of care, ax handles will break or

become loose. The steps in putting in a new handle

are shown in figure 11.

It is a good idea to saw off the tip of the "deer

foot" put on the end of most single-bit ax handles,

to eliminate chances of splitting when putting on

the head, or tightening it in later use (fig. 12).

Both the handle and the wedge should be perfectly dry (5-6 percent moisture content) at the time
FIT TO EYE WITH DRAW SHAVE

AND WOOD RASP

ASSEMBLE AND TEST FOR

ALINEMENT AND "HANG"

TAKE APART AND MAKE WEDGE

SLIT WITH THIN BLADE SAW,

OR, BETTER YET, BY SPLITTING

SAW WEDGE FROM ANOTHER

PIECE OF DRY STRAIGHTGRAINED HARDWOOD

ASSEMBLE AND DRIVE IN

WEDGE (USE WOODEN MALLET)

TEST FOR ALINEMENT

AND

HANG

Figure 11.—Steps infitting a handle to an ax.

of hanging, so that in use they will swell instead of

shrinking.

Northeastern loggers generally prefer a wedge

sawed out of dry hardwood such as hickory, beech,

oak, or rock maple. They believe a softwood wedge

lacks the necessary springback, and that, because of

its greater shrinkage and expansion, a head wedged

with softwood needs rehanging sooner. Steel wedges

have never proved as satisfactory as wooden ones,

because they have no springback and crush the

wood in the handle when they are put in.

After hanging an ax, many woodsmen shave down

the sides of the handle with a piece of broken winCut here

dowglass and then smooth it with fine sandpaper.

Some also wind the portion of the handle just below

the head with wire or tape to absorb part of the

shock in case they overreach in limbing.

A loose head can sometimes be tightened by soaking the handled axhead in water, or better, linseed

oil; but all axes that are alternately wet and dry, or

stored for any length of time, eventually need rewedging. It is usually easy to pick out the old loose

wedge and cut a thicker one to put in its place. The

same tests for alinement and hang should be given

a rewedged ax as one being hung for the first time.

When an ax handle is broken the easiest way to

get the stub of the old handle out is to saw it off

just below the head with a hacksaw, and then drive

it out backwards with a steel bar and hammer. You

can also burn the handle stub out if you bury the

blade in wet earth (fig. 13).

Figure 13.—Burning out a handle stub: A, single-hit ax; B,

double-bit ax.

How To Sharpen Your Ax

Practically all axes when they come from the

factory have too thick a blade. How to sharpen an

ax properly and how to keep it sharp is about the

most important thing a woodsman has to learn.

The blade should be thinned down on a wet

grindstone to the proper taper, beginning about an

inch or an inch and a halfback from the edge. Taper

will vary with the ax pattern and type of wood to

be cut. Ax gages have been devised to test when this

Figure 12.—To prevent splitting from the end of the handle,

cut oß the ^^ deerfootJ"

B

Figure 14.—Gagesfor testing the taper of the ax edge. A, For

2 V2 lb. ax used on softwood; B, for 3 Vi lb. ax used on hardwood.
taper has been attained (fig. 14). They can be made

out of scrap metal of at least 20-gage thickness.

Do not use an emery wheel or a dry grindstone

for this sharpening because it is more difficult to get

a smooth job and you probably will ruin the temper

of your ax. Use a wet, slow-turning grindstone, and

a back-and-forth motion on the ax as you grind it to

give a smoothly tapering edge (fig. 15). The grindMove Qx back and forth

while grinding

Figure 15.—Method of grinding ax on grindstone.

Stone should be turned toward the ax. If turned

away from it, it will cut more slowly and will

create a bigger burr on the edge.

The same operation can be performed, if you lack

a grindstone, with a flat file as illustrated in figure

16. A slightly worn file will leave the ax bit in better

Double bit

driven into

log

I ) , I'l v

Single bit held

against peg

driven into

ground

Figure 16.—Filing double-bit and single-bit axes.

condition and will reduce the amount of whetting

needed. A plywood guard, inserted over the tang

before the handle is put on, will help insure against

cutting the fingers.

After grinding, the ax should always be honed

with a smooth, hard whetstone, first on one side,

then the other, to take off the wire edge (fig. 17).

Figure 17.—Positions for honing an ax. A, First position;

B, second position.

This is extremely important. Use the stone with a

circular motion. To avoid cuts, don't let your fingers

overlap the end of the stone while honing. Wet the

stone frequently. The ax should also be honed frequently as it is used, between grindings.

USE OF THE AX

An ax is—or should be—a keen-edged tool. A

dull ax is dangerous. It glances off more easily (fig.

18). A blunt ax, improperly tapered, also has a

tendency to glance off Keep your ax sharp and use

it with respect. Never chop into the ground.

fe?^ ^5ife^^^

Figure 18.—A dull ax is more dangerous than a sharp one.

Most Americans can readily learn to chop fairly

well. They are used to games that require a free and

easy two-handed swing with a bat or club. Chopping, however, is an art in itself. A good axman at

work is loose and relaxed in every muscle. He holds

the ax with one hand just above the bulge at the

end of the handle. On the up-stroke the other hand

slides up the handle close to the head (fig. 19, A).

On the down-stroke it slides back down the handle

until, at the point of impact, it is close to the lower

hand (fig. 19, B). Each blow lands exactly where it

is intended, with the proper force. There is no shock

to the hands or shoulders. One corner of the ax

should be always free of the wood, so that a slight

twist brings out the chip and releases the bit without undue strain on the chopper or ax handle.
F-448866, 448870

Figure 19.—Stancefor chopping. K, Top of ax stroke. Notice

position of hands. B, End of ax stroke. The upper hand

has slid down the handle.

It is important to learn to chop well both righthanded and left-handed. This way a chopper can

save himself a lot of effort and trouble in his everyday work in the woods, particularly in limbing.

In cutting up logs, however, it is best to stick to

one grip and do all the chopping from one side,

either right or left hand. Stand close to the log or—

as you become more expert—on top of it. Either

way, have as firm footing as possible. Take a wide

stance and chop between your feet, turning your

body in the direction of the ax stroke as you cut first

one side of the notch, then the other. When you

can cut from both sides of the log, the notch should

be about as wide as the diameter of the log. When

you are cutting only one side of the log, make the

notch about twice the diameter of the log.

A number of other grips besides the full-swing

chopping grip are used by the experienced axman

(fig. 20). For careful and delicate work, such as

sharpening stakes, notching house logs, or some

limbing, he will use a two-hand choked grip, with

both hands grasping near the center of the handle.

For cutting brush or sharpening wooden wedges,

he will use a one-hand grip at the point of balance

near the ax head. And for splitting wood, cutting

saplings, or sharpening stakes by himself he will

use a one-hand grip, with his hand about halfway

down the handle.

Continuous, intelligent practice can make almost

anyone a good chopper.

More about the use of the ax will be found in the

sections on felling and on limbing and bucking.

Figure 20.—Three ways of gripping the ax for short, more

precise strokes. A, Two-hand choked grip; B, one-hand

choked grip; C, one-handfull swing.

Cautions

Keep track of your ax. Be careful where and how

you lay it down, and remember where it is. Over a

third of the accidents in the woods come from axes,

and a lot of these are caused by stumbling over or

falling on a carelessly placed ax. Whenever possible,

stand your ax up against log or tree, or in the snow,

where it can be seen.

Never start chopping until you are sure there are

no branches or brush in the way. An ax deflected by

a small branch or twig can cause a serious accident.

Many a woodsman has been cut that way. Whenever possible, cut away from yourself And be sure

your fellow workers are in the clear.
Never try to drive a stake or wedge with the flat

side of your double-bit ax. It is almost sure to crack

the eye. Never use the head of your single-bit ax to

drive an iron wedge. It will batter up the head and

spread the eye of the ax; and flying pieces of steel

will injure the axman or others around him.

Carrying an ax on your shoulder can be dangerous,

especially on rough woods trails. It is best to carry

it in one hand; grip it at the point of balance, near

the head. When walking on a slope, carry the ax on

your downhill side. Then, if you trip or stumble,

you can easily toss the ax out of your way.

For long distance carrying, a simple sheath made

from old leather or rubber belting (fig. 21) will

preserve the ax edge and possibly avert serious

injury. When an ax is carried in a truck or car, the

head should always be sheathed or boxed.

Copper rivets

Figure 21.—A simple type of ax sheath made from leather

and pieces of rubber inner tube.

NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

THE CROSSCUT SAW

->>> <^

Next to the ax, the tool used most by the logger

is the crosscut saw. A dozen or more standard patterns, lengths, and weights are available. The one

to choose for a given job depends partly on individual preference and partly on the size of the trees

to be cut. For the heavier sawlog timber the straightback model is usually preferred. The blade is stiffer

and less likely to be damaged when the saw becomes

pinched. For small timber and pulpwood the narrow sway-back model is usually preferred. The

narrow blade permits a wedge to be driven in behind

the saw even in shallow cuts. In the West the swayback pattern is used in felling big timber because

the narrower blade makes less friction in the cut.

Figure 22 shows the difference in appearance between the straight and sway-back patterns.

Figure 22.—Crosscut sawpatterns,

back.

A, Sway back; B, straight

There are also several different tooth patterns.

The most common modern tooth arrangement,

particularly for softwoods, is four cutting teeth to

one raker tooth. Two cutters to one raker is frequently used for hardwoods. A few saws have no

raker teeth at all. Several other patterns are made

but these need not be discussed here. The three

major types of tooth pattern are shown in figure 23.

The function of the cutter and raker teeth must

be understood in order to realize the importance of

the following discussion on sharpening the crosscut

saw. Figure 24 shows the action of the teeth as the

saw is drawn through the wood.

The points of the cutters make two cuts along the

bottom of the kerf, usually cutting across the wood

Figure 2 3.—Common tooth patterns. A, For softwoods; B, for

hardwoods; C, for dry wood only.

fibers at right angles. The raker tooth comes along

behind and chisels out the wood between the two

cuts; this rolls up a thin shaving in the gullet between the raker and the cutters. As the saw is pulled

out of the cut, these little pockets of shavings fall

to the ground. When the saw is drawn in the other

direction, the opposite point of the raker works the

Figure 24.—Action of a well-sharpened saw.

ings—not sawdust.

It makes shav-
same way. It is thus easy to see that a crosscut saw

needs to be long enough so at least half of it protrudes from the sides of the block being cut. Otherwise the saw will not properly free itself of the

accumulated shavings at the end of each stroke. For

this reason remember that long strokes are much

more effective than short ones.

To give a freer movement of the saw through the

kerf, and to reduce the tendency of the saw to pinch

or bind, modern saw manufacturers usually grind

the blade so it has a slight taper from the cutting

edge to the back. Some saws are also tapered so the

back is thinner in the center than at the ends. HOWTOOTH EDGE OF SAW

.0751 BACK EDGE OF SAW

75JBB^B^HM>

Figure 25.—Taper in crosscut saws {exaggerated}.

ever, the amount oftaper is so slight that you would

need some measuring instrument to determine it.

Figure 25 shows how saws are tapered from teeth to

back and from ends to center.

Figure 26.—Faked taper in a saw blade.

Beware of the imitation taper-ground saw in

which all of the taper is in the last inch or so ofthe

back edge (fig. 26).

Development of better and more uniformly tempered steels has made it possible for manufacturers

to increase the size ofgullet space and make cutting

teeth sharper and more slender. This gives a fastcutting saw. It has also been possible to grind a

raker that will keep a chisel-type point for a long

time and thus eliminate the need for swaging the

rakers. Figure 27 shows a swage-ground raker in

comparison with the older type, which had to be

swaged by pounding with a hammer.

Saws without raker teeth are not used very much

in the woods. They are used on farms where much

of the sawing is done on dry wood. It is easier to

sharpen this type of saw. The slow rate of cutting

is the chief disadvantage of this pattern.

Figure 27.—How rakers are swaged. A, Swage-ground at

factory; B, unswaged; C, swaged by pounding {exaggerated}.

How TO FIT A CROSSCUT

Fitting a crosscut saw is an art that cannot be acquired without experience. The elementary instructions offered here can do no more than set the

beginner on the right track.

The tools you need to do this job are saw clamp,

flat file, combination jointer and raker gage, set

gage, setting anvil, and setting hammer.

Saw Clamps

Most saw clamps are home-made devices of very

simple design. The important features are that the

saw be held firmly and that it be perfectly straight

with the teeth pointing upward. It is desirable to

have the clamp hinged to its supporting base in

such a way that the saw can be tilted away from the

filer at an angle of about 30°. This makes it possible for you to file the cutter teeth with the file at a

more natural angle. The result is more uniformity in

the bevel given to the teeth.

One good type of clamp can be made of two

planks 1 Vi inches thick by 10 inches wide. (The

length depends upon the length of the saw to be

filed; the clamp should be 2 or 3 inches longer than

the saw at both ends.) One plank is laid down flat

to serve as the base. The second plank is carefully

planed on one side until it is perfectly flat and true.

Then one edge of this plank is dressed with a draw

knife until it fits the contour of the saw teeth as

shown in figure 28.

The saw can be held in place by a number of

hardwood strips about V^ inch thick and 1 inch

10
Figure 28.—A simple saw-holding device.

wide. These strips can be nailed to the plank. A

piece of fiberboard should be placed under the lower

end of each strip just thick enough so the saw is

held tight. These strips should be spaced under

every second or third raker so that they will not

interfere with the setting and gaging of the cutter

teeth.

for various operations in filing, and for saw blades

of different widths.

The planks thus shaped to hold the saw are then

attached to the plank base by means of two heavy

strap hinges. While working on the raker teeth and

while setting the cutters, it is best to have the saw

teeth pointing straight upward. This can be done

Wina nuts Shims Holes to adjust sow depth

Figure 29.—A wooden saw clamp.

Another method is to clamp the saw between

two planks, both shaped to the contour of the teeth

(fig. 29). The edges clamping the teeth should be

beveled at a 30° angle to avoid interference during

filing. This method supports the saw more rigidly

on both sides. Bolts with wing nuts can be used to

hold the front plank in place. Thin wood or cardboard shims may be inserted at the bottom between

the two planks to tighten the top edges against the

saw. Holes for pegs may be provided in the planks

to alter the depth of the saw in the clamp as needed

by putting support blocks alongside each of the

hinges. The inside plane of these blocks is sloped

away from the elbow of the hinge so that the saw

clamp board will be at a 30° slope when it is pushed

over against it. When the saw must be in the vertical position, a removable wedge block is slipped in

between the support block and the saw clamp board

(fig. 30).

During woods operations experienced crosscut

sawers often touch up the teeth of their saws in the

woods. Two small tree stumps can be made to serve

Removable wedge block

\

e

Figure 30.—A, Saw clamp in position forfiling rakers; B, tilted to position Jorfiling cutters.

11
as the clamp (fig. 31). A saw cut is made in each

stump to the depth necessary to hold the saw,

which is wedged tightly into the cut. A setting gage

anvil that can be laid flat on a large stump can be

used to restore the set taken out by pinching the

saw. It is far better, however, to have an extra campfiled saw blade available than to do such a makeshift

job in the woods.

/vw^^vw•w\''V^A^w^^1AA^^^^

Figure 31.—Using tree stumpsfor a clamp.

Jointing the Cutter Teeth

The first operation in fitting a crosscut is to bring

all the cutting teeth to a uniform length. This is

done by the use of the combination jointer and

raker gage (fig. 32).

Figure 32.—A saw jointing tool.

The jointing operation is done by inserting an

unhandled 8-inch mill file, preferably one that is

worn rather smooth, under the top bar, and turning

the adjusting screws at each end until the file is

firmly gripped. Then, carefully tighten each screw

fijrther until a slight bend in the file is noticeable.

This makes the file conform to the curve of the saw

teeth. After the file is properly set in the tool, place

it on the saw as shown in figure 33—file resting on

the teeth and the lower edge of the jointer resting

against the blade.

Draw the jointer across the entire length of the

blade with a very gentle pressure to avoid excessive

12

cutting. Be sure that the file surface remains level

and that the cutting teeth are cut down no more

than is necessary to make all of them touch the file

as it passes over them. On taper-ground saws it is

a good idea to pass the tool up one side of the blade

and then back down the other. This helps keep the

teeth on each side of even height. Snag or broken

teeth should be ignored.

Figure 33.—Method ofjointing cutter teeth.

Jointing the Rakers

The next step is to bring all the raker teeth to a

proper height. The points of the rakers should be

slightly shorter than those ofthe cutters. This keeps

the rakers from chiseling into the kerf too deeply

and tearing up wood that has not yet been released

by the cutters. Long rakers make the saw jump,

besides causing it to pull harder and cut slower.

Rakers that are too short, on the other hand, do not

chisel deep enough to permit the cutters to do their

full work. The condition of the wood has a bearing

upon the length ofraker to be used. In general, the

rakers should be 1/100 to 1/64 inch shorter than

the cutters for use in hard woods and frozen softwoods, and 1/64 to 1/32 inch shorter when used in

unfrozen softwoods. Experience will teach the filer

how to fit his rakers for local species and cutting

conditions.

To gage the rakers, remove the file and turn the

jointer tool over with the opposite side up. In the

middle of this side there is a slot in a short steppeddown section that will slip onto the raker, leaving

the points protruding. The amount of protrusion is

adjusted by means of the screw and lock-nut adjustment in the center of the tool. A feeler gage is

useful for checking the adjustment. This adjustment

is made to give the proper reduction in the length

of the rakers. The points are filed down flush with

the stepped-down section of the tool. The position

of the tool just before the filing operation is shown

in figure 34.

If the rakers are to be swaged and the saw is to

be used for hardwoods, they frequently can be left
the same height as the cutting teeth at this stage,

and the swaging will reduce them to the correct

height below the cutters. If the swaged saw is to

be used for softwoods the rakers should be jointed

about 1/64 inch.

Figure 34.—Jointing raker teeth.

Filing the Rakers

The next step is to file the raker teeth. This is

done by filing straight across each face of the raker

V until each tip comes to a sharp point (fig. 35). A

flat or triangular single-cut file can be used. Be very

careful to keep the file horizontal, and not to reduce

the raker points below the height indicated by the

jointing. After filing, each side of the V in the rakers

should have an angle of approximately 45° from

the vertical. Do not touch the gullet side of the

rakers with the file.

The height of the rakers after filing can be tested

with the special screw provided for that purpose on

most jointer gages. This is directly opposite the

stepped-down section on the gage illustrated. Adjust this screw, using the calibrations provided, or,

better, a thickness gage, to give the proper raker

tooth height. Place the tool on the cutting edge of

the saw; the protruding end of the screw should

then just clear the tips of the filed-down rakers.

This provides a check on the raker filing operation.

Figure 3 5.—Sharpening a raker tooth.

Swaging the Rakers

If a saw with straight raker teeth is being filed,

and swaged rakers are desired, the rakers are now

ready to be swaged. Most modern saws have rakers

that are swage-ground, and hand-swaging is fast

becoming a forgotten art. It is done by giving the

tips of each raker a light tap or two with the setting

hammer. These slight strokes will bend the tip of

the raker down a trifle. By resting the finger on the

edge of the tooth you can feel the "hook" being

made (fig. 36). After swaging, the height of the

rakers should again be tested with the jointer gage,

and the tips filed lightly to make sure they are

straight across.

Figure 36.—Swaging a raker tooth.

Setting the Cutter Teeth

Setting the cutter teeth is the next operation. Set

is important to prevent binding—to permit the saw

to be pulled more easily and to cut faster. Setting

requires the use of three special tools: The setting

hammer (fig. 36); a setting anvil, two models of

which are shown in figure 37, A\ and a set gage or

"spider" (fig. 37, B). This type of spider will have

aa

Figure 37.—Tools for setting saw teeth. K, Hand anvils; B,

set gage, or ^^spider.**

879.S96 O—50- 13
to be carefully prepared to check the set on each

type of saw to be filed, and for each type of timber

to be cut, by filing off one or more of the prongs

as described in the text that follows. More elaborate

spiders, with adjustable micrometer screws taking

the place of the lower prong, are available. Spiders

can be tested by holding them on a flat surface and

running a feeler gage of the correct thickness under

the upper prong.

Figure 38.—How the hand anvil is used in setting teeth.

The hand anvil is held against the back of the

tooth, with the beveled edge about í4 to ys inch

below the tip. It is important that each tooth extend exactly the same distance over the bevel. Then,

by striking the face of the tooth lightly just opposite the bevel in the anvil, the proper amount of

set is given to its tip (fig. 38). This, for a modern

taper-ground saw, should be about 0.016 inch for

softwoods, and about 0.008 inch for hardwoods. For

flat-ground saw blades it should be about twice as

much. Be very carefijl not to strike the filed faces of

the tooth with the hammer.

The amount of set given is tested by placing the

spider against the blade with the upper prong resting against the tip of the back of the tooth.

If the spider can be rocked up and down, the

tooth has not enough set. Apply the anvil and

hammer again until the required set is obtained. If

the spider can be rocked sideways, the tooth has too

much set. In this case hold the flat face of the anvil

against the back of the tooth and tap a little lower

down until the set is reduced the proper amount.

It is very important that the set of each tooth be exactly the same. Otherwise teeth set too much will

score the sides of the kerf and make the saw hard

to pull.

Several pliers-type set tools are on the market.

None of these is recommended for crosscut saws

because they place the set too far down on the

tooth. The flat anvils for use on a stump are not

recommended except for emergency jobs when a

tooth is sprung in the woods.

Filing the Cutter Teeth

The final operation is filing the cutter teeth. Tilt

the saw clamp to its 30° angle. Use a good sharp

file fitted with a comfortable handle. Use long

strokes and raise the file from the tooth at the end

of each cutting stroke (fig. 39). Tap the file on the

bench frequently to loosen particles of metal that

may be sticking to the cutting surface. It is also possible to prolong the useful life of the file by cleaning it occasionally with a steel bristle brush.

Figure 39.—Tiling the cutter teeth.

The filing job requires skill and also much care

and patience. The teeth must be filed on a correct

bevel and exactly to a sharp point. Excessive filing

on the point shortens the tooth and thereby spoils

all the work that was done in jointing the cutters.

It also spoils their relationship with the rakers.

Great care should be taken to see that the filing

stops when the smallest reflection is obtained from

the flat point made by the jointing operation. Burrs

formed on the opposite side of the tooth by the filing operation may be carefully removed with a

whetstone, but using a file is not recommended.

Hardwoods need more metal in the points of the

teeth than softwoods. This can be obtained by filing

the bevel stunt or by making a wide angle of the

tooth point (fig. 40). When the timber to be sawed

is frozen or knotty, it is well to make the bevel even

more stubby, thus leaving more metal in the point

lA As

r\

tsh

r\

h à

r\

B

Figure 40.—Good tooth bevels; A, for hardwoods; B, for

softwoods.

14
of the tooth. This makes the saw cut more slowly

but hold its cutting edge better. Flat bevels are

easier to file than rounded ones. Never file the back

edges of the cutting teeth. This will cause them to

bind in the kerf

All the foregoing steps are necessary in fitting a

crosscut saw. The inexperienced person is always

tempted to omit one or two steps and to do some

of them hastily. The price that must be paid for

these shortcuts is hard, back-breaking work and

much less production. In almost all woods operations where the crosscut is used, it will pay to have

one man assigned to the job of fitting the saws and

to give them plenty of time to do the job well.

HANDLES

The choice of a saw handle is important. There

are many fancy ones on the market and some of

them are satisfactory. The old-fashioned loop handle, with threads inside the grip, remains the overwhelming favorite. It is easily put on and taken off.

a crooked cut that makes the saw much harder to

pull.

If the saw begins to pinch, stop and insert a wedge

in the cut behind it. In bucking small trees it is

usually better to raise the log and block it from

underneath. When sawing pitchy woods, such as

pine and spruce, sprinkle the saw blade from time

Figure 42.—Position Jor bucking.

Figure 41.—A loop-type handle.

It holds firmly and can be carried conveniently in the

hip pocket. The best model has the loop extending

through the handle to engage an iron cap on the

top (fig. 41).

USE OF THE CROSSCUT

In starting the cut, a few short strokes are necessary. Be sure to keep your hands away from the sides

of the saw, and, above all, do not put a hand on the

log near the cut at this time. The blade is likely to

jump out of the cut and inflict a bad injury.

After the cut is started, saw with long, easy

strokes (fig. 42). The saw has teeth throughout its

entire length and it does its best work when all of

them are used. When two men are sawing, do not

push the saw into the log. This causes buckling and

to time with kerosene. A pint bottle with a slotted

cork or a wisp of pine needles or coarse grass stems

stuck into the neck makes a good sprinkler.

Use of the saw in felling is much the same as in

bucking. The cut is started with a few short strokes.

It is important that the saw blade be kept horizontal

with no sag in the middle at this time, and until it

is well started into the tree. Such a sag will cause

a dished cut through which it will be much harder

„to pull the saw. The best way to prevent it is to

grip the saw blade with one hand, alongside the

handle, and be especially careful to pull straight

away from the cut on a level with it (fig. 43). When

the cut is well started, the long, steady, fast-cutting

Figure 43.—Position for starting a cut.

15
strokes of the expert saw crew can begin (fig. 44).

It is not necessary to pull the saw into the cut. The

belly in the blade will take care of that. Just pull

the saw straight out, and then let your hands ride

the handle back as your partner pulls it his way.

Don't push the saw, or the blade will buckle. But

use your own energy to return your arms for the

start of your next stroke; don't expect your partner

to pull them back.

F-382746

Figure 44.—Felling a tree.

In carrying the saw, it is best to remove one of

the handles and put the blade across your shoulder

with the teeth away from your neck. When turning

with the saw in this position, be sure that no one

is standing near you. Saw-tooth punctures make bad

wounds (fig. 45).

For long-distance carrying, a short length of

garden hose slotted through its length and tied over

the saw teeth will protect the edge of the saw and

make it safe (fig. 46). In an emergency an old piece

of burlap sacking can be wrapped around the saw.

Never let an unguarded saw rattle around in the

bottom of a truck where it can be stepped on. There

is no quicker way to ruin the filing job. It is cheaper

and easier in the long run to make a carrying rack or

tool box.

Figure 45.—An uncovered saw can cause a nasty wound.

Figure 46.—Rubber-hose guardfor saw teeth.

16
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

THE BOW SAW

-^^ <^

The bow saw, widely used by pulpwood cutters

in the Northeast and in Canada, was developed in

Sweden. It is an improved model of the old-type

bucksaw with a better blade and a frame that holds

the blade under greater tension. Here we have an

excellent crosscut saw for one-man use on timber

less than 10 inches in diameter. For wood 10 inches

or more in diameter, the standard crosscut is a better

tool. The bow saw has not commonly been used

for cutting hardwoods. For this kind of work a twoman crosscut is generally considered easier to use,

although production per man-day could almost certainly be increased by adoption of the bow saw.

SAW FRAMES

There are three types of bow-saw frames. All are

made of light tubular steel that provides a tension

on the blade of from 200 to 250 pounds. Frames

made of pear-shaped tubing are easier to handle

than those made of round or oval tubing.

The simplest and cheapest model has a one-piece

frame with the blade riveted into each end (fig. 47).

It is very light and sturdy and gives good service

too much or too little. Usually it is better to buy a

new saw than to try shortening the blade on the

old one.

Part of the difficulty just mentioned is overcome

by a frame that has a spring tension lever on one

end (fig. 48). This makes it possible to relieve the

Figure 48.—Bow saw with tension lever.

tension on the blade easily and also to remove the

blade from the frame when it needs to be sharpened.

The tension should be slacked offwhenever the saw

is not going to be in use for a few days. Even this

frame, however, will in time lose its proper tension.

There is available an adjustable frame that can be

lengthened in the middle, thereby restoring tension

that has been lost in the bends of the frame (fig. 49).

Figure 47.—Bow saw with one-piece frame. Figure 49.—An adjustable-frame how saw.

when new. There is, however, no easy way to relieve the tension on the blade during long periods

when the saw is not in use. In time the bow loses

more and more of its tension until the saw blade

becomes too loose. The only remedy is to cut off

one end of the blade and to make a new hole. This

shortening of the blade may be successful and it

may not—all depends on the tension, which may be

This adjustable frame is somewhat heavier than

the simpler types. It also can get out of adjustment,

particularly when the collar strikes a wedge that has

been driven into the cut behind the saw. On the

other hand, when given proper care it will last indefinitely. In experienced hands it can always be at

the proper tension.

The common method for testing tension ï^ to

grasp the blade near the middle and try to bend it

17
between your fingers (fig. 50). Twisting the blade

is not a good test.

After having learned the feel of a properly tensioned blade, it is possible to judge the proper tension. If the tension is too low, the blade tends to

buckle in the cut. When this happens the saw pulls,

harder and the blade may bend or break. A blade

with too much tension will ping with a high note

when it is plucked. In such a condition it is likely

to spring the frame. It may also snap in two when,

for some reason, the saw binds in the cut and the

blade is bent sideways.

Figure 50.—Testing tension of blade.

SAW BLADES

There are four major types of bow-saw blades.

The most popular pattern has four cutters to one

raker. This is made both with swage-ground and

with straight-ground raker teeth (fig. 51). The flare

given to the swage-ground raker varies considerably.

A moderate flare is usually preferred. The wide-flared

raker cuts very fast but is hard to pull. The straight

raker is easiest to pull, but it cuts more slowly.

The other tooth patterns include one with two

cutters to one raker and one with all teeth of the

cutting type (no rakers). Two cutters to one raker

is probably best for hardwoods. The no-raker saw is

suitable for farmers who do only a little cutting, and

that largely on dry wood, and who do not have

much skill at fitting saws.

Bow-saw blades are manufactured in 32-, 36-, 42-,

and 48-inch lengths. In cutting 48-inch pulpwood,

the 42-inch blade is preferred because its frame provides a convenient measure for a 4-foot bolt length

(fig. 52).

Figure 52.—Using bow saw as measuring stick.

SWAGE GROUND RAKER

STRAIGHT GROUND RAKER

O O

Blades are made in 1-inch and in 1%-inch widths.

The best are taper-ground; the blade is slightly

thicker on the cutting edge than on the back edge.

This tends to make it run more freely in the cut and

requires less set in the teeth.

The narrow blade is somewhat easier to pull but

is more easily broken. Inexperienced cutters will

do well to choose the wider blade until they learn

how to use the saw.

TWO GUTTERS TO ONE RAKER

O O

ALL GUTTERS-NO RAKERS

O O

Figure 51.—Types of bow-saw blades.

How To SHARPEN THE

Bow-SAW BLADE

Far too many of the bow saws now in use are in

bad condition because of poor sharpening. This seriously cuts down wood production and makes the

work much harder than it needs to be. In some

logging camps the job of keeping saw blades in

good cutting order has been assigned to an expert

18
filer. This arrangement is usually far better than the

one in which every man is expected to file his own

saw.

To file a bow-saw blade properly requires tools

specially made for the purpose, plus skill and experience. The elementary instructions offered here

are only what must be known before one can begin

to learn how to file this type of saw.

The first requirement for the job is some kind of

saw-holding device. If the filing is done at camp,

this can be made in accordance with the design recommended for a crosscut saw clamp. ^ If part of the

filing is to be done in the woods, it is better to obtain one of the metal holding devices that are made

by several saw manufacturers. One of these (fig. 53)

Figure 53.—A clamp for use in sharpening the how saw,

consists of a metal plate about V% inch thick folded

in the middle so that it forms a 45° angle. On each

side of the fold there is a spring-metal strip fastened

on with screw bolts. The saw blade is slipped under

one of these strips. One edge of the base of the device is wedged into a vertical saw slit cut into the

top of a convenient stump. The other edge can be

fastened with a few clinched-over nails. This gives

a good solid base for the clamp.

For most filing operations the saw is clamped in

the vertical position. In filing the cutter teeth it is

best to move it into the slanting position. The blade

will then be inclined away from the filer at an angle

of45 °. The saw should be about level with the filer's

elbows. The ground around the base of the stump

should be level so that he can stand comfortably.

The sun or artificial light should be at his back.

Jointing

A combination jointing tool and raker gage is

shown in figure 54 ^^ ;^i*-^ ^v-- r^..^*-\^^ ^^^^u ^

worn mill

^ See p. 10,

figure 54. To joint the cutting teeth a

file is screwed tightly against the upper

I. "Saw Clamns "

Figure 54.—Combination jointing tool and raker gage.

flange by means of the two thumb screws. The lower

surface of the file is then placed on the teeth and is

drawn the full length of the saw. This is done until

the file has touched every tooth except broken ones.

The cutting teeth have then been jointed.

The next step is to joint the raker teeth. First you

remove the file and adjust the jointing tool. The

middle section of the tool is a raker tooth gage; this

is an elbow-shaped piece of metal that can be moved

up and down, and is fastened by a set screw. The top

of this metal plate has a slot that will just fit over

the points of a raker tooth. The adjustment is made

to determine how much of the raker tooth protrudes

through the slot. For cutting ordinary softwoods,

the top of the slotted plate should be set about 1/50

of an inch lower than the under side of the two end

sections. For cutting frozen wood or hardwoods, it

should be about 1/80 of an inch lower.

When the tool has been properly adjusted, it is

placed over each raker tooth. The points of the

raker will protrude through the slot. With the wide

side of the raker file (fig. 55) flat on this hardened

metal plate, you file each raker tooth until it is flush

with the plate. This way all the rakers are brought

to a uniform height—slightly shorter than the cutting teeth.

Filing Rakers

The third step is the filing of the raker teeth. Use

the V side of a raker or cantsaw file. This is a special

file made for this purpose. Be sure that it has a

^^

Figure 5 5.—Raker andgulletingfiles.

"Saw Clamp:

19
firmly set handle. Move the file at a right angle

straight across the top of the raker. Bring the teeth

to a sharp point and no more, leaving a square cutting edge. The gullets between rakers and cutting

teeth should also be cut down a bit. This is best

done with a rat-tail or guUeting file (fig. 55). Be

careful to preserve the original shape of the gullet

and to move the file straight across.

Setting

The fourth step is to set the cutter teeth. This is

done with special saw-setting pliers (fig. 56). On

the lower jaw of this tool is an anvil with a number

of beveled faces. The upper jaw has a plunger; this

is squeezed down against the saw tooth to force it

against a beveled face of the anvil. This gives the

Figure 56.—Pliersfor setting cutter teeth.

tooth its proper set. Bend each tooth away from the

beveled side and be sure the bend is in the whole

tooth—not just in the point alone. Take pains to get

a uniform set; otherwise, the teeth will not track

properly in the cut. If a tooth has too much set, it

will score the sides of the kerf and make the saw

that much harder to pull. If it does not have enough

set, it will be recutting the shaving and thus cause

a waste of energy. The experienced saw filer knows

the setting job cannot be done too accurately. For

summer cutting of softwood, and especially for

those species that contain much pitch, a greater set

is required. In general, the width of the kerf under

these conditions should be about twice the thickness of the saw at its cutting edge, or about the

thickness of a new nickel for a 1 yg-inch blade (fig.

57) or a penny for a 1-inch blade. For frozen wood

and for hardwoods, the amount of set should be

less—about the thickness of a well-worn nickel or

penny.

USE

NICKEL

TO

TEST

SET

w

EDGE--

PERSPECTIVE

Figure 57.—Properly set teeth.

Filing Cutters

The next operation is the filing of the cutter

teeth. This is done with the saw slanting away from

you at a 45° angle. Use a double feather-edge file

(fig. 58) which has a diamond shape that permits

o::^^^^

Figure 5S.—Feather-edge file for sharpening cutter teeth.

the file to cut to the bottom of the V between the

cutters. Care should be given to bring each tooth to

a sharp point and no more. Keep the original bevel

and general shape of teeth.

Honing

Finally, it is well to hone ofFvâth a single pass of

a fine whetstone any burrs that have formed on the

outside of the cutters. If, when the saw is tried out,

it seems to want to lead toward one side, a further

honing on that side may correct the difficulty. If

two strokes of the stone do not stop leading, the

blade will have to be jointed, set, and filed again.

Simpler filing tools for the bow saw are available

but these are not recommended for use by the inexperienced filer. Even the best filers can seldom

turn out a good job with them.

20
After several filings the holes in the end of the

bow-saw blade should be filed or punched out

toward the back, so that the pins holding the saw

in the frame will remain at about the center of the

blade (fig. 59).

Figure 59.—Adjusting end hole in blade.

USE OF THE BOW SAW

The bow saw is essentially a one-man tool. Its

use in bucking is relatively easy for even the inexperienced man. Once he gets the proper grip he

soon learns to cut rapidly. Another important thing

is to learn to rock the saw, so that it does not chatter in the cut, especially on the return stroke. On

the forward stroke, the held end of the saw is gradually raised so that its free end tips down 2 or 3

inches. On the return the held end is lowered (fig.

60). Sawing thus, continually on a corner, the saw

length of the blade, at a rate of about 60 to 75

strokes a minute. The bow frame is kept directly

above the blade at all times (fig. 61).

F-448782

Figure 61.—An expert bow sawyer at work.

Figure 60.—A rocking stroke is used.

can clear itself of dust more readily, and less pressure on it is needed. The best sawyers saw with

long, even strokes, at least three-quarters of the

In certain situations, of course, the freedom of

movement of the sawyer is restricted by other trees,

rocks, or the like, and he may be forced to saw with

the short, jerky strokes typical of the inefficient

sawyer.

Felling with the bow saw is somewhat more

difficult to learn. In this the sawyer uses the same

grip, leans over until he is almost standing on his

head, and saws with the same long, even, cornering

stroke, taking care that the frame is exactly on a

level with the blade at all times (fig. 62). Failure to

keep the saw level means a crooked cut, hard sawing, and not infrequently a broken blade.

Some Pointers

When sawing pitchy woods, such as yellow pine,

liberal and frequent applications of kerosene to the

saw blade are advisable.

Maintain proper tension. A blade that is too loose

will buckle, and may break in the cut (fig. 63).

21
Figure 62.—Position forfelling cut.

Even if it does not break, sawing with it is unnecessarily hard work. A blade that is too tight will spring

the frame or break prematurely.

Keep a sharp extra blade handy at all times in

case the one being used breaks, becomes dull, or

has the set pinched out of it.

Figure 64.—Starting a stuck lever with a foot, A; requires

care not to let it snap around and cause injury, B.

Carry the saw over your shoulder with the blade

toward the rear. Steady the frame with your hand

(fig. 65).

Figure 63.—A loose blade will buckle.

Release the tension on lever-arm saws easily. If

it is too hard to do with your fingers, you can often

start the lever with the side of your foot. Once it

is started, however, hold it from snapping around.

If it does, the blade may snap loose and give you or

anyone in front of it a nasty cut (fig. 64). The tension lever can snap around and bruise or cut a

finger also. Figure 65.—Proper way to carry bow saw.

22
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS HANDBOOK

POWER SAWS

->^ <^

Labor shortages in the woods have stimulated

interest in power saws. Almost any contraption that

offered a promise of getting timber out faster with

less labor has been tried. Out of these trials have

come some very promising devices that should

make the work of the northeastern logger easier

and more productive.

CIRCULAR SAWS

The circular saw is one of our most efficient devices for cutting wood. The problem of mounting

it on a carriage that can easily be moved about in

the woods has been partially solved. One type of

mounting, which has been widely used in the level

pine woodlands of the South, is the bicycle or

wheeled saw (fig. 66). This machine consists of a

F-419294

Figure 66.—The bicycle saw.

6- or 8-horsepower gasoline motor mounted in a

frame that looks something like an oversize garden

cultivator. A rigid arm extends in front and on the

end of it is mounted the saw mandrel with a 20-

inch or 30-inch circular crosscut saw. A V-belt or

flexible-shaft arrangement transmits the power from

the motor to the mandrel pulley. The mandrel

works on a swivel, which permits the saw to cut

both in a vertical and in a horizontal position. It

can thus be used for either bucking or felling. On

most models there is no clutch, and no power transmission to the wheels.

The bicycle saw has given satisfactory service in

level, open woods where there is little underbrush

and very few rocks. It is not adapted for use in

most northeastern woodlands. It is almost impossible to wheel this machine around on steep slopes.

On rocky ground the blade is almost sure to be

ruined within a short time. The recently introduced

model with a clutch that permits stopping the saw

v.'hile moving from cut to cut and with an arrangement for feeding power to the wheels is somewhat

more useful in rough and rocky woods. Some northeastern operators have found the bicycle saw useful

for bucking tree-length poles at the landing. For

this work, however, it is not so well designed as

some of the other circular saws.

Circular saws have also been mounted on tractors

(fig. 67). One such tractor-mounted saw was used

with much success by American troops in German

Figure 67.—Circular saw mounted on tractor.

Patch Wegner Co.)

{Courtesy oj

23
forests during the war. Another type mounted on a

farm tractor has been used for clearing thornapple

trees from pasture land in central New York State.

For woods work, however, the same limitations

apply to the tractor-mounted circular saw as to the

hand-operated bicycle type. It cannot be used to

advantage on steep ground or on rocky ground. It

does have some promising possibilities for use in

bucking at the landing.

The most efficient use of the circular saw for

bucking, however, is found in the semipermanent

machines designed specifically for that purpose.

Most of these devices have a set of rollers or a

buggy, belt, or chain conveyor that carries the pole

forward for each cut of the saw. The circular saw is

mounted on a walking beam or carriage. The operator pulls or pushes the saw into the pole to make a

cut (fig. 68).

woods tool resulted in the "Sally saw" (fig. 69). The

saw itself consists merely of a toothed rim. Just

below the teeth on the rim a series of holes has

been cut; the gear on the end of the motor drive

shaft engages these holes to turn the saw. The saw

is held in place by two idler wheels, mounted in

the guard. The motor is a 1 î^-horsepower affair of

conventional design. The clutch is attached to the

rear handle, and the saw can be thrown in and out

of gear by a slight movement on this handle. The

saw is 16 inches in diameter, but the cutting capacity

is about 11 inches. The whole rig weighs about 64

pounds. The Sally saw can be used either in felling

or bucking trees within its capacity by turning the

front part of the tool around on the swivel provided.

fVy>

Figure 68.—A semipermanent bucking

servation Service.)

rig. (Soil ConMost of these machines have been made of material salvaged from other types of equipment. The

power is usually supplied by an old automobile or

truck engine. Use of worn parts and some faults

of design cause frequent break-downs. These difficulties will, in time, be overcome. One commercial

model is available and others are being readied for

the market. There is always a problem of getting

the poles to the machine fast enough and in getting

the cut-up wood away from the saw. In spite of

these difficulties, the stationary cut-up plant has

proved its worth all over the Northeast and is due

to become a permanent fixture on many logging

jobs. Some of the more successful designs will be

described more fully in the section on bucking.

The most successful attempt to mount a circular

saw in such a way that it can be used as a portable

24

F-441897

Figure 69.—The Sally saw.

The prop under the motor relieves the operator of

much of the weight of the tool. Because of its relatively low price, and because the motor can be easily

detached and used for other purposes, the Sally saw

is an especially good rig for farmers. With different

tooth patterns on the blade it cuts small hardwoods

and softwoods efficiently and smoothly.

These circular-saw bucking rigs help reduce the

difficulties and hazards of woods work. A small

crew can cut much more wood per man-day; and,

as the bucking is generally done at the landing

where the sticks can be more easily controlled, they

can generally do it more safely. But there are important hazards in the use of these devices that

must be recognized. Hints to minimize some of

them follow:

1. Circular saws used in cutting should be

equipped with guards, not only to reduce chances

of the workmen coming in contact with the teeth,

but also to guide the throwing out of chips and

splinters. A good sheet-metal guard is shown in

figure 68. A good guard can also be made of heavy
screen wire of VA- or yg-inch mesh. Guards on bicycle and tractor-mounted saws should be adjustable, to fit them for either felling or bucking.

2. All pulleys, belts, and gear drives should be

protected with guards.

3. The operator should never be allowed to adjust or oil the mechanism without stopping the

motor. Above all he should never attempt to replace

the drive belt without stopping the motor.

4. The fuel tank should not be refilled while the

motor is running or while it is hot.

5. Reserve fuel should be kept in safety cans

rather than ordinary cans. Such safety cans may be

available from Army surplus equipment.

Many of these safety recommendations apply as

well to drag saws, portable chain saws, and other

equipment powered with gasoline motors.

DRAG SAWS

The drag saw, for many years used on mill decks

and on farms in the Northeast, is an extra-heavy

crosscut saw mounted on a V-frame containing a

small gasoline engine (fig. 70). The power is transmitted to the saw by means of a reciprocating arm

driven by a wheel geared to the crankshaft of the

motor. While the cut is being made, the drag saw

rests with one end on the ground and the other on

the log.

This type of saw is effective in its place, but it cuts

rather slowly. All models to date have been too

heavy and unwieldy for woods work other than the

cutting of fuel wood. It does not oflfer much promise

as a tool for bucking at the landing except where

the amount of timber to be handled is so small that

it would not pay to install a better machine.

Chain Saws

The chain saw (fig. 71) is probably the most

promising development in the power-saw equipment field. The saw itself is a roller-type endless

chain with cutting teeth projecting from the outer

side. The chain is held rigid by a steel blade, which

has guide grooves on its top and bottom edges. At

one end of this blade there is a sprocket geared to

a motor; at the other end there is an idler sprocket

that can be adjusted to give the chain its necessary

tension. This end of the saw has the tail stock,

which consists of an oiling device and a handle.

One-man models have no tail stock; the chain

usually follows a groove all the way around the end

of the blade.

Recently several bow-type chain saws have been

placed on the market. In this type (fig. 72) the

chain runs along a groove in a tapered steel bar no

more than 2 inches wide. On its return it runs

around through the bow frame, outside the cut.

This type of saw is usually limited in cutting capacity to logs or trees no more than 18 inches in diameter, but in this size timber it practically eliminates

the pinching experienced with the conventional

Figure 70.—A drag saw.

25
Figure 71.—The chain saw.

type of chain saw. It is possible to cut down through

a log suspended at the two ends without prying or

wedging. In directional felling it is possible to use

a wedge when desired.

F-45 3190

Figure 72.—A bow-type chain saw.

Most cutting chains have essentially the same

type of cutting mechanism. A typical one is shown

in figure 73. Some companies have been leaving out

the center raker in recent models. This type of chain

is easily and quickly manufactured by a stamping

process. The cutting edges can be ground to their

proper angles by simple machines. In comparison

with a properly fitted crosscut saw, however, the

standard chain is a crude cutting device. It practically hammers out the wood in the kerf instead

of cutting it out; hence it is wasteful of power and

is difficult to keep properly set and sharpened.

Right cutter

Left roller

Figure li.—Conventional chain-saw teeth.

Several radically different types of chains have

been developed. One is shown in figure 74. The

depth-gage teeth are to prevent chatter and to act

as rakers for removing sawdust. The router teeth

cut the sides of the kerf and shave out the wood at

the bottom. This type of chain does a smoother job

of cutting than all but the most carefully filed

standard chains, and requires less power. It is easy

to sharpen with a special cylindrical file. This type

of chain cuts a kerf about Vi inch wide, instead of

the VA- to %-inch cut made by the conventional

chain.

Left cutter Right router

Left router. \ Deptti-goge tooth Right cutter

Depth-goge tooth

Figure 74.—An improved tooth pattern.

The second new type of tooth has been developed

by U. S. Forest Service engineers. The cutters and

rakers in this pattern (fig. 75) more nearly conform

to the familiar crosscut saw tooth design, and tests

have shown that they give a smoother cutting job,

stay sharp up to three times as long between filings,

and require less power than the other types of chainsaw teeth. It has been proposed that this type of

Right tooth']

eft tooth

-RokerJ CUTTING UNIT

REPLACEABLE

Figure 7 5.—A highly efficient new tooth pattern.

26
chain be made with replaceable cutting units, each

one containing two cutters and a raker. Each cutting

unit would be fastened to the chain by means of a

tapered pin.

In tests, one chain of this type has outworn four

to five other cutting units, giving promise of real

economy in chain-saw maintenance. This type of

chain, of course, will be somewhat more difficult

and expensive to manufacture as it calls for a forging and machining rather than a stamping job.

Several manufacturers are considering its commercial production,

A third new tooth pattern has wide chisel-type

rakers of high-speed steel welded to conventional

teeth. The cutting teeth are also of high-speed steel.

This chain also cuts with less power, and, it is

claimed, the teeth need sharpening only about oneeighth as often as the conventional teeth. Sharpening, of course, must be done on an emery wheel.

Chain-Saw Power

Electric, pneumatic, and gasoline motors are being

used to power chain saws. The gasoline models are

ordinarily self-contained, but the pneumatic and

electric models have to be connected to an air hose

or electric cable, which in turn is connected with a

compressor or generator driven bv an engine. The

electric and pneumatic motors on the saw are much

lighter, run with less vibration, and, in the case of

the electric motor, can take more of an overload

without stalling than their gasoline counterparts.

To counterbalance this there is the difficulty of

dragging the electric cable or air hose around

through the woods and the greater initial cost of

the complete unit. There is also the difficulty of

transporting the primary power unit around in the

woods and the cost of fuel to keep it running almost

continuously. To date these electric and pneumatic

rigs have been used largely on construction jobs in

the Northeast, or in bucking on the landing. Some

operators, however, have mounted a motor generator on skids, or on a light tractor or jeep, and are

using it with success in some of the more open

woodlands.

At least one manufacturer has mounted a gasoline

motor on a carrier similar to that used for the bicycle

saw, and used it to power a chain saw. This is also

a rig that will be useful mostly in level, open woods.

F-4Î0153, 450139

Figure 76.—One-man gasoline-powered saws.

27
The portable gasoline-powered chain saw, on the

other hand, is often used in the brush. The most

successful models to date are the machines designed

to be used by two men. They weigh about 100

pounds, and have motors of 5 to 11 horsepower.-

A number of lighter-weight machines, intended

to be used by one man, have been designed, and

three of them have been put on the market in

Canada. Several United States companies have developed similar machines. They mount 1 \á- to 4-

horsepower motors, and weigh 30 to 50 pounds.

The one-man chain saw (fig. 76) is a promising machine for cutting and bucking small trees.

A new electric chain saw (fig. 77) has also been

introduced on the market recently. Use of high-cycle

current has made it possible to manufacture a 2'/4-

horsepower electric motor unit weighing only 11

pounds. The entire saw weighs 27 pounds, and the

rnotor-gencrator unit weighs 129 pounds. Consequently, two men can carry the entire unit into the

woods, where one can go to work with the ax and

the other with the saw. The cutting bar is 20 inches

long, and it has been used to cut a sugar maple 33

inches in diameter; but the real field of usefulness

of this saw is believed to be cutting pulpwood and

other small-sized stuff. One noteworthy feature is

the upcurved teeth on the bumper plate of this saw;

they make it easy to force the saw into the cut by

lifting on the motor. They are particularly useful in

bucking from underneath the log.

Electric saws present some special hazards. Most

important is the danger of electric shock to the operator. To reduce this hazard the saw and its component parts should be the product of reputable manufacturers. All connections and electrical conductors

should be heavily insulated and weatherproof. All

metal surfaces, including the case for the saw and

its motor generator, should be grounded. The

grounding of the saw and its motor calls for another conductor in the cable leading from the

generator.

Buying a Chain Saw

Every new machine, especially one as complicated

as the chain saw, must go through a shake-down

period in which the weak features of design and of

materials are gradually taken out. Every chain saw

is still in this stage of development—some are in

advance of others. It is fair to say, however, that

Figure 77.—An electric one-man saw.

F-445481

28
the "bugs" in the machine itself are not now so

serious a problem as the failure of the woodsmen

to give it the kind of care it must have. The experience of several careful users indicates that the

present-day saw is capable of doing a great deal of

work day after day.

Many a logger has bought one of these machines

without careful study of the economics of its operation. The fact that this machine can do the work

of several men had led to the conclusion that it can

be used economically by one man and a boy. This is

a grave mistake.

If the saw is run steadily either in felling or bucking, a three-man saw crew is better than a two-man

crew. Lugging the saw around the woods, together

with the wedges, sledge, ax, measuring pole, and

tool kit necessary to service it, is at least a threeman job. When the saw is operating, the third man

can drive the wedge behind it just when this becomes necessary. He can transmit signals between

the two men at opposite ends of the saw, particularly when they are felling and cannot see each

other. He can keep a lookout and warn the sawyers

when the tree begins to fall. He can remove obstructions that may get in the way of the saw, and

can do many other jobs that cannot be done by

either of the other two men without stopping the

saw. A three-man saw crew also offers an excellent

opportunity for training new men, and provides

some insurance against absenteeism, because in a

pinch, when one man is away, the other two men

can run the saw. Moreover, if the engineman is

relieved at intervals by one of the other two, overfatigue is avoided. To keep a two-man chain saw

fully employed it is necessary to have a total of five

to seven men in the woods crew. The reasons for

this are given in the discussion of size of felling

crews. With a smaller crew the chain saw becomes

an expensive tool. The logger who does not have

a job big enough for a crew of this size should do

some careful figuring before he invests $500 to $700

in one of these machines.

Another common mistake is to get a saw that is

too big for the work to be done. Gasoline-driven

models are available in 5-horsepower to 11-horsepower sizes with cutting bars 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and

9 feet long. It is not uncommon to see an 11-horsepower model with a 5-foot cutting bar being used

to cut pulpwood that rarely runs over 15 inches in

diameter. This is a gross waste of machine power

and human effort. A chain saw carries out its own

sawdust and the blade need be no longer than the

sticks to be sawed. The length of the cutting bar

should depend on the normal run of work to be

done. Although you may occasionally have to use

hand tools to fell an exceptionally large tree, it pays

in ease of operation to use a saw no longer than

necessary for most of the trees to be cut. With the

conventional type of cutting chain, a 5- or ó-horsepower motor is usually adequate for softwoods up

to 4 feet in diameter. For hardwoods larger than 3

feet in diameter 8 to 11 horsepower is advisable.

With the improved cutting chains larger hardwoods can be cut successfully with the smaller

motors.

Choosing among the makes of chain saws is something like picking out a truck or automobile. Each

has certain features that may recommend it for specific conditions. One has an automatic clutch but

no governor; it cannot be run at full throttle out

of the cut without danger of injury to the motor.

Another has a manually operated clutch, a governor,

and an exceptionally sturdy, smooth-running, but

heavy motor. Two companies offer a saw with a removable tail stock, which makes possible the withdrawal of the saw from a cut without taking out

any wedges that have been driven in behind it.

Changes and improvements are being made rapidly

by all the manufacturers.

Care ofChain Saws

Detailed instructions for the operation and care

of each make of saw are given in the manufacturer's

instruction book that comes with the machine. They

should be followed faithfully in order to get the

best results. Only general pointers are offered here.

Filing chain saws.—Vor: sharpening the improved

and specialized types of chain-saw teeth, follow the

manufacturer's instructions. For sharpening the conventional teeth, the following suggestions are

offered.

Chain-saw teeth are made of very hard steel. It is

difficult for even the most experienced filer to maintain the various correct angles on the sequence of

cutting teeth and rakers. One well-known make

has five different tooth bevels in a sequence of eight.

A good filing job requires great skill and patience.

It is a mistake to suppose that a man who knows

how to file a crosscut or bow saw can automatically

do a good job on a chain saw. Usually the best solution to the sharpening problem is to acquire one of

the emery-wheel sharpening devices offered by the

manufacturer (fig. 78). These consist of a small

motorized emery grinder adjustable to the correct

angles for each type of tooth and raker. The teeth

are held in the correct position by means of a track

879396 0—50- 29
Il ^ Il 1

Figure 78.—An emery-wheel sharpening device. {Courtesy

of Henry Disston and Sons. )

through which the chain is pulled. Each tooth is

stopped in position to be ground correctly. The

operator must be careful to grind each tooth no

more than is necessary and to avoid burning it by

too long exposure to the wheel. Frequent touch-ups

are better than a heavy sharpening.

If, for some good reason, the grinding device cannot be used, it will be necessary to file the chain.

Most saws come equipped with simple tools for

hand-filing. These include a short section of track

that can be clamped in a vise. The chain is then

placed in the track and pulled through as the teeth

are sharpened. An 8-inch mill bastard file with

round edges is used for the filing. Only the front

surfaces of the teeth are filed —never the tops

(fig. 79).

A jointing gage is also necessary to check the

height of the various types of teeth. This tool is a

metal block long enough to extend over one sequence of teeth (fig. 80). Opposite each raker there

is a raised section that should just rest on the cutting edge of the raker. The side rakers are normally

about 0.012 inch shorter than the cutters. The center rakers are 0.018 inch shorter. For cutting hardwoods and frozen softwoods these clearances should

be reduced slightly. It is well to have two gagesone for softwood and another for hardwood. When

Figure 79.—Filing chain-saw teeth. (Courtesy of Henry

Disston and Sons.)

Figure 80.—Use of the jointing gage.

Disston and Sons.)

{Courtesy of Henry

the teeth are properly jointed, the gage rests lightly

on all the teeth in the sequence with each one in

its own niche. If it does not touch the rakers, the

cutters should be filed a little more. If it rests only

on the rakers, these should be filed on the front face

until they arc reduced to the proper height.

A set gage (fig. 81) is used to check the set in the

chain. Chain-saw teeth are hard and do not get out

of set readily. When they do, it is necessary to restore the set with a special tool. It is not wise to

attempt this job with a hammer and anvil. The result is likely to be a broken tooth. There is a screwoperated device that works easily and accurately.

Setting pliers that operate on the plunger-and-anvil

principle are also used. One of these is shown in

figure 82.

30
Figure 81.—Use of a set gage. (Courtesy oj Henry Disstoii

and Sons.)

In inserting new teeth of any type it is important

that the proper sequence of cutting teeth and rakers

for each side is maintained. On most chain saws

these teeth are held together with rivets through

connecting links. New rivets should never be driven

so tightly as to bind the links. When new teeth are

inserted in a partly worn chain they should be filed

or ground to the same height as the rest of the teeth

of the same type in the chain. After sharpening, if

the chain is not put into use immediately, it should

be put into a can of light oil to permit the rivets

to become thoroughly lubricated, and to prevent

rusting.

Preventive maintenance. —Preventive maintenance

for a chain saw—like that for any other type of mechanical equipment—consists of keeping it properly

tightened, cleaned, and oiled, and of repairing or

replacing parts before they break down. Some of

the essentials are:

1. Clean the saw at least once a day, preferably at

night. This involves cleaning out the track under

the chain in the cutting bar with a tool supplied by

the manufacturer, an L-shaped piece of wire, a putty

knife, oi a hooked linoleum knife. Kerosene helps

remove pitch. Some saws have self-cleaning devices.

The screen in front of the motor fan and the one

at the carburetor intake should also be cleaned of

Figure 82.—Setting the teeth with setting pliers. {Courtesy

of Henry Disston and Sons. )

ciiips, fuzz, and sawdust. Some saws have air cleaners with special maintenance requirements. The

cooling fins around the cylinders should be cleaned.

The cutting bar and other bright steel parts should

be wiped with an oily rag before leaving the saw

in the woods overnight.

2. Oil and grease the saw throughout. Do not

overoil. Too much oil in the crankcase is apt to

work into the dry clutch in some models. Follow

the manufacturer's directions.

^. The entire saw should be inspected twice daily

for any loose screws, bolts, etc. Any unusual performance, irregularities, or noises that might indicate developing trouble should be reported to the

foreman or mechanic. Loose screws and nuts should

be tightened on the spot.

4. At least one member of the saw crew should

be instructed in the details of routine maintenance

and repair. He should be provided with a skeleton

set of tools, including pliers, adjustable wrench,

screw driver, good 8-inch file, and with two extra

sparkplugs, extra starter rope, extra saw chain, and

plenty of extra gasoline mixed with oil according

to the manufacturer's directions.

5. Periodically the saw should be gone over by a

qualified mechanic (this means one especially

trained in the construction and repair of the saw,

not any ordinary automobile mechanic). Manufacturers' representatives of most companies are being

established in logging areas to do this job, and to

give additional advice on operating and maintaining their particular make of saw. Periodically (after

1,500-1,800 hours of service) the entire motor

should be overhauled.

31
Operation of the Chain Saw

In the morning, before starting the day's work,

the saw should be thoroughly checked over. This

includes:

1. Tighten chain to manufacturer's specifications.

2. Fill oil reservoir and check oil flow to chain.

3. Mix oil and gasoline to proper proportions

and fill gas tank, straining mixture through a fine

screen or cloth.

4. On the two makes that permit, occasionally

reverse the guide rail, top for bottom, and at another time end for end, to equalize wear.

Before starting the saw, make sure that the guide

rail is adjusted so that the saw teeth making the

cut move toward the motor. Do not try to adjust

the guide rail while the motor is running.

Start the motor with a quick sharp pull on the

starter cord. A slow pull may cause an engine kickback.

In starting a saw cut, the bumper plate at the

motor end of the saw should be held tight against

the tree or log before the clutch is engaged. The

motor should be running at operating speed. In

bucking, the motor end of the saw can sometimes

be placed on the ground (fig. 83).

In making a cut with a chain saw, you can't pull

the blade straight into the cut as you would with a

crosscut saw. Instead, the bumper plate at the motor

end is placed against the tree at about the point

where it will be when the cut is finished. Once the

cut is started it is almost impossible to move the

motor end of the saw around the bulge of the tree.

The man at the tail end of the saw does most of the

work; he makes the cut by pulling the tail end of

the saw around into the wood. The actual cut, then,

is made fan-wise.

The man at the motor end has a heavy load to

support and plenty to do; so he should make sure

he has good footing. Since the motor makes so much

noise that ordinary conversation is impossible, the

two men on the saw should have a prearranged set

of signals.

The third man in the saw crew should direct

progress of the cut, transmit signals, do the necessary prying or wedging, and from time to time relieve one of the saw operators. Steel wedges should

F-425875

Figure 83.—The operator at the motor etui rests his toad on

the ground whenever possible.

never be used in back of a chain saw. They are apt

to tear up the teeth. Either wooden or the new lightweight magnesium wedges are much safer.

Most men unaccustomed to using a chain saw

will be surprised again and again at how fast it cuts.

Either in felling or bucking, the cut will often be

finished before they expect it. It is particularly important that provisions for the getaway and for protection of the saw become almost automatic. In

bucking, it is often desirable to block the log up

on one or both sides of the cut to prevent its falling

or rolling suddenly. For extremely dangerous cuts

it is good policy to use a crosscut saw instead. A

chain saw costs about 100 times as much as a crosscut saw, and it is much more easily broken up.

In carrying the saw from place to place the blade

should be placed in the upright position to avoid

putting a kink in it.

Given reasonable care and operated intelligently,

the chain saw promises to become the most effective

tool yet developed for increasing the productivity

of the northeastern logger, and for making his work

easier and safer.

32
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS HANDBOOK

WEDGES AND THEIR USE

->»- -(^

Very little work can be done in the woods without wedges. They are necessary in felHng, in bucking, and, of course, in spHtting wood. To the novice

wedges may seem simple, but the experienced

woodsman knows there is a lot to be learned about

them.

FELLING AND BUCKING

WEDGES

In felling, a tapered wedge is driven into the cut

behind the crosscut saw to keep it from binding.

Wedges serve the additional purpose of tipping the

tree on its stump in the direction selected for felling. With the skillful use of wedges, it is possible

to tip some trees in a direction opposite to the one

in which they lean. If the lean is greater than 4°

or 5°, the wedges will probably not be effective in

overcoming it, but it will still be possible to throw

such trees either to the right or to the left of the

direction of lean.

In bucking the log often rests heavily on both

ends with no support under the point where a cut

is to be made. As the crosscut works deeper, the

log begins to sag and thus forces the two sides of

the cut together. By driving in a wide wedge or

two, it is possible to hold the cut open until the

log is cut in two.

Wedges thus used to follow the saw are made

both of metal and of wood (fig. 84). They are from

5 to 10 inches long and usually not more than 1

inch thick at the head. Some of the metal ones have

an eye in the side through which a wire loop is in1

Figure S4.—Steel wedges for felling, A, and bucking, B.

The bucking wedge is scored.

serted. This is a convenient handle for use in removing the wedge from the cut and for carrying it

around in the woods. Several patterns are available.

The one to be chosen depends largely upon individual preference. Often, in the Northeast, the same

wedges are used for felling and bucking.

Metal wedges should be made of untempered

steel. Tempered steel wedges when hit with a tempered sledge are too likely to spall, and the flying

fragments can easily put out an eye. The use of

cast-iron wedges or cast-iron sledges should be

prohibited.

Often a wedge will fly back out of the cut, especially in frozen timber. This is caused by insuflSicient

friction between the wedge and the wood to counteract the pressure on its faces. To overcome this,

metal wedges are often scored across the face to give

them better holding properties. If the wedge has not

been scored at the factory, the logger can give it a

roughened face by using a cold chisel. In frozen

timber wood wedges and warmed metal wedges

stick better than cold ones.

Although the metal wedge is a tough and sturdy

tool, it does require some care. Under the constant

pounding of a sledge hammer the heads will gradually mushroom. A wedge in this condition is

highly dangerous. Small fragments of metal chip

off and fly through the air with considerable force

(fig. 85). Many a logger has lost an eye from being

struck by one of these flying particles of metal. To

reduce the danger, keep these mushroom tops

ground or filed away (fig. 86).

A cracked steel wedge should be discarded

immediately.

Some softwood cutters prefer to make their own

wedges out of dry hardwood found in snags and

windfalls in the woods. Hard maple, oak, ironwood,

dogwood, beech, and persimmon are all suitable, if

sound and well seasoned. Green hardwood is of no

use. A wooden wedge prepared with a saw is better

than one that is hewn. It has a more even taper and

33
a rougher surface, which holds better in the cut. A

good design for a hardwood wedge is shown in

figure 87. Rounded corners on the pounding end

resist spHtting better than square ones.

y^&h. W\^

Figure 85.—Beware of mushroomed wedge heads or hard

steel wedges.

necessary to get the fingers near the moving chain

at any time when the wedge is being driven into the

cut. Some operators bind the head of their chainsaw wedge with an iron band. This makes it stand

up longer under the pounding of the sledge hammer. But it is better to use a wooden maul for driving chain-saw wedges, as well as other wooden

wedges. The front edge of the chain-saw wedge

should be thick enough to engage the sides of the

kerf just as soon as it is inserted (fig. 88).

Figure 86.—A mushroomed head, A, should he ground oß.

B, Wedge after grinding.

INCH

6 ~ 9

INCHES

1-^ INCHES

-3 INCHES

Figure 87.—A hardwood wedge.

Iron or steel wedges should never be used with

a chain saw. The danger of driving the wedge into

the moving chain or of having the chain jump back

against the wedge is too great. Just one encounter

of this kind would wreck a chain that costs between

$30 and $50, and it might cause a bad accident. A

large wooden wedge is the thing to use. It should

be from 8 to 10 inches long so that it will not be

Figure 88.—A wooden wedge for use with chain saws.

Recently aluminum and magnesium wedges have

been put on the market for use with chain saws.

The magnesium wedges should never be driven

with a steel sledge or ax. A wooden, magnesiumfaced, or rawhide maul should be used. The aluminum wedges can be driven with steel.

Care should be taken in filing magnesium wedges

to reshape them or to remove broomed edges. Magnesium filings are highly inflammable; in fact, they

may ignite on contact with the air. Catch all such

filings in a fireproof box and dispose of them in

water or by burying.

SPLITTING WEDGES

splitting wedges are usually thicker than felling

and bucking wedges. Some are longer. Some are

patterned like a single-bit axhead; others are shaped

more like a huge cold chisel (fig. 89). All should

Figure 89.—Two types

splitting wedges.

of Figure 90.—A wood chopper's

maul.

34
be made ofsoft, untempered steel. A sledge or maul

weighing from 8 to 10 pounds should be used to

drive splitting wedges. Never use the single-bit ax

for this purpose. Do not let the wedges develop

mushroom heads.

Another very useful tool is the combination splitting ax and maul (fig. 90). It is most effective in

splitting 16-inch bolts into firewood.

EXPLOSIVE WEDGES

For several years timber operators have been

using black powder instead of wedges for splitting.

A hole or series of M- to 1-inch holes is bored in

the top side of the log, a small charge of black

powder or slow-burning dynamite is tamped into

each hole, a fuse or blasting cap is inserted, and

the whole thing is tamped tight with dry leaves,

wadded paper, or some similar substance. An electric firing machine and blasting caps are preferred

to fuses for this work, particularly if the charges

are to be set off in series, because they are surer and

the charges can be more easily set offsimultaneously.

A new development is the explosive wedge. Two

types are on the market (fig. 91). The flat type can

be driven into either the side or end of the log. It

has a powder chamber into which a charge of about

a teaspoonful of black powder is tamped, with a

fuse and suitable wadding. Then it is driven into

a sound place in the log. A driving cap is available

to prevent battering up the wedge head. This cap

also has hooks into which a section of log chain

can be hooked to keep the wedge from being blown

back too far by the explosion and lost. If a cap with

hooks is not available, wrap log chain around the

shank of the wedge.

i^j

Figure 91.—Explosive wedges: A, Round type; B, flat type.

The round type can be driven only into the end

of the stick. Consequently this wedge is generally

useful only for short bolts, although it is said to

have split bolts as long as 10 feet. The charge is

placed in the hole in the end of the wedge, and a

wadding to keep the charge dry is put over it. Then

the wedge is driven into sound wood in the end of

the bolt, up to the line scored on the wedge. A fuse

is placed in the hole provided for it. A block of

wood is placed against the exposed end ofthe wedge

to keep it from kicking out too far, and the charge

is set off (fig. 92). The original round-type wedge,

called the "Webber Splitting Gun," was developed

on the west coast primarily for use in splitting softwood fiiel wood. Its driving edge is too wide-angled,

and its head too soft for continued use with hardwoods. Special wedges of the same type, designed

primarily for hardwoods, have been placed on the

market in the Northeast.

Figure 92.—Splitting a log with explosives.

Explosive wedges can be dangerous tools. Powder

should be handled only by experienced men, or

under their direct supervision, and all men handling

powder should use every precaution and safety

measure possible, and should be guided by the

Federal Explosives Act and the instructions in or

on the powder containers. Some additional safety

hints follow:

1. No person should smoke while handling, storing, transporting, or working around powder.

2. Fuses should be kept clean and dry, and precautions should be taken against their being kinked

or abraded. No fuse that is wet, oil-soaked, kinked,

or damaged in any way should be used.

3. Metal tools should not be used around powder,

especially in opening powder boxes.

4. Frozen powder should be thawed only in small

quantities by using preheated water in a waterjacketed vessel. It should never be thawed by means

of an open fire, steam, hot water contact, or an electrical heating device.

5. Wooden tools should be used in tamping

powder into place.

35
6. When the shot is fired timely warning should

be given, and it should be heeded by everyone exposed to danger. If the shot does not go off, no one

should go near it for at least half an hour.

SPLITTING WOOD

splitting short bolts, for fuel or pulpwood, is

generally easy. Practically all our softwoods except

hemlock split easily if they are not too knotty.

Among the native hardwoods, those with interlocked grain, including sycamore, blackgum, and

elm, are almost impossible to split. The trick in

splitting knotty pieces is to locate a place where

the split can be made without running through or

near one or more of the knots.

In careful splitting of long bolts or logs a longitudinal ax cut is usually made along the top of the

piece, and a wedge driven into one end of it with

a steel maul. Then another wedge can be driven

into the split thus opened up farther along (fig.

93). This loosens the first wedge driven, and it can

be shifted to a new position still farther along. The

two wedges can thus be alternated until the entire

bolt is opened up. Two axes can be alternated like

the wedges, when the latter are not available or

when greater accuracy in splitting is desired. With

axes you can keep the split straight by cutting across

the grain when the split starts to go to one side.

In splitting short bolts ofsoftwood for kindling,

the expert axman holds them against a log in an

angled position with his toe, and then with carefully controlled blows of his ax, each blow ending

in a slight twist, reduces them to the size desired

(fig. 94). This is a trick definitely not recommended

for amateur axmen.

Figure 94.—Positions for splitting kindling. A, The safer

position; B, a position to be avoided except by highly skilled

axmen.

THE FROE

The froe (fig. 95) is the traditional tool for splitting a bolt or cant into wooden shingles or shakes.

The split is started by placing the froe blade on the

end ofthe bolt and pounding its back with a wooden

maul.

Figure 9^.—Methods of splitting long bolts or logs. A, With

wedges; B, with two axes.

Figure 95.—Thefroe, usefulfor making split shingles or shakes.

A brake, consisting of a crotch (fig. 96) or a

couple of staked-down logs, holds the bolt being

split and provides a backstop for springing the rift.

This is done by pulling and pushing on the froe

36
handle as the blade is forced down through the

wood. When the split tends to go off the line intended, the blade is struck a few times with the

maul to cut across the fibers and bring the split

back to the line.

For making good shingles or shakes, straightgrained wood that will split easily is needed. Clear

white pine was one of the favorites in the old days.

Notches can still be found on old white pine trees

where early shake makers tested their splitting qualities. But knot-free "punkin pine" is now almost a

thing of the past in the Northeast. White-cedar,

spruce, ash, basswood, and most of the oaks are

other woods that generally split easily and cleanly.

Figure 96.—A, Driving froe with maul; B, straightening the

split—^*springing the rift,''

37

NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

PEAVIES, CANT HOOKS, AND PULP

HOOKS

->»^

Peavies, cant hooks, and pulp hooks are among

the most useful of the logger's tools. With their

assistance he can easily and quickly move logs and

bolts that he could scarcely budge otherwise.

THE PEAVY

The peavy was invented in 1858 by Joseph

Peavey, a blacksmith in Stillwater, Maine. Elsewhere the tool has taken the ñame of its inventor,

but in the Maine woods it is simply called a cant

dog.

The dog, or hook, is hinged to a tapered iron

socket in which a wood stock is inserted (fig. 97).

Figure 97.—The peavy, or cant dog.

The stock, or handle, may be from iVi to S feet

long. Northeastern loggers prefer the 4- or 5-foot

length. In the small end of the socket is inserted a

square-tapered pick point. This is sometimes merely

driven into the stock. Some of the more recent

patterns have a pick that is forged out of the small

end of the socket.

Dogs are made in several patterns—each designed

to meet a special purpose. The bill may be round,

octagonal, duck-bill, or chisel-shaped (fig. 98). The

round or octagonal points are preferred for summer

work because they do not stick in the wood. The

duck-bill pattern is good for handling frozen timber,

hardwoods, and hard, dry snags. The chisel point is

more often used on cant hooks.

The peavy is used to pry or roll logs. It takes

Figure 98.—Types ofpeavy dogs.

about as much experience to be a good peavyman

as to be a good axman. The beginner should be

content to roll the log from behind (fig. 99). Until

he learns the ways of logs, there is grave danger in

pulling from the front. The log is too likely to roll

onto his foot or even crush his leg.

The peavyman should constantly watch that a

log rolled from behind does not run up on a hump,

and, when he is changing his grip, roll back on his

foot. The experienced man can catch his hook even

in a rolling log and give it just the right twist—

either forward or backward—to make it go where

he wants it. When it is necessary to change the

course of the rolling log, he jabs his pick in the

ground and retards one end just enough to turn it

B V^

Figure 99.—Using the peavy. A, The safer way; B, rolling

logs toward you is dangerous.

39
as he wishes (fig. 100). Two good peavymen working together seem to handle a log with little effort,

and almost make it obey their will.

Figure 100.—Guiding a rolling log with a peavy.

The peavy is often used as an ordinary lever with

the dog dangling loose. It is handy for prying logs

up onto blocks to keep the saw from pinching in

bucking. It is useful in prying felled trees away

from their stumps and even in pushing trees over

in the direction in which they are to fall. This last

may require a "killig" (fig. 101).

CANT HOOKS

The cant hook is designed like the peavy except

that it has no point on the end (fig. 102). The bottom of the stock is fitted with a metal thimble which

has a bill on the side opposite the dog. This bites

into the log to furnish a grip. The dog is hinged to

a short socket. Several patterns of bill are available.

The cant hook is used more frequently on the log

deck at the mill, or at the landing in the woods. It

is primarily a tool for rolling logs. Cant hooks with

^

It« IC^

Figure 102.—A, The cant hook; B, hog-nose toe ring; C, crowfoot, for handling square timbers.

Figure 101.—How a ^^killig'* works.

To make a "killig," a strong hardwood pole is cut

on the site. It is notched at one end and given a

wedge point at the other. The notch is vertical and

the wedge point is horizontal. The point is then

placed in a notch cut as high on the tree trunk as

the axman can reach. The notched end of the pole

is braced against the peavy handle just above the

hinge. The pike is thrust into firm ground, or into a

root if one happens to be convenient. By pushing

forward on the peavy handle, it is possible to exert

several times the ordinary pole pressure against the

tree and aid in directing the fall.

The peavy is also a usefiil tool in tightening binding chains around logs on sleds or trucks.

Figure 103.—Use of a log jack. A, First position; B, second

position.

40
handles only 2 feet long are very useful on the log

deck of a small sawmill.

Another useful type of cant hook recently put on

the market is the log jack (fig. 103). The U-shaped

metal strap welded to the stock opposite the dog

forms a support for the log when it is rolled over.

This raises the log several inches off the ground and

provides a convenient block to hold a small log

while it is being bucked.

PULP HOOKS

The pulp hook (fig. 104) is a short, one-hand

tool, used for handling short bolts or 4-foot pulpwood. Many pulp hooks are made by local black- Figure 104.—The pulp book.

Figure 105.—The saje way. A, is to hook the end of the stick, not the side, B, where hook may glance off.

Figure 106.—The pulp hook is useful in handlingfrozen wood.

41
smiths on many different patterns. The essential

requirement is that the hook be made of goodgrade steel. The point must not be so hard that it

will break off in frozen wood, nor so soft that it will

bend or broom. A square-tapered blunt point rather

than a sharp, round one seems to hold better in the

wood, and it is less dangerous to the user. Oval

handles that will not turn give a better control of

the tool.

The pulp hook is particularly useful in jerking

sticks out of a frozen pile. It is used widely on pulpwood jobs in the North.

In using the pulp hook, it is safest to strike the

point into the end of the stick, where it will embed

itself easily (fig. 105). Then, getting your free arm

under the other end, you can toss the stick where

you want it (fig. 106). It is not so easy to embed

the hook in the side of a stick. It is more dangerous,

and the hook does not hold so well. In using the

pulp hook in any way you must be constantly on

guard against missing the wood and driving the

hook into your knee or leg.

42
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS HANDBOOK

TOOLS FOR PEELING WOOD

Wood is peeled for one ot two reasons: (1) To get

rid of the bark because it will interfere with some

manufacturing process such as pulping; or (2) to

make use of the bark for some purpose such as the

extraction of tannin from hemlock and chestnut

oak. Until labor became scarce during the past war,

more wood was being peeled every year. Even the

sawmills were finding that peeled logs were more

satisfactory. Their saws required less sharpening and

cut faster and more accurately; and bark-free slabs

and edgings were salable for pulpwood and other

products that bring a higher price than mill-waste

fuel. Veneer plants also prefer peeled bolts.

Much wood is peeled by mechanical debarkers at

the mill, but these machines have many disadvantages. Some waste a great deal of wood in the

barking process. Others do not remove bark very

cleanly; they leave long strings of undesired inner

bark on the bolts. Most are expensive to install and

to operate, and cannot be taken into the woods, so

that the heavy unbarked bolts have to be transported to them. Consequently, clean, light, handpeeled wood is still much in demand. Many mills

are willing to pay a premium of about $5 a cord to

get it. A number of portable mechanical debarkers

are now in the development stage, but so far none

of them is as efficient as the man with the spud or

drawshave.

Wood is most easily peeled in the spring and

early summer when, as the loggers say, "the sap is

up." Over most of the Northeast softwoods can be

peeled from May 1 until about the middle ofJuly.

The hardwood bark-peeling season is shorter, often

not extending beyond the middle ofJune.

THE SPUD

The tool used for sap peeling is the spud. For

most softwoods (hard pines, spruce, fir, and hemlock) and for medium-sized hardwoods, a slender

spud is used. The simplest pattern is a long, thin,

^^

and slightly curved chisel with a handle (fig.

107, A). Many are made from halves of old automobile or buggy spring leaves, and they work very

well. A wooden handle should be riveted on the

cut-offend. The completed spud should be 24 to

30 inches long for medium-sized trees. For very

small timber a spud only 12 to 15 inches long is

favored. For large, heavy-barked hardwoods, especially hickory, a longer, heavier spud is needed to

obtain sufficient leverage.

The favorite spud in the Northeast is the one first

developed for peeling hemlock (fig. 107, B). It is

now widely used on spruce pulpwood jobs, particularly in the Adirondacks. It has a straight or slightly

curved blade about 1V4 inches wide. The point is

rounded. In the upper part of the metal shank is a

socket into which is fitted a turned hardwood

handle. The metal part is about 15 inches long and

the handle is about 12 inches long. One side of the

blade has a special hook ground to a sharp edge.

This is used to cut through the bark before the

blade is inserted under it.

Some peelers prefer the saucer spud developed in

Maine (fig. 107, C). This, as its name would indicate, has a saucer-shaped chisel, which is very good

for loosening the bark from the wood after a slit has

been started. The shape of this spud is particularly

well adapted to loosening bark around knots. The

saucer spud is usually 24 to 30 inches long, including the handle, but for small timber many peelers

reduce the handle to little more than an inch, giving

them a spud about 15 inches long.

Other narrow spud patterns have been developed

in various localities. One (fig. 107, D) is very popular in western Maryland for peeling oak and northern

hardwoods, and in Maine for spruce.

For granular-marked hardwoods such as sycamore,

beech, and cherry a wider spud is needed. One commercially available is made for peeling cedar poles

(fig. 107, E). It is shaped something like a straightened-out garden hoe. Poles are usually cut when the

43
6

Figure 101.—Types of spuds. A, Madefrom auto spring; B, spudfor hemlock; C, saucer-shaped; D, narrow spud, Javored/or use

en hardwoods; E, spudfor cedar; f, made from spade.

sap is down, and peeling them, even with this tool,

is a considerable chore. For use on hardwoods the

corners of the cedar spud should be rounded off.

The blade should be curved, and most users cut

down the 4-foot handle. Other hardwood spuds are

made from steel bars or from old hoes or from

spades (fig. 107, F).

In operations where the bark is to be saved, the

peeler first slits the bark along the top of the log

and chops or slits it around the log at about 4-foot

intervals (fig. 108). Then, by inserting the point of

the spud, he skins the bark off, first on the far side

and then on the near side. It should come off in

long sheets. When the object is merely to remove

the bark, the peeler does not bother with slitting

around the log. He lets the bark split where it will

(fig. 109), often leaving the bark for the entire tree

in one piece.

When the spud is dull, or it and the peeler's

hands are covered with gum or pitch from resinous

woods, it is likely to get out of control. As he works

on the lower portion of the far side of the log the

F-38H95

Figure 108.—Peeling oß hemlock tanbark.

F-381553

Figure 109.—Getting rid of aspen bark.

44
spud can penetrate the bark and slice into his shins

(fig. 110). On the top of the near side it can sHce

through and cut his thigh or groin. The fact that

the peeling season in the north woods is also the

season for mosquitoes, "punkies," and "black flies"

accounts for many of the accidents with spuds.

Liberal applications of kerosene will help to keep

the tool and the peeler's hands free of pitch, and

"fly-dope"—even though it is only the old stand-by,

pine tar and lard—will help to keep the insect pests

in check.

Brush scythe blades are frequently used in peeling

wood in the southern part of the region, but it is

diflicult to put handles on them and they are extremely dangerous to use.

Figure 110.—Barking time is hug time; so be careful, especially

when barking the underside of a log.

DRAWSHAVES OR TIMBERSHAVES

Sometimes it is necessary to peel by hand wood

that is not in sap-peeling condition. Then the common spud is useless. Special broad-edged spuds, like

the cedar spud, can be used, but the favorite tool is

the slow and tiresome drawshave (fig. 111). This

tool is much like the one used by carpenters except

that the blade is heavier. Only one edge of the blade

is beveled. In shaving off" the bark this beveled edge

is next to the log. Many users bend the handles outward, as shown, to give them a better grip. Drawshaved or "rossed" wood stacks closer in the cord,

and brings a dollar more a cord than sap-peeled

wood in New York and New England.

Figure 111.—A, The drawshave; B, handle bent outwardfor

better grip.

FRONT

TOP

Figure 112.—The timbershave.

Many peelers prefer the timbershave (fig. 112),

which has handles extending straight out from the

ends of the blade. It is also curved to fit the contour

of the log. This type gives a better grip, and offers

less chance for skinned knuckles. The curved blade

is said to make faster peeling possible, especially on

small logs.

On the Eastern Shore of Maryland and in Delaware a flexible-blade drawshave, usually made from

an old bucksaw blade, has become very popular for

peeling pine poles and piling.

SHAVING HORSES

If the wood to be peeled is already in 4-foot

lengths, or in similar short bolts, it is desirable to

have a shaving horse (fig. 113). This is often made

Figure 113.—A shaving horse.

879896 O—50- 45
on the pattern of a bucksaw horse except that it

should be heavy enough so it will not tip over. In

some cases it may be best to stake the legs down

by driving pegs in the ground and wiring the legs

to them. It is easier to drawshave wood on a level

or slightly uphill pull than on a down grade; so one

pair of legs is frequently made longer than the other.

In another type of shaving horse especially

adapted to 5-foot bolts (fig. 114) the bolt rests at

its center in a hardwood crotch, which fits loosely

in a hole bored in the top of the horse. When the

near end is shaved, the peeler turns the bolt lengthwise in the crotch and shaves the other end. A pad,

usually a burlap bag filled with straw, makes his

seat. The back legs of the horse should be longer

than those in front so that the bolt being peeled

will be about level.

The best way to drawshave a log or pole is to

place one end on another log or on a long, stout

sawhorse (fig. 115). The peeler straddles the log and

works backward, rolling the log as he goes. If the

log is of any size, he may have a partner roll it with

a cant hook or get off and do the rolling himself.

The drawshave is, or should be, a sharp-edged

tool. It should be kept under careful control at

all times to avoid cutting the knees, thigh, or

groin. Some peelers w^ear a leather apron.

Figure 114.—Another type of shaving horse; the crotch swivels

around. Figure 115.—Shaving a log.

46
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS* HANDBOOK

FELLING

J^ .^

Felling is about the most difficult and dangerous

part of the logger's job. The skills and judgment

required cannot be attained by reading a few pages

of a handbook. The best that can be hoped for from

the suggestions offered here is that those who read

them will avoid some ofthe more common mistakes.

DIRECTION OF FALL

Before putting ax or saw to the tree, it is necessary to size it up carefully and decide just where the

tree should be dropped. Frequently the choice is

limited by the lay-out of the operation and the location of the tree. Inexperienced woodsmen may make

unnecessary work for themselves and take unnecessary chances of injury by jumping into the job too

hastily.

_____ ^^

If the tree is leaning not more than 5°, has about

the same size of limbs all around, and is not being

pushed by a strong breeze, the fallers can drop it in

any direction they choose. This is done by proper

location of the cuts, by the use of wedges to tip it

on the stump, and sometimes by the use of a long

pole, which is pushed against the trunk 15 or 20

feet from the ground. All these will be discussed

later.

Big trees that lean noticeably or have heavy

branches on one side can seldom be thrown in the

opposite direction (fig. 116) without using a block

and tackle or similar equipment, ordinarily not

available in the woods. Most of these leaners, however, can be thrown 45° to the right or to the left

of the direction in which they would naturally fall.

It is up to the faller to decide just where in this arc

his tree should be directed.

It is always dangerous to fell a tree into another

one, either of which has dead branches. These are

likely to snap off and fly through the air (fig. 117).

These flying limbs are called "widow makers."

It is also unwise to fell a tree straight up a steep

slope. The tree may bounce as it strikes the slope

Figure 116.—Don*t try the impossible* Figure 117.—Watch outfor **widow makers.**

47
and its butt may kick back over the stump to strike

the unsuspecting faller who thought he was safely

away from danger. The butt of the tree may also

strike on one side or the other of the stump. There

is no way of telling what it will do. The best way

is to fell the tree diagonally on the hillside and seek

safety on the upper side of the stump away from the

direction of the fall.

Trees felled straight down a steep slope are likely

to be shattered by the fall—particularly ifthe ground

is rough. It is bad practice to let a tree fall across a

large rock or stump or another log. Obstructions

like these are likely to break the stem and cause

much waste of good timber. Felling across a gully

or across a sharp ridge will also shatter the log.

Still another hazard to be considered in felling a

tree is that it may become lodged in the branches

of another and fail to come down (fig. 118). Half

a day can be wasted in bringing down a lodged tree.

stem first one way and then the other, making a

slanting downward cut near the base (fig. 120).

Low-hanging limbs are removed in the same way.

Figure 118.—Lodging is a serious hazard.

CLEAR WORKING SPACE

Once the direction in which the tree is to fall is

determined, the next step is to clear away brush and

low-hanging branches that could interfere with the

use of ax and saw as the faller works at the base of

the tree. Small wisps of brush are clipped off close

to the ground by holding the ax in one hand near

the point of balance and the brush in the other.

Pulling on the brush provides the necessary resistance to a slicing cut (fig. 119). Larger brush and

small trees are cut one-handed also by bending the

Figure 119.—Clearing away small brush.

Figure 120.—Clearing away saplings.

Getting rid of the brush and low limbs is necessary

to give the ax full freedom in its swing. The chopper

who thinks he doesn't need to take such precautions

may, sooner or later, get his own ax in his neck.

MAKING THE UNDERCUT

The undercut is made on the side toward which

the tree is to fall. Its functions are to provide a fulcrum and hinge point on which to tip the tree off

A%
the stump in the right direction. The stump should

be not more than 12 inches above the ground level

on the upper side of the tree. In the past there has

been much waste of good wood by leaving stumps

too high. Low stumps are also less of a hindrance

to skidding. Exception to the 12-inch rule must be

made, of course, when a rock or some other obstruction makes a low stump impossible, when the tree

butt is too rotten to be cut safely, or when it probably contains nails or other metal. This is very often

true of trees in an old sugar bush or fence row.

Undercuts were once made entirely with an ax.

Now, except for the smaller trees, a horizontal saw

cut is usually made first, to a depth of about onequarter the diameter of the tree. In small trees it

may be best to make a shallower cut to permit a

wedge to follow the saw on the opposite side. Large

leaning trees require a deeper undercut. The usual

practice is to chop the notch above the saw cut on

a 45° angle. A larger notch requires unnecessary

chopping and a smaller one is too hard to make

(fig. 121).

."S'i^v.^ «-^

1

TOO MUCH TOO LITTLE

Figure 121.—How to make an undercut.

An inexperienced chopper will have trouble in

getting the chips to fall out properly. The best

method of chopping is to bury only part of the ax

edge in the wood at each stroke. If the heel or nose

of the blade is exposed, the chip tends to roll off

easily (fig. 122). This can be done by working first

the near side, then the far side, and then the center

of the undercut. In large trees it is necessary to cut

a small notch first and then chip down the fullsized notch (fig. 123). In very large trees it may be

best to make two small notches into one large notch.

Figure 122.—How to make the chipsJail easily.

Figure 123.—A big notchJor big trees.

F-382747

Figure 124.—Testing the undercut.

49
When the undercut is completed it is well to

check its direction. The crease at the back side

should be straight and at right angles to the direction in which the tree is to fall. One simple test is

to push the head of a double-bit ax into the crotch

made by the undercut. The handle should then

point in the direction in which the tree is to fall

(fig. 124). West coast fallers carry a compass-like

tool they call a "gun stick." The two points are

placed one at each edge of the undercut (fig. 125).

The apex then points in the direction in which the

tree is to fall. This little device is easily made from

scraps of lumber. It might be useful in some of the

larger timber of the Northeast.

Direction of foil

^Undercut

Figure 12 5.—How the "gun stick" works.

MAKING THE BACKCUT

The backcut (fig. 126) is almost always made

with the saw. It should be about 2 inches higher

than the bottom of the undercut. The cut, normally,

should be kept parallel with the undercut until only

an inch or two of holding wood is left. If the tree

has not fallen by this time, it should be tipped over

by driving in one or two felling wedges behind the

saw. Do not saw deeper into the holding wood.

This is needed to serve as a hinge that will guide

the tree as it falls. When a two-man crosscut saw is

used to make the backcut, each sawyer should keep

his partner informed of how near the saw is to the

undercut so that one side will not be cut offtoo soon.

Backcut

WHEN THE TREE FALLS

Each man should plan his getaway before starting

to saw. Some trees, especially if they have rot in

them, let loose and fall in a hurry (fig. 127). It

should also be decided who will remove the saw.

Many saws have been ruined by leaving them on

or near the stump. Never stand close to the stump.

There is always danger that the butt will kick back

or sideways. The wise faller quickly gets back and

to one side of his sawing position and (preferably

from behind another tree) carefully watches the tree

as it falls, alert to dodge kick-backs or "widow

makers." Well before the tree goes over one of the

fallers shouts "Timber-r-r-r!" to warn anyone who

may happen to be in the woods. This may, at first,

seem a little silly; but do it anyhow. More men are

Figure 126.—How the backcut is made.

F-317555

Figure 127.—When the tree starts to go, get out of the way.

50
killed in the woods from falling trees than from any

other cause. Never take it for granted that there is

nobody but you and your partner around.

LEANING TREES

When a tree leans slightly in a direction different

from the one in which it should be dropped, the

direction of fall can be changed a little by "holding

a corner." This is done in the backcut simply by

leaving more wood on the side opposite the one

toward which it leans (fig. 128). This acts as a holdback to twist the tree away from the direction in

which it leans.

Direction of fall

Direction of lean

Figure 12S.—"*Holding a corner'* in sawing a leaning tree.

Wedging, either by itself or in combination with

this special backcut, can be used to alter the direction of fall. One or more felling wedges are driven

into the backcut on the leaning side (fig. 129). This

helps to tip the tree into an upright position from

which it can be made to fall in the desired direction.

A gusty wind can sometimes be used to help fell

a tree in the direction wanted. If the wind is blowing exactly in the desired direction, the fallers

merely adjust their rate of cutting so that the last

Direction of lean

Direction of fall

few inches of wood are cut when the breeze is steady

enough to take the tree over. If the wind is coming

from the opposite direction, the problem is much

more difficult. The cutters will have to time their

work so that their sawing is finished exactly at the

time when the wind has died down and the tree is

swaying back from the force of the gust. On some

days when the wind is changeable, felling may become so dangerous that it should be discontinued

altogether.

Small trees can, of course, be pushed over in almost any direction by hand. The ax should never

be used to aid in this kind of pushing. It is likely

to slip out of the tree trunk and it can give the person using it a nasty cut. A pole from 12 to 16 feet

long with a metal spike on the end is much safer

and gives far better leverage (fig. 130). Hold the

end of it against the shoulder or against the hip—

not against the stomach. For large trees where more

power is necessary, a ''killig" may be used (see

p. 40).

Figure 129.—Use of wedges on a leaning tree.

Figure 130.—Never push a tree over with an ax; use a pole.

Trees leaning in the direction of fall can be dangerous. They are apt to fall prematurely, splintering

the stem and thrashing the butt around in unpredictable directions. One common result is the

''barber-chair" stump (fig. 131). This splitting

spoils the most valued part of the tree—the butt

log. One method that will usually prevent a leaning tree fi-om splitting in this way is called "sawing

off the corners." The backcut is halted before there

is any danger that the tree will fall. Then each

corner is sawed off at an angle. The same result may

be obtained by chopping out the corners of the

undercut (fig. 132, ^).

Another method used to reduce splitting oflarge

bad leaners or hollow-butted trees is to fasten a log

chain around the base of the tree just above the

backcut. A few wedges driven between the chain

and the tree will tighten the chain and prevent serious spHtting (fig. 132, B).

51
Figure 131.—A **barber-chair'* stump.

Wedges Log chain

Figure 1^2.—Methods to prevent splitting of tree. A, Chopping out the corners; B, binder made of log chain.

Some valuable leaning trees that can be dropped

only in the direction of the lean can be cut threefourths through from the leaning side. The saw is

then removed, and the cut completed from the backcut side. Splitting or pulling slivers from the center

of the log can be avoided by this method. A good

general rule to remember is: "The greater the lean

the deeper the undercut." All these methods help

greatly in preventing the trunk from splitting.

ROTTEN TREES

Rotten-butted trees present a difficult felling

problem. It is very hard to anticipate the time or

the direction of their fall. Most serious accidents in

felling occur in attempting to bring down rottenbutted trees. If possible, make the felling cuts high

enough (fig. 133) to avoid the worst of the rot. This

not only results in safer felling, but also saves the

time required to saw the rotten wood off the butt

log. When the rot goes up the tree too high for

this, it may be possible to chop or saw around the

rot with cornering cuts (fig. 134) similar to those

used for leaning trees.

When the butt of the tree is badly rotted, it is

much safer to chop it down and not use the saw

at all.

Be more than usually alert when felling a rottenbutted tree. It is likely to fall at almost any time

and the direction in which it falls is very difficult to

control.

Figure 133.—A stump

high to avoid rot.

cut Figure 134.—Sawing around

rot.

FELLING WITH THE CHAIN SAW

In felling with the chain saw a slightly different

technique is called for. In the first place, with the

power saw an uphill cut is much more feasible than

it is with hand tools. Consequently many chain-saw

fallers miake their undercut upside-down, sawing

out both sides. This type of cut, which was originated in California, is called the Humboldt (fig.

135). Its principal advantage is that it leaves a more

nearly flat end on the butt log, and wastes less of

the most valuable lumber in the tree than the conventional undercut. It takes a little practice for the

two sawyers working together to make the corners

of the Humboldt cut come out exactly even every

time.

Figure 135.—T>&e Humboldt

undercut.

Figure \^6.—The parallel

undercut.

52
Easier for inexperienced men, but slightly more

work, is the cut made with two parallel sides (fig.

136). The top cut of this type of undercut is slightly

below the level of the backcut so it, too, results in

a complete butt log. The wood between the two

parallel saw cuts is gouged out with a Pulaski tool,

which is an adze-like blade attached at the back of

a single-bit ax (fig. 137).

Figure 137.—The Pulaski tool.

Conventional undercuts, with the top part

chopped out, are also used with the chain saw, especially for smaller timber. For very small trees, a

simple saw cut, or no undercut at all, may be used.

The greatest difference in working with the chain

saw, as compared with hand tools, is the rapidity

with which it cuts. Old-time woodcutters are continually astounded at how quickly they can chew

through a sizable hardwood. A 24-inch sugar maple

has been cut through in 30 seconds, and a 54-inch

pine in 70 seconds. Hand felling would take at least

five times as long.

Consequently, it is much more important for each

ofthe fallers to have his getaway route well in mind,

and for them to guard constantly against cutting

the tree all the way through. Since the saw motor

makes so much noise it is also well for them to

have a set of signals, to tell each other how close to

the undercut each side is getting, and to signal each

other when to stop the motor for wedging or any

other reason. The third man in the saw crew is valuable for transmitting these signals, as well as for

relieving regular crew members to reduce fatigue.

Whenever possible the chain saw should be removed from the cut and put in a safe place before

wedging is started. If this is impossible the two

men handling the saw should take it out as soon as

the tree starts to tip. Many a good chain saw has

been ruined by leaving it on or too close to the

stump.

GETTING DOWN LODGED

TREES

Even the best of fallers sometimes lodge a cut tree

in a standing one. An exceptionally sturdy limb on

either the tree being felled or the one in its way

may fail to bend as expected; or the cut tree may

fall or twist a little out of line. The better and more

experienced the felling crew the fewer trees they

will lodge. But all cutters need to know how to

dislodge such trees.

Such dislodging may be easy and safe, or it may

be very difficult and dangerous, depending on conditions. No one method will work every time. It is

important to be able to diagnose how firmly a tree

is lodged, and what method of getting it down

might work (fig. 138).

Figure 138.—A lodged tree is dangerous. Study it carefully.

If the tree is lightly lodged, cutting it loose from

its stump and prying it off to the ground is sometimes enough. Pushing or twisting it loose is the

next step, which is frequently successful when only

the ends of the branches are caught. Prying the

whole tree backward away from the one in which

it is lodged is a more strenuous measure for more

difficult cases (fig. 139). Climbing up the inclined

trunk of the lodged tree and attempting to shake it

loose by jumping up and down on it is a highly

53
Figure 139.—Prying the butt back sometimes frees a lodged

tree.

dangerous procedure, not recommended for even the

most experienced men (fig. 140). Many serious injuries and even deaths have resulted from attempting

this.

Cutting off the butt log of the lodged tree, either

with a saw or ax, is another highly dangerous practice that is sometimes used (fig. I4l). Much safer,

and likely to be even more effective, is felling

another tree across the lodged one. If this second

tree is 18 or 20 feet away, and hits the lodged tree

solidly a similar distance up its trunk, it may break

it loose.

g;^^v==¿=#

(^

Figure 141.—Cutting the butt log off a lodged tree is dangerous.

Avoid doing this.

Figure 142.—A tractor can usually pull a lodged tree loose.

Ml*

Figure 140.—Climbing on a lodged tree to shake it loose is

very dangerous. Never do it.

The safest and best way to free a lodged tree is to

hitch a tractor or horse to the butt of the tree and

pull it down (fig. 142).

Figure 143.—A last resort. Only a very quick man should

attempt this.

54
Perhaps the most dangerous practice of all is to

cut the tree in which the first one is lodged (fig.

143). This is particularly dangerous because it is

difficult to judge the stresses involved, or the way

the two trees will fall, or the time they will fall. If

this method becomes necessary it is best to have the

most experienced and alert man in the crew do it

by chopping alone, because he will be in a better

position for a getaway than a saw crew, and better

able to judge when and in what direction to run.

LAY-OUT OF THE FELLING JOB

The general lay-out of the felling job is highly important. This ordinarily is the responsibility of the

logging superintendent, but the woodcutter should

know something about it.

Where conditions permit, much time and work

can be saved by felling the trees so that the tops

the trees so that they can be removed most easily.

This generally means felling them with the butts

toward the road at about a 45 ° angle. On some softwood pulp jobs in dense stands exactly the opposite

course is followed. The trees are felled away from

the remaining standing timber, with their tops

toward the road (fig. 145). This reduces lodging,

and a heavier load can be carried under the tractor

arch when the trees are hauled in top first.

SIZE OF FELLING CREW

The size of the felling crew may vary from one

man to eight or more, depending on the type of

timber being cut, the amount of limbing and

swamping to be done, and the method of logging.

On softwood pulp jobs in the north woods, felling is most frequently done by one man working

alone, equipped with a "boy's ax," a 42-inch bow

O ^^^^5^ -<V*K^

Figure 144.—Felling along parallel roads. Figure 145.—Felling with tops toward the road.

and branches can be left where they fall. On some

operations where parallel roads are provided, all

trees are felled away from the road, so that the tops

are windrowed in the middle of the space between

the roads (fig. 144). On other jobs the tops of several trees are felled together in a "jackpot." Tops

should never be dropped into a road or skid trail if

it can possibly be avoided.

It is important, particularly on jobs where the tree

trunks are to be skidded out in long lengths, to fell

saw, a kerosene bottle, and some hardwood wedges.

Payment is by the cord, and the men find they make

much more money working alone.

On hardwood pulp and mine-timber jobs twoman crews are most common. The crew is equipped

with a narrow crosscut saw, a man-sized ax, steel

wedges and a maul, and, if the wood is to be bucked,

a measuring pole.

On sawlog jobs in softwood a two-man crew is

also common. Equipment generally consists of a

55
heavy crosscut saw, a 3^/^-pound ax, kerosene bottle,

wooden wedges, and, if the logs are to be bucked

in the woods, a measuring pole.

Hardwood sawlog jobs are more likely to require

a three-man crew, equipped with a crosscut saw, ax,

steel wedges, and a maul. For bucking the crew will

usually also carry a measuring pole and a peavy to

assist in handling the logs.

The advent of the two-man chain saw has resulted in even larger crews. The saw is heavy, and

using it continuously is tiring. It is also an expensive piece of equipment, both to buy and maintain.

Under most conditions about three swampers and

limbers are needed to keep up with one chain saw

used for felling; otherwise, the saw is idle a large

part of the time while the saw crew does the necessary ax work. Therefore five to seven men are needed

in the felling crew (fig. 146), so that the chain saw

is in use continuously enough to justify its cost and

upkeep. Operation of such a crew calls for carefijl

organization and management, but, properly run,

such crews are turning out 3 to 10 times the work

of the ordinary two- or three-man felling crews

equipped only with hand tools.

CONSERVATION IN FELLING

Young trees, particularly those of the more valuable species, should be protected for future growth

and later cuts wherever and whenever possible. A

good logger will never unnecessarily destroy promising young growth by cutting it when it really is not

in the way, or by wantonly dropping older trees into

it (fig. 147). Most old-timers have seen the same

tract cut over two or three times and they know

that they, or their sons, will again want good timber

to cut.

Figure 146.—A chain-sawJelling crew. Figure 147.—Provide forfuture crops.

56
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

LIMBING AND BUCKING

->»- -$^

LIMBING

After the tree is on the ground, the next step is

the removal of its Hmbs. This operation is known

as Hmbing. Almost all of it is done with the ax.

The limb should be cut from its lower side, cutting from the base toward the top of the tree. The

stub of the limb should be left even with the surfece

of the tree bark. Logs—even pulp sticks—that have

been carelessly limbed are hard to skid and hard to

load. There is no excuse for such work.

Limbing is like other chopping in most ways. The

same grips on the ax handle are used and the swing

is the same. Much of it does, however, have to be

performed in constricted and awkward positions.

Some limbs are large and some are small. This calls

for good judgment as to the right amount of force

to be put behind each swing of the ax. The danger

of accidents from an ax that has been deflected by

branches is much greater than it is with clear chopping. One good precaution is to clear away interfering branches before attempting to chop a large

limb. Wherever possible the axman should cut

RIGHT

POSITION

limbs on the opposite side of the log and swing the

ax away from himself (fig. 148).

The inexperienced chopper should do very little

limbing while standing on the tree trunk. As he

gains experience and surer control of his ax, he will

be able to work safely in the more hazardous positions.

For large limbs, particularly on hardwoods, it is

often necessary to cut a notch similar to that used

in cutting down a tree (fig. 149). Cut from the lower

Figure 148.—Safe and dangerous positionsfor limbing.

Figure 149.—Cutting ojf a large limb.

side of the limb, as always, and keep the bottom of

the notch even with the trunk surface. The vertical

side of the notch should slope somewhat with the

angle of the limb. Often a larger notch is easier to

cut than a smaller one. The downward cut is made

with the grain of the wood and not directly across it.

A word should be said about hemlock knots. On

dead limbs especially these are very hard. It is sometimes better to break off small limbs with the heel

of the ax than to try to chop them. It is easy to take

a huge nick out of the ax by swinging too hard at

right angles to a hemlock limb. This is most likely

to happen in cold weather when the ax itself is

more brittle. When it is cold, warm the ax bit between your hands before using it on such limbs, and

if possible use one with a blunter taper than is best

for ordinary chopping. As a final precaution, chop

57
lightly at an angle to, or with the grain, and do not

attempt to twist out the chips.

Big limbs on hardwoods are often easier to saw

off than to chop off.

CUTTING PINNED-DOWN

SAPLINGS

A dangerous job that goes along with limbing

is the cutting off of bowed-over saplings, the tops

of which have been pinned down by the falling tree.

These should never be cut by giving either the top

or the butt a whack with the ax from the outside.

They will usually spring out like a catapult when

treated this way. Many a logger has received a broken

jaw from such a released sapling. The trick is to cut

the bowed-over tree from the inside, or, if this is

impossible, to give the strained fibers on the outside

a light touch with the ax, which will release the

strain before chopping off the sapling.

BUCKING

As woods operations have become more mechanized, the bucking operation—cutting the tree into

log lengths—has been shifting from the stump location to the landing by the roadside, or even to the

plant where the wood is utilized. This trend is expected to continue. There is economy in handling

long logs or tree-length timber when the quantity

to be handled justifies the purchase of heavy equipment for skidding, loading, and hauling. There is

also economy in doing the bucking at the landing

or in the mill yard—semiportable power saws become feasible; logs can be cut to more accurate

lengths. A bucking crew that does nothing else will

be able to develop skill in cutting the maximum

quality logs, especially out of hardwood trees.

In the smaller operations, however, and in a great

many other cases the bucking is still being done in

the woods. Even at the landing and in the yard, some

of the bucking will be done by hand. The subject of

hand bucking still deserves attention.

Pulpwood and Millwood

Most pulpwood in the Northeast is still bucked

into the traditional 4-foot lengths in the woods. The

fool most commonly used is the 42-inch bow saw

(fig. 150). The frame, with its protruding handle,

provides an accurate and convenient measure. Some

cutters have a small prong riveted on the handle of

58

the saw frame and use this to scratch a mark on the

log. The whole tree is often marked off before the

bucking job begins.

Some cutters prefer to leave the limbs that support the tree from underneath until after bucking

Figure 1 50.—Use of the bow saw to measure pulpwood lengths.

is completed. These limbs provide a support that

holds the tree trunk off the ground and keeps it

from rocking (fig. 151). They usually leave the butt

hanging free also, so the saw is not pinched.

Two things to avoid in bucking are getting the

saw blade pinched, and sawing into the ground.

Care should also be taken that the bucked-off log

does not fall or roll on one of the buckets. These

things can be largely eliminated by seeing that the

log is properly supported.

If the butt end of the tree does not hang free, or

if it is supported too high for convenient work, it

may be easier to start bucking higher on the stem.

This will cut the tree into two or more logs, which

F-39423J

Figure 1 5 1.—Supporting limbs make bucking easier.
can be handled more easily. For efficient bucking,

the shorter logs usually have to be blocked up off

the ground (fig. 152). A bolt of pulpwood makes a

suitable block, and the peavy is a good tool to use

in prying the log up onto the block. The block

should always be placed on the side of the sawcut

toward the heaviest portion of the pole, leaving the

end to be cut off hanging free.

Poles supported at the ends can usually be sawed

through successfully with the thin-bladed bow saw.

Bad cases of pinching can be reduced by driving a

Figure 152.—Use of a bucking block.

wedge into the cut following the blade, or by cutting a piece of wood the right length and inserting

a prop or "Dutchman" (fig. 153) under the cut. A

pry pole is also frequently used to relieve a pinch on

small logs.

Several different kinds of log jacks for use in bucking pulpwood in the woods have been devised. Most

woodsmen, however, think that they are more

trouble to carry around than they are worth. The

one exception is the cant-hook log jack (fig. 103,

p. 40).

Figure 153.—Use of a prop, or *^Dutchman.**

Sawlogs

Bucking sawlogs is a much harder, more dangerous, and more exacting job than cutting pulpwood.

The principles of doing the work are the same, but

the sticks are heavier and harder to handle. The log

cannot be blocked up very easily. The crosscut saw

is more likely to pinch than is the thin-bladed bow

saw. The bucker must know, at least in hardwoods,

something about log grades, so that he can cut up

the tree trunk in a way that will give the best

quality logs.

In the Northeastern States sawlogs are ordinarily

cut in lengths from 8 to 16 feet by 2-foot intervals.

There is some demand for 20-, 24-, and even 32-foot

logs. Increasingly, as supplies become scarcer, premium prices are paid for the highest quality logs

and the longer logs in the 8- to l6-foot group. Where

special markets exist, an additional premium is paid

for logs over 16 feet. Therefore, good judgment in

dividing the tree into logs and a knowledge of current market conditions cannot be emphasized too

much.

Accuracy of measurement is important also, especially in bucking softwoods. Ordinarily a 3-inch

trimming allowance for each 16-foot or shorter

length is specified in order that any irregularity in

the ends can be evened off by the trim saws at the

mill, leaving square-end boards of the full specified

length. Logs failing to have this allowance are frequently scaled in the next lower allowable length,

and logs with a greater allowance are penalty scaled

for unnecessary wastage (fig. 154).

Consequently, it is wise to have an accurate measuring pole (fig. 155), with the specified trimming

Figure 154.—Less waste results from proper lengths. A,

Right length allowsjust enoughfor trimming; B, extra length

causes waste in trimming; C, piece too short for trimming

will he cut to next shorter standard length.

59
allowance at the butt; and to guard against shortening it by chopping off the end when you mark

the log. A metal hook on the butt end of the pole

is often an aid to its more accurate use.

The first step in bucking hardwood sawlogs

should be to measure the total merchantable length

Trimming ollowonce

8' 10'

Figure 1 5 5.—A good measuring pole,

of the tree. Then this total length should be subdivided into the individual log lengths in a way

that will obtain both maximum scale and grade.

This job should be done before the crew starts to

buck. Here are a few pointers to aid in obtaining

maximum scale and grade:

1. Sawcuts made below large limbs generally give

larger scale in the butt log.

2. Wherever possible, surface defects should be

kept in the butt portions of logs, where they will

be trimmed off in the slabs.

3. Defects should be grouped in one log if possible. If this cannot be done, keep them as near the

ends of the logs as possible (fig. 156). This often

PRIME I -K

a E 2Zi:Z3

Œ Ï

•^Tv"^

B

Figure 156.—A, Cut so defects are as near ends of logs as

possible. B, Otherwise, grade of togs may be lowered.

means sawing through knots, rotten areas, etc.,

which is contrary to the natural inclinations of the

sawyers, but it pays handsomely in raising the grade

of the product.

4. Avoid sawing too close to the base of a crotch,

and showing a double heart on the small end of the

log.

5. So far as practicable, cuts should be made at

points of the most abrupt crook, leaving the cut logs

as straight as possible (figs. 157 and 158).

Figure 157.—To make logs as straight as possible, cut at

points of most abrupt crook, A; not at nearby points, B.

6. Splitting logs in bucking should be avoided by

choice of pieces to cut first, or use of props or

"Dutchmen."

The actual sawlog bucking operation is done in

much the same manner as the pulpwood bucking

already described. Because of the greater diameters

the crosscut saw is ordinarily used instead of the

bow saw. With the wider blade, pinching is more

often a problem than it is with the narrow bowF-269236

Figure 158.—Cutting a log at a crook.

saw blade. And the heavier logs cannot be moved

around so readily to get them in good position for

bucking. Consequently, wedges are used frequently

in sawlog bucking, and the crew will ordinarily

carry two or three of them, and a maul to drive

them.

Before starting to buck a log it is often necessary to clear out the brush and trash on either side,

to get space to work. Special attention should be

given to brush that may be caught in the saw teeth

and jam the cutting.

Because of the weight of logs it is often desirable

to place blocks under or alongside the trunk, to

keep the cut-off section from dropping or rolling on

one of the cutters (fig. 159). This is particularly true

60
when bucking on a hillside. One man bucking alone

should work on the uphill side whenever possible.

Blocking is also used to prevent splitting of the

log, with a consequent loss of valuable material.

Sometimes, when a heavy trunk is suspended from

the two ends, it is necessary to make at least part of

the cut from underneath. This is hard work, because

the saw has to be held up into the cut as well as

pulled through it; so it is avoided whenever possible. In the West, special roller devices have been

developed to hold the saw up into such cuts, but

they would be used so seldom in the East that they

would probably not be worth carrying around.

Figure 159.—To prevent cut-off logsfrom rolling and causing

injury, A; use blocks, B.

Size of Crew

Most sawlog bucking in the Northeast is done by

the two-man felling crews. However, a three-man

crew would often be more efficient. The third m_an

could work ahead of the two with the saw; he could

do the measuring, swamping out places for the sawyers to work, and shoring up the log where that is

necessary. He could also handle the wedges and

peavy or pry pole.

Bucking at the handing

When logs are bucking at the landing, a larger

crew can be used to good advantage. Work can be

more closely supervised and greater use of mechanical equipment is feasible. Much bucking at the

landing is done on skids (fig. 160) with the center

one higher than those on the outside, to reduce the

possibilities of pinching. Bucking is done on whichever end is unsupported.

On some pulpwood jobs a 'ladder" is used to

support the pole while it is being bucked (fig. I6l).

The rungs provide a rough measurement for each

4-foot bolt. The ladder is used for both chain-saw

CUT HERE

Figure 161.—y4 bucking ladderfor pulpwood.

and bow-saw bucking. The greatest difficulty is to

arrange for the smooth flow of poles onto the device and of pulpwood bolts away from it. A suitable slope is of some help in getting the poles rolled

on and the wood away.

A mechanical bucking chute, either hand or

motor operated, offers some advantages. A series of

concave fluted rollers with the front one actuated

by a hand crank could be used (fig. 162). The advantage here is that the bolts of pulpwood drop off

in one pile. The stick beyond the saw is always unsupported and therefore will not pinch the saw.

Figure 160.—Skidsfor bucking.

879.396 O—50 5

Figure 162.—A hand-operated bucking chute.

Most operators who have gone so far as to bring

poles to the landing will want to go still farther and

install a motorized cutting-up plant. Most plants,

so far, have been home-made. Almost all of them

use circular saws. Some saws are pushed or pulled

into the log by a hand lever; others are swung into

the wood mechanically. Some have a pole conveyor

61
actuated by live rolls and another conveyor to carry

the cut sticks away.

Some of these cutting-up plants in use in the

Northeast are shown in figure 163. An arrangement with a buggy and a spiked roller (fig. 163,/I)

is proving good for handling crooked hardwoods.

The back end of the log rests on the buggy, or carriage; the front on the spiked roller. Power to move

the log forward may be applied at either end, but a

cable on the buggy is usually preferred because it

can also be used to pull the buggy back for another

log.

Saw pulldow

Idler

DETAIL

Convos belt

Figure 164.—A swing saw operated andJed entirely by power.

A chain conveyor (fig. 163, B) and a table with

spiked rollers (fig. 163, C) work very well with

straight hardwoods and the normal run of softwoods.

All belts, pulleys, and gears on such bucking-up

plants and especially the saw itself should be

covered with sturdy guards to protect the men

working around them.

Diagrams of two of the most satisfactory cuttingup plants now in use in the Northeast are shown in

figures 164 and 165. One of these rigs (fig. 164) is

notable in that the swing saw is moved into the log

by a power-feed arrangement, instead of by manDETAIL OF FEEDWORKS

Btit tightens on gigback

0 operate feed rolls

Figure 163.—Cutting-up plants: A, with buggy and spiked

roller; B, with chain conveyor; C, with spiked rollers in feed

table. Figure 165.—A carriage-mounted cutting-up saw.

62
power as in most similar installations. This is done

by means of a rocker arm mounted at the top of the

swing-saw frame. A shaft with a pulley is mounted

at the back of this arm, and a belt, fastened at one

end, passes down over the pulley. When the control

lever is pushed in, a powered friction wheel forces

this belt against an idler wheel and pulls the belt

down. This swings the saw into the pole. When the

lever is released, the saw swings back to its normal

position by gravity.

The second installation (fig. 165) is primarily for

big logs. It swings a 60-inch carriage-mounted saw.

The feed and gigback mechanism is simple and

effective. When the carriage is gigged all the way

back the loose belt from the end of the mandrel to

the gear box becomes tight, and the feed rolls come

into play. This installation is capable of sav/ing 60

cords of 4-foot wood a day.

Buckingfor Integrated Logging

The term "integrated logging" is applied to jobs

where a variety of products are being cut. The tree

trunks are cut up into the products that have the

greatest value, whether it be veneer logs, sawlogs,

turning-wood bolts, pulpwood, or fuel wood. Cutting up trees in this way calls for knowledge of the

specifications for these various products, and also

for a knowledge of markets that will enable the

operator to sell them profitably.

On the bigger jobs integrated logging is most

frequently carried on by bringing tree lengths in to

a landing. It is possible to have there a bucking

crew that understands the requirements for the various products to be marketed, and can recognize

what each section of the tree should be cut into.

Even with hand tools the bucking can be done

at the landing faster and more efficiently than it can

back in the woods. But more and more frequently

bucking at the landing is done with machinery. A

chain saw can be used (fig. 166). The electric chain

saw, with its heavy motor-generator unit, has

proved to be a very efficient tool for this type of

work.

One of the power-operated bucking-up plants

previously described can also be used. Most of these

units are now cutting up 4-foot bolts, no matter

what the quality of the wood. However, one company shunts the better bolts aside to be run through

a bolting saw for turning squares, while the greater

part of the wood goes into the pulpwood piles. It

would not be difficult to make provision on one of

these machines to cut 8-, 12-, and even 16-foot logs

from the best sections for the veneer and saw mills.

ié.ti:^^^, mM

F-438125

Figure 166.—Bucking at the landing promotes integrated

logging.

The veneer logs would be worth about three times

what the same wood would bring for pulp, and the

better saw logs would be worth about twice as

much. In this way greater values could be obtained

for the product of the logging job.

The small operator, like the farmer logging his

own land, has done much more integrated logging

in the past than the bigger operators have. Farm

and extension foresters have been teaching him to

recognize the products he can cut from his trees

that will bring the highest price, and they have

been helping him find markets for them.

This type of logging should be encouraged on

both the large and small jobs. It could mean more

money for the operator, and more money for the

man working in the woods, besides much wiser use

of a valuable resource which is no longer abundant.

63

NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS HANDBOOK

SKIDDING WITH HORSES

-^

The first step in getting forest products to the

mill usually involves dragging the tree trunks, or

parts of them, from the place where they are cut to

a pile or yard where they can be loaded or dumped

onto a truck, wagon, or railroad car. This first step,

over most of the northeastern region, is called

"skidding." In the far north it is more often known

as "yarding," and if the logs are dragged in long

lengths on the ground it is called "twitching."

Hundreds of methods for doing this job have

been developed through the years, ranging from

crude hand methods to the complicated engine-andcable systems used in the big timber of the Pacific

coast. Choice among them depends on the size and

weight of the timber products to be handled, the

type of ground to be traversed, the amount cut per

acre, and the total amount to be handled. A big

company that logs year after year can afford more

expensive and specialized equipment than a small

contractor or farmer who does part-time logging,

even though both outfits are logging under about

the same conditions.

Another important consideration in choosing the

method ofskidding is the conservation of the forest

for future cuts. Some methods of skidding, like the

cable operations mentioned, are notoriously destructive to all the trees left in the stand, including even

the seedlings. But cable logging can be done in such

a way as to reduce this damage materially. Skidding

with animals is supposed to be the most conservative way of doing the job. But on some jobs animal

skidding is done in such a way that unnecessary

damage is done to the remaining trees. Good trees,

left to grow for future cuts, are skinned up by

dragging logs against them, opening the way for

rot and bugs. Promising young trees are needlessly

cut for fenders or corduroy, or merely to get them

4C€-

out of the way. So, for preserving a stand to grow

and provide work and wood for the future, the way

in which the skidding is done is about as important

as the choice of the method used.

Skidding with animals in the Northeast usually

means skidding with horses (fig. 167). Oxen (fig.

168) were once used a great deal in our timber

' In preparing this section the author has drawn freely upon

the booklet by A. KorolefF, "Efficiency in skidding of wood and

handling of horses." Canad. Pulp and Paper Assoc. Woodlands

Sect. Index 666 (B-8-c). 26 pp., iUus. Montreal. 1943.

F-397042

Figure 167.—Horses are used more than other animab in

skidding logs.

F-377124

Figure 168.—Few oxen are used now in skidding logs.

.65
Stands, but now they are generally considered too

slow and unintelligent for most logging jobs. Mules

are also slow and they do not seem to be well

adapted to working in the northeastern climate.

However, much of the following discussion applies

as well to skidding with oxen or mules as it does to

doing the work with horses.

or sections of uphill grade in the trail greatly reduce the amount of wood that can be dragged in

each load. Boggy or excessively rocky ground

should be avoided wherever possible because horses

cannot pull well on it. Trails through dense timber

or brush require expensive swamping. It is better to

go around if that is possible. Timber tracts, of

/' ' !

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»"/ \ ;

V / \\

It \\ 11 \ \

1 » •

« : • Î

1 11

^ \ ^ '

\ V ' '

^ ^^ *' '

^x* -^'

^ ^ ^

/? o A D

v^

/>v^+.

yy

>/c

-"V

^*" /

/ I

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/? o A D

A B

Figure 169.—Lay-outs of skid trails: A, Good lay-outfor gentle slope—straight trails, moderate curves; B, good lay-outfor steep

slope—zigzag path to reduce grade; Q poor lay-outfor gentle slope—sharp curves, unnecessary skidding.

LAY-OUT OF THE SKIDDING JOB

Much time and energy can be saved on skidding

jobs if the skid trails are laid out carefully by the

logging foreman or superintendent. If the slope is

not steep, the trails should be as straight as possible,

with a continuous down-grade pull from the stump

to the landing. Sharp turns should, if possible, be

avoided. They practically prohibit the skidding of

tree-length logs, and even shorter logs will not slide

around sharp curves unless you stop the team to

roll an end back into line with the trail. On steep

slopes it is necessary to lay out a trail with reduced

grades so that the logs will not slide too fast and

run onto the heels of the team. Good trail patterns,

as well as a poor one, are shown in figure 169.

Steep pitches often cause trouble in the winter

months when the logs slide easily. Level stretches

course, include all kinds of land surfaces and no layout that will make skidding easy on some of them

can be designed. The logging foreman has to learn

to fit his lay-out to the land and to get the most

favorable conditions possible.

The teamster can sometimes save himself hours

of time and avoid much trouble by making some

very minor improvements in the trail (fig. 170). The

cutting of one small tree, for instance, may eliminate a bad turn. High stumps or large exposed roots

can cause the load to become lodged time after time

if they are not removed. In some cases placing a

fender log or two will help in getting the load

around a turn or past an obstruction.

Sometimes it will be worth while to detour

around a soft place or rocky spot. These are bad for

the team and may cause the horses to injure themselves in struggling through. If a detour is not

(^(^
TREE IN THE WAY REMOVE HIGH STUMPS USE OF FENDER LOG

AND EXPOSED ROOTS AT OBSTRUCTION

Figure 170.—Afew improvements in the trail make the work easier.

,^yy />//^ ^.^v^.^^i^^ y^^^Wíá-/^^^ ^' >>H^^-I^ ^JM^^^^^

A B

Figure 171 ,—Some signs of an inefficient teamster. A, Broomed stump; B, mud hole; C, battered rocks.

possible the/teamster may be able to help by filling

holes with a little rock and gravel or by covering

sharp rocks with rotten wood.

Broomed stumps, battered rocks, frayed-out roots,

and churned mudholes are sure indications of a

poorly located skid trail and a careless teamster (fig.

171). A man who will not take the trouble to do

something about such obstacles will lose much time

and then probably lose his temper, perhaps ending

his work with a serious injury to himself or to his

team.

SKIDDING EQUIPMENT

For Light Logs and Poles

Small logs or poles are usually skidded with one

horse. The special equipment needed is a 10- or 12-

foot chain with a slip hook on one end. Such a chain

can easily be wrapped around the end of the log or

around the ends of several logs, using the hitches

shown in figures 172 and 173.

Figure 172.—Chain hitch for one big log or two or three small

logs.

A stout whifiletree with clevis and swivel grab

hook is needed (fig. 174). It should be long enough

to hold the traces far enough away from the sides

and hind legs of the horse to prevent chafing. The

traces are attached to the whiffletree by heel chains

just long enough to clear the horse's heels. These

should not be unnecessarily long; otherwise the lifting action on the front end of the log when the

horse is pulling will be lost and the load will dig

67
Figure 173.—A, Hitch for two big logs or several small logs;

B, same hitch, pulled tight.

TRACE CHAIN 5 ^

A—T—\

LIFTING

RING

Figure 174.—Whiffletree for logging.

SWIVEL

GRAB HOOK

into the ground. A lifting ring attached to the grab

hook is helpful in preventing finger injuries when

hooking the log chain to the whiffletree. Some teamsters prefer a jews-harp ring to the grab hook (fig.

175). It is slower to hook on but less likely to let

go of the chain. Either device can be used to grab

any link in the skidding chain.

68

Figure 175.—The jews-harp ring holds a chain well

link.

at any

For Heavier Logs

For ground-skidding heavier logs a two-horse

team is usually necessary. It is possible to use a

chain with the same choker hitch that serves for

smaller timber. The increased friction of a heavy

chain across the underside of the log, however,

makes it harder to move. Most skidders prefer to

use a crotch grab or skidding tongs rather than the

log chain.

The crotch grab (fig. 176) consists of two log

dogs, each attached to about 20 inches of í^-inch

chain; these chains are linked together by a M-inch

swivel and ring. These dogs are pounded into the

log with a grab maul, usually one of the type shown

in figure 177. The steel ring on this maul is 3 inches

wide by 1 inch thick, and is untempered. The pin in

the end is provided so that the maul can be stuck in

a log where it can easily be found on the return trip.

At the landing the grabs are detached by a stroke

of the pointed end of a grab skipper (fig. 178).

Grabs are used for fastening logs together in trains

for skidding end-to-end (fig. 179). This practice is

more common to the Appalachians than to the

Northeast, although it was formerly used often in

the Adirondacks. For skidding large logs doublecrotch (or ''four-paw") grabs are sometimes used

(fig. 180).

Figure 116.—Crotch grabs.
Figure 177.—Grab maul.

Figure 178.—Grab skipper.

Figure 179.—End-to-end hooking with grabs.

Figure 180.—F o u r - p a w

grabs.

Figure 181.—Skidding tongs.

Skidding tongs (fig. 181) are somewhat easier to

attach and detach than grab hooks. They are usually

made up of octagon steel and are designed for maximum openings of from 16 to 32 inches. Giant tongf

that will open up to 60 inches are available on special order. The chief limitation of skidding tongs is

that they do not hold very well in frozen timber.

This applies also to the crotch grab. For this reason a choker cable or chain wrapped around the endof the log is often preferable for winter skidding.

Devices to Reduce Friction

Many devices have been developed to reduce friction and make logs easier to skid. One of the simplest ways is to round off the front end of the log

with an ax. This "nosing" helps the log to ride over

obstructions.

Lifting the front end of the log also makes it

easier to skid. To do this, some loggers are still using a "lizard." This is simply a sturdy hardwood

crotch. The butt end is rounded up and is fitted with

some sort of a chain hitch for dragging it. The front

ends of the logs to be skidded are rolled up between

the limbs of the crotch and are chained fast.

A simple sled, known as the go-devil (fig. 182),

is another device for carrying the front ends of logs

in skidding during the summer and early fall, as

well as in winter. The go-devil is usually made in

the camp blacksmith shop from any available dry

hardwood, usually hard maple, yellow birch, or

beech. It consists of two unshod runners about 6

inches wide and 3 to 5 inches thick and from 6 to 7

feet long. Across these is fastened a 6- by 6-inch

bunk 4 or 5 feet long, with a single bolt on each

-end. This bunk has a ring fastened in its center

through which the log chain is passed. The upcurved forward ends of the runners are connected by

a roller, which has at each end a short chain that

passes through a hole in the runner and is fastened

several inches back on it. The draft rigging consists

of chains fastened to each end of the bunk. These

chains are brought forward under the roller and are

joined directly in front of it by a ring to which the

hook on the doubletree or whiffletree is attached.

The go-devil has no thills or tongue. It can be

turned around in a small space. It is loosely constructed to permit a backward and forward movement on either runner. This allows it to surmount

obstructions, and to stand considerable racking. If

one runner gets stuck the other can move ahead to

start it. The life of a go-devil is seldom more than

a season, but the steel and perhaps some of the

wood can easily be salvaged and a new one constructed. It is used for skidding distances from 300

feet to a quarter of a mile.

Figure 182.—The go-devil.

69
There are a number of more elaborate and more

sturdy devices. These are ordinarily used for skidding or yarding over distances exceeding a quarter

of a mile. The most common one is the yarding sled

(fig. 183). This is usually made by the camp blacksmith. The patterns used, especially the manner of

fastening the runners to the cross beams, are many.

A typical one is shown in figure 184.

Such sleds are used in the summer, on dry ground,

as well as in the snow. The runners and cross beams

are made from dry hardwood. Oak is preferred but

maple and yellow birch are frequently used. The

runners are usually shod with ( ys-inch) steel shoes,

but they may be unshod. Chains (Ys-inch) fasten

one end of the logs to the bunk. Three typical

hitches are shown in figure 185. These are suitable

for use on swiveling bunks.

F-36I340

Figure 183.—The yarding sled in use.

Figure 184.—A, Details of the yarding sled; B, another method of attaching bunks.

SINGLE SCHOODIC DOUBLE SCHOODIC

Figure 185.—Chain hitchesforfastening logs to the sled.

A different hitch is required if the logs are to be

carried directly on the cross beam of a sled not

equipped with a bunk. The "Baltimore hitch" (fig.

186) was developed by a Sherburne, N. Y, lumberman, who calls it that because with it he can take a

load to Baltimore and back without losing any logs.

Even icy beech can be hauled, if the chain is tightened with a peavy. A D-ring in the center of the

cross beam holds the logs best, but the chain can be

wrapped directly around the cross beam.

70
Figure 186.—The "Baltimore hitch." In A, middle of chain

encircles cross beam; in B, it passes through a D-ring attached to cross beam.

Yarding sleds are called "bobs," "jumbos," or

"bogans," depending on the locality in which they

are used, their size, and their construction.

The bummer, a wheeled device for the same purpose as the yarding sled, is not common in the

Northeast. It is more typical of flatland logging in

the South, especially Arkansas and Louisiana, but it

may be adapted for use on some northeastern jobs

(fig. 187). The wheels are ordinarily sawed from a

round section of some wood with interlocked grain,

such as white elm, sycamore, or blackgum.

For skidding loads of short bolts, the travois or

dray is used. The front end of the travois is supported, and the load is carried on two long poles

that drag behind on the ground. The wood is piled

crosswise, held in by end stakes, and usually fastened

down with a chain or rope. Either sled runners (fig.

188) or wheels (fig. 189) can support the front end.

Rubber-tired automobile wheels roll more easily

and shake the load less than metal-tired wheels.

Operators are finding, however, that the cheapest

and best method is to cut wood in long lengths in

the woods, skid out these long lengths, and then

cut them into shorter lengths at the landing beside

the road, or at the mill. Skidding short-length wood

is likely to become less and less common. Consequently drays are used much less than they were a

. few years ago.

Figure 187.—A, The bummer. B, Method of loading the

bummer.

Figure 188.—The travois, or dray.

F-434544

Figure 189.—A wheeled dray.

71
Devices to Keep Logs Clean

Wood turneries and several other types of woodusing plants cannot efficiently use logs and bolts

that have been dragged on the ground. Embedded

dirt and gravel cause too much trouble with bolter

saws and other equipment. In logging this material,

it is necessary to keep the wood off the ground all

the way from the stump to the mill. The primary

move from stump to landing or road is usually done

by means of the scoot (fig. 190). This is a longer

and heavier wooden sled, with two bunks to carry

Figure 190.—A logging scootfor use with horses.

the log completely off the ground.

The scoot is low, and can usually be loaded with

a peavy, perhaps with the aid of a couple of short

skids. The runners are of hardwood, often 6 by 8

inches, or, for tractor use, even 8 by 10 inches in

cross section. Scoots are being pulled by tractors

more and more in this region. The smaller one-horse

scoots are used most frequently in the logging of

white birch for turning squares.

Small scoots are also used in handling 4-foot or

52-inch wood for the distillation and pulp plants,

and for handling hemlock and chestnut oak bark

for tanning. For such use the scoot is sometimes

fitted with a platform of poles or boards and side

racks in which the short wood or bark can be piled

more readily.

LOGGING HARNESS

Aside from the horses themselves, the most expensive equipment for horse skidding is the harness.

A good harness for one-horse skidding (fig. 191)

should be of good quality, should fit the horse properly, and should be kept in repair and adjustment.

^•^<M»^\.^^.;^

r25

<!.>?

Figure 191.—Skidding harness for single horse. The parts

are as follows: (2) crown, (2) front, (3) winker stay, (4)

blind, (5) cheek, (6) bit, (7) throatlatch, (8) reins, (9) hame,

(10) collar, (11) bolt draft, (12) lower hame ring, (13)

back-padfelt, (14) back pad, (15) back-pad billet, (16) bellyband billet, (17) belly band, (18) back strap, (19) breeching

center, (20) crupper, (21) combined hip strap and trace

bearer, (22) straight trace, (23) dee with detachable bolt,

(24) pinery hook, (25) heel chain.

The horse applies its energy to move the load by

pushing its shoulders against the collar. Therefore,

the collar must fit properly. It should be selected

and fitted to the horse by a man who knows what

he is doing. Never should a collar be soaked in

water and pounded into shape with a hammer. This

will certainly ruin it.

Minor adjustments can sometimes be made by

moistening the collar and pounding it lightly with

a smooth wooden mallet. The collar should fit reasonably well before any adjustments are attempted.

When a collar is fitted properly there should be

room enough at the throat to insert the palm of the

hand, and room enough at the side to insert two

fingers.

The point where the traces are attached should

be one-third of the distance from the horse's

shoulder joint to the upper end of the shoulder

blade. A horse can pull more easily and is less likely

to get shoulder galls if the draft points are correctly

placed.

The bridle should be adjusted so that you can

put three fingers under the throatlatch. The bit

should not be so tightly drawn that it wrinkles the

horse's mouth. The belly band should permit the

easy insertion of the flat of the hand between the

band and the horse's belly.

72
Repairs to the harness should be made carefully,

using a sewing awl or copper rivets with burs. The

term "haywire logger"—one of contempt through

the country—is most often applied correctly to the

man who attempts to repair his harness with that

universal woods commodity—haywire. He is paid

off in loss of time on the job and injuries to his

horse. The harness should be cleaned regularly and

kept properly oiled with good quality neat's-foot.

WOODS HORSES

The best horse for woods work is between 5 and

10 years old, weighing between 1,300 and 1,800

pounds. Legs and neck should be short and stocky,

with well-developed muscle in the shoulders and

hips. A quiet and unexcitable temperament is very

important. Excitable and nervous horses cannot

move half the load that can be handled by a team

that pulls quietly and slowly. Even the best-tempered horse can, however, quickly be spoiled by ill

treatment. For this reason the care and handling of

the horses is of utmost importance.

With the increasing use of tractors in logging,

horse work is being more and more confined to the

skidding of light logs. For such work, a single horse

is very often better than a two-horse team. Most

teamsters find it best to direct the single horse by

the spoken word only. Use of reins is necessary for

a few days until the horse becomes familiar with

the commands of the teamster; after that the reins

can be left in the barn or done up on the hames.

Use in Skidding

skidding requires more intelligence on the part of

the horse than does most routine farm work. It must

work in a narrow trail where there may be many obstructions. It must back into awkward places and

pull long, bulky loads that roll or switch around

unexpectedly. Horse and teamster must understand

each other perfectly. Commands should be given in

a calm speaking tone. Shouting is entirely unnecessary.

Only one simple set of commands should be used.

A horse cannot be expected to understand more

than one set of words. In the farming sections of

the Northeast, the commands most frequently used

are "Giddap" (go ahead), "Gee" (turn right),

''Haw" (turn left), "Back up" (move backward),

"Go slow," and "Whoa" (stop). The FrenchCanadian teamsters are more likely to use: "Avance"

or "Marche" (go ahead), "A droit" (turn right),

"A gauche" (turn left), "Doucement" (go slow),

"Halt" (stop). Other words in both languages are

also used for these movements. Added to these are

similar commands in Scandinavian, Polish, Finnish,

and Austrian, and even in American Indian dialect.

It is not surprising that logging horses become confused when three or four teamsters drive them, using

different words for the same movement.

Another bad practice, which is usually the mark

of an inexperienced teamster, is stringing a series of

commands together in advance of the time when the

horse could possibly execute them. It is far more

sensible to give the command just at the time the

movement is to be executed. If the horse is to start,

then swing to the left, then move backward, don't

string the commands together before the animal has

even had time to start. Tell it to "giddap," then

"haw," and, finally, after it is in the proper position,

"back up." A good teamster, in this manner, will

place horse and logs exactly where he wants them

without shouting, losing his temper, or beating the

horse.

Beating is more often a reflection on the man

than on the animal. Many good woods horses are

ruined by impatient, inefficient teamsters who lose

their temper. And such teamsters are sometimes injured, perhaps unintentionally, by the animals they

have made high-strung and temperamental by their

abuse. A horse should never be hit around the head

or kicked in the belly. Jerking on the reins, when

they are used, is about as bad. Beating an animal so

as to cause injury to it is a criminal offense in most

States.

A slight switch on the rump the minute the horse

has disobeyed an order or is slow in executing it is

sometimes necessary, but switching does no good

when it is postponed so that the animal does not

connect the punishment with the act.

The Teamster^s Job

The teamster should learn to gage accurately the

size of the load he is asking his horse to pull, and

not demand more than the animal can do. This

means consideration of the ground over which the

load is to be pulled, as well as the load itself. A

horse can pull a much heavier load over a good surface on a gentle down grade than on the level,

around turns, or through mud. Careful selection of

the route to be followed in getting to the skid trail

often results in a great deal more accomplished at

the end of the day.

73
The teamster should be alert to help his horse as

much as possible. In pulling a load around sharp

turns he should stop the animal and have it "square

away" by swinging right or left once or twice so

that it has a direct pull in the trail all the time (fig.

192). He should give the animal a chance to rest

when needed, and see that it has opportunity to

drink at proper intervals.

Figure 192.—^*Squaring away'* on a crooked trail.

In getting the horse into position to hook on the

load, the teamster should avoid long stretches of

backing up. Backing is not natural to a horse, and it

is especially hard in rough woods terrain. Therefore, whenever possible, the horse should be turned

just before hooking on the load, in such a way that

the grab hook on the whifHetree will be as close as

possible to the log. Short hook-ups are less likely to

catch behind obstructions in the woods, and are

easier to pull. Some teamsters shorten the heel

chains by a link or two for taking the load, and

lengthen them again at the landing for going empty.

If some long stubs have been left on the log by

the choppers it is good business for the teamster to

cut them off to reduce their braking action. He

should not, however, make a practice of doing this

portion of the woodcutters' work.

In starting the load, do not hurry the horse by

whipping or by jumping it into its collar. If the

load is caught by a root or some other obstruction,

use a peavy, or get a rolling bind on the chain (fig.

. 193). To ask the horse to jerk at a load that is beyond its power to move is foolish.

When the load starts down the trail it is best to

walk behind rather than alongside. Many teamsters

or other workers are injured when a log suddenly

rolls or switches across a trail. Above all, do not attempt to ride on top of a skidding log. A sudden

jerk or roll can throw you off and under the log.

Skidding on side slopes is particularly dangerous.

Frequently used skid trails along slopes should be

protected with fenders, and workmen should keep

on the uphill side.

Careful guidance, with commands at the right

time, will train the horse to take turns in the trail

properly, hugging the outside, and to enter the yard

Figure 193.—Trying to pull straight over an obstruction is

wrong. One right way is to use a rolling bind. Switch the

hook to side; pull at an angle, from other side.

or skidway at the correct angle to place the load

where it is wanted. Some teamsters cause delay to

themselves and to the yardmen by either stopping

too soon or overshooting the mark and thereby placing the load in a bad position in the yard or on the

skidway. Attention to the time commands are given

and complete understanding between horse and man

will result in full-sized loads, delivered promptly

and in the right place. A correctly bound load can

easily be loosened, and the horse can drag the chain

out from around the logs.

On the return trip the teamster can frequently aid

the horse by stepping on the skid chain just as the

whifHetree is about to encounter an obstruction,

thus lifting it over. Often the return trip can be

made over a shorter route than that used in coming

in, especially in steep country.

Care of Horses

Except on very small jobs, grooming and shoeing

the horses and treating their injuries and ailments

are the responsibility of the barn boss, not the teamster. There are some things about the care of horses,

however, that the teamster should know.

74
He should be particularly alert for harness sores.

If these are noticed and treated early, when they are

little more than slight swellings, a long lay-off of

the horse may be avoided. Such sores are most likely

to appear around the mouth (from too tight a bridle

or from rough handling), at the top of the head

(from too tight a bridle), on the shoulders (from

a badly fitting collar), at the rump (from a chafing

breeching strap), on the back (from the back pad),

under the belly (from rough or too tight belly

band), and on the legs or at the heels (from chafing

trace chains or caulking).

When such injuries are first noticed, the source

of the trouble should be eliminated. Usually it will

require adjustment, repair, or replacement of parts

of the harness. Then the injuries should be treated.

Be careful that the solutions used are not so strong

that they will aggravate rather than help the injury.

Cold, damp, clean dressings may be enough to reduce a slight swelling. If a sore has developed, the

hair around it should be clipped and a mild antiseptic applied. Salt water is helpful and should be used

if nothing else is at hand. A mixture of one part

2 V^-percent iodine solution to three parts castor

oil is not too strong. Carbolic oil prepared by a

druggist is also good.

After sterilizing, the wound should be dried, and

some healing salve rubbed in the wound with clean

fingers. Tar is worse than useless. It may make the

injury much worse. A clean dressing should be used

over the wound if the horse is to keep on working.

Cleanliness is essential in keeping horses in good

condition. The stable should be kept clean, reasonably warm, and well ventilated. Horses should be

groomed about 15 minutes every weekday, a half

hour on Sunday.

It is also a good idea to cut down on the oats or

other grain ration over the week end, when the

animals are not working. Substitution of bran for

some of the oats will have a laxative effect, and help

keep horses in good condition.

The type of shoes and the way they are applied is

very important. For horses working in the woods,

and not on ice, sharp calks are generally inadvisable.

For summer use, shoes with low, flat calks (fig.

194, A) will give a firm footing under most conditions. In the winter longer, sharper calks, similar to

those on snowball shoes (fig. 194, JB), are needed.

Figure 194.—A, Mud shoe /or summer use; B, snowball shoe

with sharper calks.

The shoes should be fitted to the foot of the horse,

rather than the foot trimmed to fit the shoe. Much

lameness in woods horses is caused by poorly fitted

shoes.

The hoofs should be kept clean. Dirt, especially

manure, should not be allowed to accumulate for

long on the hoofs, particularly in the frog furrows.

The hoofs should not be trimmed too often. Once

a month, or once every 6 weeks is enough. The heel

of the hoof grows more slowly than the front and

needs less trimming.

When a horse gets sick it is best to call a veterinarian, or if the stable boss is capable, let him treat

it. Many of the home remedies for sick horses do

more harm than good.

A good woods horse is more than a valuable piece

of equipment; it is a living, breathing, thinking part

of the job, and it will repay good care.

Feeding

The stable boss usually feeds and waters and

cleans the horses at night. The teamster is frequently responsible for feeding and harnessing his

horse in the morning, and taking out feed for use

at noon.

A horse weighing about 1,500 pounds needs about

24 pounds of hay and 18 pounds of oats per day.

The feed should be clean. Hay, if dusty, should be

shaken out. Oats should be fed from a nose bag or

feed box, rather than off the ground where dirt will

be taken with them. The bit should be removed

from the horse's mouth during feeding, and in extremely cold weather the feed should if possible be

slightly warmed. The horse should not be worked

very hard immediately after feeding. A full hour

should be taken for lunch. In cold weather the horse

should be blanketed during the lunch hour and during any long stops at other times of the day.

75

NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS HANDBOOK

SKIDDING WITH TRACTORS

^

Wartime shortages of woods labor, coupled with

the urgent need of increasing or maintaining the

production of forest products, greatly extended the

use of tractors on northeastern logging jobs. It

seems quite certain that this trend will continue. By

experience, operators have now learned how to use

the machines. The tractors and special equipment

used with them are steadily being improved to give

better and more economical service.

There are some important economic limitations

on the use of tractors. Their purchase involves a

heavier capital investment than would be necessary

for horse logging. Fairly continuous employment of

the equipment is necessary if the operator is to recover his purchase price. Often the rate of cutting

has to be speeded up to make the best use of the

tractor. This implies that the operator should have

fairly large jobs in the heavier stands of timber. The

skilled men required for the operation and maintenance of woods tractors command better wages than

teamsters have received. Lay-off of a tractor because

of break-downs is more serious than loss of a horse's

or team's services. On the other hand, the tractor

can operate more steadily, without periods of rest,

two or three shifts a day if necessary. It can handle

bigger loads than horses. It can also be more cheaply

stored during periods of idleness. It does not have

to be fed when it is not working.

The use of greater power in skidding heavier

loads has, in many instances, caused serious damage

to the remaining young trees. This disadvantage

can, however, be overcome if tractor operators are

required to exercise reasonable care.

TYPES OF TRACTORS FOR

LOGGING

The crawler type of tractor (fig. 195) is usually

preferred for woods work. The large area of track in

contact with the ground gives better traction on almost any kind of surface, including snow, ice, and

^^

mud. The low center of gravity makes it possible

to operate the machine without danger on moderately steep slopes.

Crawler-type tractors arc available in a wide range

of weight and horsepower. New and improved

models will no doubt be forthcoming. For this reason, present information on the range of weight and

horsepower may soon be out of date. The smallest

crawler-type tractor now in commercial production

has a 17-horsepower gasoline motor and weighs

about 3,100 pounds. The smallest diesel-powered

machine has a 25-horsepower motor and weighs

6,800 pounds. The medium-weight models have

both gasoline and diesel motors developing 40 to

70 horsepower. They range in weight from about

9,000 to 16,000 pounds. The heavy tractors weigh

in the neighborhood of 20,000 pounds and have

gasoline or diesel motors that develop 85 to 150

horsepower. The diesel motor has rapidly been

gaining preference—particularly in the bigger machines. Diesel fuel is cheaper, and diesel motors are

sturdy and powerful.

0* Q

F-377278

Figure 195.—The crawler tractor is goodfor woods work.

S79S!M> ()—50- 77
"Light" and "medium-weight" tractor models are

most suitable to northeastern logging conditions.

"Heavyweight" and "extra heavy" models are used

here chiefly for road-building and other bulldozer

work. Light equipment, on the bigger jobs, is used

in the woods for bunching loads to be skidded by

the medium-weight machines, which handle loads

up to 2 cords or 2,000 board feet over distances up

to half a mile.

Each of the several manufacturers of crawler-type

tractors has developed some special features. Some

diesel motors are started by small auxiliary gasoline

motors and others by electric starters. Several makes

have a steering mechanism that gives independent

control of the two tracks, which enables the operator to turn the machine in its own length. One

make has a steering mechanism that makes use of

a differential; it will not turn quite so sharply, but

it is claimed to be easier on the track and clutches.

Still other mechanical differences will be called to

the attention of the prospective buyer. He should,

of course, consider all of them, but more important

than most of these is whether or not the manufacturer has a wide-awake and well-equipped local

dealer who can supply parts and service on short

notice. Ordinarily it is better to build up a fleet of

tractors of one make rather than to have a variety

of makes and models. It will be much easier to get

good service on parts and maintenance.

The foregoing discussion of crawler-type tractors

does not imply that wheeled tractors (fig. 196) have

no place in the woods. This type does have its place,

particularly on fairly level farm woodlands where

skidding can be done when ground conditions are

favorable. Some of the new types of pneumatic

tractor tires with cleated treads give remarkably

good traction, even in mud and snow.

The wheeled tractor is usually less expensive to

buy and cheaper to maintain. If shod with rubber

tires, it can be moved on highways under its own

power. This is often important in logging farm

woodlots.

A law enacted by Nebraska in 1919 required that

a stock model of each type of tractor offered for sale

in that State should be given certain power-cfiiciency

tests by the Department of Agricultural Engineering

of the University of Nebraska. Since that time, these

tests have acquired a Nation-wide reputation. The

results are quoted in the advertising literature of several manufacturers. On the basis of this information

it is possible to make comparisons between makes

and also between the various models of the same

make. For example, tests of drawbar and belt horseF-377120

Figure 196.—The wheeled tractor serves well hi /arm woodlands.

power, fuel and oil consumption, and the manufacturer's specifications and claims for his machine are

reported. Information on these tractor tests is obtainable from the University of Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, Lincoln, Nebr.

LOGGING TRACTOR ACCESSORIES

Most tractors require special equipment to fit

them for woods work. Such equipment includes a

steel guard for the underside of the crankcase, a

heavy-duty radiator guard, and guards for the lower

tracks and wheel bearings. The tractor should also

have either a heavy front bumper or a bulldozer

blade. Many operators find that a blade readily pays

for itself in road building and by making it possible

for the tractor to plow its way into otherwise inaccessible places. For skidding on slopes, however, it

is desirable to remove the dozer blade to avoid

needless gouging of the soil and destruction of

seedlings and saplings.

Protection from falling tree limbs and from breaking cables is needed for the operator. Two guards

that give this protection from overhead and from

the rear are shown in figure 197. A guard of this

general type is required by law in some States. The

steel roof plates should be at least '/4 inch thick. The

grill behind the operator should be a 1- to 2-inch

mesh of !4-inch rods. Steps covered with rubber or

some other nonskid material will help protect the

operator from falls in getting on or off the machine.

78
STEEL GRILL STEEL PLATES

Figure 197.—Guards to protect the tractor driver.

Northeastern operators do not agree on the best

pattern of track shoe and grouser for woods operations. There are more complaints about this part of

the tractor than any other. For most purposes, operators want a heat-treated one-piece shoe as wide as

can safely be carried on the sprockets. For the smaller

machines this maximum width is about 12 inches;

for the medium-weight models it is about 16 inches.

For winter use, a skeleton track (fig. 198) with a

hole about 4 by 6 inches in the center of each track

plate helps keep the snow from packing on the

tracks. The standard grouser has a blunt riser only

about an inch high. For winter work special ice

grousers, which arc higher and sharper, may either

replace the dirt grousers or bolt on over them. Some

operators favor the ice grousers; other feel they are

not worth their cost. Experiments are now being

made with rubber-shod tracks for woods work.

Winches

The winch has become so commonly used that it

might be considered an integral part of the logging

tractor. It is essential for all arch skidding and highly

useful for ground skidding. When the machine stalls

on a steep pitch or on muddy or rocky ground, the

driver can release the winch and move ahead while

the load lies still and the tow cable is paid out.

When he reaches better ground he can put the

winch in gear and reel the load forward to the tractor. In this way he can apply 50 to 80 percent more

pulling power than was available at the drawbar.

The winch is also used for bunching the load and

for pulling logs out of inaccessible places (fig. 199).

Figure 198.—Skeleton-track shoes are helpful in snow. (Courtesy oj Caterpillar Tractor Co. )

F-408094

Figure 199.—The winch can pull logs out of places where the

tractor cannot go.

For logging service a gear-driven towing and

hoisting winch is most useful. Worm-driven

winches develop tremendous power but they pay

out and haul in the line more slowly, and heat up

in continuous service.

A number of concerns specialize in making

winches for logging service with crawler tractors.

Desirable features of these logging winches include

a design that hugs the back of the tractor closely,

thus avoiding possibility of unbalancing it in use;

a completely enclosed and positively acting brake;

and heavy, accurately cut, and silent gears enclosed

79
in a sturdy case, all ofspecial-analysis, high-strength

steels. Controls for logging winches are in front or

at the side of the driver's seat.

The various manufacturers, of course, offer their

own special features in logging winches. One make

has a brake that can be preset while reeling in a load;

it goes into action whenever the forward motion is

stopped. Also available is an offset winch, which

has the drum set to one side so that when one complete layer of rope is wound on the drum the draft

point is at the center line of the tractor. One make

features a reverse speed 50 percent faster than the

reeling-in speed. A logging winch manufactured to

Forest Service specifications has recently been put

on the market for light wheeled or crawler tractors

(less than 20 horsepower).

No more cable should be carried on the winch

drum than is absolutely necessary. When several

layers of cable are wrapped around the drum, the

cable is subject to crushing stresses; this crushing

is even harder than actual service on the cable. Moreover, the pulling power of the winch is greatly reduced, because the best pull is obtained when the

cable is directly on the drum.

Chokers and Choker Hooks

socket. The inside of the sleeve through which the

cable runs is carefully finished and rounded to reduce wear to a minimum. The whole device, including the ferrule, is made of a special type of tough

and long-wearing steel. For this reason it is inadvisable to try to make a similar device in the camp

blacksmith shop.

A similar device, the drawbar hook, attaches the

other end of a choker to the tractor drawbar. Drawbar hooks that will accommodate a number of

chokers (fig. 201) are made; some have sockets for

as many as 24 cables.

Figure 200.—The Bardon- Figure 201.—A drawbar

Wirkkala choker hook. hook.

A choker is a short length of flexible steel cable

used for skidding logs. One end is fastened to the

log by means of a sliding loop; the other end is fastened to the tractor. On the first chokers the loop

was formed by running the standing end of the cable

through a spliced eye. Some chokers of this type are

still in use. They are difficult to put on a log and

they wear out quickly.

A conventional hook on the end of the choker

makes the choker easier to attach to a log. If the

hook is constructed properly, it causes less wear on

the cable than a spliced eye does. However, a hook

becomes disengaged rather easily, often resulting in

loss of all or part of the load. Time and energy are

wasted in recovering the lost sticks.

Several new types of fastenings have been developed. One improved pattern now in commercial

production is simple and easy to use (fig. 200). It

consists of a short metal sleeve that runs freely on

the standing part of the choker cable. On one side

of the sleeve there is a tapered socket; a metal ferrule

attached to the end of the cable fits into this socket.

It is firmly seated with a slight pull on the cable and

gives a swivel action that discourages kinks. There

is almost no possibility that it will jump out of its

GROUND SKIDDING METHODS

Tractors are used in much the same way as horses

for skidding logs on the ground (fig. 202). The same

auxiliary equipment can be used. This includes

skidding chains, grab hooks, slip hooks, crotch

grabs, and skidding tongs. Tractors are also used

to some extent for skidding with yarding sleds,

bummers, and scoots.

Most operators who have tried it report that

skidding on the ground behind tractors should not

be done fbr distances over 500 feet. For longer skids

some sort of antifriction device pays for itself rapidly

in the larger loads and greater speeds that can be

attained. For short skids and numerous turn-arounds,

the greater maneuverability of the tractor without

a trailing device pays off.

The various operations in ground skidding with

a tractor are usually the same as those employed in

horse skidding. The machine is driven near the front

end of the load, turned so the drawbar faces the load,

and the skidding chain is wrapped around the end

of the log or logs and then hooked onto the tractor

drawbar. The load is then ready to be on its way

(fig. 203).

80
Figure 202.—SkiMing a trail0/logs.

Tractor Co.)

(Courtesy of Caterpillar

F-381593

Figure 203.—Ground skidding.

Ordinarily the tractor does not need much of a

skidding trail. Too often, however, drivers have been

careless about tearing up the ground and riding

down young trees. This should be avoided as much

as possible. By use of the winch with 60 or 75 feet

of wire rope, the operator can reach into thick brush,

into rocky areas, and into depressions to pull out

logs without taking his machine in such places.

This often saves much time and conserves some

timber that might otherwise be destroyed.

In all ground skidding the front ends of the logs

or poles dig into the ground, which greatly increases

the horsepower needed to pull them. With the

whole length dragging on the ground, the entire

surface of the log often becomes covered with dirt

and gravel embedded in the bark. Some operators

"snipe" the front ends of the bigger logs with an

ax (fig. 204) to make them pull more easily. "Sniping" on the butt end results in very little loss of

lumber.

Figure 204.—A log "sniped" so it willpull easily.

Skidding with Pans

The antifriction devices used behind a horse in

ground skidding, such as the go-devil, the yarding

sled or bogan, and the bummer, are usually not

strong enough for use behind a tractor. Sturdier

models (fig. 205) have, with some success, been

made for tractor use.

Better yet, however, is the steel skidding pan built

especially for use behind a tractor. This is merely a

flat pan with a rounded-up front end, made of boiler

Figure 205.—A sturdy sled is needed Jor use with a tractor.

A rigid tongue makes it possible to back up.

81
plate or some other hard metal. A chain is securely

hitched to the middle of the front edge of the pan

and to the tractor drawbar. Each log is pulled with

a choker, which is also hooked to the drawbar (fig.

206).

Figure 206.—Details of the skidding-pan hook-up.

The skidding pan arrangement provides for considerable flexibility. The tractor driver can drive up

beside a log, encircle it with the choker and drop

the other end of the cable into the socket, and then

proceed to the next log, being sure that the front

end of the log first hooked will roll up on the pan.

He can repeat this operation until the pan (or the

drawbar socket) is full, and then drive to the landing, where a slight backward movement of the

tractor will permit ready disengagement of the

chokers.

In some cases the pan is attached to a hoist at the

back of the tractor so that it can be lifted when

empty. This permits easier backing and maneuvering, and makes possible a quicker return trip.

The skidding pan allows most of the log to drag

in the dirt, however, so that there is still much friction to overcome and logs are encrusted with dirt.

The same disadvantage applies to bummers and

sleds that do not lift the front end of the log very

high off the ground.

Skidding with Scoots

In northern New England a number of local industries, including wood turners, boxboard manufacturers, and many sawmills, insist that logs be

brought to them clean and free from embedded

gravel and dirt. To accomplish this the logs must be

loaded on a sled or scoot (fig. 207) where they are

felled in the woods, and kept up off the ground

throughout the logging operation. Loading these

scoots in the woods is often difficult.

Figure 208 shows a loader invented and manufactured by A. E. Witherell, a Massachusetts lumberman. With it is shown an exceptionally sturdy and

yet flexible scoot, so made that it can be backed up

and maneuvered around in the woods.

F-438110

Figure 207.—Skidding with a scoot.

82
Figure 208.—A log loader and scoot combination,

of Arthur Witherell.)

{Courtesy

The loader consists of a telescoping boom, made

of extra heavy pipe, mounted on a tractor. This

boom carries a %-inch wire rope up over the center

of the scoot, where it is attached to a pair of loading

tongs. The winch is small and was developed for

use in the oil fields. Instead of the relatively unresponsive mechanical brake usually provided, this

winch has a hydraulically operated brake from a

motorcar. The hydraulic cylinder is mounted beside

the operator to give him finger-tip control of its

operation. When it is disengaged the winch is in

free wheeling, and the cable can be drawn out to

hook onto a log 50 to 75 feet from the tractor. Two

steel bars, weighing 225 pounds, are hooked onto

the radiator guard at the front of the tractor to help

counterbalance the load to be lifted by the boom.

For traveling, the boom is telescoped merely by

lifting a latch over the tractor driver's head and

applying power on the winch. It is extended back to

operating position by a cable and pulley arrangement, worked by turning a hand crank also mounted

over the driver's head. Several other types of scoot

loaders have been developed by northeastern

loggers. One kind, which has a wooden boom and

employs a winch with gypsy drums and hemp rope,

is an excellent one-man rig (fig. 209).

Skidding with Tractor Arches

The best rig yet developed for skidding long logs

over rough terrain is the tractor equipped with

winch and arch. The arch is a development of the

old high wheels used in the open pine forests of the

South and 'West. It is much more sturdily constructed than the high wheels, and is much more

flexible.

The arch (fig. 210) is merely a big wishbone-like

structure of steel mounted on wheels or crawler

tracks. A "reach" from the top of the wishbone extends forward to the tractor hitch, and backward to

form a boom ending in a pulley arrangement called

the fairlead. The cable from the tractor winch, called

the dragline, runs up the top of the reach and

through the fairlead. This fairlead allows logs or

poles to be pulled in from the sides for bunching,

and then to be pulled up into the arch for skidding

to the road or yard. The arch can carry from 1 to 15

logs, depending on size.

F-439934

Figure 209.—The Barhieri scoot loader.

Figure 210.—The logging arch.

During the past few years a number of arches have

been built locally for use on northeastern logging

jobs. Considerable difficulty has been experienced

with them. Most of these difficulties can be traced

back to faults in design and materials. The requisites

of a satisfactory arch are:

1. Large-diameter wheels. Four feet is about the

minimum. Motortruck wheels, most commonly used

on home-made arches, are too small to go over the

rocks, stumps, and other obstacles in our northeastern woods satisfactorily. Pneumatic mudgrippertype tires are desirable. Commercial arches are provided with tires having 10 or more plies.

83
2. A universal-joint connection to the tractor,

mounted higher than the tractor drawbar (fig. 211).

A connection consisting merely of a pin through

the tractor drawbar does not provide enough clearance or flexibility, particularly for vertical stresses.

It wears out too rapidly.

F-438128

Figure 2 1 1.—A tractor arch hitch, with universal joint.

3. A fairlead (fig. 212) at the top of the boom

large enough to pass the hook and its chokers

through, and with a big enough horizontal roll not

to cause undue stresses in the wire rope. This fairlead should be kept well lubricated to insure against

undue wear to, and grooving by, the cable. The

rollers should be made from hardened rather than

soft steel.

Figure 2 12.—A fairlead.

4. A wide enough straddle to give stability, both

in travel and in bunching logs from the side. Eight

feet, tread-to-tread, is about adequate for a mediumsize tractor.

5. A loop over the cable between the fairlead and

the winch to keep the wire rope, should it break,

from whipping around and hitting the tractor driver.

6. A high enough lift so that most of the length

of the logs being hauled is kept oflfthe ground, reducing friction and providing cleaner logs. Eight feet

is about right.

The tractor equipped with winch and arch is the

most generally useful skidding device yet developed.

In giant sizes it is making possible selective logging

in the virgin timber on the Pacific coast. In smaller

timber it seems to be the answer to economical treelength logging (fig. 213). Within limits, and provided the trees are lying right, it can do its own

bunching and can bring in good-sized loads (one

company is yarding up to 2 Vi cords of tree-length

poles per trip) over rough ground, with a minimum

of damage and at a reasonable cost.

F-438117

Figure 2 1 3.—Skidding with a pulpwood arch.

Use ofthe Arch

The most important factor in efficient use of an

arch in the woods is to make sure that the trees are

felled in the right direction. As explained in the section on felling, this usually means dropping them at

an angle up to 45° to the road, away from the direction in which they are to be hauled out. If they are

dropped in this manner, the choker setter can roll

them from behind stumps or other obstructions, attach the chokers, and when the tractor and arch

come in for the load the logs can be quickly and

easily pulled to the road (fig. 214). In bunching this

way, logs pulled uphill are under better control, and

do less damage to the timber left standing. On some

operations it has proved more economical to have

horses or a smaller tractor bunch the arch loads at

the side of, or in the tractor road. This is done in

unusually rugged, rocky country, where tractor roads

are difficult or expensive to make, or where extraheavy tractors are being used on long hauls. Usually

it is more economical to place the tractor roads close

enough together so that the tractors can do their

own bunching, and to fell the trees so that they can

be dragged out most easily.

84
Figure 2 14.—Bunching logs at a roadway.

Another important factor in economical use of the

tractor and arch is to make the roads as straight as

possible and reduce the number of turn-arounds to

the minimum. This can usually be done by making

a loop road, with the tractor traveling straight across

the landing, pausing only to drop its load, and then

making a circuit back into the woods to pick up

another load (fig. 215). Another possibility is a

\

Landing

U- SHAPED ROAD

LOOP ROAD

L-SHAPEO

^

ROAD

Figure 21 5.—Skid-trail lay-outsfor tractor logging.

U-shaped road, with the landing at the bottom of

the U and a loop at the end of each of its prongs. A

load would be picked up on the right prong; the

tractor would come down the base of the U. drop

its load and go up the left prong to turn around,

pick up another load, coming back to the landing

in the opposite direction. The more conventional

L-shaped road should have turn-around loops at

either end.

EXPERIMENTAL TRACTORS

DEVELOPED BY THE

FOREST SERVICE

Two new light tractors (fig. 216), which may be

of value in light skidding and for bunching loads in

the woods, have been developed in the Forest

Service's equipment laboratory at Portland, Oreg.

One has a 20-horsepower gasoline motor, 9-inch

Figure 216.—Two new light tractors developed by the Forest

Service. Left, the "Trail Beetle"; right, the airborne trail

tractor.

track treads, and a 35-inch straddle, and weighs

only 4,600 pounds. It was produced commercially

and used in great numbers as an air-borne unit by

the Army during the war, for repairing and building airports in inaccessible places where all machinery had to be flown in. It seems ideal for bunching small and medium-sized logs and for skidding

such products as white birch turning wood, pulpwood, and distillation wood. An even smaller tractor, the "Trail Beetle," developed by the same laboratory, has a 10-horsepower motor and weighs only

1,500 pounds. Two similar machines are now being

manufactured commercially, and used in the United

States and in Canada.

The equipment laboratory has also constructed an

experimental logging tractor that has become

known as the "Tomcat" (fig. 217). This is a special

crawler-type tractor with an arch built on top. It is

much more maneuverable, has more traction in mud

Figure 217.—The Forest Service "Tomcat" log tractor.

85
or snow, and is better able to yard in big logs from

the side than any other known outfit. This loggingtractor-and-arch combination so far has been built

in only a giant size (23 tons) suitable for west coast

logging (fig. 218), and has not yet been manufactured by any commercial producer. It is believed

that a smaller "Tomcat" would find a wide field of

usefulness not only in the Northeast but also in the

South, the Lake States, and even in the West, and

efforts are being made to get one designed and put

on the market.

Figure 218. S; Jut; the "Tomcat" has been used only in

logging big west coast timber.

SAFETY IN TRACTOR DRIVING

A tractor driver, even of one of the smaller

models, has much weight and power under his control. If not properly controlled, this weight and

power can easily cause serious injury to men working around it or to the operator himself It is highly

important that the operator be a sober, careful, and

trustworthy worker, and that the men working

around the machine exercise reasonable care.

Many serious accidents occur in getting on the

machine. Mud, ice, and snow collect on the tracks

and decks of tractors working in the woods. They

provide a hazard. A careless operator or grease

monkey may let grease or oil accumulate there, too.

A slip, resulting in a fall against one of the steel

surfaces or corners on the machine, can easily cause

serious injury or even death (fig. 219). A handhold

is provided on most tractors to make mounting

easier. It should be used. The tractor operator

should never wear shoes with steel plates or caulks

on the soles. They are as dangerous on a steel deck

as ice is. The operator, or other workman, should

never ride anywhere on the tractor except on the

seat. Riding on the drawbar or on the arch is particularly dangerous.

Figure 2 19.—Slips in getting on the tractor can be serious.

Most operators mount their machines from the

left side. Before starting up they should be sure that

there are no obstacles, or that no one is sleeping, on

the right-hand side (fig. 220).

Figure 220.—Look on the other side of the machine before

starting.

One of the greatest dangers in operating a tractor

in the woods is from limbs, or even sections of the

trunk, falling from trees bumped by the tractor, its

blade, or its load. The guards discussed earlier are

designed to reduce this hazard, but the best of them

cannot stand up against some of the bigger pieces

that may be knocked loose. A fragment falling from

a dead tree may weigh a ton or more. Such trees

should be pulled over with a cable, rather than

86
pushed over with the blade or the bumper. And all

such trees along traveled routes, around skidways,

and along main skid roads should be brought down.

A sharp gust of wind may bring a limb hurtling

down on the workmen below.

The greatest hazard in the operation of the machine itself is side-slipping. The danger is not in the

slipping itself, but in the slipping tracks' coming up

against a stump or a projecting rock, and upsetting

the machine. Tractors with the widest wheelbase

obtainable should be used in woods work in hilly

country. Even with such a machine the operator

should attempt to go directly across a slope only

when it cannot be avoided. Usually he can plan his

route so as to travel quartering up or down the

slope.

Even when quartering on a hillside he should be

alert to the danger of side-slipping, and be ready to

turn the tractor either up or down the hill whenever it starts to slip. His grousers have a chance to

control a tractor sliding endwise, and the chances of

upsetting a machine in this predicament are very

much less. A tractor slipping sidewise has little

chance.

Another hazard occurs in bulldozing tree stems

to clear a camp site, a landing, or a road. Wherever

possible this bulldozing should be done from the

butt end of the downed trees. When such trees are

pushed from their tops many of them will bow up,

and then let loose suddenly with a powerful endwise

thrust. Many a tractor driver has "jill-poked" himself

in this way (fig. 221).

In hooking on an arch or any other piece of equipment, the tractor operator has the life of the

>^i^

Figure 221.—Do not bulldoze treesfrom the top end.

hook-up man in his hands. The weights of the two

pieces of equipment, and the power involved, make

this one of the most dangerous operations in the

woods.

The hook-up man should, if possible, stay out of

the space between the two machines. He can prop

the tongue of the arch up with a "Dutchman" or a

block at about the right height, or, better yet, pick

it up with the loading crane and then guide the hitch

to its proper position witha pry pole or bar. Above

all he should not try to guide it with his hands. The

tractor operator should back his machine in its

lowest gear, and at about half throttle, slowly and

carefully. The wheels of the arch should be blocked,

both fore and aft, while hitching on.

Woodsmen have always had to handle heavy

weights under adverse conditions. Introduction of

the tractor has increased these hazards, and placed

even more of a premium on the intelligent, alert,

and "catty" logger.

87

NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

WIRE ROPE AND ACCESSORIES

->» «^

greater resistance to bending fatigue. A 6 x 19 rope

of this type is amply strong for chokers.

The size of the rope is determined by the loads it

will be expected to haul. With a safety factor of six

times for logging service, the rated strengths of

I. W.R.C. plow-steel wire ropes, by sizes, are:

TYPE AND SIZE OF ROPE

Wire rope is so important in modern logging

operations that this section is devoted to it.

Many kinds of wire rope are available. The best

for use as a logging dragline is a 6 x 19 (6 strands, 19

wires in each strand) rope of improved plow steel

with an independent wire rope center (I. W.R.C).

A Seale-pattern rope of this type has large-diameter

outer wires that give maximum resistance to abrasion (fig. 222).

SEALE

PATTERN

IWRC

Figure 222.—Cross section of a wire rope with independent

wire rope center.

A wire rope with a henip center (fig. 223) is more

flexible, but cannot stand crushing stresses on the

winch drum so well. However, this rope is well

adapted for chokers, as it is more flexible and has

6x19

FILLER WIRE

Figure 223.—Cross section of a wire rope with hemp center.

Rope diameter

(inches)

Safe load

(2,000-lb. tons)

% 1.1

V2 1.8

% 3.0

M 4.3

% 5.8

1 7.5

Hemp-center rope has about 8 percent less

strength than I.W.R.C. rope of the same pattern and

size. In both types it is well worth the additional

cost to get rope of preformed construction. This

simply means that each wire and each strand is

formed into a spiral before it is formed into a rope.

Preformed rope needs less careful breaking-in, is

subject to less internal stress in use, handles more

easily, and when individual wires are broken they

lie in place and do not project to form "jaggers" that

cut the hands of the men who handle the rope. Preformed rope is available from all major wire-rope

manufacturers.

For most types of logging equipment right-lay

rope is preferable. In this the strands spiral away

from you toward the right as you look down a piece

of the rope.

UNWINDING WIRE ROPE

It is important that wire rope always be unreeled

and coiled up again in the same direction in order to

avoid stresses and kinks. The proper way to unreel

wire rope when you first receive it is to set the reel

up on jacks and pull the rope off or to hold the end,

and roll the reel away from it (fig. 224). Throwing

89
the rope off the side of the reel is certain to cause

kinks and stresses.

When you re-reel rope from a horizontal reel to a

drum, the rope should travel from the top of the reel

to the top of the drum (fig. 225). Then, when the

rope is led up over the arch and down over the horizontal fairlead pulley, it will continue to assume the

same bend. By doing this you can avoid continual

flexing due to reverse bending in the rope as it is

installed; and the rope will be much easier to handle

and will last much longer. In some installations, inPULLING OFF

ROLLING OFF

figure 224.—The right ways to unreel wire rope.

eluding most loaders, reverse bends cannot be

avoided.

In attaching wire rope to a winch drum, you

should consider the type of rope. Right-lay rope

should be fastened at the left side of the winch drum

when the rope is wound over the top of the drum—

the proper method of attachment for most logging

equipment, including loaders and arches. This results in easy and regular spooling. If the socket for

attaching the rope is at the right side of the drum,

left-lay rope should be ordered for overwinding. If

right-lay rope must be used on such a drum, it

should be underwound. An easy way to remember

which way to wind wire rope is to use your index

fingers as reminders (fig. 226).

Figure 22 5.—Re-reeling wire rope onto a drum.

Underwind

Fasten on left

Overwind

Fasten on right

LEFT LAY

LEFT HAND

Underwind

Fasten on right

Overwind

Fasten on left

RIGHT LAY

RIGHT HAND

Figure 226.—An easy way to remember how to wind wire rope onto a drum.

90
SEIZING ROPE ENDS

Preformed wire rope is the only kind that can be

cut without first seizing it on both sides of the cut.

Ordinary rope will brush out when cut, and several

feet will be lost. Even preformed rope should usually

be seized before cutting.

The number ofseizings recommended by the U. S.

Bureau of Mines for regular-lay wire rope, and specifications for the seizings, are shown in table 1.

Seizing wire should be of annealed iron grade. It is

important that the seizing be wrapped tightly, and

yet that it is not strained.

TABLE l.—specificationsfor seizing regular-lay wire

rope

Rope

diameter

(inches)

0 to H

1 to m

1^4 to 2

Number of Space

between

seizings Length

of

seizHemp I. W. ings seizings center R. C.

Inches Inches

2 3 Vi 1

3 3 1 2

3 4 Wi 2

4 4 2 2

4 4 3 2

Diameter of

seizing wire

Inches

0. 02 to 0. 03

. 04 to . 06

.06 to .09

. 08 to . 125

. 105 to . 125

To make a seizing (fig. 227) take a piece of soft

iron wire and wrap it in a spiral along the grooves

in the lay of the rope about three turns, then start

wrapping the soft wire snugly back over this spiral,

directly around the rope until the proper length is

wrapped. Then tightly twist together the end first

left and the end of the last wrap. Clip the ends off

and hammer the twisted end down into a valley in

the rope.

A seizing iron (fig. 228), with a spool in the end,

is a big help in doing this job right on the larger

sizes of rope. Lacking it, you can use a short length

of round iron bar or a wooden stick with a hole in

one end and a notch in the other (fig. 229).

To cut a piece of wire rope, first put the required

number of seizings on each side of the place where

the cut is to be made. Smaller-diameter rope can be

cut with any of the various kinds of clippers on the

market, with a hacksaw, or with a hammer and cold

chisel on an anvil. For the larger-diameter ropes it

is best to use one of the special rope cutters, like the

one shown in figure 230. This is merely a specially

tempered cold chisel, mounted in a stand over an

anvil. The top of the chisel bar projects so that it

can be hit with a sledge. A wedge holds the chisel

bar. in place.

An excellent way to cut wire rope that is not to

be used in splices or ferrules is with an acetylene

torch. This will weld the ends of the wire in the

strands together, and provide extra insurance against

unlaying or high-stranding.

Figure 227.—Steps in seizing a rope end.

Figure 228.—A seizing iron.

91
Figure 229.—A binder stick usedfor seizing.

Figure 230.—A wire rope cutter.

FITTINGS FOR WIRE ROPE

Two methods of finishing the ends of wire rope

for attachment to the various logging devices are

recommended. The first is the ferrule. The second

is the loop.

Logging lines can be bought from the factory

already fitted with a spliced eye at one end and a

ferrule at the other. But cables will break, attachments will come loose, and the equipment must

often be adapted for different uses. Therefore, the

installation of the'ferrule and the loop will be described in detail.

The Ferrule

A ferrule is a ring of special-alloy steel, tapered on

the inside (fig. 231). When properly attached to the

end of the rope, this socket will develop the full

strength of the wire rope. It is the only device that

can be depended on to do this. Because the ferrule

is strong and easy to use, it is fast becoming the

most common end-fitting for logging rope. Most

winch drums are designed to take a ferrule fitting.

The Bardon choker and drawbar hooks also are designed for ferrules.

Figure 2 31.—Cross section of a ferrule.

The ferrule is not difficult to attach. The special

equipment needed is socket metal (or pure zinc), a

ladle, a source of heat to melt the metal, and muriatic acid (or sal-ammoniac). Solder and babbit are

too soft for use in attaching sockets. To install a

ferrule, follow these steps (fig. 232):

1. Measure from the end of the rope a distance

equal to the length of the ferrule. If the wire rope is

not preformed, apply not less than three seizings

below this point. If it is preformed, only the top

seizing will be necessary.

2. Untwist the strands down to the top seizing.

If the rope has a hemp center, cut this out level

with the top seizing. If it has an independent wire

rope center, leave this in.

3. Separate the wires of the various strands to

form a brush. It is not necessary to straighten these

wires.

4. Clean the wires carefully with some safe commercial cleaning solvent for the distance they are to

be inserted in the socket. Dry thoroughly.

5. Dip the ends of the wire in muriatic acid solution (50 percent commercial muriatic acid, 50 percent water) for about 30 seconds. Do not let the acid

92
come in contact with the hemp center or any portion of the rope except the broomed ends. Then

neutraHze the acid by dipping into boiHng water to

which a pinch of soda has been added. (An alternative to the acid bath is to go ahead with step 6, and

then sprinkle a little sal-ammoniac between the

strands as a flux and cleansing agent.)

6. Pinch the broomed-out ends together with a

special pair of tongs, as illustrated, or pull them

together with a short piece of seizing wire; and drive

the ferrule over the ends of the strands down to the

top seizing.

7. Distribute the wires evenly in the recess. Do not

crimp over the ends; this makes the socket weaker

instead of stronger. Place a seal of putty, clay, or

mud around the base of the socket.

8. Melt the socket metal. Do not get it too hot

or it will anneal the wires. If a wood sliver dropped

into it chars, but does not burst into flame, it is

about the right temperature. Before pouring the

metal into the socket it is a good idea to heat the

socket slightly to drive off" any moisture that may

have collected. Fill the socket brimful, because the

metal will contract a little when it cools.

9. Take oflf all seizings except the top one.

The Loop

Several types of loop are used on the ends of

logging ropes. A spliced eye loop without thimble

is generally preferred (fig. 233). This provides maximum flexibility. However, some loggers believe that

the insertion of a thimble provides a loop almost as

flexible, and one that wears longer and is much safer.

Figure 232.—Steps infitting a ferrule to a wire rope,

879396 0—50^—7

Figure 233.—A spliced eye loop.

93
Figure 234.—Steps in splicing an eye loop: Step I, the thimble and wire are clamped in a rigger's vise. Step 2, the short end is

unlaid. Step 3, strands are inserted and tightened with marlinspike. Step 4, completed splice readyJor wrapping.

A properly spliced eye—with or without thimblewill develop 80 percent or more of the original

strength of the rope.

In making an eye splice a rigger's vise is a big

help. An ordinary vise can be used, but not so easily.

You also need a marlinspike, pliers, a length of

manila rope and a length of pipe, two wooden

mallets, seizing wire, a rope knife, and a pair of

cutters. Several steps are involved (figs. 234 and

235).

1. Place a thimble of the correct size about 2 feet

from the end of the wire rope and bend the rope

around it. If a thimble is not used, a wooden block

of the same exterior size should be used instead.

Clamp the entire assembly tightly in the rigger's

vise.

2. Untwist the 2-foot end of the rope. If the rope

is not preformed, apply a seizing of fine wire to each

1st tuck 2d tuck

3d tuck

4th tuck

Figure 2 35.—Detail of step 3 in splicing an eye loop.

Strand or anneal the ends with a torch. If it is preformed, this is not necessary, but the strands should

be straightened somewhat. Cut out the center of the

rope. If it is hemp, cut it out close to the thimble.

If it is wire, cut it a fraction of an inch away from

the thimble. Bend two strands to the left, and four

94
to the right, to make the four-tuck spHce that is

favored in logging. Loosen the lay of the standing

part of the rope by wrapping the doubled hemp rope

five or six times around the wire rope about 2 feet

from the thimble, inserting the pipe in the loop at

the end, and turning it in the direction of the lay.

3. Insert the marlinspike under the two strands (1

and 2) at the top of the rope closest to the point of

the thimble or block (fig. 234, step 3). Give it a half

turn to the right, and insert strand A in the opening

thus made. Then, by twisting the spike in the opposite direction, force strand A back against the

thimble. Insert strand B under the first of the two

strands that A was put under. Next, tuck strand F

under the two strands that are fourth and fifth from

the point of the thimble, and twist the end upward.

Insert the marlinspike upward under the fourth

strand and tuck strand E clockwise, the same way

strand B was tucked. Without removing the marlinspike, give strand E three more tucks, spiraling it

around the fourth strand. Each tuck is made by

rotating the spike a half turn to the left, pulling

strand E through the opening and then turning the

spike back to the right to tighten the tuck. Give

strand D four tucks by winding it about the fifth

strand in the same manner. Tuck strand C four times

around the sixth strand. Strands F, A, and B should

be given three additional tucks about the strands

under which they come out.

4. Cut off the long ends of the strands that project, and hammer out all inequalities between the

two wooden mallets, or a mallet and a block of

wood. Finally, wrap the entire splice with paper tape

and then with seizing wire so it will not cut the

hands of the men who will handle the rope. Loosely

spiral 6 or 8 inches of soft wire down around the

splice from the point of the thimble; then wind it

back up over the splice, tightly and uniformly, to

the point of the thimble. Twist together the two

ends and tap them with a mallet so they lie close to

the rope. This seizing is often omitted on logging

lines where it would have a short life.

A splice made in this manner should develop 80

to 90 percent of the strength of the original rope in

the sizes used in the Northeast. The first splices you

make may look a little ragged; but they will be

about as strong as a smoother job.

Loops made with the clips (fig. 236) and knots

so frequently used by northeastern loggers do not

develop anywhere near the strength of the spliced

eye. Clips should be used on live lines only as an

emergency measure. They are bulky and will not go

through the fairlead or sheaves properly; they are

diflScult to handle; and their use on live lines has

caused accidents. The use of clips should be confined

to guy lines and other stationary cables. A thimble

is frequently used in making an eye with clips.

When you use clips, make sure that the base of

the clip is applied to the live end of the rope, and

the U-bolt to the dead end (fig. 236, C). If the clips

are put on opposite sides, or staggered, the loaded rope will be deformed, and its strength will be

reduced.

Figure 256.—Making eye loop with clips. A, Clip,

Thimble. C, Thimble and clips correctly applied.

B,

Figure 237.—^ new cable lock loop.

Recently two types of locking collars have appeared on the market. They do the same job as the

sphced eye. One (fig. 237) can be put on by the

logger. Another type is installed only at the factory.

Apparently they work well if flexing is not severe,

as on loader lines.

Hooks and Chokers

To these various eye loops can be attached any of

the special arch or choker hooks equipped with pins

or clevises (fig. 238). The arrow points help to keep

the chokers attached during rough going.

By means of clevises, one or more of the Bardon

arch hooks (fig. 239) can be attached to the eye

95
Figure 238.—Arch and choker hooks. A, Hook with clevis;

B, flexible swivel hook.

Figure 240.—A multiple-choker assembly.

Figure 239. A Bardon arch hook.

loop, making possible the use of chokers with ferrules at both ends. These have the advantage of

being reversible, and they wear longer and more

evenly. Many types of clevises have been developed.

In the safest type the clevis is counterbored in order

to take the load on the full diameter of the pin, the

end of the pin being threaded.

The combinations of these and other devices that

can be used on the end of an arch cable are practically endless. Some operators use three or four

short lengths of chain to multiply the number of

chokers that can be attached (fig. 240). Others sling

the main dragline around a cord or more of treelength poles (fig. 241), attach the free end to the

line with either a patent or an ordinary choker hook,

and drive off with the entire load. The best combination for any situation depends on the size of the

timber, local skidding conditions, and the preferences of the men doing the work.

When choker hooks become bent, they should

be discarded. They can rarely be straightened successfully, and after straightening are never as strong

as before.

Figure 241.—A single-choker assembly.

Blocks

The life of wire rope depends partly on the kind

of blocks used with it. On many northeastern

logging jobs, ordinary cargo or hayloft blocks (fig.

242) are used. These farmers' blocks have flat steel

sides, soft sheaves, and crude bearings. Wherever

these blocks are used, the rope soon shows signs of

abuse. It is practically impossible to keep the flat

steel sides from abrading the rope.

It is far better to get genuine loggers' blocks (fig.

243) with smoothly rounded sides, manganese steel

96
sheaves, and sturdy antifriction bearings. These

blocks cost more, but they wear better, rope lasts

longer, and the danger of accidents is greatly reduced.

Figure 242.—A farmers' block like this wears out the cable.

Do not use them.

of groove should be used. Too narrow a groove will

pinch the rope; too wide a groove will not give it

the proper support. Either will result in premature

failure of the rope.

When you discard an old rope, check the size of

the sheave groove before you install a new rope.

Groove gages (fig. 246) for this purpose are available from manufacturers. If a groove gage is not

readily available, you can make one easily from a

thin piece of sheet steel. Use the following measurements:

Diameter of rope (inches) Correct diameter for groove gage

0 to ^4 Rope diameter plus He inch.

y^ to l}i Rope diameter plus %4 inch.

l}i to IH Rope diameter plus ^iz inch.

Figure 243.—^ loggers' block is made for logging, is easy on

the rope.

When you get loggers' blocks, take out the cotter

pins that hold the clevises in place and replace them

with short pieces of soft steel wire, twisted together.

The wire will not crystalHze, break, and fall out as

the cotter pins might.

In.buying blocks, consider the size of the sheave

and the size of the groove in it. Manufacturers advise that 6 by 19 wire rope should not be passed

over a sheave less than 20 times the rope diameter

(fig. 244). This means that for 1-inch rope you

should use a sheave not less than 20 inches in diameter; for M-inch rope, 15 inches, and so on. It is frequently impractical to install sheaves this big in

logging equipment, but these sizes should be

approached as closely as possible.

It is even more important that the groove in the

sheave be the right size (fig. 245). Sheaves with

proper groove sizes are available for each of the

commonly used sizes of wire rope, and no other size

WRONG

h

RIGHT

Figure 244.—Measuring the diameter of wire rope.

If the groove has been worn to a smaller or larger

diameter, or has become rough or scored, the sheave

should be taken to a machine shop and the groove

turned to make it the right size and to take out the

corrugations.

All sheaves should be kept lubricated so that they

will rotate freely. This applies also to the rollers on

fairleads, both horizontal and vertical. Ordinarily

pressure-lubrication fittings are provided, but in

some cases the block has to be taken apart and an

oil well filled.

97
Groove díometer

Figure 245.—Cross section of sheave, showing how rope should

fit groove.

Figure 246.—GagesJor testing sheave grooves.

CARE OF WIRE ROPE

It may be impracticable to carry out all the recommendations of wire-rope manufacturers in taking

care of wire rope used on a logging job. But the

more of them that you do follow, the longer your

wire rope will last and the fewer your accidents

will be.

Kinks

A kink in a wire rope, no matter how it develops,

greatly reduces the life of the rope. Consequently,

every precaution must be taken, by proper and careful handling, to avoid making kinks. Never let a

small loop remain in a wire rope (fig. 247). Watch

for such loops, and throw them out before kinks

develop. When a rope is kinked it is permanently

damaged, and it can never be repaired short of cutting out the kink and splicing. Such a splice uses up

10 to 20 feet of rope. A generous use of swivels in

wire-rope installations will help to reduce kinks.

Figure 247.—Watch outfor a small loop, A. // may become

a kink, B.

Lubrication

All wire rope should be kept lubricated. A wire

rope should be considered a machine; in the course

of jerking tight and loosening, flexing and twisting,

its metal surfaces rub against each other as they do

in other machinery. Most wire rope manufactured

today is completely lubricated as it is formed, but

this lubrication will not last indefinitely, especially

in service such as logging, where the rope is subjected to dragging through mud, snow, and slush,

and is exposed to all sorts of weather. The notion

that the lubrication in a hemp center is a reservoir

for the rest of the rope to draw on is false. A different kind of lubrication is needed for the fiber than

for the steel, and the hemp should never be allowed

to get dry.

For most logging service a medium-heavy lubricant, free from both alkalies and acids, should be

used. Heavy lubricants that have to be heated before being applied are not needed, and light lubricants are suitable only for inside use. Special wirerope lubricants are available from wire-rope manufacturers.

The frequency of lubrication will depend on the

use the rope is getting. The heavier the loads, the

greater the number of bends, the smaller the sheave

98
diameters, the higher the rope speeds, and the more

severe the corrosive conditions, the more frequent

must be the lubrication. If the rope remains pHable,

with evidence of lubrication between the strands, it

generally does not need lubrication.

The lubricant can be applied by pouring it on

from the top as the rope is flexed over a sheave (fig.

248), or by wiping it on with a rag. It can also be

applied by running the rope through a vat or tank

(fig. 249). Whatever the method, surplus lubricant

should be wiped off the surface after lubrication. A

piece of burlap is a good wiping rag. Lubricant

should never be poured on rope that is spooled

on a reel or drum.

Inspection of Wire Rope

For economy and safety, all wire rope used in logging should be inspected at weekly intervals. Such

inspections may reveal conditions that are wearing

the rope out prematurely and thus make it possible

to correct them and prolong the rope's life. Inspections may prevent serious accidents. When only a

portion of the rope is found to be breaking down,

a section can be cut off or the rope can be turned

end for end. In other cases it may be desirable to

retire a whole length of rope to some other use and

put new rope in the main dragline or in the main

lead on a skidder or loader. Some of the things to

look for in rope inspection follow.

Kinks (fig. 250, A) are the most frequent cause

of sudden breakage of wire rope. The only thing to

do when a kink is found is to cut it out and make a

long running splice in the rope—which will take 10

to 20 feet—or discard the shorter section.

When the sheave grooves are too small, they

pinch the rope (fig. 250, B). A different block should

be installed, a different-sized rope installed, or the

Figure 248.—Lubricating rope by pouring lubricant on.

Figure 2 50.—Types of damage to wire rope. A, Kinking;

B, pinching by a narrow sheave groove; C, flattening; D,

cracking of outside wires.

.Wiper

C

—jj X> Xjt iXj Xi Ju tXi -»

Figure 249.—Running the rope through a heated tank of lubricant.

99
sheave groove should be turned to the correct size

as soon as this type of damage is noted.

When rope bearing a heavy load has been drawn

over a sheave groove that is too large, or the rope

has not spooled tightly on a drum, the rope will

flatten out (fig. 250, C). The I. W. R. C. rope recommended for arch lines is less subject to this sort of

damage than hemp-center rope. Correct spooling is

frequently difficult in arch logging, but there is little

excuse for improper sheaves.

When a section of wire rope rubs against a sharp

object, such as the side of a farmer's block, or when

there is excessive bending around sheaves that are

much too small, the outside wires crack (fig. 250, D).

A dragline that is pulled along the ground at high

speed is hardened by friction; then if it is bent

around a too-small sheave the hardened outside

wires crack.

Small nicks between the rope strands, or inside

the rope against the wire center, are usually evidence of overloading. These are easy to overlook,

but they weaken the rope. Ropes that arc not overloaded will not develop them.

Modern wire ropes will stand a lot of abuse, but

a little extra care of the kind suggested will repay

its cost several times over. This misused wire rope

on many northeastern logging jobs is delivering

only a fraction of the service it should, and it provides a continual threat of serious accidents.

100
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS HANDBOOK

CABLE LOGGING

-9»^ <^

Cable systems of logging are not widely used in

the Northeast. In the West, high-speed cable systems are being discarded in many localities because

of their great expense and their damage to timber

stands. They knock over timber that is not harvested; and they leave behind a serious fire hazard

in logged-over stands. They are dangerous to the

men working around them.

However, cable systems are the only means of

logging some areas efficiently. These include places

that are so rough or swampy that other types of

logging equipment cannot be used to get the logs

out. Light cable equipment has been developed for

relogging in the slash areas of the west coast. This

type of equipment is being tried for logging small

timber in the East. Some promising light cablelogging systems have also been developed in France

and Switzerland.

GROUND SKIDDING

The simplest method of cable logging, of course,

is ground skidding. The winch alone is sometimes

used to skid logs that are 30 to 50 feet from the tractor. Besides being economical, this is often an aid to

forest conservation.

On one operation a wheel-type tractor equipped

with a winch bunched small pine logs from slopes

ranging up to 100 percent. The operator took his

tractor to the brow of a hill and chained the front

end to a tree. His helper carried out the cable and

hooked on the logs, and the power unit pulled them

in. They operated over a radius of 75 feet. When a

load had been assembled the operator unchained his

machine, hooked onto the logs, and dragged them

to the mill. This was in open, sandy pine woods.

When the cable runs up over the fairlead of an

arch a slight high-lead effect is obtained and logs

can be successfully skidded from even greater distances. Several loggers have installed booms of various sorts on their tractors to get the same effect (fig.

251).

Self-loading trucks, or loaders mounted on trucks,

are often used in skidding. A truck with a homemade jib boom has been observed skidding light

logs in open woods for distances up to 300 feet.

F-440OO9

Figure 2 51.—Tractor equipped with boom.

In working over a cliff, the cable may receive a

great deal of wear from sharp rock edges. One way

to avoid this is to construct a simple boom that can

be backed out to the edge of the cliff and carry the

cable over the edge (fig. 252). With such a boom

logs scaling up to 3,000 board feet have been lifted

with a 60-horsepower tractor.

SKYLINE LOGGING

Getting logs out of a ravine is a tough job. If the

sides are steep and rough, the bottom rough or

swampy, and the mouth blocked, ordinary logging

vehicles cannot be used. Such ravines often can be

logged best by a simple adaptation of the skyline

system used in the West (fig. 253).

101
Figure 252.—Home-made boom for working over cliff.

-Head

Figure 2 53.—Logging a box canyon with a skyline.
The skyline is stretched across the ravine from a

head spar on the landing side to a tail spar on the

other side. Neither needs to be very high—in fact,

a stump can often be used for a tail spar. The skyline

is usually tightened by a block and tackle and hand

winch. The main dragline passes through a sheave

on the head spar, to a carriage (bicycle rig) suspended on the skyline, down through a fall block,

and back to the skyline carriage, where the end is

fastened. Motive power is usually provided by a

large-capacity winch on a tractor set well back from

the cliff edge. When the winch is put into free

wheeling or reverse, the dragline cable pays out

until the carriage is at the center of the skyline, and

the heavy fall block carries the choker shackle down

within reach of the hook-up men at the bottom of

the ravine. When the log is hooked on they give

the winch operator a signal. He puts the winch into

gear, and the log is lifted up and out of the canyon.

RELEASE

ROPE

FALL--

BLOCK

HAUL-BACK

LINE

CHOKER SHACKLE

' (SWIVELED)

There are many variations of the skyline system.

A number of them are described in U. S. Department ot Agriculture Bulletin No. 711, Logging in

the Douglas Fir Region, in west coast trade journals,

and in the catalogs of equipment manufacturers.

Bulletin No. 711 was issued in 1918 and is available

only in reference libraries.

rtrdfe->w. -....

F-448859

Figure 2 5 5.—Double-drum winch mounted on tractor tracks.

Figure 2 54.—Skyline carriage, and automatic hook to hold it Figure 2 56.—Haul-back block anchored to stump.

An automatic hook (fig. 254) on the skyline near

the spar tree makes it easy to hold the carriage and

lower the log at the landing on top of the cliff. The

winch operator can release the hook by a pull on the

release rope.

If a double-drum winch (fig. 255) can be provided, a light haul-back line will speed up the operations by providing quicker, surer return of the fall

block to the hook-up man. The haul-back line (in

the Northeast it can usually be ys-inch cable) is run

from the fall block, through a light haul-back block

(fig. 256) attached to a stump at the bottom of the

ravine, and up to a sheave on the head spar, thence

to the second winch. Additional haul-back blocks

can be used if needed. These haul-back blocks are

arranged with an easily removed shackle so that they

can be taken off the line, moved, and reattached in

a very short time.

The recently developed Dunham system is an interesting variation (fig. 257). In this system the

main dragline is also the skyline. It is doubled back

so that the carriage runs on it. This system could

not be used without a haul-back. When the haulback is restrained and the main dragline is hauled

in, the carriage and its load are lifted into the air.

Skylines work best, particularly with limited rope

sizes, when the set-up is such that considerable slack

can be left in the line. Getting the skyline too taut

enormously increases the pull on the spar trees and

on the rope itself and cuts down on the working

load that can be carried. This is illustrated in table

2, which gives the safe load capacities of wire ropes

of various diameters over a 1,000-foot span, with

different amounts of deflection from the horizontal.

103
Figure 257.—The Dunham skyline system.

TABLE 2.—Safe working loads^ for wire rope (6 X 19

plow steel) on horizontal skylines {based on span oj

hOOOjeetf

Deflection

at center of

line (feet)

}^-inch

rope

Pounds

140

340

720

1,640

3, 240

^4-inch

rope

1-inch

rope

IJ'^-inch

rope

Rope

needed

20

Pounds

320

740

1,560

3,560

7, 100

Pounds

580

1,300

2,780

5,960

12, 500

Pounds

1,220

2,760

6,000

13, 920

26, 400

Feet

1,001

30 1,002

50 1,007

100 1,027

200 1, 107

1 With a safety factor of 4.

2 For longer spans the working loads are much lower.

(For 2,000-foot span, l^-inch rope at 100-foot deflection,

the safe working load is 4,800 pounds.) Green hardwood

logs weigh about 10,000 pounds per 1,000 board feet,

softwoods about 7,000 pounds.

HIGH-LEAD SYSTEMS

High-lead logging was first developed in the

Carolina swamps, and has been used on a number of

northeastern jobs. With the development of tractor

logging, however, it is needed even less in the

Northeast than skyline systems. The swamps are

usually frozen and easy to get at in the winter. There

are few slopes on which tractors cannot be used.

But there are some places (fig. 258) where a high

lead is the best way for getting the logs out. A

typical example is a rocky hillside with a road at the

top. Another is where there is a steep-sided gully

between the landing at the roadside and the opposite

slope where the logs are located.

Figure 258.—Places where a high lead is useful.

104
HIGH LEAD BLOCK

HAUL-BACK

BLOCK

HAUL-BACK BLOCK

Figure 2 59.—A simple version of a high-lead system.

CHOKER HOOK

¿I//- CHOKER BUTT HOOKFigure 260.—Two types of butt riggingfor a high lead.

The principal advantage of the high lead (fig.

259) is that it lifts the front ends of the logs; this

helps them to pass over rocks, stumps, and other

obstructions. This advantage lessens as the length

of the skid increases. With a 40-foot spar in level

country a high lead can skid logs efficiently about

200 feet. A 60-foot spar would extend the distance

to 300 feet. On uphill skids the lifting effect may

apply over a slightly greater distance, depending on

the configuration of the ground. Downhill, the practical skidding distance may be much less.

An important part of a successful high lead is the

butt rigging used (fig. 260). It should be fitted with

swivels to reduce possibilities of kinking the wire

ropes attached to it.

It is possible by a modification of the high-lead

system to get a good lifting effect over longer skids

with a relatively low head spar. This is done by

using the haul-back line to take the slack out of the

main haul line and thus lift the load. It is called

"tightlining" (fig. 261).

Under ideal conditions, the tail block can be fastened to a stump. On more uniform slopes or nearly

level settings it is necessary to rig a tail tree. The

system works the same either way. When he wants

to lift a load of logs over rocks, logs, or other obstructions, the operator puts brake pressure on the

haul-back drum. This tightens the line and lifts the

load. It works even at the far end of the run. In the

same way, when he is hauling the rigging back he

can lift it over brush, slash, and other material by

braking the mainline drum. A special free-swiveling

butt rigging (fig. 262) is best for such a set-up; the

Montelius clevis is well adapted to this system.

105
Figure 261,—A *"tightlimng*' system.

Figure 262.—Butt riggingfor tightlining.

RIGGING

^^?>^^'^?> ihe cables for a skyline or a high lead is

an art in itself and no attempt to cover the subject

thoroughly will be made here. However, the rigging

and guying of an A-frame (fig. 263) for either system may be of specific interest. A head spar can also

be rigged on a standing tree. For safety it should be

topped and guyed. A head spar is subject to much

pounding and vibration; its limbs can easily be

broken off; and the whole tree can be loosened.

Frequently, when the configuration of the ground

is right, a stump can be used as a tail spar. If this is

not possible the lines can be fastened to a suitable

tree. This should also be guyed. Ordinarily it is not

necessary to top the tail spar.

It is worth repeating that in all cable logging it is

economy in the long run to buy blocks designed for

logging and commercial wire-rope fittings. A local

blacksmith cannot handle the high-grade steels

needed for good service in such equipment. Makers

^^ l<^ggi^g blocks have put into their products the

106

result of years of experience. On the job such a

block will more than pay for itself with longer life—

both of the block itself and the wire rope used with

It fewer break-downs, and fewer accidents.

Figure 265.—Rigging and guyingfor an A-frame.

YARDERS

A number of manufacturers make complete

yarders. Many of them are now making sturdy little

two-drum machines, some with a telescoping steel

mast (fig. 264). The smaller machines are usually

powered with standard gasoline or Diesel motors,

for which parts and service can be readily obtained.
î*^'^;;

F-438144

Figure 264.—A yarder with a telescoping mast.

A new development is the use of special torque-converter (fluid) drives to give the yarder greater

capacity for overloads; such drives give smoother

operation and make break-downs less likely. Western

donkey-punchers say that these torque converters

have at last given the internal-combustion engine

flexibility and ability to take punishment as well as

the old steam engines did. They also make it possible to use smaller motors than could be installed

with direct mechanical drives. Many of these yarders

can also be used as loaders, and they might be a very

worth-while addition to the equipment on some

eastern operations.

Several varieties of winches and hoists are on the

market. Some are adapted to installation on tractors

and trucks, others to hook-ups with independent

motors. One especially flexible type is designed to

be operated by the jacked-up rear wheels of the truck

it is mounted on.

SAFETY IN CABLE LOGGING

Cable logging is dangerous business at best. This

applies to simple ground skidding over short distances, and even more to high-lead and skyline systems. There are many things that can be done to

make cable skidding safer than it has been in the

past. One is, of course, proper selection and care of

the wire rope and wire-rope fittings used.

Another is the general use of modern wire-rope

chokers rather than tongs or loops of chain to pick

up the logs. The chokers should be equipped with

Bardon or other self-locking hooks. With these devices there is a much more positive grip on the logit is less likely to come loose as it swings through

the air.

A third, and tremendously important, safety factor

is a positive and well-understood signal system between the choker setters and the winch operator. On

some settings where the two men are not far apart,

a system of shouts or arm signals can work well.

Even here, however, there should be readily available at both ends of the line an emergency signal,

such as a penetrating and unmistakable whistle. Too

many men have been seriously injured or killed by

premature starting of the winch, or failure to stop

immediately in an emergency.

107

NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

LOADING

->^

Loading forest products for the haul to the mill is

about the most difficult problem of northeastern

loggers. The variety of conditions under which loading has to be done adds to the multiplicity of systems and devices developed to help do the job. Loading can be either "hot," with the wood going onto

trucks or sleds just about as fast as it is skidded from

the woods; or "cold," with the wood accumulating

at a yard or landing in quantity and for some time

before it is loaded. Loading can be done on a level

spot, or on a hillside from above or below the road.

The material to be loaded may be short bolts, logs

of various lengths, or entire tree lengths.

LOADING SHORT BOLTS

Most short bolts cut for pulpwood, distillation

wood, mill wood, or fuel wood are still loaded by

hand, often with the aid of the pulp hook. In the

southern part of the region the pulp hook is almost

unknown, and the hand loading is usually done

without any mechanical help.

Because of this hand loading the size of the sticks

has had to be kept down. Distillation wood in

Pennsylvania, for example, is often handled six

times between the stump and the retort: (1) Ricking in the woods; (2) loading on a scoot for skidding to the road; (3) ricking at the roadside; (4)

loading on a truck for hauling to the mill; (5) ricking in the mill yard; and (6) loading on the retort

buggy. Pulpwood, cut at greater distances from the

using plant, is frequently handled many more times

than this. Therefore, pulpwood and distillation wood

bolts are cut and split to sizes that can be easily

moved by hand.

Several solutions to this wasteful use of hand

labor are being developed. One, the cutting and

hauling of longer lengths, will be discussed later.

A number oftypes of conveyors have been developed to aid in getting heavy sticks up to the truck

bed. The simplest of these consists of a small tri-

^^

angular frame, on skids or wheels, with a 2- or 3-

horsepower gasoline motor mounted in it to supply

power for a conveyor chain that carries the bolts up

a ramp, either endways or sideways, to the truck

bed. These conveyors enable one man to load heavy,

unsplit hardwood bolts that it would take four men

to lift by hand. Such conveyors require the bolts to

be hauled practically to the truck tail gate, however,

and to be carried from the tail of the truck bed to

their place in the pile.

More elaborate rigs have been developed. Most

of them are mounted on old automobile chassis or

on tractors and come in three sections. On the tail

end is a section that lies on the ground and enables

the loaders to feed it from a distance, sometimes

across a ditch. Above the truck bed is another section, which carries the bolts up to the front of the

truck bed, where the first tier of the load is to be

piled. Many of these sections are hydraulically operated, so that the delivery point of the bolts can be

raised as the height of the pile increases. When the

first tier is completed, the truck moves ahead a short

distance and the second tier is put in; then a third

move is made and a third tier is loaded. Such a

loader, with two men feeding it and a third man on

the truck, can easily load 3 cords of 4-foot wood in

an average of 15 minutes. Five men working without the loader could not do the job in 45 minutes.

Except for very short sticks (under 24 inches) any

loader that piles the bolts in the conveyance roughand-tumble is not economical because the load capacity is so greatly reduced. During the war roughand-tumble loading of 4-foot wood in freight gondolas was resorted to sometimes because of lack of

labor, and it was found that their capacity was reduced about one third under that obtained by handstacking. Shorter sticks, however, can be rough-andtumble piled more economically. Distillation wood

operators have found that they can get as much volume of unsplit 12- or 16-inch sticks in a stake-truck

body or retort buggy by rough-and-tumble loading

as they formerly got of 52-inch sticks carefully piled.

871)396 O—50- 109
Another approach to the problem of loading short

lengths of wood is package handling. A partial use

of this principle is the skid loader developed by a

Midwest equipment manufacturer (fig. 265). This

device consists of hydraulically operated arms

mounted on a long-wheelbase crawler tractor. These

arms can be pushed into a pile of wood, then closed

over a cord or so.The tractor can lift the armful,

turn, and drop it onto a truck or railroad car. This

device has been very successful in handling 100-inch

wood, and can handle 60-inch wood fairly well. Recently arms that can handle 48-inch wood or stumps

successfully have been developed, but the capacity

of the machine is reduced. This skid loader costs

about $3,000, in addition to the cost of the tractor.

Examples of the most successful package handling

are some big pulp operations in Newfoundland that

supply paper mills in Canada and New York State.

Here the wood is piled by hand in cradles (fig. 266)

in the middle of which welded hoops of steel reinforcing rod have been set. The last few bolts are

pounded in with a sledge hammer. The wood is

then handled in these bundles in its transshipments

from truck to railroad car, to boat, and back to railroad car and truck again to the yard of the using

mill. The hoops can be used again and again.

Steel strapping has been tried in place of the

hoops, but it is expensive because it cannot be reused, and disposing of piles of used strapping at the

plant is a problem. Wire-rope slings with self-lockF-438UO, 438141

Figure 265.—TAf skid loader: A, Pushing its arms into a pile of wood; B, picking up an armjul.

110
STEEL HOOP

Figure 266.—A method of packaging pulpwood.

ing dogs that clamp the bundle tight when it is

lifted by a crane appear more promising.

Several attempts have been made to build up

packages of 4-foot bolts on skids in the woods. Such

packages are fastened to the skid so the whole package can be skidded out of the woods, loaded on

trucks, and unloaded in the mill yard—all in the

same unit. The most successful type is the tubular

steel pulpwood pallet (fig. 267). These pallets are

spotted in the woods where the cutters can stack

the wood on them. They can be skidded behind

tractors for short distances. They are most successftjl

with a truck specially equipped with a ramp and

winch for pulling the pallets up onto the truck bed.

Figure 267.—Tubular steel pulpwood pallet.

Unloading short bolts from a truck, sled, or railroad car also presents difficulties. The greater part of

such wood is probably still unloaded as it is loaded,

piece by piece, by hand. Nevertheless, some ingenious devices have been developed for unloading.

One is a simple ramp (fig. 268), upon which one

sled runner or pair of truck wheels is driven to tilt

the conveyance so that the loaded wood will slide

or roll off. If the wood is piled lengthways of the

vehicle, some sort of quick release stakes, such as

those described later, will be required. If it is piled

crossways no side restraint is needed, but usually a

greater angle of tilt is necessary to get the wood off.

Packaged wood, of course, is usually unloaded

with a crane and some unpackaged wood is unloaded

with a similar device, using clamshell tongs or a

choker cable (fig. 269) passed around the pile. A

Figure 268.—A ramp for tilting a load oß a sled.

Figure 269.—Loading with a cable sling,

pillar Tractor Co.)

(Courtesy Cater111
recently developed orange-peel grapple (fig. 270)

handles up to three-fourths of a cord of rough-andtumble piled wood. Usually these devices are slow

in grabbing a load, and sometimes do not hold it

firmly. They are dangerous to work around, and

cannot be depended on to put the wood exactly

where it is wanted.

Figure 270.—An orange-peel grapple.

Erie Co.)

{Courtesy BucyrusLOADING SAWLOGS

Many short-wood users haul their wood in log

length, rather than bolt size, largely because of the

greater efficiency of the devices used for loading and

unloading these longer pieces.

Because of their weight and bulk, very few logs

are picked up bodily and thrown into a truck or

sled by hand. Some tie logs are loaded in this manner, and some of the smaller logs for the woodturning and softwood sawlog industries, but even

with material of this size loading by hand is backbreaking work.

Long ago loggers found that this work could be

reduced by cutting a couple of skids from poles,

leaning them against the bunks upon which the

load was to be placed, and rolling the logs on. In

hilly country a loading point can usually be found

where such skids can be placed level between the

slope and the bunks (fig. 271). On a hot logging

job the logs can be delivered by skidding them

directly across the base of the skids and then rolling

them onto the conveyance.

Figure 271.—Skids used in loadingfrom a slope.

Figure 272.—A skidway on a hillside.

On a cold job, however, or even on a hot job

where the slope is more gentle, a skidway is needed.

This is a cribwork, usually of cull logs, built on a

hillside (fig. 272). The front end is about level with

the bunks of the transportation device, and the back

is dug into the slope. On such a skidway, logs can

be accumulated off the ground, where they will be

partially protected from rot until transportation can

be provided for them.

For loading from a skidway (fig. 273) short skids

can be placed from the front of the skidway to the

bunks of the truck and the logs can be rolled on.

F-408102

Figure 273.—Loading logsfrom a skidway.

112
One type of skid very useful for this purpose is

made from squared timbers 4 by 4 inches or 6 by 6,

according to the size of the logs to be handled.

Horseshoes with sharpened cleats are spiked onto

each end to give a firmer grip on the skidway or

bunk, and iron spikes with blunt points are placed

at 4-inch intervals along the top to help hold the

log and prevent slipping (fig. 274).

r£^

Figure 274.—A spiked skid.

Double-deck skidways (fig. 275) are sometimes

built to help load high piles of logs. They consist

of another cribwork of logs built on top of the first

skidway and set back several feet. Logs are loaded

on both tiers. When the truck arrives, the logs from

the first deck are loaded in the first tier or two on

its bunks; then the skids are moved up between the

next deck of the skidway and the top of the logs

already loaded, and a third and possibly a fourth tier

of logs is loaded (fig. 276).

Figure 27 5.—A double-deck skidway.

Figure 276.—Loading from the top deck of a double-deck

skidway.

In all this loading a cant hook or peavy is the tool

commonly used for rolling the logs. Over long

spans, a catwalk or plank from the skidway to the

truck is sometimes provided for the log rollers to

work on.

Loading from level ground is a different problem. Here, when skids are used, they must be at a

decided angle, and rolling a log up them by hand is

more difficult (fig. 277). It is frequently done, however. Here spiked skids are even more useful than

they are for level rolling. One cant-hook man, attempting to roll a log up such a pair of skids, must

be constantly on the alert not to lose his grip and

let the log roll back on him. Sometimes when spikes

are not available a round skid can be notched at intervals to help hold the log while the cant-hook

men are getting a fresh grab.

F-381592

Figure 277.—Rolling a log up skids by hand.

One type of skid very useful for loading from the

ground is made from a crotched pole cut off close

above the crotch and flattened off at both ends (fig.

278). When loading is started the crotched end is

Figure 278.—Skid made from a crotched pole.

113
placed on the bolster to help insure against the

skid's slipping sideways with a load on it. When

the first tier of logs is built up the skids are placed

against the side of the outside log. As the load is

built up and the angle of the skid grows steeper the

crotched end is grounded.

The difficulty of hand loading with skids from

level ground has led many loggers, even those in

the smaller enterprises, to use some mechanical

means of putting logs on the bunks. The simplest,

and probably the commonest, is the cross haul,

using horses or a tractor as the motive power.

The cross haul consists of a chain or cable passed

from the vehicle bunks down around the log, and

back up across the bed of the vehicle to the motive

force on the other side. Figure 279 shows a simple

cross haul, using horses as motive power.

¿SS^tr^

Figure 279.—A cross haul with horses.

The newest type of cross haul in the Northeast

uses the truck motor as motive power (fig. 280).

For this a winch, driven by a power take-off behind

the truck transmission, is placed crossways under

the center of the truck bed. Two sheaves are placed

to the rear of this winch, so that its cable can be

brought out on either side. A socket is provided in

the middle of the edge of the truck bed into which

the shank of a special pulley is placed, through

which the cable is passed to carry it up over the

load. The cable is then passed down around the log

to be loaded and back up to the truck bed, the power

is turned on, and the log is rolled up the skids.

Another interesting device is the steel bunk with

quick-release stakes (fig. 281). These stakes are built

in two sections. The lower section is of steel, and is

hinged to the steel cross bunk. The upper section

is a 2- by 6-inch hardwood stake fitting into a socket

in the top of the steel section. A chain holds the

whole stake upright. One end of this chain is held

in place by a pin, which in turn is held in place by

a steel sleeve attached to a rod that terminates in a

lever on the other side of the truck. When the time

comes to unload, the lever is pulled and the sleeve

draws back, releasing the pin, which in turn lets the

Figure 280.—A, Cross haul on a self-loading truck; B, winch

under truck bed.

LOADING OR UNLOADING

Figure 281.—Detail of quick-release truck hunks.

114
end of the chain snap loose. This allows the stake

to drop down from the side of the truck. In this

position it forms a skid from the load of logs to roll

down to the ground or the pond.

Quick-release stakes can also be made with round

pipe using the same system of release. Round

wooden stakes can be fitted into the tops of these

pipe stakes to extend them.

In loading a truck equipped this way, the logs

for the first tier are hauled up the let-down stakes.

Then the wooden stake extensions are removed, and

the steel stakes are fastened in position. Skids are

placed so their top ends are on the steel stakes; a

hook in the skid engages in a socket in the top ot

the stake. With the skids in this position the second

and third tiers of logs are loaded. Then the wooden

stake extensions are replaced, the skids are raised to

the tops of the extensions, and the top tiers of logs

are loaded. With this rig loads of hardwood logs

up to 4,000 board feet have been assembled in western Pennsylvania and New York, frequently a few

at a time on "milk route" pick-ups at a number of

farms and woodlots.

A number of similar quick-release stakes are on

the market.

Finally there are the loading devices that lift the

log off the ground and lower it onto the conveyance.

One such device, the jib crane, is mounted on the

truck itself, and its lifting power is provided through

a power take-off on the truck transmission. A commercial model of such a jib crane is shown in figure

282. It can be furnished with either a power-actuated

or a hand-swung boom and is built in models to

handle loads of 1,200 to 6.000 pounds, 8 to 12 feet

out on the boom. Since the tackle runs back and

Figure 282.—A Jib crane mounted on a truckF-450467

Figure 283.— A home-made jib boom mounted on truck.

forth on the boom track, this model is particularly

well adapted to handling bundled pulpwood or logs

of various lengths.

A number of versions of the jib boom have been

constructed by loggers themselves. A very effective

one has been constructed and used by a Massachusetts box company (fig. 283). It is used not only to

load logs weighing up to 2,000 pounds, but also to

skid them in through the open pine woods for distances up to 300 feet. One unique feature is the

slight backward tilt of the vertical boom member,

which helps to center the log over the load automatically.

These jib-boom cranes mounted directly on the

truck are a highly promising development for carrying short logs. The commercial models range in

price from $1,100 for the light hand-swung crane

to $3,100 for the heavy power-actuated boom model.

A less expensive and effective device for loading

light logs is the "log flipper" invented by a pulpwood trucker in Quebec (fig. 284). The type illustrated draws its power from a winch under the

center of the truck bed. It uses this power to actuate

two arms mounted on the side of the truck, each

of which ends in a cradle on which the log rides up

to the top of the truck stakes. The log then flips

over onto the truck bed. More than a hundred of

these devices have been home-built and installed on

logging trucks by local mechanics in the maritime

provinces of Canada. This loader is now being

manufactured commercially in both Canada and the

United States. A similar flipper loader has been

developed to use hydraulic power.

115
JUS¡6<áliX

F-4)0144

Figure 284.—The "log flipper". Logs are rolled into the

cradle formed by the two arms, then they are flipped over

the stakes into the truck.

For use in loading sleds and wagons, and trucks

with no power take-off, there are hoists and cranes

mounted independently. The jammer, an old

standby, is usually an A-frame, mounted on a sled

at an angle that will bring the sheave at its apex

above the vehicle to be loaded. It may be powered

by horses, by a tractor, or by a winch mounted on a

tractor or attached to an independent motor. The

jammer invariably has to be guyed with at least two

guy ropes, both at the bottom and the top, at each

new set-up; and moving it from loading point to

loading point is a slow process. But it is a cheap and

effective device where conditions favor its use. It

is something used to deck a quantity of logs in the

woods, and then to load the same logs when transportation is available.

More flexible and maneuverable are the cranes and

hoists mounted on trucks or crawler tracks. Some

have a fixed boom like the jammer; others, a swinging boom actuated by gravity or by power. One kind

of home-made loader, mounted on a truck chassis

(fig. 285), has a swinging boom. It consists of a

tripod of 3-inch waterpipe mounted at the rear of

the truck chassis, and a waterpipe swinging boom

mounted behind this tripod. This boom is attached

to the chassis by a universal joint. Its top is attached

to the tripod by a wire rope that comes down to a

hand-operated winch. The boom is swung by cables

on either side, which come down to sheaves at the

rear corners of the truck chassis and then along the

edge of the frame and around to a drum underneath

the operator. This drum is driven by a reversed transmission from an old Model-T Ford. When the operator steps on the reverse lever the boom swings to

the left; when he steps on low it swings to the right;

and when he places his foot on the brake lever it is

stationary.The dragline, which goes up to the top of

the tripod, then down to the base of the boom, and

then along it to a sheave at its tip, is moved by the

big motor-actuated winch in front of the operator.

This loader handles logs up to about 500 board feet,

loading them at a rate of about one every 2 minutes

from a deck about 50 feet from the vehicle to be

loaded.

F-434539

Figure 285.—A home-ntade loader with a swinging boom.

Figure 286.—A stationary gin pole.

116
Many other more or less elaborate devices have

been built by local mechanics throughout the

Northeast, and mounted on trucks, sleds, and

tractors. Stationary gin poles are also used (fig. 286).

There are, of course, various commercially built

cranes, hoists, and shovels on the market. Many are

in use in northeastern logging jobs. Some are

mounted on trucks, some on sleds, and others on

crawler tracks.

With all jammers and free-swinging cranes and

hoists, there are two systems of loading: With tongs

near the center of the log (fig. 295, p. 120); and with

a crotch line and grabs (fig. 287).

F-440181

Figure 287.—Loading with crotch line and end dogs.

Figure 288.—Detail of crotch line and grabs. Above, types

of hooks usedfor grabs.

The crotch line (hg. 288) requires more room between the boom and the load, and it calls for two

men to steady the load and swing it into place by

the tag lines attached to the grabs. It probably is

safer than tongs, as the log is under better control

F-448795, 448796

Figure 289.—When tongs are used, the top loader has to catch one end (A) and guide it into position (B).

117
on its journey through the air and is gripped more

firmly bv the hooks in its ends. Many loggers maintain it is cheaper. Cup hooks grip the ends of logs

more firmly than ordinary loading hooks. But many

loading devices, including the jib cranes, do not provide enough room for use of a crotch line, and labor

to man such a device often has been unavailable. So

loading tongs have come into more and more general use.

Loading tongs resemble the skidding tongs previously described. They have somewhat shorter,

more abruptly tapering points to facilitate rapid release of the log. These tongs are placed about in the

center of gravity of the log by the hook tender, who

gets out of the way while the load is lifted and

swung over the truck. It swings and dips as it passes

through the air, and the top loader on the truck has

to catch one end and guide it to its resting place on

the load (fig. 289). A clever crane operator can be

of great help, but accidents in loading with tongs

are numerous and serious.

A device not yet much used in the East for this

type of loading is the heel boom (fig. 290). The heel

is merely a spiked steel or wooden plate mounted on

the front of the boom. With this device, the log is

hooked a little to one side of the center of gravity.

F-242054

Figure 290.- -With a heel boom the log can he placed safely

and accurately.

and as the log is lifted the crane operator catches the

upper end against his heel boom. It is clamped there

as he continues reeling in his line. He raises the log

above the load, swings it above its intended resting

position, and lets down the front end in the exact

spot where it is to ride. Then, by manipulating his

cable and the boom, he loosens the back end from

the spikes in the heel and swings it to its proper

position on the load. About all the top loader has

to do is to indicate where the log is to be placed and

detach the tongs. A great deal of practice is necessary

to make a good heel-boom operator, but once the

job is learned, loading can be done with this device

much more quickly and — most important—safely

than without it.

If a great deal of loading is to be done at one

place, one of the more permanently located loading

devices commonly used in the West might be considered. Since these operate with double tongs, they

are safer and faster than the single-tong cranes. They

require a double-drum winch.

LOADING BLOCK JACK

_BOOM LOADING

BLOCK

COUNTER -

WEIGHT SWING

Figure 291.—Details of the McLean loading boom.

One type is the McLean boom (fig. 291). A spar

tree is chosen or a spar is erected in the desired location. From it, after it has been topped and guyed, is

hung a boom made of two sturdy poles. If a counterweight swing is used, as illustrated, only one swing

line is needed to carry the boom and its load to I'ts

position over the truck to be loaded. The counterweight swings it back when the single swing line is

reeled out. The main dragline is divided before it

goes down over the two sheaves mounted in the

118
boom to the tongs that Hft the load, one section

being just enough longer than the other so that the

two tongs are lifted or lowered simultaneously.

Power for such a loader can be provided by a

double-drum winch on the back of a tractor, or by

a similar winch powered by an automobile engine

mounted on skids.

The other loading system requires two spars, but

provides for picking up or dropping the logs at any

point between them (fig. 292). The usual system is

to have the log supply at one side of this space and

the truck road at the other. The spreader for the tong

lines is usually a length of old rail, with holes bored

at either end for the necessary clevises. The power

for this device can also be supplied by a double-drum

winch on a tractor or attached to a gas engine.

In all these loaders that pick up the log and swing

it through the air, special attention should be given

to the wire rope and the sheaves and fittings used

with it. Much of the information previously given

about wire rope applies to loading, some of it with

even greater force, because in this operation heavy

loads swing through the air at the loading point immediately around where men are working.

For economy, speed, and safety, wire rope of adequate strength should be used, together with the

proper fittings. Clips to fasten wire rope are out of

place on loaders, particularly on live lines. They may

often be used advantageously on guy lines, but they

cannot be expected to feed through sheaves properly,

or to develop sufficient strength for lead and swing

lines. Blocks of the right design and of sufficient

diameter should be used (see p. 97).

Wire rope on loaders is often subject to severe reverse stresses and to many jerks. Consequently it is

best to use 6 by 19 preformed plow-steel rope of a

diameter that will carry the intended loads with an

ample safety factor. It should be lubricated frequently and thoroughly, and special care should be

given to spooling it evenly on the drums, making

sure that it is not subject to unnecessary abrasion in

blocks and sheaves. Periodic and careful inspections

should be made of all rope in use. Kinked, badly

abraded, crushed, or nicked rope should be cut out

and discarded, or relegated to some less important

and less dangerous use.

LOADING TREE-LENGTH LOGS

Many of the devices just described can be used

to handle tree-length logs. In one method such logs

are loaded from a skidway onto a long truck and

trailer (fig. 293). Another way is to use a cross haul.

Tree lengths are also loaded by cranes with long

Figure 292.—Riggingfor crotch-line loading.

119
booms. The stationary McLean and crotch-line

loaders are especially well adapted for loading treelength material.

F-438U5

Figure 293.—Loading tree lengthsfrom a skidway.

Preloaders

The log preloader (fig. 294) is peculiarly adapted

for use with tree lengths. It is similar to the devices

used at many small northeastern sawmills to place

lumber in position for easy and economical pick-up

by the trucks and buggies that carry it to the railroad siding or sticking yard. Most of these devices

suspend the load in such a position that the truck

can be backed under it and the load dropped on the

bunks, chained down, and hauled away. The advantage is that the truck does not have to wait while

Figure 294.—A screw-jack preloader,

under the load.

The truck can back

its load is being assembled. Also the loading crews

can work at a steadier, safer pace, instead of waiting

for a truck to come and then working at high speed

to get the truck loaded and on its way.

Logs can be assembled on a preloader by rolling

by hand, by a jammer, or by a crane. A special

jammer built for assembling loads and then lifting

the front end of the load while the truck backs under

it (fig. 295) was installed on a job on Vancouver

Island. This machine assembles the load from a

rather extensive log yard. It uses two tong lines.

With these two independent lines, each attached to

a separate winch, it is possible to move the tree

lengths around from almost any position and place

them in front of the preloader with one end resting

on the crosspiece between the boom legs and the

other on the ground. When a load has been assembled and a truck arrives, a wire-rope sling with

spliced eyes in either end is passed under the front

end of the load and hooked onto the two prongs of

the front tong. Then the line going to this tong is

tightened, raising the front end of the load so that

Figure 295.—A jammer preloader.

120
the truck can back under it. The load is eased down

onto the front bunk, the cable is removed, and the

load is chained down and started on its way. When

the truck is out of the way the jammer can start assembling another load.

Another system of preloading has been invented

by a St. Johnsbury, Vt., logger. This uses a wooden

trestle over which the logging arch and tractor

travel, dropping their load of logs down onto a set

of four knees that rest on roller chains. Then a truck

specially equipped with roller chain conveyors on

each of its bunks drives up alongside, and the entire

bundle of 2,000 board feet or more of logs, chained

into a bundle to comply with Vermont law, is transferred to the truck in about 30 seconds. At the mill

the operation is reversed, and the bundle of logs is

rolled off the truck onto a pair of slanting skids in

the same length of time. This method of handling

logs is called the Baldwin transfer system.

Unloading Long Logs

Long logs usually are unloaded by driving the

load up alongside the landing place or pond on a

tilt, releasing the stakes or bindings, and letting the

logs roll sideways off the bunks. As a rule some of

them must be rolled offwith a cant hook. With long

logs particularly, a level landing bed is advisable to

prevent breakage. Level dirt provides a springy landing, if it does not contain rocks. Where there is a

steep slope down to a log pond, a permanent rollway

of round or square timbers at a decided angle is more

satisfactory, as it keeps the rolling logs from undermining the roadway and carrying dirt into the pond.

Where space is limited, and there is no pond, logs

are frequently decked in the yard by a crane, crotch

line, or A-frame high lead. Usually they are dumped

off the trucks and picked up by the device being

used, but in some cases they are picked, either individually or in bundles, off the truck bunks.

Another system of unloading, used rather infrequently in the East, employs a pusher device

mounted on the front of a tractor, similar to a bulldozer blade.

SAFETY IN LOADING

Many serious accidents occur in loading, both by

old-time hand methods and modern systems. Consequently, safety of the workmen should be stressed in

all loading operations. Some key points to remember

follow:

1. Workmen should keep out of the way of rolling logs. Often on hot jobs loads of logs are being

skidded to the loading point at the same time loading is going on. Extra care will have to be taken to

see that the skidding crew is not caught under a log

being loaded, or the ground men on the loading

crew are not caught by rolling logs released by the

skidding crew.

2. Only one man should be allowed to operate

equipment such as cranes or jammers, and he should

be thoroughly experienced and trustworthy. The

safety of the landing crew depends very largely on

the expert handling of loading machines. Talking

to the engineer while he is handling levers should

be forbidden.

3. A sturdy brow log or blocking should be placed

at the front of all skidways or roUways to keep logs

from rolHng into the road or against trucks.

4. At each loading operation there should be a

thorough understanding of signals and who is to

give them.

5. Riding on logs suspended in the air or being

moved on the landing should be prohibited.

6. Logs should not be swung over workmen.

7. Loads should be carefully balanced, with not

more than one-third of any log extending back of

the rear bunk. When a binder chain is thrown over

the load there should be a clear warning to anyone

who may be standing on the opposite side.

121

NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

LOG HAULING IN WINTER

-^^

Over a large part of the Northeast, hauling logs

out of the woods is done mostly in the winter. There

are several reasons for this. Generally haul roads are

more easily and cheaply constructed for winter use.

Nature provides snow and ice on the spot and it is

relatively easy to make a smooth, firm road out of

them. In the northern tier of States, swamps are

frozen hard and lakes are frozen over for several

months every winter. This makes it possible to get

into timbered areas that could never be logged

economically otherwise. Also, sliding resistance of

heavy loads on good iced roads is less than the rolling resistance of the same loads on dirt and gravel

roads—even with the best of wheeled vehicles. The

same loads can be pulled with less power in winter

(fig. 296).

-ÇCCF-36143 6

Figure 296.— Winter hauling with horses.

WINTER HAUL ROADS

Winter haul roads are generally temporary affairs,

designed for only one season's hauling, and depending on snow or ice for their surface. They are not

intended for use at any other season of the year.

Therefore, clearing is not usually done completely

as for all-season hauling, grading is only rudimentary, and cross skids are laid as much as 3 feet apart.

Snow Roads

The general principles of snow road construction

are simple. First, a route is cleared through the

woods. Gradient is the main consideration. For

most of the haul, a gentle down grade—2 to 10

percent—with wide curves and long tangents is desirable. A gentle down grade is particularly useful

at loading points, where it helps overcome the

Figure 297.—Cross skidsJor a snow road on a hillside.

inertia of the load and break loose sled runners that

might be frozen in during loading. Short, steep

pitches should be avoided if possible. Where there

is no alternate route, it is best to choose the shortest

way down and install a snubbing device to keep

loads under control. Uphill grades and even level

stretches should also be avoided.

The type of ground to be traversed is a minor

consideration. Side hills can be cross-skidded with

a minimum of dirt moving. In the type of cross

skids most frequently used (fig. 297) the side-hill

logs, which should be culls or of undesired species,

are laid along the slope on the downhill side of the

123
road. The stakes holding them in place are made

long enough so that they can be seen above the

snow.

Cross skids are often used to traverse swamps,

rocky places, and even areas covered by stumps (fig.

298). Two side logs are laid, and cross skids are laid

across them, usually in notches made with an ax at

the desired intervals. True corduroy (poles laid close

together) is ordinarily used only in places where

there are springholes that never freeze tightly, or on

bridges.

fall, before the first heavy snows. When the heavy

snow falls, the first step is to compact it by dragging

a roller (fig. 299) or a V-plow over it.

The V-plow (fig. 300) consists of two poles bolted

together into a V, with spreader bars bolted across

them to keep the tails apart. Hardwood logs can be

laid on top to increase the weight. The V-plow not

only compacts but also grades to some extent and

so, when the snow is not too deep, it is usually preferred to the roller.

Figure 298.—Cross skids can also he used over rough places.

The width of a snow road depends primarily on

the kind of motive power to be used in moving the

loads and to some extent on the loads themselves.

A one-horse road is usually 6 to 8 feet wide, a twohorse road 10 to 12 feet wide, and a tractor road

anywhere from 10 to 20 feet. These are all one-way

roads. Many such roads are designed to be used by

only one vehicle. Where more than one vehicle is

to use the road, a narrow go-back road is commonly

made for the empty returning vehicles. This go-back

road may have steeper pitches and more abrupt

curves than the main haul road, and consequently

is cheaper to construct. Two-way roads are, of

course, more than twice as wide.

Clearing and corduroying or cross-skidding of a

snow road are best done in the summer and early

Figure 300.—A V-plow.

Another simple compacting device still used frequently is a heavy softwood tree that has been

topped but not limbed. This is dragged by the butt

over the road.

A snow drag (fig. 301) is another tool used for

this initial breaking-out and compacting job on

minor roads. Snow drags are usually made from

short hardwood logs. A crawler tractor provides the

best type of power for this breaking-out job.

Figure 299.—A home-made roller.

Figure 301.—A snow drag made of hardwood logs.

When heavy snows come before the ground has

had a chance to freeze solid, some of the snow must

be plowed away, especially in boggy places, to let

the frost get into the ground. The V-plow or snow

drag are good tools for this purpose.

When the road of compressed snow is established

it can be put in shape for hauling with a simple

home-made road scraper (fig. 302). Such a scraper

does not slue around so much as a V-pibw, but it is

more difficult to pull over rocks, stumps, and other

obstacles.

124
Snow roads are used for practically all branch

roads traveled by sleds pulled by horses or tractors.

Main roads are usually iced. This makes it possible

to pull larger loads with motive power of these

types. In recent years trucks have been used more

and more to pull trains of loaded sleds. All truck

roads must be iced.

Figure 302.—A simple type oj home-made scraper.

Iced Roads

The preparation and maintenance oficed roads is

difficult and expensive. In comparison with snow

roads, they require a much better job of clearing

and ground preparation. The surface of a good iced

road must be close to the original ground level;

otherwise, the foundation will melt out during

spells of warm weather. It is necessary to make sidehill cuts, instead of building out from the surface

of the slope as with snow roads. Consequently, iced

roads are usually made where they can be used for

two or more seasons.

In making an iced road, a drag is used first to

break out the road. Then the road is scraped with a

scraper similar to the kind used for snow roads.

After the road has been broken out and scraped, a

loaded sled is usually pulled over it a few times to

compact the surface. Water is sprinkled over the

road to get an iced surface, and ruts are cut to provide tracks for the sleds.

The ruts are cut in iced roads to keep the sleds

from slueing around. Sometimes the initial ruts are

cut in the bare earth when it begins to freeze. They

are always cut before the snow gets deep. Elaborate

rutters have been devised, some home-made (fig.

303) and some commercial products. Most rutters

have flat tool-steel blades. Usually the blades are

adjustable and removable for sharpening.

The sprinkling is best done when the weather is

not extremely cold. If the freezing at the surface is

too rapid, the desired depth of ice cannot be

obtained.

Many sprinklers (fig. 304) are mounted on motortrucks; and because of the greater speed at which

they travel, fewer water holes need be maintained.

Some companies build portable pump houses to

expedite refilling of sprinkler tanks. These contain

a centrifugal pump, a gasoline motor to run it, and

a stove for the apparatus and the pump-house man.

The pump house is usually mounted on a sled with

double-ended runners, so it can be pulled either way.

Figure 303.—A home-made rutter with adjustable planertype knives»

Figure 304.—A horse-drawn sprinkler»

Road Maintenance

The snow road is easy :o maintain. Once the road

surface is established, the scraper is practically the

only tool used to maintain it. Scraping is needed to

keep the road surface down to a reasonable level,

largely to simplify loading. Even with scraping, in

some winters the snow road level builds up so high

that logs must be lifted 9 feet or more from ground

level to the top of the load.

Iced roads require more maintenance. During

hauling,the road is torn up through the day by tractor treads or truck chains, and it must be sprinkled

and rutted practically every night. When there is a

heavy snowfall, plowing is needed before the road

can be put into condition for hauling. In recent

years heavy tractors or trucks with nose plows (similar to those used by State highway departments)

have been used more and more for such work. After

the road is plowed, it must be freshly sprinkled and

rutted.

879396 ()—50— 125
Hand maintenance is also necessary. Dirt, bark,

and manure must be cleaned out of the ruts. Hand

shoveling, either into or out of the road, is needed

to supplement the work of the plows and scrapers.

Hand work with the ax is often necessary to remove

obstructions from the ruts.

CONSTRUCTION OF SLEDS

Most logging sleds are home-made, although a

few commercial models have been on the market

for many years. Because of the heavy loads they

carry and the racking they receive, logging sleds

must be sturdily constructed and at the same time

must be flexible.

ABC

Figure 305.—Types of shoes for sled runners. A, Half oval;

By flat; C, ^*moccasin** for soft snow.

The basic sled patterns are similar to those of

yarding sleds. This type, of sled is all right for hauling light loads on a two-sled rig with horses. For

heavier hauling behind tractors or trucks, which is

now common in northeastern logging operations,

much heavier and stronger sleds are needed. Greater

care must be given to the selection of the runners.

Oak is the favorite wood for this, with birch a close

second. Runners with a natural curve, often obtained from the butt of a tree, are preferred.

The runners are usually shod with steel, which

wears much better than cast iron. Cast-iron shoes,

however, run better on dirt or manure in the ruts.

Shoes may be flat or, preferably, half oval (fig. 305).

For use on soft snow roads the runners are sometimes widened with "moccasins," made of either

wood or steel.

Figure 306.—The McLaren type of knee for attaching sled

runners to the cross beam.

126

The knees that attach the runners to the cross

beams are usually iron castings. The McLaren knee

(fig. 306) and the Lombard knee (fig. 307) have the

needed strength and flexibility.

The cross beams are made of oak, rock elm, or

birch. They taper slightly from the center to the

ends, so that their only contact with the bunk —

which carries the load—is at the center. The bunks

í;;;^^"

Figure 307.—The Lombard type of knee.

are often made of seasoned softwood; spruce is the

favorite species. The bunks also are tapered on the

underside. The center point, through which the

king bolt runs, is armored with steel plates on both

bunk and cross beam to reduce wear and to make

steering easier.

It is better to have stakes for holding the logs on

the bunks than merely to chain them on. Generally

a larger load can be carried on a staked sled. The

stakes also make the sled easier to load and unload.

Quick-release devices similar to those on many

logging trucks are used on sleds (fig. 308). The one

illustrated safeguards the worker. When he wants

Figure 308.—A quick-release devicefor sled bunks.
Figure 309.—Riggingfor a two-sled hitch. Notice the cross chains.

to release the load from the sled, he pulls on the

pole strapped to the side of the bunk. This pulls

out the pin that holds the end of the chain supporting the stake. The chain flips around; and the stake

drops on its hinges, forming a skid down which the

logs can roll. Being on the other side of the sled,

the operator is well out of the way of the rolling

logs. This is a greater improvement over the old fidhook and chain method in which the operator had

to stand on the unloading side to knock the fid

hooks loose. This caused many serious accidents.

The method of using sleds depends on the kind

of wood to be hauled. For hauling long logs on a

two-sled rig (fig. 309), the tandem hitch may be

merely a set of cross chains. Sway bars (dotted lines

in fig. 309) frequently help keep the sleds in alinement.

For hauling short bolts of pulpwood, a set of

racks is put on the sleds. A single rack for 4-foot

bolts is shown in figure 310. Such racks are ordinarily loaded by hand. The load is generally held in

place by a hemp rope fastened to the front bolster,

passed up over the load, and secured at the rear on

a capstan. The racks are unloaded easily by running

one side of the sled up on a ramp, which tilts the

sled and spills the load.

The use of tractors or trucks makes it possible to

haul long trains of sleds out of the woods. Poles or

chains, or a combination of the two, hitch sleds

together in a train. Chains extending from bunk to

bunk (fig. 311) provide the strongest hitch. A long

link is inserted in the chain where it goes around

the front rollers on each sled, so that no heavy pull

is put on the gudgeon pins. With a hitch of this

Figure 310.—Pulpwood rack on sleds.

Ill
'TK

Figure 311.—Method of coupling sleds to make a train.

type, bumper poles are needed to keep the sleds

from running up on each other on down grades or

at sudden stops.

SNUBBING DEVICES FOR

DOWN-GRADE HAULS

On down-grade hauls, especially with trains of

sleds, snubbing is often necessary. The simplest

snubbing device is a bridle chain looped under the

runners of the sled; it drags along, biting into the

ruts, and so retards the sled. Such chains are often

bolted to the inner side of the runners of the rear

sled in a two-sled rig (fig. 312). For a down grade

Figure 312.—Bridle-chain snubber. The chain, looped under

the runner, bites into the roadway.

the teamster brings the chain in front of the runner

and fastens it on the other side. Such snubbers tear

up the roads and are hard on the sleds.

An automatic snubbing device for light rigs is a

loosely attached thill with a sturdy and usually

armored cross bar (fig. 313). It is attached so that

when the load moves faster than the motive power

the front ends of the runners run up onto the cross

bar.

The road surface can also be treated to slow down

sleds on moderate down grades. Sections of iced

roads can be left uniced (sliding resistance on snow

is greater than pn ice). Hay, straw, or manure can

be spread in the tracks. On iced roads it is best to

cut holes in the track for insertion of these substances, so that they will not be quickly scattered.

These measures are often effective on grades up to

10 percent. Hot sand is sometimes used in the ruts,

but this requires a ''road monkey" on duty continually to heat and sprinkle the sand, and it wears

the sled runners rapidly. Another measure is to keep

both snow and ice cleared away from the steep

pitches, so that the sled runners travel on bare earth.

Figure 313.—Automatic snubbing device.

When the same ruts are used on both the downhill and uphill hauls, these measures make the uphill haul more difficult, particularly for animal

power. Consequently different ruts are often cut or

a go-back road is made, so that the sleds do not

have to be dragged over the retarding devices on

the uphill trip.

For very steep pitches a wire or hemp rope is

usually attached to the rear sled, and some sort of a

subbing device or brake is used to let the load down

the hill. Sometimes the rope is merely wrapped

several times around a stump at the top of the incHne (fig. 314). A man regulates the letting-out of

the rope by hand or by a lever. With this kind of

snubbing rig the live end of the rope should be at

the bottom of the wrap. The loose end should be

laid out on the ground so it will pay out smoothly.

It should not be coiled, because there is danger that

the man doing the snubbing might get caught in a

loop. He should stand at least 10 feet from the

stump.

128
A special snubbing machine—the Barienger brake

(fig. 315) —is used on many northeastern operations.

It has four to six cast-iron grooved sheaves mounted horizontally on a small, sturdy sled. A Ys- to Minch steel cable is passed around the grooves in the

sheaves. Each sheave has a hardwood friction block

mounted below it and is attached to a lever so that

it can be forced down on the block. One end of the

Figure 314.—Snubbing around a stump.

cable is attached to the rear sled, and the snubber

operator manipulates his levers to let the sled train

down the hill at an even rate. If the road is crooked

and he cannot see the sleds when they come to unusually steep pitches, he can tie rags to the cable at

the correct points to tell him when the heaviest

braking is necessary. At the bottom of the slope the

cable is detached; and at the top of the slope the

other end of the cable is attached to the next train

of sleds to let it down.

UPGRADE HAULS

upgrade hauls with loaded sleds should be

avoided if possible. When an upgrade haul must

be made, there are several ways of doing it. One is

to divide the load. When sleds in trains are being

hauled the train is split up at the foot of the slope

and only a few of the sleds are hauled up at a time.

Even on a single-sled haul it is possible to pull a

partial load up the hill, and then top it off with

additional logs from a skidway at the top of the hill.

With modern winch-equipped tractors the tractor

driver can unhitch his load at the foot of the slope,

climb the hill with the machine alone, and then

reel in his load with the winch cable. In this way

he can exert 50 to 80 percent more power than is

available at the drawbar. In the old days steampowered hoists were often used in this way.

Another limiting factor on the size of the load

that can be hauled is the power required to start

out. This is due not only to the inertia of the load

itself, but also to the likelihood that the sled runners will be frozen tight while loading is going on.

They can be broken loose most easily by hitting

them with a wooden maul, or by giving them a jerk

sideways with the power unit. A loosely coupled

Fie^iir#» 315.—The Barienger brake for lowering sleds down steep grades.

879396 O—50 10 129
sled train is easier to start, because the power unit

has to start only one sled at a time. Once started,

the operator or driver should not stop on level or

uphill pitches because of the difficulty of starting

again. It is far better to stop on a down grade and

block the sleds against slipping.

MOTIVE POWER FOR WINTER

HAULING

Almost all kinds of motive power have been used

to haul loads of bolts and logs over winter roads,

from horses and oxen to steam hoists, steam loghaulers, trucks, and tractors. The oxen, steam loghaulers, and steam hoists have almost disappeared

from northeastern woods.

Horses are still used for short hauls of limited

loads. A 1,500-pound horse can exert about 1 horsepower at a speed of 2 Vi miles an hour, but for short

periods it can increase its pull three to four times.

Over a large part of the Northeast it is easier to get

good teamsters than good tractor drivers, and loss

of a horse's services on a job owing to sickness or

accident is less costly than a tractor break-down.

Tractors also have advantages. They can work

more steadily than horses, two or three shifts a day

if need be, and can handle much more wood at a

higher speed with less manpower. The bigger logging operations are shifting over to tractors, especially for hauls of one-half mile or more, and records show that on a big job it costs less per unit

of wood hauled to maintain and operate a Diesel

tractor than horses. Tractors are equally good on

snow or iced roads. On the other hand, it is difficult

to control tractor-hauled loads on steep down

grades. When the sleds are pushing a crawler tractor, the driver must remember to use his steering

controls exactly opposite to the way he uses them

in pulling a load.

Motortrucks are confined to iced roads and longer

hauls. They can haul out reasonably heavy loads

about twice as fast as tractors and four times as fast

as horses. The loads, of course, have to be much

more firmly bound to the sleds for hauling at these

higher speeds. Ordinarily, a load of wood, sandbags,

or rocks is placed on the truck body to give it greater

traction, and two or three sleds, each carrying about

3 cords of wood, are hauled behind it. For long

hauls on carefully maintained iced roads of reasonable grade the truck has given a good account of

itself.

SAFETY IN WINTER HAULING

Hauling in the winter is unusually hazardous to

animals and men. To the usual logging hazards of

heavy loads and rough topography are added ice

and snow and bad weather. Some key safety points

to remember in winter hauling follow:

1. Roads should be level or insloped, particularly

on hillsides and curves. Outsloped roads are dangerous. Roads should also be well rutted to minimize

the danger of sleds slueing around.

2. Loads should be firmly fastened on the sleds.

Loads of 4-foot wood, particularly those hauled behind trucks, should be bound on with a hemp rope

from front to back, tightened by a capstan and

peavy at the rear. Loads of logs should be contained

between tightly fastened safety stakes of ample

height, or by chains around the load.

3. Teamsters or other workers should not stand on

the load over dangerous pieces of road, particularly

steep hills.

4. Snubbers should be used on steep down grades,

and the cables and gear used should be in safe

condition.

130
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

CONSTRUCTION OF ALL-WEATHER

ROADS

•5»^

The trailbuilder or angledozer and the motortruck are changing timber-hauling practice in the

Northeast. These, along with other new equipment,

have made it possible to build woods roads at low

cost and to use them at all seasons of the year. This

has made hauling much less a seasonal job. Loggers

say, with typical exaggeration, that there will soon

be a road to the foot of nearly every tree. Better

public roads that are kept open all winter have also

been an important contributing factor. All-season

hauling makes possible steadier work for the men

in the woods and in the wood-using plants. The

flow of raw material continues throughout the year.

This is desirable in almost every way.

This section deals with the building of logging

roads, but only of the roughest low-service dirt and

gravel types. Construction of the higher types of

road, such as those built by township, county, or

State authorities, is an engineering subject much

beyond the scope of this handbook. In the preparation of this section the author has drawn freely on

the Forest Service Road Handbook of the U. S. Forest

Service.

PLANNING A WOODS ROAD

Deciding on the extent of road to build, its general location, and its standard is often a difficult

economic problem. Whether it is better to extend

a road into a specific block of timber and truck the

timber out or to skid the timber to some existing

road depends on the cost of the new road and the

cost of trucking over it. Extra wear and tear on

trucks hauling over a rough road will often offset

any saving on costs ofskidding. On the other hand,

if logs are to be clean when delivered at the mill,

ground skidding should be held to the minimum.

Also, the problem of loading the trucks in the

woods is important.

After the decision to build has been made, the

work of locating the road begins. This job is usually

given to the logging superintendent.

^^

The cheapest road usually would go right up the

stream bottom. This, except for the most temporary roads, is not the location to choose. Spring and

fall high water may wash out such a road or make

it impassable without costly repairs. There is always

the chance that a downpour of rain will take it out

at any time.

In some instances a ridge-top road is the cheapest

and the easiest to maintain. This, however, may not

be practicable ifit involves expensive uphill skidding

of logs to the road.

A hillside location, near but safely above the

stream bed, is usually best. It permits downhill

skidding and it usually taps the heaviest part of the

timber stand. The disadvantages lie in the amount

of earth that must be moved in the grading, the

probability that some rock work will be required,

the necessity for adequate drainage facilities, and

the possibility of slides.

A single-track woods truck road should be 10 to

12 feet wide with wider curves and turn-outs. A twotrack road should be 18 to 20 feet wide. These minimum widths apply to the more difficult ground.

Where the road is on a gentle slope, on level

ground, or on a fill it couid well be somewhat

wider.

A road to be traveled by nothing heavier than a

11/2-ton truck with single rear axle should have no

curve sharper than a 25-foot radius. Whenever possible without undue expense, even the lowest-standard road should have curves with greater sweep than

this. An 80-foot radius is much better for any road

to be traveled with heavy loads. Where an S-curve

cannot be avoided, there should be a straight portion at least 50 feet long between the two curves.

Drainage is a major problem of the man who

plans woods roads. He should avoid bogs or flats,

slopes that have many springs and seeps, and crossings of streams at points where the channel is not

well established.

Maximum grades in the road are controlled by

the character of the ground and the kind of trucks

131
to be used. Uphill grades of 10 to 12 percent (vertical rise of 10 to 12 feet in 100 feet of road) can be

traveled by modern trucks if they are not overloaded. Downhill grades of 15 percent can be tolerated for short distances. Anything steeper is likely

to be very hard on trucks and somewhat dangerous.

In building temporary logging roads, methods

that would be unacceptable in building permanent

roads can often be used. Boggy places, for example,

can sometimes be crossed on earth-covered corduroy

that everyone knows will rot out in a few years.

Timber stringers on earth abutments may be good

enough for some of the bridges that will be needed

for only a year or two. Rotten wood can be used to

cover rocky places. Plank roads or portable plank

mats can be used in some of the bad sections when

rain or some other condition makes them otherwise

impassable.

The extent to which the road should be improved

depends upon how much traffic it must carry, how

long it will be used, and whether it should serve

later for another cut of timber, for fire control, or

for other purposes.

LOCATING THE ROAD

The detailed location of the road is much too important to be left to an inexperienced foreman of a

construction crew. This has often led to costly

mistakes—curves too sharp, drainage problems disregarded, poor alinement and grade, and so on.

Faults like these mean slow travel, undue wear on

equipment, expensive maintenance, and too many

accidents.

If the ground is reasonably smooth and the slopes

are gentle, the quantities of earth to be moved are

not very large. Cuts and fills can be balanced without surveys. Where slopes are steep and difficult,

and much cutting and filling is necessary, it is well

to apply some simple engineering methods. This

involves making a rough profile and balancing the

quantities of earth to be removed from cuts and

placed in fills. This will save some of the cost of

borrowing and hauling for fills or of digging and

wasting soil from the cuts.

Good cross sections for a number of different conditions are diagramed in figure 316. On hillsides,

and through cuts and fills, the pitch of the roadside

slope should vary with the type of soil. Normally a

1:1 slope (1 foot rise in each foot of horizontal distance) is satisfactory for cuts. Fills should not be

steeper than 1:1 Vè (1 foot rise in 1 Vi feet). In some

THROUGH CUT

FILL

FLAT SECTION

TURNPIKE

Figure 316.—Typical cross sectionsJor logging roads.

types of soil even steeper side slopes can be trusted.

Where slipping is to be expected, and a safe slope

is too costly, log crib work or stone riprap will restrain sliding earth. Turnpiking, merely casting up

material from the roadside ditches to form the road

surface, is good practice in gravel or sandy soils.

Where the material from the ditch is unsuitable for

surfacing because it is too high in organic matter,

clay, or the like, it should be cast aside and surfacing material hauled in.

The survey work can be done with an Abney level

and topographic steel tape. The following instructions may be helpful:

1. Run a preliminary grade line from the highest

point in the proposed road down to the valley. Use

less than the average grade to allow for adjustments.

If the average grade is 8 percent, this preliminary

grade should be 7 percent. Measure the side slope

of the ground at each grade point and mark it with

a stake.

2. Run a compass-and-tape traverse between the

grade points. Locate all features (such as heavy rock

work, springs, marshes, heavy clearing) that are

132
near enough to the grade Hne to influence the choice

of final location. On difficult sections it may be desirable to map the contours.

3. Plot a map of the preliminary grade line showing location of each grade stake, side slope at each

grade stake, location of all features that will cause

heavy work, and contours if necessary.

4. Draw a proposed location line along the grade

line. The amount of cut or fill at any point on the

location line can be calculated from the side slope

and the scaled distance between the preliminary

grade line and the location line. Some cutting and

filling can be avoided by taking advantage of moderate undulations in the grade.

5. Locate the curves on the map. Show the radii,

center angles, and external distances to help in running the curves on the ground.

6. Locate the final line on the ground by measuring from the preliminary grade-line stakes. The

distance to measure from the stakes can be scaled

from the map.

Figure 317.—Plansfor turn-outs on straight. A, and curved,

B, one-way roads.

Remember that with the exception of rock, excavated material used in a fill settles until the height

is reduced as much as 10 percent, depending on the

kind of material. A 25-percent loss in volume is

about normal in moving material from light cuts to

light fills. In heavy work this loss is about 15 percent.

On one-way roads turn-outs (fig. 317) should be

staked to provide for proper width and length and

to avoid unnecessary excavating. Full advantage of

natural features should be taken in placing turnouts. They are particularly necessary on or near

blind curves or at the top of any steep pitch where

the road beyond is not in view.

The aid of a technically trained engineer or

forester in locating and staking logging roads would

produce a worth-while saving for many northeastern loggers in road construction and maintenance costs.

CLEARING

The amount of clearing recommended for a woods

road is diagramed in figure 318. The tree marked A

can be left or cut, according to its species, the

amount of cut or fill, and the type of soil. Trees at

the top of the slope are likely to die or to slip into

the road when many of their roots are cut. Those

at the bottom will also die if a fill of impervious

earth is allowed to build up around their bases. Trees

marked B should be removed, roots and all. The

stumps of trees marked C can be left to aid in holding the fill in place—provided their tops will not

be within a foot of the final road surface and they

are of rot-resisting species. Stumps that rot easily

should be removed to prevent troublesome settlement and holes in the road surface. Trees marked D

within 3 feet of the cut or fill line can be left uncut,

provided they will not interfere with road-maintenance equipment or with visibility on the finished

road. Only the species known to be tough should

be left. Such species as white ash, yellow birch, hemlock, and white pine will almost surely die in such

a location; pitch pine and the oaks will usually

survive.

To supplement ordinary logging methods a tractor equipped with a winch and dozer blade is an

effective tool in clearing. The cable can be used for

pulling standing trees, snags, stumps, and logs.

Where standing trees, snags, and stumps are to be

pulled, place the line high to gain the advantage

of leverage (fig. 319). To avoid accidents the cable

length must be longer than the object pulled. Lines

steeper than 10 feet in 100 are not recommended

because they tend to pull the rear end of the tractor

off the ground.

133
LINE OF

BACK SLOPE

GRADE LINE

SECTION IN FILL

Figure 318.—Trees marked B and C must be cut to make wayfor the road. Those marked A and D may he either cut or left, jor

reasons given in the accompanying text.

Figure 319.—Some trees or snags can he pulled down.

134
The dozer blade is useful for pushing over trees,

snags, or stumps. The blade can be raised to gain

leverage. An inverted L-shapcd pusher bar welded

on the blade (fig. 320) gives additional height and

leverage. After the object is pushed partially over,

the dozer blade can be caught under the roots and

the lifting action of the blade used with the push of

the tractor. A substantial guard is needed to protect

the tractor operator.

^.''"i^^^- -Mi^jm

F-44X901

Figure 320.—A pusher bar is welded on this dozer blade.

Large trees that have spreading surface roots, such

as hemlock and fir, can frequently be blasted down

without cutting (fig. 322). The taprooted species

should always be cut first (fig. 323). A slow-burning dynamite is best for blasting stumps.

Explosives can also be used to loosen trees on a

side slope too steep to permit pushing them over

with a tractor. Such trees can be cut, and the stumps

then shot just hard enough to split and loosen them.

It is not necessary to shoot them out clean, as the

split stump can easily be taken out when grading

is done.

Explosives should be handled only by experienced

men. Hence no detailed instructions for handling

STEMMING

>^WIRES

\úíkimuktíi

PRIMER CARTRIDGE

CHARGE

Explosives are also useful in clearing. With them

it is possible to get out trees that cannot be removed otherwise without great trouble. Some tools

used in blasting are shown in figure 321. Large

stumps that cannot be loosened with the tractor

can be broken up with a shot or two, after which

the pieces can be moved with the dozer blade.

^^^vsi^siam»!»-

D == ::S

G =a

ÄB-

- Steel striking bor

Wood augur - crank

tiandle

EFGT puncti bor

So(l ougur

Extension for soil

cD-

- Wood ougur-Ttiondle

- Extension for wood

ougur C

Hougur

-Tamping stick

(stiovel tiondle)

Figure 321.—Toolsfor blasting stumps.

ELECTRIC BLASTING

CAP WIRES

^CHARGES

Figure 322.—Methods of blasting shallow-rooted stumps.

135
MHMJíMIíí^

úíu^HMiiMu^il^

CHARGE

ELECTRIC

BLASTING

CAP WIRES

»kkiJÈàii4\

"CHARGES

Figure 323.—Chargesfor taprooted stumps,

them are included here. Such detailed instructions

are available in several booklets from the Institute

of Explosives Manufacturers, 103 Park Avenue, New

York, N. Y., and from explosives manufacturers.

In general, setting off charges of explosives with

an electric blasting machine and blasting caps is

surer, and therefore safer, than using fuses. Powder

and caps should not be hauled or stored together,

and powder monkeys should be prohibited from

carrying caps around in their pockets. Electric shots

should be made with proper firing devices only, and

open dry-cell batteries should never be used or

carried.

Explosives should be stored in substantial buildings or containers, well away from all other buildings, and as nearly fireproof and bulletproof as

possible. Adequate warning signs should be placed

around magazines.

In firing charges, timely warning should be given.

Every person in the area should heed the warnings.

Clearing roadways, whether or not explosives are

used, is one of the most dangerous jobs in the

woods. Safety precautions stressed in the sections

on felling and skidding with tractors apply to this

job with extra force because often a number of

crews are working close together. Use of explosives

will increase the hazards and a good and strictly enforced warning system is a necessity.

EARTH EXCAVATION

Equipment for all kinds of earth-moving jobs has

improved greatly in recent years. Unit3 that are particularly suitable for building rough roads are

briefly described here.

A favorite piece of equipment is the trailbuilder,

also called the angledozer (fig. 324). It consists of

a standard crawler-type tractor, of medium or heavy

size, with a heavy steel dozer blade mounted across

its front. This blade can be raised or lowered by

hydraulic or cable devices and each end can be advanced or retracted to change the angle of the blade.

It is thus possible to push earth to either side as the

tractor goes forward.

This machine is suitable for pioneering work on

slopes that exceed 30 percent. The excavation

should be started as near the top of the cut line as

possible. Then, by working down the slope, an experienced operator can make a satisfactory bank

with the trailbuilder alone. This method is highly

desirable because a vertical bank on the upper side

of a grade can otherwise be given the necessary

slope only by expensive hand work. Boulders and

rock ledges in the bank must, of course, be removed

by other means.

For work on soft or muddy ground a machine

with a hydraulically controlled blade is best. This

mechanism can apply downward as well as upward

force to the blade. If the machine gets stuck in the

mud, it is usually possible to raise the front end of

the tracks by pushing the blade down on poles or

small logs laid under it. It is then possible to lay

poles crosswise under the tracks to give flotation.

136
Figure 324.—Hydraulically controlled angledozer.

liEr'^li T''"^"-''^ ''

Figure 32 5.—A tractor-grader.

The blade is raised and the tractor can move out

under its own power.

For straight grading work after the pioneer cut

has been made the tractor-grader (fig. 325) is the

best implement. This is the self-propelled machine

often seen at work on highways. It is strictly a sidecasting tool. It can be used as the pioneer tool on

slopes less than 30 percent if the ground is smooth

and free of large boulders. For this kind of work the

moldboard should be set at an angle of 15° to 30°

from the center line of the grader. Loggers frequently find it worth while to rent these machines,

but many of them use the angledozer for work that

should be done by the grader.

Hardpan and rocky ground that cannot be handled with the trailbuilder or the grader can be

loosened with a ripper (fig. 326). This is a heavy set

of spike teeth pulled behind a tractor. The heavier

types for use with a 60- or 90-horsepower tractor

will often loosen hard and rocky ground at a lower

cost than blasting would involve. Rippers with

three teeth are best for the hardest ground. Those

with five are good for uncovering smaller stones

preparatory to finishing the roadbed.

The power shovel is almost a necessity in making

large fills where the material must be hauled from

cuts or borrow pits some distance away. For economy it is essential to have enough dump trucks to

137
keep the shovel busy. Power shovels are also good

tools for heavy side cutting. If the job is large

enough a power shovel may prove more economical

for this work than the trailbuilder. The carry-all

type of earth mover is an economical alternative to

a shovel and trucks for reasonably short hauls.

Figure 326.—A ripper.

ROCK EXCAVATION

It is often possible to remove rock by using a

heavy tractor and ripper. Blasting often shakes the

nearby terrain and causes slides. Sometimes a seam

in a rock ledge can be shot, and the loosened rock

can be removed with trailbuilder and ripper.

Where the rock is too hard for such methods it

has to be loosened with explosives. Often an overburden of dirt or gravel must be stripped off. The

trailbuilder is good for this purpose. When the trailbuilder has removed all the material it can, the

stripping should be finished by hand to expose all

seams, crevices, and other rock formations that may

help in spotting drill holes to break the rock.

Sometimes it is advisable to have an experienced

powder man go over the job, barring and shooting loose rock and seams. This will reduce the

drilling and get rid of loose rock, always a danger

in blasting.

Hand drilling is slow and expensive. Most big

logging concerns have compressor and pneumaticdrill outfits. Smaller logging operators can often

rent such equipment. Recently, however, several

small portable rock drills (fig. 327), powered by

self-contained gasoline motors have come on the

market. These should be very useful in logging

work.

Economical shooting of rock and thorough breakage can be obtained only through correct depth and

placement of drill holes that have been properly

loaded with the correct quantity of the right exploF-452567

Figure 327.—A portable gasoline rock drill.

sive. An experienced powder man, who knows the

local rock conditions, is almost essential for economical and efficient work. No definite rules or

formulas fit all drilling conditions. The spacing between the holes in a row along the back slope

should average about three-fourths the total depth.

Where nearby improvements prevent heavy shooting, or where it is desired to keep a large amount

of rock on the slope, closer spacing is necessary.

The type of explosive to be used depends on the

type of rock being shot and the results desired.

High-velocity explosives produce the best shattering

effect. Low-strength explosives, such as those recommended for stumping, produce the best loosening

or propulsive effect. Other characteristics to consider are resistance to moisture and freezing, sensitiveness, and velocity.

After blasting it is necessary to break up rocks

still too big to be handled by the equipment available. Blockholing, snakeholing, or mudcapping

can be used for this (fig. 328). Boulders 4 feet and

more in diameter should usually be handled by

blockholing if a rock drill is available.

138
FUSE

^^^^^^ ^SPLIT CARTRIDGES^

:Z^'^BLASTING CAP^^:;^::^^^^:^

PAPER

(^lllXit>)í((^tf^:fMí'nm^^

Figure 528.—Methods of blasting rocks. A, Blockholing; B,

snakeholing; C, mudcapping.

A rock blade (fig. 329) in place of the dozer blade

will make it possible to push out the heavier rock

with the tractor and save the finer material for the

road surface. Such a blade has scarifier teeth on its

lower edge. It costs about $400 and should be

standard equipment on all jobs where much rock is

to be excavated.

The tractor and winch can be used to advantage

in removing and placing individual large boulders

that cannot be handled with the blade.

Figure 329.—A rock blade on a tractor.

Rock excavation should usually be carried to a

depth of at least 12 inches below the level of the

final grade, and should be backfilled with suitable

material for a cushion. This prevents uneven surface and consequent racking stresses on the trucks

as they pass over the road.

SURFACING

On many roads the addition of surfacing material

will be economically justified. The soil on which the

road is built may not be suitable for trafile wear or

drainage. Clay, for example, ruts easily when wet,

and when dry it has a china-like hardness and is

diflScult to grade. It is also very slippery when wet.

Mixing a 2- to 4-inch layer of sand or gravel into

the clay helps.

Peats and mucks are the most unsatisfactory soils;

they shrink and expand up to 50 percent in wetting

and drying. The best method of improvement is to

add coarse granular material. The various loams contain some sand and are better road materials. They

may dry to form clods, but these can readily be

broken up. Some addition of sand, however, is often

desirable. A pure sand or gravel soil is improved by

the addition of clay or loam, which helps keep it

in place. The objective, as in mixing concrete, is to

fuse the fine and coarse material into a surface that

has moderate plasticity, that will drain well, that can

be easily graded, and that will stay in place under

traffic. The addition of calcium chloride or waste

sulfite pulp-mill liquor will often cut down on dustraising in dry weather. The pulp-mill waste may also

help prevent washing in wet weather.

DRAINAGE

One of the chief factors affecting the life and

serviceability of a road surface of any type is the

amount of moisture in the subgrade and surfacing.

139
NOTE-- All culverts should foil

FDLE CULVERT

Spikes

Figure 330.—Construction and installation of open-top culverts of three types.

140
If side ditches are not adequate, flow of water on or

across the road not only washes away material but

decreases the road's stability.

Crown is important for adequately draining the

road surface. The maximum crown recommended

for areas of heavy rainfall is:

It is, however, heavier and more expensive to move.

Where soil conditions corrode the iron pipe quickly

the concrete pipe may be economical even at a

higher price.

Height of crown at center

9-foot width

Grade (percent) (Inches)

0-5 2%

5-10 1%

10 and over V/A

W'foot width

(Inches)

4

2

2

If crown is inadequate in the subgrade as well as

the wearing surface, water collects and the road

becomes pitted under traffic.

The entire surface of the road may be sloped

toward the cut bank to prevent erosion, or as a safety

precaution on slippery soils. Of course, an insloped

road needs additional culverts except where the

road material is so pervious that water will seep

through it. Water should not be allowed to accumulate in large quantities on the uphill side of a road

or on its surface. Culverts—either open-top or

closed—or bridges should be installed where needed

to carry this water across the road.

Open-top culverts (fig. 330) are particularly valuable because they are cheap to construct. They drain

the road surface as well as the roadside ditches.

Open-top culverts should be placed across the road

at an angle, so that two wheels will not hit them

at once; this also helps make them self-cleaning.

Closed-top culverts are more common. Many

types are used. Where large durable flat rocks can

be obtained readily for a cover, stone culverts may

be economical. Masonry walls should be built up

on a solid foundation. The top of the culvert should

be at least 12 inches below the road surface. For

temporary installations split round or sawed native

timber may be satisfactory. Slabs and poles may also

be used to make an effective culvert.

Galvanized corrugated iron pipe is probably the

most commonly used culvert material. On woods

operations, where the water may be acid, such culverts should be protected against corrosion on the

lower side with a bituminous or asphalt coating.

Otherwise, the pipe may not have much longer life

than untreated wood. Corrugated pipe has the advantage that additional sections can be placed later.

In this way it can be lengthened at any future time

if a wider road is desired. Proper methods of installing corrugated pipe are illustrated in figure 331.

Reinforced-concrete pipe is available in many

localities at about the same price as galvanized iron.

SIDE SLOPE 0% TO 307o

SIDE SLOPE 31% TO 50%

SIDE SLOPE 5I%ANDOVER

Figure 331.—Three methods of installing pipe culverts.

Thefill slopes are 1}^ to L

Asphalt-impregnated paper or asbestos pipe is

becoming available in large sizes. It is relatively

permanent, strong, and resistant to acids, and it can

easily be lengthened. It is being used for smaller

culverts.

Vitreous tile pipe is rarely strong enough for

heavy-duty logging roads.

Corrugated metal arches are especially useful for

shallow fills and limited headroom. They are as

strong as round corrugated culverts, and require no

special foundations. They are particularly valuable

for use in place of bridges, for carrying small streams

under the road.

Natural watercourses are excellent places for culverts, as the inlet and outlet require no special construction. In many cases, however, culverts are

necessary where there was no watercourse before.

141
Culverts should be installed on a gradient of not

less than 3 percent. Where a great deal of silt is to

be carried a much steeper gradient, up to 20 percent,

is desirable. A good rule to follow is to slope any

culvert 2 percent more than the grade of the road

above it.

The trench for pipe culverts should be prepared

with the bottom on an even grade and free from

rocks that would injure the pipe when the fill load

is applied. Galvanized pipe is easily dented or bent

by careless handling. This spoils the rust-preventive

coating.

In fills where settling is expected the culvert

should be slightly raised at the center, so that there

will not be a sag in the middle when settling is

completed. The backfill should be carefully tamped

to give a firm support to the culvert.

Head walls and inlets on culverts should be constructed so that the entering water will not cause

the ditch to erode or the cut bank to slough into the

intake and thus plug the culvert. Outlets should be

located so that the released water will not undermine the fill. To prevent such erosion it may be

necessary to pave a trough or spill platform of rocks

from the end of the culvert to solid ground.

Many small streams can be carried under the road

by galvanized iron culverts, which are available in

diameters up to 36 and 48 inches. (For some needs,

culverts up to 84-inch diameter are obtainable.)

Where one culvert is not enough to carry the water,

two or more can be placed close together. They

should not be closer than half their diameter.

BRIDGES

Where a culvert will not carry the water, a bridge

becomes necessary. The most common bridge is the

simple timber-stringer type, usually erected on timber crib-work abutments (fig. 332).

For a very temporary bridge, earth abutments may

suffice—provided the stream bank will not fail.

A heavy sill log should be used at each end of the

bridge. Temporary bridges may be built from

almost any sort of timber that is available locally.

Bridges to be used a longer time should be more

Figure 332.—A timber-stringer bridge on timber crib-work abutments.

142
carefully planned; they should have firmer foundations and should be made of more durable timber.

In durability of the heartwood, species available in

the Northeast rank about as follows: High, black

locust, cedar; intermediate, white oak, red gum,

tamarack; less durable, beech, birch, hemlock,

sugar maple, red oak, spruce.

When possible the bridge should be built where

the stream has a straight unobstructed channel that

is well established. The bridge should cross the

stream bed at right angles rather than on a skew.

If a skew crossing cannot be avoided, the abutments

and piers should be set parallel to the direction of

stream flow in order to avoid disturbance of the

water and scouring of the banks.

The bridge should be high enough to provide

ample clearance above flood crests to avoid being

struck by floating logs and other debris. Five feet

above maximum flood level is not too much. The

abutments should be far enough apart so that they

will not constrict the channel, even in flood time,

and cause an increase in water velocity that may

undermme them.

The U. S. Army Engineers offer a simple but

reasonably accurate method of determining the safe

gross load capacity of a timber stringer bridge. They

have worked out converting factors (table 3) for

doing this. For example: Determine the capacity of

a one-lane bridge that has a span of 18 feet, and is

built on six 8- by 10-inch stringers. For an 18-foot

span with stringers 10 inches deep, the table gives

0.28 as the converting factor. As there are six

stringers, each 8 inches wide, the total width of the

stringers is 6x8, or 48 inches. Multiply this by the

converting factor (0.28x48) and the answer is 13.4.

The capacity of the bridge is thus about 13 tons.

TABLE 3.—Army Engineers* converting factors for

figuring the safe load of a timber stringer bridge

[In tons capacity per inch ofstringer width]

Span

beDepth of stringers (in inches)

tween

supports

(in

feet)

6 8 10 12 14 16

1.40

1. 15

.95

.85

.75

.65

.50

.42

18

1.75

1.45

1.25

1.05

.95

.85

.65

.55

20 22 24

10

12

14

16

18

20

0. 19

. 15

. 13

. 11

. 10

0.34

.28

.24

.20

. 18

. 16

. 11

.09

0.55

.44

.37

.32

.28

.25

. 19

. 15

0.80

.65

.55

.47

.41

.36

.27

.22

1.05

.90

.75

.65

.55

.50

.38

.32

2. 15

1.80

1.55

1.30

1. 15

1.05

.80

.65

2.65

2. 15

1.85

1. 60

1. 40

1.25

.95

.80

3. 15

2.60

2.20

1.90

1.70

1.50

24 1. 15

28 .95

For two-lane bridges count the stringers on only

one side. For round stringers use the diameter of the

stringer as the depth of the beam, and 0.4 times the

diameter as the width, and figure the capacity with

a converting factor from the table.

Flooring should be 1 Vi times as thick in inches as

the distance between stringers in feet. For instance,

if stringers are 2 feet apart flooring should be at

least 3 inches thick. Three inches is usually considered a minimum thickness. Thinner flooring may

split under heavy vehicles.

CRIB WORK FOR RETAINING

WALLS

For dirt or gravel slopes that cannot be properly

backsloped or that contain seeps, a rock wall or

timber crib retaining wall is often the most economical way of preventing slides or excessive erosion. Such retaining walls (fig. 333) are installed on

both cuts and fills.

If the road is to be used for any length of time

it is wise to use timber species resistant to rot in

such crib works. The tie logs, at right angles to the

surface of the crib, should be at least 8 feet long and

buried in the bank. Old railroad ties that were

treated with creosote or some other preservative at

the time of their original installation are frequently

a convenient source of rot-resistant timbers. Such

ties usually last longer than all but the most rotresistant local species cut and installed green.

ROAD MAINTENANCE

Regular maintenance of dirt roads is essential to

keep hauling costs within reasonable bounds. Much

of this maintenance is necessarily done by hand.

Even though they have been installed correctly,

culverts sometimes become plugged up and have to

be cleaned out. Washes, land slips, and rock slides

will occur. For many of these maintenance jobs the

bulldozer is a good tool. For regular work, over the

entire road, however, a tractor-grader or motor

patrol is almost a necessity. These machines can

sometimes be rented from a local contractor or local

government agency. In place of a grader a road drag

made of old railroad rail can be hauled behind a

truck or tractor for some of the necessary maintenance, but much more supplementary hand work

will be required if a drag is used.

143
Figure 333.—A crib-wort retaining wall.

TRAMWAYS

In recent years interest in tramways (small independent railroads) has been revived among northeastern timber operators. This is due to the availability of light, powerful diesel and gasolinepowered locomotives of the type commonly used

in mines (fig. 334). One operator in West Virginia

Figure 334.—Small locomotives are reviving an interest in

tramways. This is a diesel engine.

States that the cost of installing a narrow-gage tramway in rough country averages only about $600 a

mile, as against a cost of $1,500 to $2,000 a mile to

build almost any type of road. The ties can be laid

on stringers of cull logs across soft or swampy

ground. Simple crib-work trestles carry the tramways

over rock cliffs and streams. Ties are sawed from

cull material and laid about 18 inches apart. Loads

of three to four thousand feet of logs can be hauled

uphill on grades up to 15 percent. One operator

uses two log cars, one in front of and one behind

the locomotive. On a steep pitch the back car is uncoupled and the front car is pushed up the slope.

Then the locomotive goes back for the other car.

SAFETY IN ROAD

CONSTRUCTION

Safety in road building must be considered in the

construction job itself and also in standards of construction that will make the road safe to use.

Safe standards of construction include the following:

1. Truck-road grades should not be too steep for

safe operation of the logging and work trucks, and

should not exceed 20 percent unless an auxiliary

means of lowering trucks is provided.

2. Sufficient turn-outs should be provided, and a

s?fe side clearance should be maintained along all

roads. Brush that might obstruct the view at an intersection or on extremely sharp curves should be

cleared.

3. Bridges and crib work should be built substantially to withstand any side thrust or other strain

144
that might be imposed on them. Footings should be

firm and adequately protected against the weakening effect of water and ice.

4. Substantial guard rails should be installed and

securely anchored on all bridges and trestles.

To make the construction job safe:

1. Tractor operators should not be permitted to

work alone where they are not in frequent contact

with some other person who could help them in

case of accidental injury.

2. Adequate lighting should be provided if road

construction is carried on at night.

3. All men should watch for cave-ins, rolling

rocks, flying stones or branches, and other such

hazards, and the work should be laid out to eliminate the exposure ofmen to these hazards.

4. Slopes should be maintained, and the undermining of ledges or walls of a quarry or borrow pit

should be examined and cleared of all loose material

before work is resumed below the face.

879396 O—50 -11

145

NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS' HANDBOOK

LOGGING TRUCKS

->^

In the following two cases the costs are compared

for conditions in the West and the Northeast.

Case No. 1.—Typical of western conditions (loading

time, 5 minutes per 1,000 board feet; 30-mile round trip

at 15 mph. average):

S-ton truck 10-ton truck

Total Per M Total Per M

Loading cost $0. 40 $0. 20 $3. 60 $0. 60

Trip cost 12.00 6.00 28.00 4.66

Total 12.40 6.20 31.60 5.22

Case No. 2.—Typical of northeastern conditions (loading time, 15 minutes per 1,000 board feet; 30-mile round

trip at 30 mph. average) :

S-ton truck 10-ton truck

Total Per M Total Per M

Loading cost $1.20 $0.60 $10.80 $L 80

Trip cost 6.00 3.00 14.00 2.66

Total 7. 20 3. 60 24. 80 4.46

On most northeastern jobs the wood is carried

on the vehicle itself. Usually it is cut into short

lengths before loading. Many States limit the length

of the load as well as the width of vehicles that are

allowed to travel on public roads. Some States also

require an independent braking system for trailers

used on commercial vehicles. This has forced off

the roads some of the makeshift trailer contraptions

formerly used. (Trailer brakes are necessary to prevent jack-knifing on slippery roads.) Even where

there are no such regulations, the roads themselves

often force loggers to use shorter, more maneuverable vehicles. Improvements in the roads and in

small logging trailers and the tendency toward more

tree-length logging may reverse this trend.

Tandem Axles

Despite their relatively high cost, tandem rear

axles on logging trucks are steadily becoming more

common in the Northeast. Dual wheels have long

been used to reduce the load on the individual tire.

The standard gasoline-powered motortruck is

now, and probably will continue to be, the favorite

tool for hauling timber products out of the northeastern woods. The motortruck has been so improved that it is now giving service that would have

been thought impossible a few years ago. Tandem

rear axles, 4- and 6-wheel drives, air and vacuum

brakes, and sturdier all-around construction have

made it possible for even the lightest trucks to

carry loads of 3 to 4 cords, or 2 to 3 thousand board

feet.

TYPE OF TRUCK

Size

Most trucks used for hauling timber products in

the Northeast are in the 1 Vi- and 2-ton class; a few

are in the 3-ton class. Many State and township

roads in the wooded areas are narrow and crooked,

with bridges that will not carry heavy loads. This is

one reason why the big diesel-powered trucks used

for logging in the West have not been favored in

the Northeast.

The smaller standard truck units probably will

remain popular in the Northeast. The extensive

public road system favors them, and so does the

type of timber. Scattered, small timber lengthens

the loading time. Large trucks have a high fixed

cost for the time they are not rolling. Smaller trucks

have a lower fixed cost, but a high volume-unitmile cost while traveling. The more miles per hour

a smaller truck makes, the more this high cost is

cut down.

Here is the way it works:

s-ton truck 10-ton truck

Average load (board feet) 2, 000 6, 000

Fixed cost per minute $0. 04 $0. 12

Operating cost per hour 6. 00 14. 00

147
The tandem axle carries this a step further. On

many trucks the tandem axle is merely mounted on

helper springs behind the original axle; it takes part

of the load off the other springs, axles, and tires.

More and more northeastern loggers are installing

dual axles that transmit power to all four sets of

rear wheels. This gives a more even distribution of

tractive power as well as of weight. Ordinarily the

truck frame is strengthened and stronger springs

are put on when such tandem axles are installed.

With such rigs the safe hauling capacity of the truck

is practically doubled.

Three general types of powered tandem axles are

in use. In the first (fig. 335) the drive shaft in front

of the original axle is cut, and a gear box is installed

above the old differential. From this a shaft with

universal joints transmits the power to the differential of the added axle.

Figure 335.—Tandem axles. Each axle has its own

dißerentiah

Figure 336.—Roller chains transmit power from the single

dißerential to the four wheels.

In the second type (fig. 336) there is a single differential. The power is transmitted to all four sets

of wheels by roller chains.

The third type (fig. 337) has a new automatic

locking differential between the two axles. It takes

power from the drive shaft, and, through universaljointed shafts, transmits it to the differentials of the

two standard axles. If automatic locking differentials

are also installed in the two truck axles, power is

transmitted to all four sets of wheels whenever it is

applied from the motor. This is a big advantage in

logging. Even if only one of the wheels is on a surface where it can gçx a grip, the truck can be moved.

All these dual-axle devices are mounted on walking-beam type springs, which give flexibility to the

whole rear-end assembly.

Front-Wheel Drives

Before the Second World War, trucks having

front-wheel drives had never been popular with

northeastern loggers because experience had indicated that they are much harder to operate. Since

the war, many Army trucks with tandem rear axles

and front-wheel drives, bought at surplus-property

sales, are appearing in the woods. Some loggers find

that the extra power under the front end is well

worth while, particularly when the truck is used as

a tractor to pull a trailer or a train of sleds in winter

logging. However, there are some disadvantages

with these military trucks. Many loggers find that

the differential on the front axle reduces the clearance. Hence these trucks cannot be used in the

woods like standard trucks. Moreover, Army trucks

often use too much gasoline. For carrying full loads

of logs or wood on the truck bed, the wheelbases of

most Army trucks need to be lengthened.

Cab'Over-Engine Trucks

Cab-over-engine trucks provide more load space

on the same wheelbase, but they are not generally

favored for logging. The cab itself is usually small

and difl&cult to gtt in and out of, and the engine is

usually less accessible for repair work. Moreover, a

large part of the weight of the load is borne by the

front axle, which makes the truck harder to steer.

Truck Bodies

The ordinary flat-bed truck is used on many

northeastern jobs, particularly to carry pulpwood,

most of which is cut into 4-foot lengths before haulFigure 337.—Tandem axles with automatic locking differential.

148
ing. Because of State highway restrictions, which

Hmit the over-all width of the truck to 8 feet, the

wood must be piled lengthways if a full load is to

be carried. Side racks are built up over the truck

bed to hold the load (fig. 338). Usually the wood is

piled in three tiers, as illustrated. An attempt is

being made to get the States to accept a 102-inch

width for truck bodies. With this body width the

wood could be piled across the truck in two tiers.

The job of loading trucks, and especially that of unloading into railroad cars, would be much easier.

T

Stakes are generally preferable to cheese blocks

and chains for holding loads of short logs. Stakeequipped trucks can be loaded and unloaded more

quickly, especially with crane or jammer rigs.

The cheese-block-and-chain arrangement (fig.

340) is preferable, however, for loads of tree-length

logs on truck-and-trailer combinations. Here the

load is not built up so high as on a single vehicle.

F-441908

Figure 338.—Truck with side racks Jor carryingpulpwood.

Figure 340.—A cheese block.

At the same time the load is subjected to greater

side stresses, and the tightly chained load can take

them better.

Some States require that the load be fastened with

chains. The chain can be tightened in a slip hook

and fastened with a fid hook. Load binders (fig. 341)

are commonly used.

Logs are also carried on flat-bed trucks (fig. 339).

Bunks are usually placed across the truck bed, to

give firmer support to irregular logs and protect the

truck bed from wear. Stakes are installed in the sides

of the truck bed, or hinged stakes at the ends of the

F-434535

Figure 339.—This truck has bunksfor carrying logs.

bunks. (The use of hinged stakes with safety trip

devices has already been described.) Trucks used

solely for hauling logs generally have bunks

mounted directly on the frame.

F-448802

Figure 341.—yl load binder.

"PIGGYBACK" LOADING

"Piggyback" loading is a good way to carry the

trailer on the return trip to the woods. Carrying the

empty trailer on the truck saves wear and tear on the

trailer, which otherwise would bounce around on

the road. At the same time, it makes the truck more

maneuverable and safer to drive.

There are several ways of loading a trailer "piggyback." A ramp at the unloading point is one way.

149
The trailer can be run up on it and uncoupled, and

the truck can be backed under it. Or, the ramp can

be built high enough so that the trailer will roll

down onto the truck frame. At the place where the

logs are loaded in the woods, the trailer can be unloaded by the same crane that handles the logs.

The trailer can be loaded onto the truck by a crane

or some similar device. By another method (fig.

342) a winch behind the cab pulls the trailer up

onto the truck. To unload, the trailer is simply

rolled down into position for hauling.

Figure 542,—This trailer is pulled up onto the truck by a

winch.

TRUCK DRIVING

The modern motortruck has been greatly improved in recent years. Power brakes on all four or

six wheels can be applied with very little effort. The

number of square inches of tire tread on the road

has been increased so that there is much less danger

of skidding or spinning the wheels. Cabs have been

made more comfortable and weathertight and steering has been made easier. Gear shifts have been

made easier and more quiet, and two-speed rear axles

have multiplied the number of gears available.

Helper springs, or progressive springs, have made

riding easier, empty as well as loaded, and have reduced racking and bouncing strains on the vehicle.

Further improvements are in prospect.

Nevertheless, truck driving demands a high-type

worker—sober, industrious, and alert. This is particularly true in logging work, where the truck

driver must take heavy, bulky loads over a great

variety of road surfaces, from rough-graded woods

roads, through paved highways, to crowded city

streets. He is on his own much of the time.

Checking the Vehicle

A good logging-truck driver must know his vehicle, and he must make sure it is in shape to drive

safely before starting out. If he is driving for a large

company the maintenance of the vehicle may be the

responsibility of a shop superintendent. Nevertheless, the driver should check it over before he takes

it out, making sure that it has enough gasoline, oil,

and water, that the tires are in good condition and

properly inflated, and that the truck is mechanically

in good shape.

He should pay particular attention to the springs.

The U-bolts, which clamp the springs to the axle,

should be tight. If they are not, failure of spring

leaves or the center bolt is likely. He should also

note the deflection of the springs. For any given

load the right and left springs should always deflect

to the same position. If they do not, the spring may

not be properly lubricated, one or more leaves may

be broken, or the vehicle may be improperly loaded.

When a spring sags, the frame may strike and bend

the axle when the loaded truck rolls over a bump.

The driver should also check the steering mechanism, making sure there are no loose nuts or bent

parts, and that the wheel has no more than the

normal amount of play. A glance under the truck

will show whether there are pools or spots of oil,

which may indicate leaks in the transmission, universal joints, differentials, or hubs. Flares, extinguishers, signals, tools, and chains should be in

place.

In looking over his truck the driver should bear

in mind that a new truck may have a greater tendency to loosen up than an older truck. Repeated

tightening is usually necessary on a new truck until

all clamping surfaces have become properly seated.

Loading

The logging-truck driver is usually responsible

for the proper loading of his vehicle. This includes

the size of the load and the way it is distributed and

fastened. He must also consider the route to be

traveled with the load, and he should note the road

conditions he will encounter, such as grades, underpass clearances, curves and switch-backs, and bridge

limitations.

There is a constant pressure on the driver to carry

the maximum loads possible; but this may be poor

business in the long run. Carrying excessive weight

on a truck at low speeds over rough roads usually

results in cracked or sprung frames and axles and

broken springs. Excessive gear work and heavy

150
starting shorten the life of the transmission and

clutch.

Excessive weight in the front end of the body will

cause overloading of the front axle and will make

steering more difficult. Excessive weight to the rear

will lift weight from the front tires with resulting

loss of steering control. From 20 to 25 percent of

the gross load should be on the front axle. This is

particularly important for tandem-axle units. Any

unit so heavily and unevenly loaded that it leans to

one side is likely to roll on curves, possibly causing

the wheel housings to rub on the tires, and resulting

in blow-outs.

The load should be tightly fastened, so it will not

shift in transit.

Driving Practices

Before putting the truck in gear it is a good idea

to idle the motor, particularly in cold weather, until

the water temperature in the cooling system reaches

at least 140°. This will increase the life of the

engine.

The clutch should be let in easily and steadily,

with the transmission in the proper gear and the

engine turning over at the proper rate. The clutch

has to slip for a few seconds as it transfers the

torque from the engine and flywheel to the driving

wheels. Letting it out too suddenly strains the driving parts and sometimes breaks or cracks gears or

snaps a shaft. Letting it out too slowly causes rapid

wear on the clutch plate. Ordinarily a loaded vehicle should be started in its lowest gear, with the

engine turning over at about half throttle or about

1,400 r. p. m. Only under the most extreme grade

and load conditions should the engine be run up to

its full governed speed before clutch engagement.

Then, smoothly and evenly, the truck should be

brought to the proper gear for travel on the road,

avoiding gear clashing and jerks or excessive slippage of the clutch. On most units double-clutching

will save the gears in shifting. Double-clutching is

usually important when shifting to a lower gear.

The driver must become familiar with the best engine speed for shifting into each gear to minimize

clashing.

The driver must rely on his own intelligence and

driving ability to determine his speed and braking

in accordance with whatever road problems arise.

In going around curves the effisct of speed is squared.

This means that if a truck goes around a given curve

at 60 miles an hour the force tending to upset it or

make it skid sideways is nine times as much as it

would be at 20 miles an hour on the same curve.

Tires do not skid sideways so easily when driving

power is being applied as they do with braking

power applied. Every good driver approaches a curve

in such a way that he can apply his accelerator safely

while still on the curve.

The fact that very little effort is required to make

brake applications with modern power brakes tends

to lead to excessive brake usage. Brakes should

usually be applied intermittently to avoid excessive

heating, and full advantage should be taken of the

braking power of the engine. In going down long,

steep grades it is good practice to put the truck in

a low gear to utilize the braking power of the engine and then apply the brakes just enough to reduce the speed 4 or 5 miles an hour, release the

brakes and allow the speed to increase 4 or 5 miles

an hour, then apply the brakes again. Careful handling and good judgment are necessary in descendmg long, steep grades with a heavy load to avoid

severe brake overheating and loss of control of the

truck. A recent invention, the hydrotarder, is being

installed on many logging trucks to reduce the need

for depending on the brakes to hold speed under

control on such grades. It uses a fluid control unit

installed on the drive shaft to keep the truck within

a preset speed limit, and seems very effective.

When the vehicle is stopped, the driver should

not depend on the air or vacuum brakes to hold it

for any length of time with the engine shut off. The

pressure or vacuum is almost sure to leak slowly so

that the brake is soon released. On level ground the

hand brake can be used. On any grade it is well to

leave the truck in gear and block the wheels.

Care of Tires

Proper tire care is an important part of good truck

driving. It has been of great importance with synthetic rubber tires. Synthetic tubes hold air much

better than those made of natural rubber, but many

synthetic casings made in the war and early postwar years have been destroyed by heat in a fairly

short time. Flexing due to underinflation has been

one of the major causes of such heat.

Both underinflation and overinflation are bad for

tires. An overinflated tire, with the cords stretched

tightly, is much more apt to be seriously injured by

a heavy impact, especially when the truck load is

heavy. Properly inflated, the tire could have flexed

to take the shock without injury.

An underinflated tire is too severely flexed in

ordinary driving. The cords get hot, lose their

strength, and eventually break. An overloaded tire

151
is similarly flexed. A common and serious mistake

is to try to offset the effect of overloading by overinflation, with the result noted in the preceding

paragraph. Proper loading and proper inflation are

essential to satisfactory tire life.

Rims too small for the tires are another cause of

cord breakage. When a truck is equipped with oversized tires, the rims should also be changed to a

larger size. If they are not, the beads of the tire will

be squeezed close together, which pulls the tire out

of shape and throws a strain on the sidewalls.

Squeezing the beads together also reduces the air

chamber, thus lowering the tire's carrying capacity.

Tires on dual wheels should be carefully mated.

If they are not, the larger tire will take most of the

weight and most of the wear. Ordinarily a new tire

should not be mated with an old one on a dual

wheel. Even new tires of different makes may have

slightly different circumferences for the same rated

size. The safest course is to put two tires of the

same make and size on dual wheels. If it is necessary to mate a smaller tire with a larger one, measure their circumferences when inflated, and put the

larger one on the outside. A simply way to test

whether or not one of a pair of duals is carrying the

greater share of the load is to inflate them to identical air pressure. At the end of a run, under load,

check the pressures on the two tires. If one has

gained in pressure more than the other, that is a

sign it has been carrying more than its share of the

load. If a better-mated tire is not available the other

tire can be inflated a little more, so that on the next

trip both tires will carry the same weight.

The space between duals is important also. If it

is too small there will be insufficient cooling air

between the two tires, and when the truck is heavily

loaded they may rub together. With oversized tires,

spacers often are needed between the hubs of the

two wheels.

On the other hand, if there is too much space the

outside tire may drag and scuff every time a turn

is made.

Stone bruises and other bulges in truck tires

should be repaired as soon as possible. They usually

become worse with wear, and may result in blowouts and serious accidents.

There is much good information for the truck

driver in the operator's manual for the truck he is

driving. He should study it carefully. Particularly

important are the instructions for lubrication, engine speeds, oil pressure, and water temperatures.

The manufacturer's directions for draining brake

air tanks should be followed. The truck driver who

becomes familiar with such instructions, and follows them, will be responsible for fewer delays to

the job; and he may avoid a serious accident.

SAFETY IN HAULING WITH

TRUCKS

A few ofthe more important safety points brought

out in this section are repeated here for emphasis:

1. The truck driver should be sure that his truck

is in safe condition before he takes it out. Any unsafe condition that develops during the day should

be immediately corrected or reported. An unsafe

truck should not be used.

2. The truck driver should be satisfied with the

loading of his vehicle.

3. All load binders or stakes holding the load

should be arranged so that releases are made from

the side of the truck opposite that toward which

the logs will roll in unloading.

4. The speed of all equipment should be governed by the operator's ability to maintain control

under the limits of visibility and the existing conditions of surface grade, curves, weather, darkness,

or other limiting factors.

5. Riding on any part of a logging truck except

in the cab should be prohibited. The cab doors

should open easily and no tools or other material

should be carried in the cab in a way that will prevent the easy escape of the occupants by either door

in an emergency.

6. Any logs lost off loads should be immediately

reloaded or moved to a safe position off the roadway.

152
NORTHEASTERN LOGGERS HANDBOOK

GLOSSARY

^^ -4^

The logger uses many words and expressions that

are peculiarly his own. He uses some commonly

known words in different senses than other people

do. This glossary has been prepared to give young

loggers the meanings of many words and expressions

used in logging work in the Northeast. It may

also be useful to experienced loggers because it contains many terms used in other sections of the

country. Many words coined in Pacific coast logging, for example, are now becoming current in the

Northeast, with the introduction of cable logging,

tractors and arches, and other devices developed in

that region.

In assembling this glossary, the author found

valuable help in the Society of American Foresters'

booklet, *'Foresty Terminology" (84 pp. Washington, D. C. 1944). Permission to use information

from this publication is gratefully acknowledged.

LOGGING TERMS

Acid wood. Wood cut for consumption in plants

that manufacture charcoal, acetic acid, and methanol

by destructive distillation. Syn. Distillation wood,

chemical wood.

Adirondack standard. See Market.

A-frame. Two poles lashed together with a crosspiece in the form of an A with a block hung in the

apex. Used as a spar in cable logging or as a

stiiF-leg loader.

Alley. See Dingle.

Angledozer. A standard crawler tractor with a

heavy steel blade mounted across its front. The

blade can be raised or lowered by hydraulic or

cable devices and each end can be advanced or

retracted to place the blade at various angles, thus

making it possible to push earth to either side.

Syn. Trailbuilder. See also Bulldozer.

Arch. A large wishbone-like steel frame mounted on

wheels or crawler tracks with a heavy pulley arrangement (fairlead) at the apex. Used in skidding

behind a tractor to carry the front ends of the logs.

A small arch mounted on wheels is often called a

sulky.

Ark. See Commissary.

Ballhoot. To roll or slide logs down a hill.

Balihooter. One who rolls or slides logs down a

hillside.

Bank. (1) A reserve supply of logs held back to meet

deficiencies in a daily delivery quota. (2) A landing to which logs are hauled.

Barber chair. A stump on which is left standing a

slab that splintered off the tree as it fell. Generally

an indication of careless felling. Syn. Tombstone.

Barker. (1) A logger who peels bark. (2) A machine to peel bark. See also Rosser.

Bark rack. A frame to hold bark on a sled or other

conveyance.

Barn boss. The man in charge of the stables in a

logging camp.

Barroom man. See Chore boy.

Beaver. A poor axman, especially one who chops

around all sides of a tree.

Bicycle. A carriage or trolley used on a skyline.

Bicycle saw. A portable circular power saw

mounted in a light frame, similar to that of a

garden cultivator, on bicycle wheels.

Billet. A short round section of log. Syn. Block.

Binder. A limber pole used to twist a loop in a

binder chain, ana thus to tighten it. Syn. Jim

binder.

Binding chain. A chain used to bind together a

load of logs. Syn. Wrapper chain.

Binding logs. Logs so placed on top of a load that

their weight rests on and tightens the binding

chains that hold the rest of the load in place.

Blaze. A mark made on the trunk of a standing tree

by chipping off a spot of bark with an ax. It is

used to indicate a trail, a boundary, location for a

road, trees to be cut, etc.

Block. (1) A kind of puUev used in power logging

to change the direction of haul or to increase the

pulling power. (2) A short piece of round wood,

as used by the distillation industry.

Blocking plant. A small mill, generally with a

slasher saw and conveyors, for cutting 12- to 15-

inch blocks for the wood distillation industry.

Blowdown. See Windfall.

Bob (noun). A single pair of sled runners connected

by a cross beam. Used to carry the forward end

of logs that are being skidded. Syn. Dray, yarding

sled.

153
Bob (verb). To transport logs on a bob or dray.

Body wood. Cordwood cut from tree-stem segments that are free of branches.

Bolt. A short segment of tree stem from 2 to 5 feet

long (sometimes split); used as primary raw material by wood turneries, shingle and stave mills, and

other specialized wood-using plants. Syn. Billet.

Bottle-butted. See Swell-butted.

Bottom loader. See Ground loader.

Bow saw. A one-man saw, used principally for

cutting pulpwood. The thin steel blade is held

in tension by a tubular steel bow bent sharply near

the two ends. The blade is usually 42 inches long,

with a clearance of about 12 inches between the

blade and the frame.

Box. See Notch.

Brow. See Landing.

Brush out. To clear away the brush from a survey

line or logging road, or to clear space in which to

swing an ax or pull a saw safely.

Brush snow fence. A snow fence made of brush, to

protect a logging road from drifting snow. The

brush is usually set upright in the ground before

freezing weather. Frost holds it tight later.

Buck. See Chore boy.

Bucker. One who saws felled trees into logs or

bolts. Syn. Log maker.

Bucking chute. A device for moving logs into position for cutting into short lengths. Originally a

chute, now often a set of concave rollers on which

the log is moved forward after each cut, either by

hand or motor power.

Bucking ladder. A series of short skids laid parallel

at regular intervals. Used as supports for cutting

logs into shorter lengths.

Bull block. A large yarding block having a throat

wide enough to allow a choker and butt chain to

pass through.

Bull chain. A heavy chain wrapped around a log

being skidded in order to check its speed as it is

dragged downhill. Usually placed around the

front or back log in a trail of logs.

Bull cook. See Chore boy.

Bulldozer. A standard crawler-type tractor having a

heavy steel blade mounted across the front at a

right angle to the tracks. The blade can be raised

or lowered by hydraulic or cable devices. The

angle of the blade and tractor cannot be changed

and all pushing action is straight ahead.

Bully. See Camp foreman.

Bummer. A self-loading device for skidding logs.

It consists of two sturdy wheels (often merely cross

sections cut from a log) connected by a heavy bunk,

and has a short tongue. A pair of tongs attached

to the tongue are fastened to the log; when power

is applied, the tongs pull the end of the log over

the wheels onto the bunk.

Bunch. To skid logs together at some point convenient for hauling.

Bunk. (1) The heavy timber upon which the logs

rest on a logging sled. (2) The cross beam on a

log car, sled, truck, or trailer. (3) A logger's bed

in a lumber camp.

Bunkhouse. Sleeping quarters of a logging crew.

Busheling. Cutting logs by the thousand, or boltwood by the cord.

Butt. The base of a tree or the large end of a log.

Butt hook. The hook by which a dragline is attached to tackle on logs.

Butt-off. To cut a defective portion from a log,

usually from the butt.

Buttrigging. An assembly of clevises and swivels

used to connect dragline, haulback line, and

chokers in a cable-skidding arrangement.

Cache. A storehouse for logging-camp supplies.

Camp foreman. The man in charge of a logging

camp and of operations conducted from that camp.

Syn. Bully, push, shanty boss.

Camp inspector. A logger who drifts from camp

to camp, trying out the food and living accommodations, but working as little as possible.

Cant dog. Common name for peavy in Maine.

Cant hook. A stout wooden lever used for rolling

logs. A curved metal hook is hinged to the lower

part, and the tip is fitted with a metal thimble

or toe ring. The toe ring usually has a lip facing

the hook. See also Peavy.

Carting grab. A crotch grab used on the first log

of a log train.

Catface. A partly healed fire scar on the face of a

tree, often the place where rot begins.

Catty logger. One who is quick on his feet.

Caulks. (1) Sharp-headed metal spikes driven into

the soles and heels of loggers' boots to giNC surer

footing on logs. (2) Protrusions on horseshoes,

used to prevent slipping. Often pronounced "corks"

in the Northeast.

Chaining. Dragging bundles of pulpwood wrapped

with a chain crossways down a skid trail. Used in

winter logging on steep slopes.

Chain saw. A saw powered by a gasoline or electric

motor, in which the cutting elements are on an

endless chain similar to a bicycle chain.

Chance. (1) A logging unit such as a timber sale

area or a certain drainage area. Syn. Show. (2)

The ease or difficulty of logging a certain area.

Chaser. A member of a hauling crew who accompanies the logs to the landing and helps unload or

unhook the load.

Check sealer. One who rescales logs to detect

errors on the part of the sealer.

Cheese block. A triangular block or wedge used on

the end of a bunk to hold the logs in place. Usually

rigged to slide in a groove near the top of the bunk

and held in place by a chain fastened to the opposite

end of the bunk.

Chemical wood. See Acid wood.

Chickadee. See Road monkey.

Chock block. A small wedge or block used to prevent a log from rolling.

Choker. A noose of wire rope put around a log, and

attached at its other end to a dragline by which

the log is skidded or loaded.

Choker hook. A hook fastened to one end of a

choker.

154
Choker man. The member of a yarding crew who

places the chokers on the logs. Syn, Choker setter.

Chopper. See. Faller.

Chore boy. One who cleans the sleeping quarters,

cuts firewood, builds fires, and carries wood. Syn.

Flunky, buck, bull cook, barroom man, lobby dog.

Cookee. Cook's helper and dishwasher.

Commissary. A general store provided to supply

the needs of members of a logging camp or small

isolated mills. Usually operated by the company

for its own employees. Syn. Van, wannigan, ark.

Coonskinner. One who cuts logs by the thousand

board feet.

Corduroy road. A road built of logs or poles laid

side by side across the roadway, usually in low or

swampy places.

Corner. In felling timber to cut through the sapwood on all sides to prevent the trunk from splitting

as it falls from its stump.

Corner binds. Four stout chains used on logging

sleds to bind the two outside logs of the lower tier

to the bunks.

Cover up logs. To fell trees on top of those already

cut.

Cradle. A framework of logs or stakes in which

wood is laid for bundling or for bucking.

Creaming. A logging operation that takes only

the best trees in the stand. Syn. High-grading.

Crib. A pen of short logs laid up log-cabin style,

and usually filled with rocks. Used as a pier to

support a certain type of bridge, and also as a

support for booms in river-driving improvements.

Cross chains. Chains connecting the front and

rear sleds of a logging sled.

Cross haul. A method for rolling logs up skids

onto a vehicle. A cable or chain is fastened at

each end to the bed of the vehicle, forming a long

loop. The loop is passed around the log, and back

across the vehicle to a source of power. A pull on

the free end of the loop rolls the log up the skids

onto the vehicle.

Crotch. A short length of hardwood crotch used in

skidding logs. It is drawn by means of a chain

* attached to the end of the V, which is sometimes

rounded to make it skid easily. The front ends of

the logs being skidded are fastened on top of the

open end of the crotch. Syn. Lizard.

Crotch grab. Two log dogs connected by a chain

or cable. Used in skidding or loading logs.

Cruise. A survey of forest land to locate and estimate

the volume of standing timber.

Cruiser. A person who makes a timber cruise.

Cull. A tree or log of merchantable size but rejected

because of defects.

Deacon seat. The bench in front of the sleeping

bunks in an old-type logging camp.

Dead and down. Standing dead trees and trees on

the ground, either dead or living.

Deadman. (1) A timber to which the end of a

hawser or cable is secured. (2) A log buried in the

ground, to which a guy line is anchored.

Decker. One who rolls logs up on a skidway or

log deck.

Depot. The headquarters or supply house of a logging operation.

Dingle. (1) The roofed-over space between the

kitchen and sleeping quarters of an old-style logging

camp, commonly used as a storeroom. (2) The

shedlike structure for storing food supplies in

newer-type camps. Syn. Alley.

Dinkey. A small logging locomotive. A dieselpowered mine locomotive is often used.

Distillation wood. See Acid wood.

Dog. A short heavy piece of steel, bent and pointed

at one end, with an eye or ring at the other. Syn.

Log grab.

Dogger. (1) One who attaches the dogs or hooks

to a log before it is skidded or loaded. (2) In a

sawmill the man who operates the dogging or logholding devices on the carriage.

Donkey. Formerly a portable steam engine equipped

with drums and cable, used in cable logging. Now

frequently applied to gasoline or diesel engines

similarly equipped.

Donkey doctor. One who maintains and repairs

donkey engines.

Donkey puncher. The operator of a donkey engine.

Dote. A general term used by loggers to denote

decay or rot in timber. Syn. Doze.

Double crotch grabs. Two crotch grabs fastened

together with a swivel ring. Used in pulling heavy

logs or trails of logs, and in fastening logs together.

Syn. Double coupler, four-paw grabs.

Double dray, i'^^ Jumbo.

Double rack. A sled body designed to carry two

parallel tiers of pulpwood or other short bolts.

Doze. See Dote.

Drag. A device for leveling roads. May be a framework of railroad rails.

Dragline. (1) The main cable used in skidding logs.

(2^ In arch skidding, the line from the winch drum

carried up over the fairlead.

Drag saw. A crosscut saw worked by a motor.

The back-and-forth cutting stroke is obtained by

means of an eccentric.

Drag sled. See Dray.

Dray. A single sled used in dragging logs. One

end of the log rests upon the sled, the other drags

on the ground. Syn. Bob, drag sled, lizard, skidding sled, yarding sled.

Drive. (1) To float logs on a stream from the forest

to a mill or shipping point. (2) The logs or timber

being floated.

Dry-ki. Trees killed by flooding. Often found in

areas flooded by beaver dams.

Duffle. The personal belongings a woodsman takes

into camp.

Dutchman. (1) A prop put under a log to keep it

from pinching the saw during bucking. (2) A

prop used for any similar purpose, such as supporting the hitch of an arch while it is being hooked

onto a tractor.

Fairlead. A device consisting of three or four rollers

arranged in the form of a U or hollow square, so

that a cable passing through it can be carried out

or reeled in from any direction.

155
Faller. One who fells trees.

Falling wedge. See Felling wedge.

Feeder. See Barn boss.

Felling wedge. A long wedge used in felling to tilt

the tree on the stump in the desired direction. The

wedge is driven into the cut made by the saw.

Syn. Falling wedge, sawing-down wedge.

Fender. A log or heavy pole placed at the side of a

skidding trail to prevent the skidding load from

rolling off the trail; or to direct it away from some

obstruction such as a rock or tree root. Syn.

Glancer.

Fit. (1) To notch a tree for felling; and after felling

to mark it into log lengths for cutting. (2) To

put a saw in good condition by jointing, setting,

and filing the teeth.

Filer. One who files saws in a lumber camp or

sawmill.

Flunky. An assistant to the cook in a logging camp.

Fore-and-aft road. A skid road made of logs laid

parallel to its direction.

Four paws. Four short lengths of chain, welded

to a large ring at one end, and each equipped with

a log grab at the other end. Used for fastening a

skidding chain or cable onto large logs, sometimes

for coupling logs together into a train. Syn.

Double coupler.

Froe. A tool for splitting staves or shingles from a

block of wood. It consists of a steel blade 6 to 12

inches long, with a wooden handle at right angles

to the blade. A mallet is used to drive the froe

into the wood.

Fid hook. A hook made from a flat piece of steel,

with a narrow slot that will grab a link of a chain.

The shank may be offset. Used mostly to hold

stakes upright on sleds or trucks.

Gaff. The steel point of a pike pole, consisting of a

screw point and a spur.

Gin pole. A boom used in loading logs. It is

secured at the bottom by a chain or ring to a tree

or spar and at the top with a cable or block and

tackle.

Glancer. See Fender.

Glut. A wooden wedge.

Go-back road. A road by which empty sleds can

return to the skidways for reloading. Syn. Short

road.

Go-devil. A short sled without a tongue, used in

skidding logs.

Grab driver. (1) One who attaches coupling grabs

to logs. (2) The tool used for attaching grabs to

logs. Syn. Grab maul.

Grab skipper. A light sledge hammer with the

peen encfing in a sharp point. Used in detaching

log grabs.

Grabs. Two log dogs connected by a short length

of chain, used for pulling or loading logs.

Ground loader. Member of a loading crew who

attaches tongs or crotch grabs to logs to be loaded.

Syn. Bottom loader.

Ground skidding. Dragging logs on the ground

without the aid of any device to reduce friction.

Syn. Twitching.

Gun stick. A compass-like tool made of light wood

strips several feet long. Used in tree felling to

gage the position of the undercut in relation to the

direction in which the tree is to fall.

Hang an ax. To fit a handle to an ax.

Hang up. (1) To fell a tree so that it lodges against

another instead of falling to the ground. (2) In

skidding, to lodge a log or bunch of logs against an

obstruction. Syn. Lodge.

Haul. The distance that logs must be transported, as

from skidway to yard, or from yard to shipping

point or mill.

Haul-back. A light wire rope used in cable skidding

to pull the heavy dragline and its rigging from the

log deck to logs still lying in the woods.

Haywire outfit. A contemptuous term for a logging

operation that has poor equipment. Originally

applied to makeshift repairs in harness.

Head grabs. The grabs on the first log of a log

train; may be either crotch grabs or four-paw grabs.

Head log. (1) The front bottom log on a skidway.

(2) The front log in a train of logs.

Head push. See Straw boss.

High-grading. See Creaming.

High-lead logging. A method of cable logging.

A high spar is used at one end of the cable so that

the front ends of logs being dragged in can be lifted

over obstructions.

Hot logging. A logging operation in which logs

go from stump to mill without pause.

Hot skidway. A skidway from which logs are

loaded immediately.

Hovel. A stable for logging teams.

Ice a road. To sprinkle water on a winter logging

road so that a coating of ice may form.

Ice wagon. See Sprinkler.

Integrated logging. A method of logging designed

to make the best use of all timber products. It

removes in one cutting all timber that should be

cut; and distributes the various timber products to

the industries that can use them to best advantage.

Jackpot (noun). (1) An unskillful piece of logging

work. (2) A bad slash.

Jackpot (verb). To pile trees or

without regard for orderliness.

Jammer. An A-frame mounted on a sled for use in

loading logs.

Jew's harp. See Slip grab.

Jim binder. See Binder.

Jobber. A logging contractor or subcontractor.

Jumbo. A type of tongueless double sled used for

short-distance hauling.

Jumper. A short wooden-shod sled commonly used

in transporting supplies to logging camps.

Killig. A short stout pole used in felling to push

the tree in the direction that it is to mil. Syn.

Sampson.

Knot bumper. See Limber.

Landing. A place to which logs are hauled or

skidded preparatory to loading or stream driving.

A rough-and-tumble landing is one where no

attempt is made to pile logs in an orderly manner.

Lap. Tops left in the woods after logging.

logs criss-cross.

156
Limber. One who cuts the limbs from felled trees.

Syn, Knot bumper.

Lizard. A crude sled made from the crotch of a tree.

Loader. A device for loading logs or bolts. A man

who does such work.

Lobby. The place in a logging camp where the men

wash and wait before mealtime.

Lobby dog. See Chore boy.

Lodge. See Hang up.

Log. To cut logs and deliver them at a place where

they can be transported by water, truck, or rail.

Log boat. A short tongue less sled with wooden

runners, used to haul logs. No part of the load is

dragged on the ground.

Log deck. See Skidway.

Log dump. See Landing.

Log grab. See Dog.

Log jack. (1) A tool used to raise a log off the

ground during bucking, in order to avoid pinching

the saw. (2) A cant hook modified so it will hold

a log up off the ground during bucking.

Log maker. See Bucker.

Logger. See Lumberjack. Also a logging operator.

Logging sled. A heavy double sled used to haul

logs. Syn. Two-sled, wagon sled.

Long butt. See Butt-off.

Lot. An area of standing timber, usually a few acres.

Lumbering. The business of cutting timber in the

woods, moving it to a mill, and manufacturing it

into lumber. In some parts of New England

lumbering is used to mean logging for pulpwood

operations as well.

Lumberjack. One who works at logging. Syn.

Timber beast, woodhick, logger, shanty man.

Lunch in. A noon meal served in the dining quarters

of the logging camp.

Lunch out. The noon meal carried to the workmen

in the woods, either by themselves or by the cook's

assistant.

Market. A unit of measurement formerly used in

New York. A log 19 inches in diameter and 13

feet long. Syn. Adirondack standard.

Merchantable. That portion of a timber stand or of

a tree that can profitably be logged and marketed

under existing economic conditions.

Moccasins. Special wide runners for sleds used on

snow roads, consisting of a wide steel or wooden

shoe installed between the wooden runner and its

metal shoe.

Nick. See Undercut.

Nose. To round off the front end of a log in order

to make it skid more easily. Syn. Snipe.

Notch. To make an undercut in a tree preparatory

to felling it.

Overrun. The difference between the log scale of a

quantity of timber and the lumber scale of sawed

material cut therefrom, usually expressed as a

percent.

Peavy. A stout wooden lever used for rolling logs.

Similar to the cant hook, except that the tip is

fitted with a strong, sharp spike. See also Cant

hook.

Peeler. (1) Usually one who removes bark from

timber cut in the spring months when bark "slips."

See also Barker. (T) A log used in the manufacture

of rotary-cut veneer.

Paint. To coat the ends of a log with mud so defect

will be hidden from the sealer.

Pig tail. An iron device driven into trees or stumps

to support a wire or small rope.

Plug. To fill a hole in the end of a log with a wooden

plug to deceive sealer.

Pole tram road. A logging railroad, the rails of

which are wooden poles.

Pouch. A French term applied derisively by lumberjacks to woods workers who drift from camp to

camp. See also Camp inspector.

Prime logs. A log that is clean and free from defects.

Usually a minimum size is set for various products.

Syn. Veneer log.

Pulp hook. A curved steel hook with a wooden

cross handle, used as a one-hand tool in lifting

pulpwood bolts.

Pulp rack. Sides fastened to a truck to haul 4-foot

pulpwood.

Pulpwood. Raw material for a pulp mill. Usually

4-foot or 52-inch bolts in the Northeast.

Rag a wedge. To roughen a wooden wedge with an

ax or a steel wedge with a cold chisel to make it

hold better, especially in frozen timber.

Ram pike. A tree broken off by wind or ice, with a

splintered end on the portion left standing.

Rave. The piece of wood or iron that fastens the

cross beam to the runners of a logging sled.

Rick. A pile of cordwood, stave bolts, or other

material evenly ranked. The ends are usually held

in place by stakes or by stacking against a tree.

Rigging. The cables, blocks, and hooks used in

cable logging.

Ripper. A sturdy cart equipped with three or five

heavy curved teeth, pulled behind a tractor. Used

in road building to tear up impervious surfaces and

to remove rock, roots, old railroad ties, and the

like.

Rive. To split shingles or shakes from bolts.

Road breaker. A device for opening up winter

roads. May consist of short lengths of heavy

hardwood logs chained together to be dragged sideways over the road, or of a heavy topped softwood

tree dragged by its butt. The V-plow is also used

as a road breaker.

Road gang. The portion of a logging crew that

cuts logging roads and keeps them in repair.

Road monkey. One who keeps logging roads in

proper conaition. Syn. Chickadee.

Rock blade. A blade for the front of a bulldozer or

angledozer; it has scarifier teeth instead of a knifelike plate at the bottom. Used to push rock,

roots, and the like off a road surface, leaving the

smaller stones and earth in place.

Roll. (1) To roll logs in handling them on the

skidway or in loading. (2) A short steel-shod bar

used to hold the front end ofsled runners in position.

Roller. (1) A heavy (usually home-made) dcyicc

for compacting snow roads. Usually made of

hardwood, with a frame around the roller part,

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and a tongue to be attached to the source of power.

(2) A short billet of wood or steel used to move a

log lengthwise, as in a bucking chute.

Rolling bind. A logging chain or wire-rope choker

attached to a log in such a way that it will roll the

log over a root or other obstruction.

Rosser. (1) A person who peels logs, usually by

drawshaving, in such a way that they are left round

and smooth. (2) A machine that peels wood in

this way, usually by means of rotating knives.

Run. A narrow trail, cleared of brush and stumps,

down which logs are pulled by a power skidder.

Runner chain. A chain bound loosely around the

front runners of a logging sled to act as a brake.

Rutter. A form of plow for cutting ruts in a winter

logging road for the runners of the sleds.

Saddle. (1) A notch cut in the side of a log. (2)

The depression cut in a cross skid in a road to guide

the logs that pass over it.

Sampson. A pole-and-lever device used to push a

tree in felling, or to roll or start a heavy log in

skidding. Syn. Killig.

Sawing-down wedge. See Felling wedge.

Saw kerf. The width of the cut made by a saw.

Saw timber. Trees suitable for production of sawlogs. Timber that will make lumber.

Schoodic. A method of binding logs to the bunk

of a sled. A chain is passed around the log and

then around the sled bunk in the opposite direction.

It is usually held in place with a fid hook.

Scoot. A two-runner sled, without tongue or thills,

used to haul logs or bolts out of the woods. The

load is completely off the ground.

Selective logging. A method of cutting that takes

only selected trees from a stand. Usually applies

to cutting trees marked by a forester for removal

under a forest-management program.

Set block. A steel block used in setting the teeth

of a saw. The set block is used to back up the

tooth while it is hit with a hammer. Syn. Setting

anvil.

Set gage. See Spider.

Setting anvil. See Set block.

Shake. (1) A wood shingle made by splitting flat

strips from a bolt. (2) A crack or fissure in the

stem of a tree; usually caused by frost or excessive

bending in a strong wind. Shake usually follows

the annual rings, while checks are radial.

Shanty boss. See Camp foreman.

Shanty man. See Lumberjack.

Sheer skid. See Fender.

Short road. See Go-back road.

Show. See Chance.

Side winder. A tree knocked down unexpectedly

by the fall of another.

Six-by-six. A truck with six wheels, two in front

and four in back, with power applied to all of them.

Skid. (1) To drag logs on the ground, from the

stump to a skidway or landing. (2) A log or pole,

commonly used in pairs, on which logs are rolled

or piled. (3) One of a number of logs or poles

placed at intervals across a road for dragging logs

over; used especially on rough ground.

Skidding pan. A plate of heavy steel, rounded up

in front, and placed under the front ends of logs

being skidded to prevent the logs from àiggmg

into the ground. Used mostly in skidding with a

tractor.

Skidding tongs. Tongs used in skidding to grasp

a log.

Skid road. A trail or road cut through the woods

for skidding.

Skidway. A pair of skids, usually supported by a

cribwork of logs, on which logs are piled for

storage or loading.

Skyhook. A self-propelled cable-logging device.

It consists of a powered carriage suspended from a

pair of taut skyline cables. The operator rides in

the carriage, which can hoist logs from the ground

with its own power and carry them to either end

of the skyline.

Skyline. A taut cable suspended between spars and

serving as the track for an overhead carriage used

in cable skidding.

Slack-puller. A power-operated device used in cable

logging for pulling the slack out of the dragline

when the carriage has been run out to the desired

point on the skyline.

Slash. The debris left after logging or fire.

Slasher saw. A portable or semipermanent circular

saw used at a cutting-up plant. Syn. Blocking saw.

Slip grab. A pear-shaped link attached by a swivel

to a whiffletree or chain. Through it a chain runs

freely when the large end is down; but catches and

holds when the narrow end is down. Syn. Jew's

harp.

Slip hook. A rounded hook that will permit a

chain to run freely through it.

Sloop. A two-runner sled equipped with a tongue;

used to haul logs or bolts out of the woods. It is

similar to a scoot except for the tongue.

Sluiced horse. A horse that has been injured by

having a loaded sled run onto his heels as a result

of poor braking on down grades.

Snag. (1) A standing dead tree. (2) A sunken log

or a submerged stump.

Snake. See Skid.

Snipe. To round off the front end of a log in order

to make it skid more easily. Syn. Nose.

Sniper. One who snipes logs before they are skidded.

Snow a road. To cover bare spots in a logging road

with snow.

Snub. To check the speed of a loaded logging sled

descending a steep slope, usually by means of a

cable or rope (snub line) attached to the back of

the sled and played out from the top of the slope.

Snubber. (1) A special device, usually equipped

with drums and brakes, used for playing out a

snub line. (2) One who operates such a device.

Spar tree. A standing tree from which the limbs

and top have been removed to provide a spar for

cable logging. The spar is usually braced with

guy lines.

Spider. A small metal tool for testing the set in

the cutting teeth of a saw. Syn. Set gage.

Splicer. One who splices cables.

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spot. (1) To place a truck or trailer in position for

loading. (2) See Blaze.

Spreader. A piece of steel rail used to separate the

loading hooks of a crotch line.

Sprinkler. A tank from which water is sprinkled

over logging roads during freezing weather to ice

the surface. Syn. Ice wagon.

Spud. A tool for removing bark.

Spur. A branch logging road.

Stiff leg. A loader with a boom that does not swing.

Stock. The handle of a peavy or cant hook.

Straw boss. A subforeman in a logging camp.

Straw line. The small cable used in power skidding

to change the main skyline from one tail spar to

another.

Stumpage. (1) The value of timber as it stands in

the woods. (2) Standing timber.

Stump wood. On northern pulpwood operations

wood cut into short lengths and ricked at the

stump.

Sulky. A small logging arch equipped with wheels

instead of crawler tracks.

Swamp. To clear the ground of underbrush, fallen

trees, and other obstructions preparatory to constructing a logging road, landing, skid trail, or

even to felling and bucking.

Swamp hook. A large single hook on the end of a

chain used in handling logs, in skidding, and in

loading with a cross haul.

Sway bar. A strong bar or pole used to couple the

front and rear bunks of a two-sled.

Sweep. The natural bend in a log, generally applied

to long gentle bends.

Swell-butted. Greatly enlarged at the base. Syn.

Churn-butted, bottle-butted.

Tail down. In loading from a skidway, to roll the

logs down to a point on the skids where they can

easily be reached by the loading crew.

Tail tree. The tree to which the far end of powerskidding skyline is fastened.

Tank. See Sprinkler.

Timber beast. See Lumberjack.

Tightlining. A method of high-lead cable logging

in which the haul-back line supports the butt

rigging. By tightening the haul-back line the

logs can be lifted over obstructions.

Timbershave. A special kind of drawshave for

removing bark from round wood. It has a curved

blade with handles extending straight out from

each end.

Toe ring. The heavy ring or ferrule on the end of a

cant hook.

Tombstone. A slab torn from a falling tree, and

left standing on the stump. Syn. Barber chair.

Tongs. A device similar to heavy ice tongs, used

to fasten cable to logs.

Top bind chains. Chains used to secure an upper

tier to a load of logs after the capacity of the regular

binding chains has been filled.

Top load. One or two extra tiers of logs placed on

top of the load after the difficult part of the haul

road has been negotiated.

Top loader. That member of a loading crew who

stands on top of the load and places the logs.

Tote. To haul supplies to a logging camp.

Tote road. The road used for hauling supplies to a

logging camp.

Tractor. (1) A powered vehicle for off-the-road

hauling. May be mounted either on crawler tracks

or wheels. (2) A short-wheelbase truck for pulling

trailers on the highway.

Tractor-grader. A wheeled tractor, built high like

a straddle truck, with a grader blade mounted

between the wheels. The blade can be raised and

lowered, tilted forward and back, and set at various

angles for grading roadways, cutting ditches and

banks, and the like.

Trailbuilder. See Angledozer.

Trail of logs. A number of logs hooked end-to-end

for skidding. Syn. Turn.

Travois. A single yarding sled with a pole rack

mounted on its bunk, the end of the rack trailing

behind on the ground. Used principally for hauling pulpwood or other short bolts.

Tramway. A light or temporary railroad for the

transportation of logs, often with wooden rails.

Trolley. A traveling block used on a skyline in

cable logging. Syn. Carriage, bicycle.

Tump line. A leather head strap about 4 inches

wide sewed or buckled to two narrower straps.

Used to carry a heavy pack.

Turkey. A bag used by loggers to carry clothing and

other personal belongings.

Turn. (1) A single trip (landing to stump and return) made by a team, tractor, or other skidding

device. (2) Two or more logs fastened end-to-end

for skidding.

Turn-around. A cleared area in which a truck,

wagon, tractor and arch, or other skidding device

can be turned around.

Turn-out. A wide place in a one-way road on which

vehicles can pass.

Twitch. To skid logs on the ground without the

aid of an anti-friction device (northern New

England).

Two-sled. Two logging sleds hitched one behind

the other and used for hauling logs or short wood.

The load is carried completely off the ground.

Undercut. In felling, a notch made in a standing

tree to guide the direction in which it will fall.

Undercutter. A skilled woodsman who makes the

notches in trees to be felled.

Van. The small store in a logging camp in which

clothing, tobacco, and medicine are kept to supply

the crew. A portable van is also used, particularly

on long river drives.

V-plow. A plow made of two poles fastened together

at one end and kept apart at the other by a spreader.

Used in breaking out and smoothing winter roads.

Wannigan. See Van.

Water buck. One whose job is to carry water for a

crew of men or to supply water used by an engine

or other piece of equipment.

Weaver's bind. A method for attaching logs to the

bunk of a yarding sled with chains.

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Whistle puiik. Signalman on a cable-logging job.

Also, bulldozer operator's assistant.

Widow maker. A broken limb hanging loose in

the top of a tree, or a limb or piece of limb knocked

loose by a falling tree.

Winch. A steel spool connected with a source of

power (may be hand power) and used for reeling

or unreeling cable. Used on tractors and trucks for

skidding and loading logs, and as an independent

unit for cable skidding and crane loading.

Windfall. (1) A tree knocked down by the wind.

(2) An area of such trees. Syn. Blowdown.

Wood butcher. Camp carpenter.

Woodpecker. A poor chopper. Syn. Beaver.

Wrapper chain. See Binding chain.

Yard (noun). Place where logs are accumulated.

Syn. Landing.

Yard (verb). To accumulate logs or bolts in a yard

or at a skidway.

Yarded wood. On northern pulpwood operations

wood hauled or skidded to a yard in tree lengths,

and bucked up there into pulpwood lengths.

Yarding donkey. A machine, usually mounted on

a heavy sled, used in yarding logs by drum and

cable. May be powered by steam, gasoline, or

diesel engine.

Yarding sled. See Dray.

Yard tender. See Decker.

Yoke. The heavy U-shaped part of a block by

which it is attached to a tree, stump, or other object.

o

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