No. 09-50296

IN THE

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

Plaintiff-Appellant,

v.

PIERCE O’DONNELL,

Defendant-Appellee.

 

GOVERNMENT’S OPENING BRIEF

APPEAL FROM

THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE CENTRAL DISTRICT OF CALIFORNIA

 

GEORGE S. CARDONA

Acting United States Attorney

CHRISTINE C. EWELL

Assistant United States Attorney

Chief, Criminal Division

ERIK M. SILBER

Assistant United States Attorney

Criminal Appeals Section

 1200 United States Courthouse

 312 North Spring Street

 Los Angeles, California 90012

 Telephone: (213) 894-2231

 Facsimile: (213) 894-8513

 E-mail: Erik.Silber@usdoj.gov

Attorneys for Plaintiff-Appellant

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

I ISSUE PRESENTED......................1

II STATEMENT OF THE CASE. ..................2

A. NATURE OF CASE, COURSE OF PROCEEDINGS, AND

DISPOSITION......................2

B. JURISDICTION, TIMELINESS, AND BAIL STATUS.. .....2

C. STATEMENT OF FACTS. .................2

1. Indictment....................2

2. Motion to Dismiss. ...............4

3. Hearing.....................6

4. Order......................9

III HISTORY OF FECA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

IV SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

V ARGUMENT.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

A. STANDARD OF REVIEW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

B. SECTION 441f PROHIBITS DEFENDANT’S CONDUCT. . . . . 19

1. Defendant Violated the Plain Wording of

Section 441f.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

a. Section 441f prohibits defendant from

contributing $26,000 in the names of 13

other people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

b. Had Congress intended to limit Section

441f only to contributions in a false

name, it would have done so expressly.. . 21

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c. Given the broad and unambiguous wording

of Section 441f, the absence of the

words “conduit” or “indirect” is not

meaningful. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2. Applying the Plain Wording of Section 441f

to Defendant’s Conduct is Consistent with

the Structure and Purpose of FECA. . . . . . . 28

3. The FEC Has Recognized that Section 441f

Applies Here and Congress Has Demonstrated

its Agreement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4. Courts Have Consistently Recognized that

Section 441f Applies Here. . . . . . . . . . . 34

C. THE DISTRICT COURT’S RATIONALES FOR READING A

NONTEXTUAL LIMIT INTO THE PLAIN WORDING OF

SECTION 441f LACK MERIT.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

1. Context Does Not Limit the Wording of Section

441f.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

a. Congress’ use of the terms “indirectly”

and “conduit” in other provisions does

not support reading a limitation into

Section 441f. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

b. Applying the plain wording of Section

441f neither conflicts with Section

441a(a)(8) nor renders the words

“indirectly” or “conduit” in that

Section superfluous.. . . . . . . . . . . 43

2. The Legislative History Does Not Support the

Nontextual Limitation that the Court Read

into Section 441f. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

a. The 1971 legislative history demonstrates

that Congress did not intend to allow

contributors to hide their identities.. . 47

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b. Post-1971 legislative history confirms

that Congress intended for Section 441f

to apply here.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3. Were there Ambiguity, Deference to the FEC,

Rather than Lenity, Would Control. . . . . . . 55

VI CONCLUSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

STATEMENT OF RELATED CASES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

APPENDIX (2 U.S.C. § 441f and 2 U.S.C. § 441a(a)(8))

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PAGE(s)

CASES

Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons,

128 S. Ct. 831 (2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Almendarez-Torres v. United States,

523 U.S. 224 (1998). .............. 27, 41, 55

Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter,

515 U.S. 687 (1995). ................ 56, 57

Barnhart v. Peabody Coal Co.,

537 U.S. 149 (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Barnhart v. Sigmon Coal Co.,

534 U.S. 438 (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Bartnicki v. Vopper,

532 U.S. 514 (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Beck v. Prupis,

529 U.S. 494 (2000). ................ 24, 30

Brogan v. United States,

522 U.S. 398 (1998). ................ 22, 26

Buckley v. Valeo,

424 U.S. 1 (1976) (per curiam).. .......... passim

Callejas v. McMahon,

750 F.2d 729 (9th Cir. 1985).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council,

467 U.S. 837 (1984). .............. 55, 56, 57

City of Columbus v. Ours Garage and Wrecker Service, Inc.,

536 U.S. 424 (2002). ................ 40, 42

Clay v. United States,

537 U.S. 522 (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

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CASES

Commodity Futures Trading Comm’n v. Schor,

478 U.S. 833 (1986). ................ 32, 33

Crandon v. United States,

494 U.S. 152 (1990). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Demarest v. Manspeaker,

498 U.S. 184 (1991). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Duncan v. Walker,

533 U.S. 167 (2001). ................ 39, 40

FEC v. Democratic Senatorial Campaign Comm.,

454 U.S. 27 (1981).. ................ 32, 56

FEC v. Furgatch,

869 F.2d 1256 (9th Cir. 1989). ........... 56, 57

FEC v. Ted Haley Congressional Comm.,

852 F.2d 1111 (9th Cir. 1988). ........... 32, 56

FEC v. Weinsten,

462 F. Supp. 243 (S.D.N.Y. 1978).. ......... 20, 37

Fieger v. Gonzales,

2007 WL 2351006 (E.D. Mich. Aug. 15, 2007),

aff’d on other grounds,

542 F.3d 1111 (6th Cir. 2008). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Field v. Mans,

516 U.S. 59 (1995).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Florida Dep’t of Revenue v. Piccadilly Cafeterias, Inc.,

128 S. Ct. 2326 (2008).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Garcia v. United States,

469 U.S. 70 (1984).. ................ 50, 52

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CASES

Gomez-Perez v. Potter,

128 S. Ct. 1931 (2008).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Government of Guam ex rel. Guam Econ. Dev. Auth. v. United

States, 179 F.3d 630 (9th Cir. 1999).. . . . . . . . . . 25

Lewis v. United States,

445 U.S. 55 (1980).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Lorillard v. Pons,

434 U.S. 575 (1978). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Maine v. Thiboutot,

448 U.S. 1 (1980). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Mariani v. United States,

80 F. Supp. 2d 352 (M.D. Pa. 1999).. ........ passim

Mariani v. United States,

212 F.3d 761 (3d Cir. 2000) (en banc). ....... passim

McConnell v. FEC,

251 F. Supp. 2d 176 (D.D.C. 2003) (per curiam),

aff’d in part, rev’d in part,

McConnell v. FEC, 540 U.S. 93 (2003).. . . . . . . . . . 34

McConnell v. FEC,

540 U.S. 93 (2003).. .............. 11, 17, 34

Mujahid v. Daniels,

413 F.3d 991 (9th Cir. 2005).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

New York State Conference v. Travelers Ins. Co.,

514 U.S. 645 (1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Pacheco-Camacho v. Hood,

272 F.3d 1266 (9th Cir. 2001). ........... 19, 56

Pavelic & LeFlore v. Marvel Entertainment Group,

493 U.S. 120 (1989). ................ 24, 25

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CASES

Pennsylvania Dep’t of Corrections v. Yeskey,

524 U.S. 206 (1998). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Royal Foods Co., Inc. v. RJR Holdings, Inc.,

252 F.3d 1102 (9th Cir. 2001). ........... 25, 26

Russello v. United States,

464 U.S. 16 (1983).. ................ passim

Smith v. United States,

508 U.S. 223 (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

United States v. 103 Elec. Gambling Devices,

223 F.3d 1091 (9th Cir. 2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

United States v. Bond,

552 F.3d 1092 (9th Cir. 2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

United States v. Bowen,

172 F.3d 682 (9th Cir. 1999).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

United States v. Curran,

1993 WL 137459 (E.D. Pa. April 28, 1993),

rev’d on other grounds,

United States v. Curran,

20 F.3d 560 (3d Cir. 1994).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

United States v. Curran,

20 F.3d 560 (3d Cir. 1994).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

United States v. Demerritt,

196 F.3d 138 (2d Cir. 1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

United States v. Douglas,

974 F.2d 1046 (9th Cir. 1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

United States v. Fuller,

531 F.3d 1020 (9th Cir. 2008),

cert. denied, 129 S. Ct. 1603 (2009).. ....... 19, 42

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CASES

United States v. Goland,

897 F.2d 405 (9th Cir. 1990).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

United States v. Goland,

903 F.2d 1247 (9th Cir. 1990). ........... passim

United States v. Goland,

959 F.2d 1449 (9th Cir. 1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

United States v. Hayes,

129 S. Ct. 1079 (2009).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

United States v. Hsia,

24 F. Supp. 2d 33 (D.D.C. 1998),

rev’d on other grounds,

176 F.3d 517 (D.C. Cir. 1999). ........... 37, 45

United States v. Hsia,

176 F.3d 517 (D.C. Cir. 1999). ........... 30, 55

United States v. Hsu,

2009 WL 2495794 (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 10, 2009).. . . . . . . . 37

United States v. Iverson,

162 F.3d 1015 (9th Cir. 1998). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

United States v. Jensen,

93 F.3d 667 (9th Cir. 1996). ...............3

United States v. Kanchanalak,

192 F.3d 1037 (D.C. Cir. 1999).. .......... 36, 57

United States v. Miqbel,

444 F.3d 1173 (9th Cir. 2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

United States v. Monsanto,

491 U.S. 600 (1989). ................ 25, 26

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CASES

United States v. Serafini,

233 F.3d 758 (3d Cir. 2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

United States v. Sun-Diamond Growers,

138 F.3d 961 (D.C. Cir. 1998),

aff’d on other grounds,

526 U.S. 398 (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 36

United States v. Youssef,

547 F.3d 1090 (9th Cir. 2008) (per curiam).. . . . . . . 41

Wilderness Society v. United States Fish & Wildlife Serv.,

353 F.3d 1051 (9th Cir. 2003) (en banc),

as amended, 360 F.3d 1374 (2004).. ......... 23, 28

Williams v. Babbitt,

115 F.3d 657 (9th Cir. 1997).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

STATUTES (ENACTED)

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971

Pub. Law 92-225, 86 Stat. 3-20 (1972). . . . . . . . . . 11

86 Stat. 9...................... 12, 39

86 Stat. 10..................... 12, 39

86 Stat. 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1971 FECA § 301(e).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

1971 FECA § 302(c)(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1971 FECA § 302(c)(2). ............... 12, 29

1971 FECA § 304(b)(2). ............... 12, 29

1971 FECA § 310................... 13, 30

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STATUTES (ENACTED)

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971

1971 FECA § 311. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1971 FECA § 405. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1971 FECA § 406. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974

Pub. Law 93-443, 88 Stat. 1263-1304 (1974).. . . . . . . 13

1974 FECA § 101(a).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1974 FECA § 101(f)(1). ............... 13, 23

1974 FECA § 101(f)(4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1976

Pub. Law 94-283, 90 Stat. 475-502 (1976).. . . . . . . . 14

1976 FECA § 101(a)(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1976 FECA § 320. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1976 FECA § 325. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1976 FECA § 329. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1979

Pub. Law 96-187, 93 Stat. 1354 (1980). . . . . . . . . . 15

1976 FECA § 309. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1976 FECA § 315. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1976 FECA § 320................... 15, 34

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STATUTES (ENACTED)

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002

Pub. Law 107-155, 116 Stat. 108, § 315 (2002). . . . passim

STATUTES (CODIFIED)

Pre-Federal Election Campaign Act

18 U.S.C. § 608 (1970).. .............. 11, 12

18 U.S.C. § 610 (1970).. ............ 31, 49, 51

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971

2 U.S.C. § 431(h) (1972).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2 U.S.C. § 432(c)(1) (1972). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 U.S.C. § 432(c)(2) (1972). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 U.S.C. § 434(b)(2) (1972). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 U.S.C. § 440 (1972). ............... passim

2 U.S.C. § 441 (1972). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974

18 U.S.C. § 608 (1974).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

18 U.S.C. § 608(b)(6) (1974).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

18 U.S.C. § 614 (1974).. ............ 13, 14, 36

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1976

2 U.S.C. § 438(c) (1976).. ........... 15, 17, 32

2 U.S.C. § 441(j) (1976).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

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STATUTES (CODIFIED)

Current Statutes

2 U.S.C. § 431(8)(A)(i). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 U.S.C. § 434(b)(3).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2 U.S.C. § 437c(b)(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

2 U.S.C. § 437g(d).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 15

2 U.S.C. § 437g(d)(1)(D).. ............. 15, 26

2 U.S.C. § 437h......................5

2 U.S.C. § 438(a)(8).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

2 U.S.C. § 441a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 9

2 U.S.C. § 441a(a)(1)(A).. ........... 31, 44, 46

2 U.S.C. § 441a(a)(8). ............... passim

2 U.S.C. § 441b. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 39

2 U.S.C. § 441b(a).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2 U.S.C. § 441b(b)(2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2 U.S.C. § 441c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 39

2 U.S.C. § 441e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 8, 39

2 U.S.C. § 441f................... passim

2 U.S.C. § 441g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

18 U.S.C. § 2(b)......................2

18 U.S.C. § 371......................3

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STATUTES (CODIFIED)

18 U.S.C. § 1001.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 22

18 U.S.C. § 3231......................2

18 U.S.C. § 3731......................2

ADMINISTRATIVE REGULATIONS AND MATERIALS

11 C.F.R. § 110.4(b)(2)(i). ............... passim

11 C.F.R. § 110.4(b)(2)(ii).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

11 C.F.R. § 110.6(b)(2).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

11 C.F.R. § 110.6(c). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

General Accounting Office, Manual of Regulations and

Instructions, § 19.1 (1972). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

54 Fed. Reg. 34,098 (1989). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

54 Fed. Reg. 34,106 (1989). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Advisory Opinion 1986-41. ................ 30, 32

Advisory Opinion 1995-19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Advisory Opinion 1996-33. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971

S. Rep. No. 92-229 (1971). ........... 11, 47, 48

117 Cong. Rec. 26,111 (1971) (Sen. Mathias). . . . . . . 49

117 Cong. Rec. 29,004 (1971) (Sen. Brooke).. . . . . . . 48

117 Cong. Rec. 29,290 (1971) (Sen. Mathias). . . . . . . 51

117 Cong. Rec. 29,291 (1971) (Sen. Mathias). . . . . . . 51

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LEGISLATIVE HISTORY

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971

117 Cong. Rec. 29,292 (1971) (Sen. Scott). ..... 51, 52

117 Cong. Rec. 29,295 (1971) (Sen. Scott). . . . 10, 51, 52

117 Cong. Rec. 29,306 (1971) (Sen. Humphrey).. . . . . . 49

117 Cong. Rec. 29,311 (1971) (Sen. Pastore). . . . . . . 47

117 Cong. Rec. 30,066 (1971) (Sen. Hart).. . . . . . . . 47

117 Cong. Rec. 30,071 (1971) (Sen. Mansfield). . . . . . 49

117 Cong. Rec. 30,073 (1971) (Sen. Dole).. . . . . . . . 48

117 Cong. Rec. 30,083 (1971) (Sen. Church).. . . . . . . 48

117 Cong. Rec. 43,379 (1971) (Rep. Hansen).. .... 49, 51

117 Cong. Rec. 43,380 (1971) (Rep. Hansen).. . . . . . . 51

117 Cong. Rec. 43,381 (1971) (Rep. Hansen).. .... 10, 50

117 Cong. Rec. 43,381 (1971) (Rep. Hays).. . . . 10, 49, 50

117 Cong. Rec. 43,389 (1971) (Rep. Steiger). . . . . . . 51

117 Cong. Rec. 43,390 (1971) (Rep. Steiger). . . . . . . 51

118 Cong. Rec. 326 (1972) (Rep. Keith).. ...... 47, 48

118 Cong. Rec. 327 (1972) (Rep. Anderson). . . . . . . . 48

118 Cong. Rec. 332 (1972) (Rep. Anderson). . . . . . . . 29

118 Cong. Rec. 333 (1972) (Rep. Anderson). . . . . . . . 29

Signing Statement, President Nixon.. . . . . . . . . . . 48

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LEGISLATIVE HISTORY

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974

S. Rep. No. 93-689 (1974). ............. 12, 28

H.R. Rep. No. 93-1239 (1974).. ........... 46, 47

H.R. Rep. No. 93-1239 (1974) (Rep. Frenzel). . . . . . . 45

120 Cong. Rec. 4,710 (1974) (Sen. Cook). ...... 45, 46

Federal Election Campaign Act of 1976

122 Cong. Rec. 2,606 (1976) (Rep. Mathis). . . . . . . . 53

122 Cong. Rec. 3,704 (1976) (Sen. Schweiker).. . . . . . 29

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002

H.R. Rep. No. 107-131 (2001).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

147 Cong. Rec. 3,187 (2001) (Sen. Bond). .... 15, 33, 54

Other

119 Cong. Rec. 26,595 (1973) (Sen. Clark). . . . . . . . 45

Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties

and Possible Violations of Law,

H.R. Rep. No. 105-829 (1998).. ........... 15, 53

Investigation of Illegal or Improper Activities in

Connection with 1996 Federal Election Campaigns,

S. Rep. No. 105-167 (1998).. .......... 15, 53, 54

H.R. Rep. No. 105-797 (1998).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

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LAW REVIEW ARTICLES AND PUBLICATIONS

Comment, Undisclosed Earmarking: Violation of the Federal

Election Campaign Act of 1971, 10 Harv. J. on Legis.

175 (1973).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Craig C. Donsanto & Nancy Simmons, Federal Prosecution

of Election Offenses (7th ed. 2007). ...... 27, 38, 44

MISCELLANEOUS

http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/09/us/politics/09edwards.html

(last visited Sept. 4, 2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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No. 09-50296

IN THE

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

Plaintiff-Appellant,

v.

PIERCE O’DONNELL,

Defendant-Appellee.

 

GOVERNMENT’S OPENING BRIEF

I

ISSUE PRESENTED

Whether the district court erred by holding that the

prohibition that “[n]o person shall make a contribution in the

name of another person,” 2 U.S.C. § 441f, did not apply where

defendant solicited others to purportedly contribute in their

names to a presidential candidate, with defendant actually

providing them the money (by reimbursement or advancement),

resulting in defendant secretly contributing $26,000 in the names

of 13 other people.

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“CR” refers to the clerk’s record and is followed by the 1

docket number. “GER” refers to the government’s excerpts of

record and is followed by the page number.

2

II

STATEMENT OF THE CASE

A. NATURE OF CASE, COURSE OF PROCEEDINGS, AND DISPOSITION

On July 24, 2008, the grand jury charged defendant Pierce

O’Donnell (“defendant”) in a three-count indictment. (CR 1). 1

Defendant moved to dismiss. (CR 20). After briefing and

argument (CR 30-31, 53, 56, 60), on June 8, 2009, the district

court (the Honorable S. James Otero) dismissed the two counts

involving 2 U.S.C. § 441f (CR 61). The government appeals,

arguing that the plain wording of Section 441f, the purpose of

the Federal Election Campaign Act (“FECA”), a Federal Election

Commission (“FEC”) regulation, and precedent demonstrate that

Section 441f prohibits defendant’s conduct.

B. JURISDICTION, TIMELINESS, AND BAIL STATUS

The district court had jurisdiction under 18 U.S.C. § 3231. 

This Court has jurisdiction under 18 U.S.C. § 3731. The

government filed a timely notice of appeal on June 15, 2009. (CR

70). Defendant is not in custody.

C. STATEMENT OF FACTS

1. Indictment

The indictment alleges that defendant and a co-conspirator

solicited others to purportedly contribute to a presidential

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A motion to dismiss is generally decided on the facts 2

alleged in the indictment, presuming those facts are true. 

United States v. Jensen, 93 F.3d 667, 669 (9th Cir. 1996). 

Although such facts are sufficient here, one of the motions in

limine provides context by explaining the evidence the government

expected to prove at trial. (GER 128-40). Defendant is an

attorney and was a named-partner in O’Donnell & Shaeffer. (GER

131). He agreed to raise $50,000 by March 31, 2003, for thenSenator John Edwards’ presidential campaign. (GER 131, 158). 

Defendant personally contributed the maximum amount ($2,000) and

attempted to raise the rest legitimately but was unable to do so. 

(Id.). Shortly before the deadline, to make up the difference,

defendant asked his secretary to find people who submit

contributions in their names if defendant reimbursed or advanced

them the money. (GER 131). Defendant similarly personally

solicited two sisters and a brother-in-law, promising to

reimburse them. (GER 132). From March 27-31, 13 people

purported to contribute $2,000 in their names with defendant

actually providing the $26,000. (GER 18, 132-33).

3

candidate, with defendant advancing or reimbursing them the

money. (GER 15-18). From March 27-31, 2003, at defendant’s and

his co-conspirator’s direction, 13 people purported to contribute

$2,000 in their names with defendant actually providing the

$26,000. (GER 18). Defendant and his co-conspirator collected

and provided the money to the candidate. (GER 16). 2

Based on this conduct, the grand jury charged defendant with

conspiring to contribute in the names of others, 18 U.S.C. § 371

(count one); contributing in the names of others, 2 U.S.C. 

§ 441f, 18 U.S.C. § 2(b), and doing so knowingly, willfully, and

in amounts exceeding $10,000, 2 U.S.C. § 437g(d) (felony) (count

two); and causing the candidate’s committee to make false

statements to the FEC by reporting others as the source of

contributions, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1001, 2(b) (count three). (GER 15-

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Defendant also moved to dismiss count three, arguing, in 3

part, that the statements were true. (GER 30). The court

disagreed (GER 8-11) but declined to stay trial pending this

appeal, so the government obtained dismissal of that count

without prejudice (CR 84).

4

19).

2. Motion to Dismiss

Defendant moved to dismiss counts one and two, arguing 2 3

U.S.C. § 441f did not apply. (GER 20-83). That section states:

No person shall make a contribution in the name of

another person or knowingly permit his name to be used

to effect such a contribution, and no person shall

knowingly accept a contribution made by one person in

the name of another person.

According to defendant, Section 441f “only prohibits a person

from making a contribution and providing a false name; it does

not proscribe reimbursing a contribution made by another” using a

“true name.” (GER 33). Defendant noted that Congress used

“indirect” in other provisions (2 U.S.C. §§ 441a, 441b, 441c,

441e), but not Section 441f, and highlighted Section 441a(a)(8),

which governs, in part, individual contribution limits:

For purposes of the limitations imposed by this

section, all contributions made by a person, either

directly or indirectly, on behalf of a particular

candidate, including contributions which are in any way

earmarked or otherwise directed through an intermediary

or conduit to such candidate, shall be treated as

contributions from such person to such candidate. The

intermediary or conduit shall report the original

source and the intended recipient of such contribution

to the Commission and to the intended recipient.

Defendant argued interpreting Section 441f to apply here would

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Defendant also suggested that Section 441f was vague and 4

violated the First Amendment. (GER 49-53). The court did not

address these issues in its order, although it stated at argument

that precedent barred the First Amendment claim. (GER 144). The

court also did not certify these issues for initial hearing en

banc. 2 U.S.C. § 437h.

The government’s wording in its opposition could have been 5

more precise as, at times, the government described defendant as

“essentially” and “basically” contributing in others people’s

names. (GER 93, 98-99). Defendant pounced on this wording,

arguing a statute prohibits only “conduct which it expressly

prohibits, and not other conduct that is ‘essentially’ or

‘basically’ like that which is prohibited.” (GER 120). At

argument, the government clarified “[i]t isn’t essentially doing

it or basically doing it . . . but it’s doing it.” (GER 175). 

Because of the government’s clarification and because,

regardless, this Court reviews the issue here de novo, the

government’s imprecise wording is irrelevant.

5

render the term “conduit” in Section 441a(a)(8) superfluous. 

(GER 44-45). Defendant also relied on legislative history (not

about Section 441f) and the rule of lenity. (GER 45-50).4

In response, the government argued that Section 441f was not

limited to contributions in a false name: “While such conduct

would obviously constitute a violation of § 441f, defendant’s

interpretation is too narrow” (GER 91) and “contradicts the broad

language of the statute” (GER 99). The government argued that 5

such a limit was inconsistent with Congress increasing Section

441f’s penalties in 2002 and calling the new provision,

“[i]ncrease in penalties imposed for violations of conduit

contribution ban.” (GER 92 n.3). The government also noted that

this Court had recognized that Section 441f applied to conduit

contributions, United States v. Goland, 903 F.2d 1247 (9th Cir.

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6

1990), as had other circuits, Mariani v. United States, 212 F.3d

761 (3d Cir. 2000) (en banc); United States v. Sun-Diamond

Growers, 138 F.3d 961 (D.C. Cir. 1998), aff’d on other grounds,

526 U.S. 398 (1999), and the FEC had a regulation, 11 C.F.R. 

§ 110.4(b)(2)(i), and advisory opinions reaching the same

conclusion. (GER 91-92, 96).

In response to defendant’s contextual arguments, the

government noted that Sections 441a(a)(8) and 441f had different

purposes, meaning “the absence of the term ‘conduit’ or the

phrase ‘indirectly or directly’” did not prevent “§ 441f from

applying.” (GER 95). The government finally argued the lack of

grievous ambiguity meant lenity did not apply. (GER 97-99).

In his reply, defendant noted that Section 441f

“specifically does not include ‘indirect’ contributions” and

reiterated his previous contextual arguments. (GER 120, 123-24). 

Defendant also asserted that the statements in the cases cited

were dicta, the FEC was entitled to no deference in a criminal

case and, regardless, the FEC’s interpretation did not trump the

wording of the statute. (GER 121-22 & n.6).

3. Hearing

At argument, the district court began by citing Goland and

the rationale for FECA discussed there, namely, “to provide the

electorate with information as to where campaign money comes from

to aid voters in evaluating those who seek office and to deter

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7

corruption.” (GER 146). The court asked defendant: “[D]oesn’t

it logically follow that 441[f] would include both direct and

indirect contributions?” (Id.). The court further stated, if a

purpose of FECA “is to provide the electorate with information as

to where campaign money comes from, a conduit contribution does

not.” (GER 149). Defendant did not disagree with Goland’s

statement about FECA’s rationale and agreed that Section 441f’s

purpose was “so that the public will know where money is coming

from when someone makes a contribution.” (GER 147-48). 

Defendant argued, however, that Congress in Section 441a(a)(8)

chose not to ban conduit contributions and Congress’ rationale in

enacting Sections 441a(a)(8) and 441f “separately [was] to allow

conduit contributions” as long as they did not exceed the

contribution limit of $2,000 and the conduit provided the name of

the source of the money. (GER 148-50). Defendant also

reiterated that Goland’s statement that Section 441f applied to

conduit contributions was dictum. (GER 151-52).

The government began by noting that, in 1971, Congress chose

not to impose individual contribution limits but, instead, sought

disclosure of the source of campaign funds. (GER 155-57). “By

using the conduits, . . . [defendant] violated what the act was

trying to prohibit back then, which was letting the electorate

know who is behind somebody’s candidacy.” (GER 155). In

addition to Section 441f “logically encompass[ing]” defendant’s

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Congress adopted the predecessor to Section 441f in 1971, 6

and the predecessor to Section 441a(a)(8) in 1974.

8

conduct, the government emphasized that “clearly the wording in

the statute expressly encompasse[d]” it. (GER 158). The

government also noted that this Court in Goland “didn’t seem to

have a problem recognizing” that Section 441f prohibited this

conduct and other courts had done the “same thing.” (GER 158-

59). The government finally highlighted Congress’ 2002 increase

in penalties for Section 441f, entitled: “Increase in penalties

for violation of conduit contribution ban.” (GER 159).

The court then questioned whether applying Section 441f here

conflicted with Section 441a(a)(8), which “seemingly allows for

indirect contributions.” (GER 161). The government noted that

Congress passed Section 441a(a)(8) after Section 441f, said “I 6

do see the ambiguity that the Court’s pointing to,” but noted

that Sections 441a(a)(8) and 441f had different purposes and were

not irreconcilable. (GER 161-64; see also GER 164-66 (similar as

to “indirectly” in § 441e)). The court asked why other

provisions mentioned “indirect” and “conduit” if Section 441f

prohibited such conduct; the government responded, “I don’t have

an answer,” but emphasized that Section 441f “has very clear,

simple language” prohibiting defendant’s conduct. (GER 166-67). 

The government also noted that the provisions were passed at

different times, and Section 441f focused on identity whereas the

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During argument, the government stated there was no criminal 7

liability under Section 441f until a person contributed $2,000. 

(GER 164). After argument, the government noted that,

irrespective of criminal thresholds, “making a conduit

contribution is always prohibited,” regardless of amount. (GER

182-83). The government also analogized Sections 441a and 441f

to the drug and tax codes, noting the tax code requires including

drug sales in income, but such sales are still prohibited by

Title 21. (Id.). The court declined to rely on the analogy

because those provisions were in different Acts. (GER 4).

9

later provisions had “more precise” contribution wording. (GER

166-69). The government also argued that lenity did not apply. 7

(GER 169-70).

4. Order

Shortly after argument, the court dismissed counts one and

two of the indictment, relying on statutory context, legislative

history, and lenity. (GER 1-7). First, the court recognized

that other provisions in FECA used terms such as “indirect” and

“conduit,” and held: (1) “if Congress intended § 441f to apply to

indirect contributions, or contributions made through a conduit

or intermediary, it would have included explicit language, as it

did in other sections;” (2) if “§ 441f covered ‘conduit’ and

‘indirect’ contributions, there would be no need for Congress to

have explicitly included those terms in other sections” and,

thus, the government’s interpretation would render those terms

superfluous; and (3) “if § 441f covered indirect contributions

made through a conduit, that would mean such contributions were

never allowed[;] [h]owever, § 441a allows for indirect and

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10

conduit contributions,” and, thus, “reading § 441f to prohibit

such contributions is irreconcilable with § 441a’s express

authorization of them.” (GER 4). Accordingly, read in context,

“§ 441f is unambiguous and does not prohibit soliciting and

reimbursing contributions.” (GER 5).

Second, were there ambiguity, the legislative history

suggested “Congress did not intend § 441f to cover indirect

contributions.” (Id.). The court cited: (1) floor debate in

the House about whether a corporation reimbursing an employee

would violate a prohibition against corporations contributing;

Representative Orval Hansen stated it would “as an indirect

payment,” and Representative Wayne Hays agreed, 117 Cong. Rec.

43,381 (1971), which the court held showed “Congress used the

term ‘indirect’ to cover reimbursement;” and (2) floor debate in

the Senate (over an amendment to limit money candidates could

spend from their own wealth), during which Senator Hugh Scott

mentioned a “loophole” because a rich candidate could give

friends money to contribute back, 117 Cong. Rec. 29,295 (1971);

according to the court, “[i]f § 441f prohibited using one’s

friends as conduits,” “there would be no ‘loophole’.” (Id.).

Third, were there ambiguity after applying statutoryconstruction tools, the court held the rule of lenity required

interpreting Section 441f in defendant’s favor. (GER 5-6).

Finally, the court rejected the government’s arguments. 

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11

(GER 6-7). The court dismissed statements in Goland and Mariani

as dicta and noted the FEC’s regulation and advisory opinions

“may reflect the spirit of FECA,” but declined to defer to them

because “they do not accord with the plain language of § 441f

read in conjunction” with context and legislative history. 

(Id.).

III

HISTORY OF FECA

FECA is primarily the product of five Acts (1971, 1974,

1976, 1979, and 2002). Before FECA, Congress had passed

disclosure laws, 2 U.S.C. §§ 241-256 (1970), and contribution

limits, see 18 U.S.C. §§ 608-613 (1970). McConnell v. FEC, 540

U.S. 93, 115-17 (2003) (history). But the requirements in these

laws were more illusory than real. S. Rep. No. 92-229, at 114-15

(1971) (Sen. Prouty, Cooper, and Scott) (previous Acts were

probably “worse than having no law;” they were “full of

loopholes” and a “sham”); Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 62 (1976)

(per curiam) (disclosure provisions “widely circumvented”). 

Modern campaign finance began with the 1971 FECA, Pub. Law

92-225, 86 Stat. 3-20 (1972). Rather than limiting individual

contributions, that Act focused on disclosure so the electorate

could make an informed decision when voting. S. Rep. No. 92-229,

at 122 (committee “rejected placing a limitation on individual

contributions,” in part, because “[f]ull disclosure makes such a

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Title I addressed communications. 86 Stat. 3-8. Title II 8

amended pre-FECA campaign-contribution statutes, including

bars/limits on promises of employment (18 U.S.C. § 600),

expenditures (18 U.S.C. § 608), contributions by

corporations/unions/banks (18 U.S.C. § 610) and government

contractors (18 U.S.C. § 611). 86 Stat. 8-11. Title IV had

general provisions. 86 Stat. 19-20.

12

limitation unnecessary;”); S. Rep. No. 93-689, at 2 (1974) (“The

Act of 1971 was predicated upon the principle of public

disclosure”). The 1971 Act, thus, eliminated the previous

individual contribution limits in 18 U.S.C. § 608, 86 Stat. 9-10,

and repealed the previous disclosure law in its entirety, 1971

FECA § 405, replacing it with Title III, entitled “Disclosure of

Federal Campaign Funds,” 86 Stat. 11. That Title required 8

treasurers to: (1) “keep a detailed and exact account of . . .

all contributions made” and “the full name and mailing address

(occupation and the principal place of business, if any) of every

person making a contribution in excess of $10, and the date and

amount thereof,” 1971 FECA § 302(c)(1),(2), codified at 2 U.S.C. 

§§ 432(c)(1),(2) (1972); and (2) file reports “disclos[ing]” the

“full name and mailing address (occupation and the principal

place of business, if any) of each person who has made . . .

contributions . . . within the calendar year” aggregating “in

excess of $100, together with the amount and date,” id. 

§ 304(b)(2), codified at 2 U.S.C. § 434(b)(2) (1972). That Title

further included the provision at issue here: “No person shall

make a contribution in the name of another person, and no person

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Before the election, the General Accounting Office adopted 9

regulations, including § 19.1, which stated, in part: “[n]o

person shall make a contribution (as defined in Part 11 . . .) in

the name of another person or in any other name than his own.”

13

shall knowingly accept a contribution made by one person in the

name of another person.” Id. § 310, codified at 2 U.S.C. § 440

(1972). A violation of the Title III disclosure provisions was a

misdemeanor. Id. § 311, codified at 2 U.S.C. § 441 (1972).

The 1971 Act took effect in April 1972, id. § 406, shortly

before the 1972 election. In 1974, “[i]n the aftermath of 9

Watergate, Congress overhauled” the 1971 Act, Pub. Law 93-443, 88

Stat. 1263-1304 (1974). Goland, 903 F.2d at 1249. “The 1974

amendments set various limits on the size of individuals’

contributions to federal candidates, of expenditures by the

candidates themselves, and of independent expenditures,” and

created the FEC “to oversee and enforce the Act.” Id.

As part of the 1974 Act, Section 310 of the 1971 Act was

moved from 2 U.S.C. § 440 to 18 U.S.C. § 614. 1974 FECA 

§§ 101(f)(1),(4). Congress also amended the provision, adding a

prohibition on a person “knowingly permit[ing] his name to be

used to effect” a contribution in the name of another, and giving

Section 614 its own penalty provision. Id. § 101(f)(1).

Additionally, Congress amended 18 U.S.C. § 608 -- which preFECA had provided contribution limits -- once again limiting

contributions for individuals and adding a new subsection:

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14

For purposes of the limitations imposed by this

section, all contributions made by a person, either

directly or indirectly, on behalf of a particular

candidate, including contributions which are in any way

earmarked or otherwise directed through an intermediary

or conduit to such candidate, shall be treated as

contributions from such person to such candidate. The

intermediary or conduit shall report the original

source and the intended recipient of such contribution

to the Commission and to the intended recipient.

Id. § 101(a), codified at 18 U.S.C. § 608(b)(6) (1974). 

The constitutionality of this legislation “was immediately

challenged,” Goland, 903 F.2d at 1249, and, in Buckley, the Court

upheld the contribution limits and disclosure requirements, but

invalidated expenditure limits (and appointment of FEC members),

424 U.S. at 23-84, 118-44; Goland, 903 F.2d at 1249-51. After

Buckley, Congress amended FECA, Pub. Law 94-283, 90 Stat. 475-502

(1976), re-enacting 18 U.S.C. § 608(b)(6), which was moved to 2

U.S.C. § 441a(a)(8), and 18 U.S.C. § 614, which was moved to 2

U.S.C. § 441f. 1976 FECA §§ 320, 325. Congress also created a

new, unified penalty provision, id. § 329, codified at 2 U.S.C. 

§ 441(j) (1976), and modified appointment to the FEC to comply

with Buckley, id. § 101(a)(1).

The FEC then proposed its first regulations, including

examples of “contributions in the name of another” under Section

441f: (1) giving money “all or part of which was provided to the

contributor by another person (the true contributor) without

disclosing the source of money;” and (2) “making a contribution”

and “attributing as the source” “another person when in fact the

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15

contributor is the source,” 11 C.F.R. §§ 110.4(b)(2)(i),(ii). As

required, 2 U.S.C. § 438(c) (1976), the FEC submitted the

proposed regulations to the House, which did not disapprove,

allowing them to take effect in 1977.

Two years later, in 1979, Congress amended FECA,

redesignating the enacted FECA code sections for 2 U.S.C. §§ 441a

and 441f, changing the former to § 315 and latter to § 320. Pub.

Law 96-187, 93 Stat. 1354 (1980). Congress also moved the

penalty provision. Id. § 309, codified at 2 U.S.C. § 437g(d).

After the 1996 election, Congress itself investigated socalled conduit contributions (straw-donor contributions).

Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible

Violations of Law, H.R. Rep. No. 105-829 (1998); Investigation of

Illegal or Improper Activities in Connection with 1996 Federal

Election Campaigns, S. Rep. No. 105-167 (1998). Thereafter, in

2002, Congress passed the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act

(“BCRA”). In response to abuses in the 1996 election, Congress

increased the penalties for Section 441f. See 147 Cong. Rec.

3,187-3,188 (2001) (Sen. Bond) (noting it was a misdemeanor to

make “an illegal contribution through a conduit (2 U.S.C. 441f),”

detailing problems in the 1996 election, and noting “[m]y

amendment would make it a felony to knowingly make conduit

contributions’”). Congress entitled that new provision, 2 U.S.C.

§ 437g(d)(1)(D), “[i]ncrease in penalties imposed for violations

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16

of conduit contribution ban,” Pub. Law 107-155, 116 Stat. 108, 

§ 315 (2002); see also H.R. Rep. No. 107-131, at 10 (2001).

Defendant was charged with violating the wording of Section

441f as originally passed in 1971 under the felony-penalty

provision enacted in 2002.

IV

SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT

Section 441f provides: “No person shall make a contribution

in the name of another person.” Defendant violated the plain

wording of that provision by contributing $26,000 to a

presidential candidate in the names of 13 other people. The

district court nevertheless read a nontextual limitation into

Section 441f, holding it applied only to contributions in a false

name. Had Congress intended such a limit, however, it would have

expressly stated so. Nor did the court’s observation that

Section 441f failed to use the words “conduit” or “indirect”

support reading a limit into that provision. Section 441f

focuses on the name of the contributor, not manner of

contribution, and Congress’ choice simply to provide “[n]o person

shall make a contribution in the name of another person”

demonstrates breadth, not ambiguity or limitation.

When Congress passed FECA in 1971, the primary purpose was

disclosure. Applying the plain wording of Section 441f to

prohibit contributions in straw donors’ names is consistent with

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17

that purpose whereas the court’s limit is not. Moreover, when

Congress added contribution limits in 1974, Section 441f served

the added purpose of helping to detect violations of those

limits. Accepting defendant’s argument that he had no duty to

use his own name when contributing frustrates that purpose.

The FEC has recognized what Section 441f’s wording and

FECA’s purpose demonstrate, namely, that Section 441f applies

here. 11 C.F.R. § 110.4(b)(2)(i) (1977). Indeed, the FEC

submitted its proposed regulation so indicating to the House, 2

U.S.C. § 438(c) (1976), which did not disapprove. And, in 1979

and 2002, Congress amended FECA but did not modify Section 441f

to reject this regulation. To the contrary, in 2002, Congress

confirmed its agreement when adopting a new penalty provision for

Section 441f, entitled “[i]ncrease in penalties imposed for

violations of conduit contribution ban.” 116 Stat. 108.

Like the FEC, the Supreme Court, this Court, and other

courts have recognized that Section 441f applies here, see, e.g.,

McConnell, 540 U.S. at 231-32; Goland, 903 F.2d at 1251, and the

district court cited no decision to the contrary in the nearly 40

years since Congress passed FECA.

The district court nevertheless relied on statutory context,

particularly Section 441a(a)(8), to hold that Section 441f did

not apply. First, the court noted that Section 441a(a)(8)

includes the terms “conduit” and “indirectly,” but Section 441f

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18

does not. The two provisions, however, were passed in different

years, are worded differently, and have different focuses. 

Unlike Section 441a(a)(8), Section 441f does not focus on how the

contribution was made but, instead, solely on the name of the

contributor. That other provisions use different terms in

different contexts does not support reading nontextual limits

into Section 441f.

Second, the court held that reading Section 441f to

“prohibit” indirect/conduit contributions “is irreconcilable with

§ 441a’s express authorization” and would render the words

“conduit” and “indirectly” in that Section superfluous. (GER 4). 

But defendant did not violate Section 441f by contributing

indirectly or through a conduit. He, instead, violated Section

441f solely by contributing in the names of conduits (straw

donors). There is, thus, no conflict nor are the words “conduit”

or “indirectly” in Section 441a(a)(8) rendered superfluous by

applying Section 441f here.

The district court also emphasized two congressional floor

discussions involving amendments to non-disclosure provisions of

the 1971 Act. These statements do not support the weight placed

on them. Instead, the legislative history demonstrates that

Congress intended Section 441f to apply here.

Finally, the court held that the rule of lenity applied if

there were ambiguity. But (1) that rule controls only where

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19

there is grievous ambiguity, which is absent here; and 

(2) deference to an agency’s regulation applies before lenity,

Pacheco-Camacho v. Hood, 272 F.3d 1266 (9th Cir. 2001), meaning

that the court erred by not deferring to the FEC if there were

ambiguity.

V

ARGUMENT

A. STANDARD OF REVIEW

This Court reviews statutory interpretation de novo. United

States v. Fuller, 531 F.3d 1020, 1024 (9th Cir. 2008), cert.

denied, 129 S. Ct. 1603 (2009).

B. SECTION 441f PROHIBITS DEFENDANT’S CONDUCT

1. Defendant Violated the Plain Wording of Section 441f

a. Section 441f prohibits defendant from contributing

$26,000 in the names of 13 other people

Statutory interpretation begins with the wording of the

provision at issue and, thus, the district court erred by not

focusing initially on the wording of Section 441f itself. New

York State Conference v. Travelers Ins. Co., 514 U.S. 645, 655

(1995) (“[W]e begin as we do in any exercise of statutory

construction with the text of the provision in question.”). 

Section 441f provides:

No person shall make a contribution in the name of

another person or knowingly permit his name to be used

to effect such a contribution, and no person shall

knowingly accept a contribution made by one person in

the name of another person.

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For example, if defendant had given a friend a $1 bill to 10

forward to a candidate, it would not matter whether that friend

gave the candidate that specific $1 bill or a different $1 bill

from her wallet. Either way, defendant would have contributed

$1.

20

Defendant violated the plain wording of this provision --

and its prohibition that “[n]o person shall make a contribution

in the name of another person” -- by contributing $26,000 to a

presidential candidate in the names of 13 other people. FEC v.

Weinsten, 462 F. Supp. 243, 250 (S.D.N.Y. 1978) (rejecting

vagueness challenge to similar contributions; noting the “simple

words” of Section 441f and finding “no ambiguity in the statutory

language”).

First, defendant made a “contribution,” which is defined as

“any gift . . . of money . . . made by any person for the purpose

of influencing any election for Federal office,” 2 U.S.C. 

§ 431(8)(A)(i). As alleged in the indictment, defendant gave

$26,000 for the purpose of electing a presidential candidate. 

(GER 15-18). That defendant gave this money by soliciting others

and advancing or reimbursing them the money has no effect on

whether he made a “contribution” by giving “any gift . . . of

money” ($26,000) “for the purpose of influencing” an election. 

The definition of “contribution” focuses on what is a

“contribution,” not how it is made.10

Second, defendant made the contributions “in the name of

another person,” specifically in the names of 13 other people. 

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What defendant did is often called a conduit contribution, 11

but is more specifically a straw-donor contribution. That is so

because a “conduit” is simply a manner of transferring money and

does not necessarily involve using the conduit’s name or

exceeding the contribution limit. (Indeed, a within-limit

conduit contribution made in the name of the source of the money

does not generally violate FECA.) Here, however, defendant

recruited straw donors so he could use their names and

contribution limits (as he had already hit his own limit).

21

It is undisputed that neither defendant nor anyone else submitted

defendant’s name to the candidate with these contributions. 

Contrary to the district court’s suggestion, it is insignificant

that defendant advanced or reimbursed money to the 13 straw

donors using his own name. (GER 6-7). The names at issue in

Section 441f are those attached to the “contributions,” i.e., the

names given to the candidate.

Defendant, thus, contributed $26,000 in 13 other people’s

names and, in doing so, violated Section 441f’s straightforward

bar that “[n]o person shall make a contribution in the name of

another person.” (This mirrors the equally straightforward 11

Section 441f violation committed by the 13 straw donors who

“knowingly permit[ting] [their] name[s] to be used to effect such

a contribution.”)

b. Had Congress intended to limit Section 441f only

to contributions in a false name, it would have

done so expressly

The district court apparently limited Section 441f to

prohibiting only contributions made in a false name. (GER 3-4).

Section 441f, however, broadly states that “[n]o person shall

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22

make a contribution in the name of another person,” and does not

qualify or limit this prohibition based on the manner in which a

person contributes in the name of another. Had Congress intended

to limit Section 441f -- as the district court believed --

Congress would have expressly stated that limit in Section 441f. 

Brogan v. United States, 522 U.S. 398, 408 (1998) (“[c]ourts may

not create their own limitations on legislation;” declining to

read “exculpatory no” exception into 18 U.S.C. § 1001); Smith v.

United States, 508 U.S. 223, 229 (1993) (“Had Congress intended

the narrow construction petitioner urges, it could have so

indicated.”); Maine v. Thiboutot, 448 U.S. 1, 4 (1980) (statute

providing liability for denying rights “secured by the

Constitution and laws” not limited “to some subset of laws,”

“[g]iven that Congress attached no modifiers to the phrase”);

Lewis v. United States, 445 U.S. 55, 60 (1980) (statute applied

to any person who “has been convicted by a court;” “no modifier

is present, and nothing suggests any restriction on the scope of

the term ‘convicted’”); United States v. 103 Elec. Gambling

Devices, 223 F.3d 1091, 1097-98 (9th Cir. 2000).

Nor is the limitation that the court read into Section 441f

a logical one. There is no functional difference between

contributing using a false name and contributing using the name

of a straw donor. In each circumstance, the name provided to the

campaign is not that of the actual source of the contribution

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Congress did not limit Section 441f to made-up names. In 12

1974, Congress amended the provision to prohibit a person from

“knowingly permitt[ing] his name to be used to effect” a

contribution in the name of another. 1974 FECA § 101(f)(1). 

Section 441f, thus, contemplates that the contributor would use a

real person’s name with that person’s knowledge and, indeed, that

the two would conspire together to violate Section 441f. 

Moreover, in 1974, Congress also added a bar against cash

contributions exceeding $100 (now § 441g). Id. That provision

makes it difficult to violate Section 441f without one person

serving as a conduit for another because, to pay for a

contribution in a false name, a contributor generally would: 

(1) be limited to small cash contributions ($100 or less); or 

(2) need to create bank or credit accounts in the false name

thereby committing serious additional crimes. That the court’s

interpretation limited Section 441f to the type of harm less

likely to occur highlights that the limitation is misplaced.

23

and, in each circumstance, the public is prevented from knowing

the true source of campaign funds in violation of an undisputed

purpose of the 1971 Act. (GER 148 (defense counsel: purpose of

Section 441f is “so that the public will know where the money is

coming from when someone makes a contribution”); Wilderness

Society v. United States Fish & Wildlife Serv., 353 F.3d 1051,

1060 (9th Cir. 2003) (en banc) (“purpose of a statute may also

provide guidance in determining the plain meaning of its

provisions”), as amended, 360 F.3d 1374 (2004)). There is, 12

thus, no reason to expect that Congress would have included

contributions in false names but excluded those in the names of

straw donors when it simply wrote: “No person shall make a

contribution in the name of another person.” Had Congress

intended such an artificial limitation in Section 441f, it would

have stated so.

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24

Finally, the court’s limitation renders Section 441f

avoidable and essentially superfluous. Beck v. Prupis, 529 U.S.

494, 506 (2000) (“statute should not be construed so as to render

any provision of that statute meaningless or superfluous”). No

rational person would contribute in a false name (risking

prosecution for violating Section 441f) when he could hide his

identity as the source of campaign funds by contributing in the

name of a straw donor (and, thus, not risk prosecution for

violating Section 441f). Comment, Undisclosed Earmarking:

Violation of the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, 10 Harv.

J. on Legis. 175, 185 (1973) (if straw-donor contributions

permitted, then-2 U.S.C. § 440 is “completely ineffective, since

an individual could evade its ban merely by getting a friend to

make his contribution”).

c. Given the broad and unambiguous wording of Section

441f, the absence of the words “conduit” or

“indirect” is not meaningful

The district court limited Section 441f because that Section

does not use the words “conduit” or “indirect.” (GER 4). 

Congress, however, always has a variety of wording choices

available when drafting statutes. The question is not whether

Congress could have used different words, but whether the wording

Congress actually chose embraces the conduct at issue; here, it

does. Pavelic & LeFlore v. Marvel Entertainment Group, 493 U.S.

120, 126 (1989) (court’s “task is to apply the text, not to

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25

improve” it); United States v. Demerritt, 196 F.3d 138, 143 (2d

Cir. 1999) (court’s role “to apply the provision as written, not

as we would write it”); Government of Guam ex rel. Guam Econ.

Dev. Auth. v. United States, 179 F.3d 630, 635 (9th Cir. 1999)

(“we are bound by the words that Congress actually used”).

Moreover, although Congress could have listed the manners of

contributing that violated Section 441f, there is no requirement

that Congress do so. Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons, 128 S.

Ct. 831, 837 (2008) (“We have no reason to demand that Congress

write less economically and more repetitiously.”); Royal Foods

Co., Inc. v. RJR Holdings, Inc., 252 F.3d 1102, 1107 n.6 (9th

Cir. 2001) (addressing whether restaurants were “dealers” of

perishable produce and rejecting argument that term “dealer” was

“ambiguous because it does not explicitly include restaurants;”

the section “does not enumerate any entities that fall under its

definition of dealer. Merely because a statute's plain language

does not specify particular entities that fall under its

definition, does not mean that the statute is ambiguous as to all

those who do fall under it.”) (emphasis and citation omitted). 

That is particularly true here given Congress’ focus in Section

441f on the name of the contributor, not manner of contribution.

Regardless, Congress’ choice to simply provide that “[n]o

person shall make a contribution in the name of another person”

demonstrates breadth, not ambiguity or limitation. United States

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26

v. Monsanto, 491 U.S. 600, 609 (1989) (“The fact that the

forfeiture provision reaches assets that could be used to pay

attorney's fees, even though it contains no express provisions to

this effect, does not demonstrate ambiguity in the statute: It

demonstrates breadth.”) (citation and internal quotations

omitted); Brogan, 522 U.S. at 406 (rejecting that “criminal

statutes do not have to be read as broadly as they are written,

but are subject to case-by-case exceptions”); Royal Foods, 252

F.3d at 1106 (When Congress “intentionally and unambiguously

drafted a particularly broad definition, it is not our function

to undermine that effort.”) (citation and internal quotations

omitted). Had Congress intended to limit this broad wording, it

would have done so expressly.

The district court’s focus on the absence of the word

“conduit” was also misplaced because it failed to look to the

penalty provision for Section 441f, 2 U.S.C. § 437g(d)(1)(D). 

Congress passed that provision in 2002 and entitled it

“[i]ncrease in penalties imposed for violations of conduit

contribution ban.” 116 Stat. 108. Although a heading cannot

“substitute for the operative text,” Florida Dep’t of Revenue v.

Piccadilly Cafeterias, Inc., 128 S. Ct. 2326, 2336 (2008), here

it highlights what the wording of Section 441f itself

demonstrates, namely, that Section 441f applies to so-called

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Because it is generally more difficult to violate Section 13

441f by contributing in a false names, the title confirms that

the common method of violating Section 441f is through so-called

conduit contributions. Indeed, Section 441f is often referred to

as the conduit-contribution ban/provision. See Craig C. Donsanto

& Nancy L. Simmons, Federal Prosecution of Election Offenses at

166 (7th ed. 2007).

27

conduit contributions, Almendarez-Torres v. United States, 523 13

U.S. 224, 234 (1998) (“[T]he title of a statute and the heading

of a section are tools available for the resolution of a doubt

about the meaning of a statute.”) (citation and internal

quotations omitted).

Nor is the absence of the word “indirect” significant. 

Although defendant indirectly contributed money (through straw

donors), he directly used their names (which he and his coconspirator submitted to the candidate (GER 16)). Moreover, the

absence of the word “indirect” does not support limiting Section

441f to contributions in a false name, as the district court did,

because a person can contribute either directly or indirectly in

a false name. For example, if defendant had given a candidate a

$100 bill in a made-up name, defendant would have directly

contributed in a false name. If, instead, he had given a friend

a $100 bill to forward to the candidate in the same made-up name,

defendant would still have contributed in a false name, but he

would have contributed indirectly. That Section 441f does not

use the term “indirect,” thus, does not support limiting it only

to contributions in a false name. To the contrary, Section 441f

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Defendant recognized the disclosure purpose of the 1971 Act 14

(GER 148), but argued Section 441a(a)(8) serves it by requiring

conduits to report the source of money, instead of Section 441f

requiring actual contributors to use their own names (GER 149-

50). As discussed below, however, Congress did not pass the

predecessor to Section 441a(a)(8) until 1974 so it could not

serve the disclosure function of the 1971 Act. Either nowSection 441f required contributors to use their own names when

contributing in 1971 or no FECA provision did.

28

broadly prohibits “mak[ing] a contribution in the name of another

person,” and defendant violated that provision by contributing

$26,000 in 13 other people’s names.

2. Applying the Plain Wording of Section 441f to

Defendant’s Conduct is Consistent with the Structure

and Purpose of FECA

Applying the plain wording of Section 441f here is

consistent with the structure and purpose of the 1971 Act, where

the wording at issue originated. Wilderness Society, 353 F.3d at

1060 (“structure and purpose of a statute may also provide

guidance in determining the plain meaning”); Callejas v. McMahon,

750 F.2d 729, 731 (9th Cir. 1985) (duty to “consider time and

circumstances surrounding the enactment as well as the object to

be accomplished by it”).

One of the 1971 Act’s primary purposes was disclosure of the

sources of campaign funds so voters could make an informed

decision. S. Rep. No. 93-689, at 2 (1971 Act “predicated upon

the principle of public disclosure”). The government’s 14

interpretation of then-Section 440 (now-Section 441f) is

consistent with that purpose, whereas the district court’s

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This case highlights why disclosure was important in 1971. 15

Defendant is a trial lawyer and then-Senator Edwards was attacked

for relying heavily on contributions from trial lawyers.

http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/09/us/politics/09edwards.html

(last visited Sept. 4, 2009). If members of such an interest

group could contribute in straw donors’ names, they could

hide their role as the source of funds. Buckley, 424 U.S. 67

(source tells voters “interests to which a candidate is most

likely to be responsive”); Goland, 903 F.2d at 1261; 118 Cong.

Rec. 332-33 (1972) (Rep. Anderson) (so “the public will know who

is attempting to influence elections, the disclosure of campaign

contributions is required”); 122 Cong. Rec. 3,704 (1976) (Sen.

Schweiker) (“The theory of election reform is disclosure, and

that means disclosure of what interests are giving

contributions.”).

29

limitation is not.15

Indeed, to accomplish the Act’s disclosure purpose in 1971,

Congress included -- in the “Disclosure” Title of the Act --

provisions: (1) defining “contribution” to include a “gift . . .

of money . . . made for the purpose of influencing the nomination

for election . . . to Federal office,” 1971 FECA § 301(e); 

(2) requiring treasurers to “keep a detailed and exact account

of” “the full name and mailing address (occupation and the

principal place of business, if any) of every person making a

contribution in excess of $10, and the date and amount thereof;”

Id. § 302(c)(2); (3) requiring treasurers to file reports

“disclos[ing]” the “full name and mailing address (occupation and

the principal place of business, if any) of each person who has

made . . . contributions” “in excess of $100, together with the

amount and date of such contributions;” Id. § 304(b)(2); and 

(4) providing “[n]o person shall make a contribution in the name

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30

of another person,” Id. § 310. (Emphasis Added.)

Requiring treasurers to keep records of, and file reports

with, the names (and occupations/employers) of contributors would

be meaningless if those documents could contain the names (and

occupations/employers) of straw donors, rather than the actual

contributors. Beck, 529 U.S. at 506 (courts generally avoid

rendering provisions “meaningless”); United States v. Hsia, 176

F.3d 517, 524 (D.C. Cir. 1999) (“§ 434(b)(3)’s demand for

identification of the ‘person . . . who makes a contribution’ is

not a demand for a report on the person in whose name money is

given; it refers to the true source.”) (emphasis and alteration

in original). To the contrary, the interlocking provisions in

Title III demonstrate: (1) the “name” of the “person” making the

“contribution” in the recordkeeping/reporting provisions is the

name of the person actually providing the money; and (2) by

preventing a “person” from making a “contribution” in the “name”

of another “person,” then-Section 440 enforced that requirement. 

Mariani v. United States, 80 F. Supp. 2d 352, 368 (M.D. Pa. 1999)

(“Section 441f also ensures that proper disclosure of the actual

sources of campaign contributions occurs”); Advisory Opinion

1986-41 (Section 441f, in part, “serves to insure disclosure of

the source of contributions”). The district court’s reading of a

nontextual limit into then-Section 440 (now-Section 441f) is,

thus, inconsistent with the structure and purpose of the 1971

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Section 441f served a similar purpose in 1971. Because 16

unions/corporations were prohibited from contributing under (and

before) the 1971 Act (18 U.S.C. § 610) and such organizations

were “persons” (2 U.S.C. § 431(h)), Section 441f prevented such

“persons” from evading this bar by contributing in other people’s

names. Mariani, 80 F. Supp. 2d at 368 (Section 441f’s purposes

include preventing circumvention by prohibited sources).

31

Act.

After Congress added individual contribution limits in 1974,

now-Section 441f also served to provide information “necessary to

detect violations of the contribution limits.” Goland, 903 F.2d

at 1261; see also Buckley, 424 U.S. at 67-68. Here, by

contributing in the names of 13 straw donors, defendant not only

hid his identity, he also exceeded the contribution limit in

Section 441a(a)(1)(A) by $26,000. According to defendant, FECA

imposed no duty on him to use his name when contributing, thereby

disclosing he was the source of this $26,000. (GER 41) (defense:

“FECA imposes no obligation on the ‘original source’ of a

contribution to report” himself.). Adopting such an

interpretation would undermine the ability to detect violations

of the contribution limits.16

3. The FEC Has Recognized that Section 441f Applies Here

and Congress Has Demonstrated its Agreement

The FEC has recognized what is apparent from the foregoing:

Section 441f applies here. In 1977, among its first regulations,

the FEC adopted 11 C.F.R. § 110.4(b)(2)(i), and included as an

example of “contributions in the name of another:”

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32

Giving money or anything of value, all or part of which

was provided to the contributor by another person (the

true contributor) without disclosing the source of

money[.]

Advisory Opinion 1995-19 (“A contribution by a person who is

reimbursed in advance or afterward by another person or entity is

unlawful under the Act because it is a ‘contribution in the name

of another.’ 2 U.S.C. § 441f.”); id. 1996-33; id. 1986-41.

Moreover, the FEC transmitted this proposed regulation to

the House, as required, U.S.C. § 438(c) (1976), which chose not

to disapprove (and, in 1989, the FEC resubmitted the regulation

with other changes to Congress, 54 Fed. Reg. 34,098 (1989), which

did not disapprove). FEC v. Ted Haley Congressional Comm., 852

F.2d 1111, 1114 (9th Cir. 1988) (“THCC”) (failure to disapprove

“strongly implies that the regulations accurately reflect

congressional intent”) (citation and internal quotations

omitted); see also FEC v. Democratic Senatorial Campaign Comm.,

454 U.S. 27, 34 & n.8 (1981) (“DSCC”) (citing Congress’ failure

to disapprove FEC regulation and suggesting it was “indication

that Congress does not look unfavorably” on it).

Moreover, in 1979 and 2002, Congress amended FECA (and

redesignated Section 441f in 1979), but did not modify Section

441f to reject the regulation. Commodity Futures Trading Comm’n

v. Schor, 478 U.S. 833, 846 (1986) (“[W]hen Congress revisits a

statute giving rise to a longstanding administrative

interpretation without pertinent change, the congressional

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33

failure to revise or repeal the agency's interpretation is

persuasive evidence that the interpretation is the one intended

by Congress.”) (citation and internal quotations omitted); see,

e.g., Lorillard v. Pons, 434 U.S. 575, 580 (1978) (“Congress is

presumed to be aware of an administrative or judicial

interpretation of a statute and to adopt that interpretation when

it re-enacts a statute without change.”). But cf. Demarest v.

Manspeaker, 498 U.S. 184, 190 (1991) (no adoption by reeanctment

when statute plainly to contrary).

Rather than disagreeing, in 2002, Congress confirmed its

agreement by adopting a new penalty provision for Section 441f,

entitled “[i]ncrease in penalties imposed for violations of

conduit contribution ban.” 116 Stat. 108; see also 147 Cong.

Rec. 3,188 (2001) (Sen. Bond) (“My amendment would make it a

felony to knowingly make conduit contributions. . . . The

amendment does not change the conditions of the underlying

offense, but by making it a felony, it adds some ‘teeth’ to the

law.”); Schor, 478 U.S. at 846 (“Where, as here, Congress has not

just kept its silence by refusing to overturn the administrative

construction, but has ratified it with positive legislation, we

cannot but deem that construction virtually conclusive.”)

(citation and internal quotations omitted).

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34

4. Courts Have Consistently Recognized that Section 441f

Applies Here

Like the FEC, courts have recognized that Section 441f

applies here. In McConnell, the Supreme Court addressed a BCRA

provision prohibiting minors from contributing. 540 U.S. at 231-

32. The government argued that the provision “protects against

corruption by conduits; that is donations by parents through

their minor children to circumvent contribution limits applicable

to the parents.” Id. at 232. The Court invalidated the

provision, noting that the government offered “scant evidence of

this form of evasion” and stating:

Perhaps the Government’s slim evidence results

from sufficient deterrence of such activities by § 320

of FECA, which prohibits any person from “mak[ing] a

contribution in the name of another person.”

Id. (quoting 2 U.S.C. § 441f; alteration in original); see also

McConnell v. FEC, 251 F. Supp. 2d 176, 424 (D.D.C. 2003)

(Henderson, J., concurring) (making the same point).

This Court has also recognized that Section 441f applies

here. In Goland, the defendant attempted to get the Democrat

elected by “giving a boost to the ultra-conservative Vallen,” a

third-party candidate, thereby taking votes away from the

Republican. 903 F.2d at 1251. “Presumably in order to avoid

both FEC detection of the excessive contribution and Vallen’s

awareness of the true source of the funds, [the defendant]

arranged for 56 persons to make payments” “with the understanding

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The district court noted that the government apparently 17

later eliminated the Section 441f charge after mistrial. (GER 6;

United States v. Goland, 897 F.2d 405 (9th Cir. 1990) (mistrial

and charges); United States v. Goland, 959 F.2d 1449 (9th Cir.

1992) (later proceedings)). But the opinion cited in the text

35

that [the defendant] would reimburse them, which apparently he

did.” Id. The defendant was charged, in part, with violating

Section 441f. Id. at 1252. The defendant filed a civil suit,

asserting that the disclosure requirements (including Section

441f) violated his “First Amendment right to contribute

anonymously” to fringe candidates, as did the contribution

limits. Id.

When discussing FECA’s reporting requirements and

contribution limits, this Court stated: “The Act prohibits the

use of ‘conduits’ to circumvent these restrictions: ‘No person

shall make a contribution in the name of another person.’” Id.

at 1251 (quoting 2 U.S.C. § 441f). This Court rejected the

suggestion that the defendant lacked standing to challenge the

disclosure requirements because he made secret, rather than

anonymous, contributions: “Taking [the defendant] at his word,

he would not have used individuals as conduits if the law did not

prohibit making anonymous contributions. Under FECA’s reporting

and disclosure requirements, to bypass the law in effect required

violating it.” Id. at 1255. And this Court held, as the Supreme

Court had done in Buckley, that the disclosure provisions did not

violate the First Amendment. Id. at 1259-61. 17

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addressed the civil action, not the criminal trial, and defendant

raised a First Amendment challenge there involving Section 441f,

which this Court addressed.

36

Other circuits and district courts have likewise recognized

that Section 441f applies here. United States v. Serafini, 233

F.3d 758, 763 n.5 (3d Cir. 2000) (“FECA also makes it unlawful

for any person to make a contribution in the name of another

person (referred to in this opinion as a ‘conduit’).”); Mariani,

212 F.3d at 766, 775 (recognizing “Section 441(f) of the FECA,

the conduit contribution ban or ‘anti-conduit’ provision,

prohibits one from making a contribution ‘in the name of another

person;’” rejecting First Amendment challenge because

“[p]roscription of conduit contributions (with the concomitant

requirement that the true source of contributions be disclosed)

would seem to be at the very core” of the analysis in Buckley)

(quoting 2 U.S.C. § 441f); United States v. Kanchanalak, 192 F.3d

1037, 1042 (D.C. Cir. 1999) (“[T]here is no soft money

counterpart to § 441f in FECA itself, which prohibits conduit

transfers of ‘contributions.’”); Sun-Diamond Growers, 138 F.3d at

969 (addressing reimbursement scheme from corporate funds and

noting illegality, in part, because “no one may make a campaign

contribution in the name of another, 2 U.S.C. § 441f.”); United

States v. Curran, 20 F.3d 560, 564 n.1 (3d Cir. 1994) (“18 U.S.C.

§ 614 prohibited making a contribution through a conduit. In

1976, that offense became 2 U.S.C. § 441f”); Mariani, 80 F. Supp.

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37

2d at 364 (“Section 441f of FECA, the conduit contribution ban or

‘anti-conduit’ provision, prohibits one from making a

contribution ‘in the name of another person.’”) (quoting 2 U.S.C.

§ 441f); United States v. Hsia, 24 F. Supp. 2d 33, 39 (D.D.C.

1998) (The 1971 “Act also set forth a variety of disclosure

requirements and, as part of those requirements, it prohibited

contributions in the name of another, so-called conduit

contributions.”), rev’d on other grounds, 176 F.3d 517 (D.C. Cir.

1999); United States v. Curran, 1993 WL 137459, at *1 (E.D. Pa.

April 28, 1993) (“FECA forbids the use of ‘conduits’ to

circumvent these restrictions by prohibiting campaign

contributions in the name of another person.”); Weinsten, 462 F.

Supp. at 250 (rejecting vagueness challenge to so-called conduit

contributions; noting the “simple words” of Section 441f and

finding “no ambiguity in the statutory language”); see, e.g.,

United States v. Hsu, 2009 WL 2495794, at *1 (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 10,

2009) (upholding sufficiency of evidence under Section 441f for

“straw donor scheme”); Fieger v. Gonzales, 2007 WL 2351006, at *2

(E.D. Mich. Aug. 15, 2007), aff’d on other grounds, 542 F.3d 1111

(6th Cir. 2008).

The district court’s response, at least as to Goland and

Mariani, was to label these statements dicta. (GER 6). The

problem with that label is that these courts considered the

wording of Section 441f and found it apparent that Section 441f

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38

applies to so-called conduit contributions (straw-donor

contributions). See, e.g., United States v. Bond, 552 F.3d 1092,

1096 (9th Cir. 2009). Moreover, although “the conduit statute is

one of FECA’s most frequently violated,” Donsanto & Simmons,

Federal Prosecution of Election Offenses at 166, and the Act is

nearly 40 years old, neither the district court nor defendant

cited a case adopting a contrary interpretation. This body of

decisions supports what the wording of Section 441f itself

demonstrates: Defendant violated Section 441f when he

contributed $26,000 in the names of 13 other people.

C. THE DISTRICT COURT’S RATIONALES FOR READING A NONTEXTUAL

LIMIT INTO THE PLAIN WORDING OF SECTION 441f LACK MERIT

1. Context Does Not Limit the Wording of Section 441f

Rather than the foregoing, the district court’s primary

focus was context. The court was correct to look to context

(albeit only after initially focusing on Section 441f itself),

United States v. Bowen, 172 F.3d 682, 686 (9th Cir. 1999), but

context does not support reading a limitation into Section 441f.

a. Congress’ use of the terms “indirectly” and

“conduit” in other provisions does not support

reading a limitation into Section 441f

As the district court recognized, “[w]here Congress includes

particular language in one section of a statute but omits it in

another section of the same Act, it is generally presumed that

Congress acts intentionally and purposely in the disparate

inclusion or exclusion.” Russello v. United States, 464 U.S. 16,

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Sections 441a and 441e were not part of the 1971 Act -- when 18

Congress passed the relevant wording in Section 441f -- but the

predecessors to Sections 441b and 441c were. 86 Stat. 10; see

also 86 Stat. 9 (unlawful to “directly or indirectly” promise

employment/benefit for political support).

39

23 (1983) (citation and internal quotations omitted). Some FECA

contribution prohibitions use the phrase “directly and

indirectly.” 2 U.S.C. §§ 441b(a),(b)(2) (prohibiting

corporation/union/bank contributions and, “for purposes of this

section,” “contribution” includes “direct or indirect payment”);

2 U.S.C. § 441c (government contractors prohibited from “directly

or indirectly” contributing); 2 U.S.C. § 441e (unlawful for

“foreign national, directly or indirectly,” to contribute). 

Section 441a(a)(8) uses the “directly-or-indirectly” phrase and

the word “conduit.” Looking to these provision, the court held 18

that, if Congress intended Section 441f to apply to indirect or

conduit contributions, “it would have included explicit language,

as it did in [these] other sections.” (GER 4).

The district court’s use of the Russello presumption is

misplaced. First, Section 441f does not include the word

“directly” and omit the word “indirectly,” which might have

suggested that Congress considered and rejected applying Section

441f to indirect contributions in the name of another. Duncan v.

Walker, 533 U.S. 167, 172-73 (2001) (inclusion of “State and

Federal” in multiple provisions of same Act invoked presumption

that Congress’ use of only term “State” in another provision

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40

meant that provision did not include “Federal”); see, e.g.,

Barnhart v. Peabody Coal Co., 537 U.S. 149, 168 (2003) (“We do

not read the enumeration of one case to exclude another unless it

is fair to suppose that Congress considered the unnamed

possibility and meant to say no to it.”). Section 441f, instead,

omits the “directly-or-indirectly” phrase altogether, meaning the

presumption does not control. City of Columbus v. Ours Garage

and Wrecker Service, Inc., 536 U.S. 424, 435-36 (2002) ("The

Russello presumption -- that the presence of a phrase in one

provision and its absence in another reveals Congress’ design --

grows weaker with each difference in the formulation of the

provisions.”); see also Clay v. United States, 537 U.S. 522, 532

(2003) (same).

Moreover, the distinction between direct/indirect

contributions is irrelevant here. Although defendant indirectly

contributed money (through straw donors), he directly used their

names (which he and his co-conspirator submitted to the candidate

(GER 16)). And the court limited Section 441f to contributions

in a false name, but a person can both directly and indirectly

contribute in a false name. That other provisions of FECA use

the direct-and-indirect phrase, thus, does not support the

limitation the court read into Section 441f.

As to the term “conduit” in Section 441a(a)(8), Congress did

not pass the predecessors to Sections 441f and 441a(a)(8) as part

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41

of the same enactment, which undermines the Russello presumption. 

Gomez-Perez v. Potter, 128 S. Ct. 1931, 1940 (2008) (implication

“strongest in those instances in which the relevant statutory

provisions were considered simultaneously when the language

raising the implication was inserted;” not applying presumption

because provisions there “were enacted separately and are couched

in very different terms”) (citation and internal quotations

omitted); Russello, 464 U.S. at 23 (applying presumption to

sections of “same Act”). But see United States v. Youssef, 547

F.3d 1090, 1094-95 (9th Cir. 2008) (per curiam) (applying

although statutes were not part of “same Act”).

Moreover, the order is significant here. Congress adopted

the predecessor to Section 441f in 1971 and the predecessor to

Section 441a(a)(8) in 1974. The mention of the term “conduit” in

1974 sheds little light on the meaning of words Congress used

years earlier in a different provision. Almendarez-Torres, 523

U.S. at 237. Indeed, if Congress had intended to limit Section

441f in 1974, it would have done so expressly by amending Section

441f, rather than simply adding the predecessor to Section

441a(a)(8). That Congress did not demonstrates that Congress did

not intend for Section 441a(a)(8) to affect Section 441f.

Regardless, this is not a case: (1) where Section 441f omits

“conduit” contributions from a list of manners of contributing,

but the government nevertheless seeks to apply it to conduit

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42

contributions, Barnhart v. Sigmon Coal Co., 534 U.S. 438, 452-54

(2002); United States v. Miqbel, 444 F.3d 1173, 1181-82 (9th Cir.

2006); or (2) where a party is attempting to limit Section 441f

only to conduit contributions (despite its broad language), such

that Congress’ mention of “conduit” in Section 441a(a)(8)

suggests Congress did not intend such a limited reach, Russello,

464 U.S. at 23.

Rather, the government is asking this Court simply to apply

the broad and plain wording of Section 441f as written: “No

person shall make a contribution in the name of another person.” 

The Russello presumption does not support reading nontextual

limits into this provision. See, e.g., 464 U.S. at 25 (“The use

of the specific in the one statute cannot fairly be read as

imposing a limitation upon the general provision in the other

statute.”). That is particularly true given the different

purposes, wording, and focus of the provisions, with Section

441a(a)(8) focusing primarily on the manner of contributions and

what counts towards a person’s dollar limit and Section 441f

focusing only on the name of the contributor. Ours Garage, 536

U.S. at 435-36; see also Field v. Mans, 516 U.S. 59, 67 (1995)

(presumption not “interpretative trump card”); Fuller, 531 F.3d

at 1027 (declining to apply because inconsistent with legislative

purpose).

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43

b. Applying the plain wording of Section 441f neither

conflicts with Section 441a(a)(8) nor renders the

words “indirectly” or “conduit” in that Section

superfluous

The district court next held: “§ 441a allows for indirect

and conduit contributions. . . . Thus, reading § 441f to

prohibit such contributions is irreconcilable with § 441a’s

express authorization” and would render the inclusion of the

terms “conduit” and “indirectly” in Section 441a(a)(8)

superfluous. (GER 4). But Section 441a(a)(8) provides, in part:

For purposes of the limitations imposed by this

section, all contributions made by a person, either

directly or indirectly, on behalf of a particular

candidate, including contributions which are in any way

earmarked or otherwise directed through an intermediary

or conduit to such candidate, shall be treated as

contributions from such person to such candidate. 

Although Section 441a(a)(8) undoubtedly contemplates that

there are legal conduit contributions, on its face, it neither

authorizes nor prohibits conduit/indirect contributions; it,

instead, counts them towards a person’s limit. Nor does Section

441f prohibit all conduit contributions. It focuses solely on

the name of the contributor, not how the money got to the

candidate. Defendant did not violate Section 441f because he

contributed indirectly or through a conduit, but rather because

he contributed in the names of conduits/straw donors. There is,

thus, no conflict between Sections 441a(a)(8) and 441f, nor are

the terms “conduit” and “indirectly” rendered superfluous.

Indeed, the error here appears rooted partly in terminology

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44

rather than statutory scope. The court was concerned that

interpreting Section 441f to “ban” “conduit” contributions was

inconsistent with Section 441a(a)(8). Section 441f is often

called the conduit-contribution ban, see Donsanto & Simmons,

Federal Prosecution of Election Offenses at 166, but the term

“conduit” in this context refers to contributing through straw

donors, thereby using their names to conceal the true source of

funds. Id. Although conduit contributions often involve such

conduct, they need not do so, as a “conduit” is simply a means of

transferring money through another. Thus, despite Section 441f

often being called the conduit-contribution ban, the term

“conduit” in that context is shorthand for referring to a person

taking on the name of the conduit (straw-donor contributions),

not all conduit transfers. Interpreting Section 441f as

prohibiting contributions in the names of straw donors, thus,

does not conflict with Section 441a(a)(8), nor render the term

“conduit” in that provision superfluous.

Similarly, defendant indirectly contributed money and, thus,

his contributions were subject to (and vastly exceeded) the

$2,000 limit in Section 441a(a)(1)(A). But Section 441a(a)(8)’s

inclusion of “contributions which are in any way earmarked or

otherwise directed through an intermediary or conduit to such

candidate” is not designed to refer to his straw-donor

contributions. Instead, the provision facially is designed to

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That appears to be why Section 441a(a)(8) puts the 19

obligation on the intermediary/conduit -- i.e., the person/entity

with the superior role in fundraising -- to report the source,

rather than requiring the source to self-report. See 120 Cong.

Rec. 4,710 (1974) (Sen. Cook) (“[I]f one wishes to give $3,000

and say, ‘will you please give it to the Senator from Maine, and

that is whom I want it to go for,’ under the law, the

organization that receives the $3,000, and is a conduit to get it

to the Senator from Maine, has to report where it came from, and

45

account for legal conduit contributions, i.e., those given to

committees and people forwarding funds. See 54 Fed. Reg. 34,106

(1989) (administrative definition of “‘conduit or intermediary’ 

. . . encompasses all those who receive and forward contributions

earmarked” and FEC considers terms “synonymous”); 11 C.F.R. 

§ 110.6(b)(2) (“conduit or intermediary means any person who

receives and forwards an earmarked contribution to a candidate”)

(emphasis omitted); Hsia, 24 F. Supp. 2d at 60 n.29 (“This

provision, however, was intended to address legal ‘conduit’

contributions -- for instance when an individual contributes

money to a national party that is earmarked for the campaign of a

certain candidate”) (emphasis omitted); 119 Cong. Rec. 26,595

(1973) (Sen. Clark) (“This amendment is designed to clarify and

reinforce the intentions of the Senate with regard to the

earmarking of funds to a particular candidate through the conduit

of a political committee”); H.R. Rep. No. 93-1239, at 149 (1974)

(Rep. Frenzel) (“[T]he earmarking language in the bill prevents

an individual from channeling funds to a particular candidate

through these political parties and political committees.”).19

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that it was instructed to pass it on.”); 11 C.F.R. § 110.6(c)

(conduit reporting requirements).

Although the district court did not rely on this wording, 20

defendant suggested it alone, not Section 441f, applied here and

placed obligations on the straw donors, not him. (GER 148-50). 

If a straw donor notifies the candidate/FEC of the original

source, there is no violation of Section 441f -- as there is no

contribution in the name of another, 11 C.F.R. § 110.4(b)(2)(i) 

-- but the reason straw donors are used is to avoid making such

disclosures (Indeed, had defendant used his own name, the

contributions would have been rejected, as they violated the

contribution limits in Section 441a(a)(1)(A).) When defendant

contributed in the straw donors’ names, he violated the plain

wording of Section 441f. Defendant’s suggestion that Congress

intended Section 441a(a)(8) alone to apply here lacks merit

because: (1) as noted, Congress passed Section 441a(a)(8) after

Section 441f and, if Congress intended to limit Section 441f, it

would have done so expressly; (2) placing responsibility solely

on straw donors -- the least culpable party -- is contrary to

traditional liability principles. Cf. Bartnicki v. Vopper, 532

U.S. 514, 529 (2001) (“The normal method of deterring unlawful

conduct is to impose an appropriate punishment on the person who

engages in it.”); and (3) as noted, in 2002, Congress said

Section 441f applied to conduit contributions, 116 Stat. 108. 

46

Regardless, Section 441a(a)(8) does not suggest that it is

permissible to use the names of conduits. (Section 441a(a)(8)

actually states the opposite: “The intermediary or conduit shall

report the original source and the intended recipient of such

contribution to the Commission and to the intended recipient.” ) 20

Thus, applying Section 441f to prevent contributions in the names

of straw donors/conduits neither conflicts with Section

441a(a)(8) nor renders the words “conduit” or “indirectly” in

that provision superfluous. Cf. H.R. Rep. No. 93-1239, at 5

(“The bill prohibits contributions in the name of another and

provides that, for the purposes of limitations and reporting

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Section 441f appears to have originated during the Senate’s 21

attempt to reform campaign finance in 1967 (SB 596 and 1880). 

The Senate appears to have used a bill it passed then, but which

died in the House (SB 1880), as a model for Titles II and III of

the 1971 Act (SB 382). Cf. S. Rep. 92-229, at 55.

S. Rep. 92-229, at 57 (“Disclosure, if it is to be 22

effective, must mean total disclosure”); 117 Cong. Rec. 29,311

(1971) (Sen. Pastore) (“The name of the game is full

disclosure.”); id. at 30,066 (Sen. Hart) (“The Senator from Rhode

Island has emphasized that the key value in the bill we are

considering is disclosure, the availability of information. We

have our disagreements about many other aspects, but all of us

see the value in this.”); 118 Cong. Rec. 326 (1972) (Rep. Keith)

47

requirements, any contribution by a person which is earmarked or

directed through an intermediary or conduit to a candidate shall

be treated as a contribution from such person.”).

2. The Legislative History Does Not Support the Nontextual

Limitation that the Court Read into Section 441f

a. The 1971 legislative history demonstrates that

Congress did not intend to allow contributors to

hide their identities

The district court next relied on legislative history to

read a nontextual limit into Section 441f. (GER 5). The

government has found no relevant discussion of now-Section 441f

in the 1971 Act’s legislative history, but has also discovered 21

no suggestion that Congress intended the prohibition that “[n]o

person shall make a contribution in the name of another” to apply

to only some uses of the “name of another,” as the court held. 

Rather than mentioning limitations, the legislative history

demonstrates: (1) Congress wanted full disclosure of campaign

contributions; and (2) that disclosure included the source of 22

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(“I am particularly pleased that this report contains the things

for which I have been pressing,” including “[f]ull and timely

disclosure of contributions.”).

S. Rep 92-229, at 60 (eliminating contribution limits 23

because “the Committee is of the general opinion that the voters,

having knowledge of all sources of contributions and the nature

of all expenditures, and, having the privilege of demonstrating

at the polls their approval or disapproval with respect to

particular candidates or political parties for excessive

contributions received or expenditures made, will serve as a

deterrent to abuse or excesses.”); 117 Cong. Rec. 29,004 (1971)

(Sen. Brooke) (“I believe that the most significant section of

this bill is Title III. . . . Comprehensive disclosure is vital

because it permits the voters to review the source of funds for

each candidate, as well as the total amount of such

contributions. Indeed, disclosure requirements, if enforced, 

. . . provide the public full opportunity to determine the

appropriateness of a candidate’s income and spending practices,

and to translate that judgment into action at the ballot box.”);

id. at 30,073 (Sen. Dole) (“[A]mplified disclosure provisions

will enable the public to be better aware of candidates’ real

sources of support.”); id. at 30,083 (Sen. Church) (“[T]he

legislation requires detailed disclosure, both during and after

elections, as to the sources of contributions.”); 118 Cong. Rec.

327 (1972) (Rep. Anderson) (“Most importantly, the act provides

for timely and thorough pre-election reports on campaign

contributions and expenditures. As Senate Majority Leader SCOTT

said during the debate in the other body, the single most

important item on the agenda of campaign finance reform is to

provide the electorate with the opportunity to determine ‘who

gave it and who got it’ before they enter the voting booth.”);

Signing Statement, President Nixon (“It provides for full

reporting of both the sources and the uses of campaign funds.”).

48

contributions. As noted, now-Section 441f was the only 23

provision of the 1971 Act compelling contributors to use their

own names when contributing. If the court’s interpretation were

correct, then no provision of the 1971 Act prohibited people from

contributing in straw donors’ names (thereby hiding their

identities), which conflicts with the legislative history and

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49

frustrates the purpose of the 1971 Act. 117 Cong. Rec. 26,111

(1971) (Sen. Mathias) (“Title III is the most important part of

the 1971 campaign reform. It deals with the public’s right to

know.”); id. at 29,306 (Sen. Humphrey) (“It is the exposure that

would be gotten, the fact that you could not disguise, avoid, or

evade. That is what is important in this bill.”); id. at 30,071

(Sen. Mansfield) (“The requirement for the names of contributors

of $100 or more will again allow the public to be informed as to

who is or who is not contributing to particular campaigns.”).

Rather than the foregoing, the district court cited floor

statements involving two amendments to the 1971 Act. (GER 5). 

Not only were these amendments unrelated to now-Section 441f,

they involved criminal code amendments in Title II, not

amendments to the disclosure Title (Title III).

Specifically, the court cited floor debate on an amendment

to 18 U.S.C. § 610 (prohibiting corporations/unions/banks from

contributing). (GER 5). Representative Hansen proposed amending

that Section to continue prohibiting such organizations from

contributing, while allowing them a role in elections. 117 Cong.

Rec. 43,379 (1971). The amendment defined the term contribution

“in this section” to include “any direct or indirect payment.” 

(Id.). During the debate, Representative Hays asked:

say that John Doe is vice president of X Corporation,

and that he gave $500 to a fund, and the corporation

then reimbursed him, say, with some kind of cover

saying it was expenses or something. That would be

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50

prohibited[?]

Id. 43,381. Representative Hansen responded: “That in my

judgment would constitute a violation of law; in fact, a

violation of law as it exists now, as an indirect payment.” Id.;

see also id. (Representative Hays agreeing).

The district court viewed this discussion as demonstrating

“that Congress used the term ‘indirect’ in FECA to cover

reimbursement.” (GER 5). Even assuming such a comment

represents the views of “Congress,” Garcia v. United States, 469

U.S. 70, 78 (1984), the Section 441f violation did not occur here

because defendant contributed indirectly or reimbursed people,

but because he contributed in 13 other people’s names. 

Representative Hansen’s statement did not relate to now-Section

441f or the name in which the contribution was made. Indeed, it

is apparent he was discussing neither, because he said the

conduct was unlawful under the “law as it exists now” and nowSection 441f was not part of existing pre-FECA law. The reason

the contribution was unlawful was because corporations could not

contribute.

Moreover, this discussion actually undercuts the district

court’s decision. Representative Hansen stated that the

“indirect payment” violated the “law as it exists now.” Although

the 1971 amendment defined “contribution” to include “direct and

indirect payments,” existing law had no such definition and

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 The definition appears to have included the “direct-and- 24

indirect” wording because it later exempted certain indirect

activity. 117 Cong. Rec. 43,380 (Rep. Hansen). The fight in the

House was over what to exempt, between the perceived anti-union

Crane Amendment and pro-union Hansen Amendment. See id. 43,389-

43,390 (Rep. Steiger). Both amendments included the “direct-andindirect” wording. Compare HR 11060 with 117 Cong. Rec. 43,379.

51

simply made it unlawful “to make a contribution.” 18 U.S.C. 

§ 610 (1970). The statement that indirect contributions were

already embraced in a provision that did not use the term

“indirect” highlights that the absence of that word from Section

441f does not limit its plain wording.24

The court also cited a statement of Senator Scott. (GER 5). 

In 1971, FECA did not impose individual contribution limits,

causing some Senators to propose such limits as well as limits on

money candidates could expend from their own funds. 117 Cong.

Rec. 29,290-29,291 (1971) (Sen. Mathias). Senator Scott noted he

had “no objection” to the latter, “the so-called rich man’s

amendment. But I question seriously the efficacy of the

limitation on contributions to candidates by others.” Id. at

29,292. Rather than limiting contributions, the committee had

decided that disclosure was the best approach, in part, because

“[f]ull disclosure makes such a limitation unnecessary.” Id. at

29,295. Senator Scott noted the proposed amendment, with its

individual limits, “reverses the processes on which this bill is

predicated, the process of disclosure.” Id. Senator Scott’s

emphasis on disclosure highlights that defendant violated the

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Senator Scott was focused on defeating individual 25

contribution limits, not whether now-Section 441f applied to the

conduct he was discussing. Indeed, he stated that individual

limits would be an “open invitation to evasion” and result in

people “lend[ing] their name” to contributions, id. at 29,292,

although now-Section 441f prohibits such contributions.

52

Act’s purpose by contributing $26,000 in 13 other people’s names.

Rather than rely on this discussion, the court cited Senator

Scott’s final comment:

I would suggest we have the rich man’s amendment

separately, and some limitation on how much a man can

give to his own campaign, because I can see a great

evasion in this amendment. If he is limited to $5,000,

what does he do? He has no limitation on his own

money. He is a man of influence. He wants to find

$200,000. He finds 40 friends and gives it to them and

each of them gives back $5,000.

Let us close that loophole and go after the man

who would bribe the election because he is so well

financed.

Id. The court noted, “[i]f § 441f prohibited using one’s friends

as a conduit” “there would be no loophole to fill.” (GER 5). 

Senator Scott’s comment is unclear, in part, because the “richman’s” amendment had a limit of more than $5,000. Nevertheless,

his reference to a “loophole” is to the amendment, and he did not

discuss now-Section 441f. Such an ambiguous and isolated floor 25

statement in response to amendments on other provisions does not

support the weight placed on it nor overcome the plain wording of

Section 441f. Garcia, 469 U.S. at 78.

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53

b. Post-1971 legislative history confirms that

Congress intended for Section 441f to apply here

Although later legislative history is generally a weak

indicator of the intent of an earlier Congress, Russello, 464

U.S. at 26, here it confirms what the 1971 legislative history

demonstrates, namely, that Section 441f applies here. Cf. 122

Cong. Rec. 2,606 (1976) (“[I]f he buys a ticket for $100 and

turns to his wife and hands her $100 and she buys the ticket --

Mr. MATHIS. I think the gentleman knows that there is a

provision in the law that provides for criminal penalties for

using another as a conduit.”).

First, as noted, the FEC submitted its regulation to the

House in 1977 and Congress in 1989 and Congress did not

disapprove nor alter Section 441f in response when amending FECA.

Second, Congress itself investigated so-called conduit

contributions (straw-donor contributions) made during the 1996

election, and stated that Section 441f applied to them. 

Investigation of Political Fundraising Improprieties and Possible

Violations of Law, H.R. Rep. No. 105-829, at 182 (“Contributions

in the name of another -- conduit contributions -- are illegal. 

The Act provides that: ‘No person shall make a contribution in

the name of another person.’”) (quoting 2 U.S.C. § 441f);

Investigation of Illegal or Improper Activities in Connection

with 1996 Federal Election Campaigns, S. Rep. No. 105-167, at

1782 & n.203 (citing Section 441f as barring contributions “made

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54

through ‘straw donors’”); id. at 7241 (Section 441f, in part,

prohibits contributors “from disguising a contribution by using

another person as a conduit”); cf. H.R. Rep. No. 105-797, at 94

n.658 (1998) (contribution under Section 441f “commonly referred

to as a ‘conduit contribution’”).

Third, thereafter in 2002, Congress increased the penalties

for Section 441f and entitled the new provision “[i]ncrease in

penalties imposed for violations of conduit contribution ban.” 

116 Stat. 108. When proposing that provision, Senator Bond

stated:

It is a misdemeanor offense to make a campaign

contribution in the name of another person . . . in

other words make an illegal contribution through a

conduit (2 U.S.C. 441f).

Despite this clear prohibition, it came to light

during the 1996 presidential campaign millions of

dollars in illegal donations from foreign nationals

were funneled into party and campaign coffers through

conduit contributions, some as outrageous as nuns and

other people of worship. . . .

As simply a misdemeanor offense, those intent on

corrupting the process do not fear the consequence

. . . .

. . . .

My amendment would make it a felony to knowingly

make conduit contributions, knowingly permit your name

to be used for such a contribution or knowingly accept

a contribution made in the name of another. The

amendment does not change the conditions of the

underlying offense, but by making it a felony, it adds

some “teeth” to the law.

147 Cong. Rec. 3,187-3,188.

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The court did not accept defendant’s suggestion to interpret 26

Section 441f to avoid a grave/doubtful constitutional issue. As

the court recognized, defendant’s First Amendment claim lacks

merit. (GER 144). Indeed, the Supreme Court upheld the

disclosure provisions and contribution limits, Buckley, 424 U.S.

at 23-68, and defendant lacks a right to use straw donors’ names

to circumvent the limits or hide his identity, Mariani, 212 F.3d

at 775; Hsia, 176 F.3d at 525; Goland, 903 F.2d at 1258. Because

defendant’s claim lacks merit, there is no issue to avoid, much

less a grave/doubtful one. Almendarez-Torres, 523 U.S. at 239

(rejecting doctrine despite question lacking obvious answer);

Williams v. Babbitt, 115 F.3d 657, 662 (9th Cir. 1997) (must

raise “serious” concerns when Chevron deference involved). And,

regardless, the statute is not susceptible to defendant’s

interpretation. Pennsylvania Dep’t of Corrections v. Yeskey, 524

U.S. 206, 212 (1998).

55

3. Were there Ambiguity, Deference to the FEC, Rather than

Lenity, Would Control

The district court finally held that, were there ambiguity

after applying statutory-construction tools, the rule of lenity

controlled. (GER 5-6). But “that rule applies only when there

is grievous ambiguity or uncertainty in the statute and when,

after seizing everything from which aid can be derived, [the

court] can make no more than a guess as to what Congress

intended.” United States v. Iverson, 162 F.3d 1015, 1025 (9th

Cir. 1998) (citation and internal quotations omitted). As

demonstrated above, “interpretative aids indicate Congressional

intent and prevent application of that rule.” Id.; see also

United States v. Hayes, 129 S. Ct. 1079, 1088-89 (2009).26

Moreover, were there ambiguity, the court erred by turning

to lenity, rather than deferring to the FEC. Chevron U.S.A.,

Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, 467 U.S. 837, 843-44 (1984). 

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56

This Court has already held that deference controls in such

circumstances. In Pacheco-Camacho, the defendant argued that, in

the face of ambiguity, the rule of lenity applied rather than an

administrative regulation. 272 F.3d at 1271. This Court held:

“The rule of lenity, however, does not prevent an agency from

resolving statutory ambiguity through a valid regulation.” Id.

(citing Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter, 515 U.S. 687, 704 n.18

(1995)). “In such a case, the regulation gives the public

sufficient warning to ensure that nobody mistakes the ambit of

the law or its penalties.” Id. at 1272. Thus, “[t]o the extent

that there is any ambiguity . . ., the BOP has resolved it

through a reasonable interpretation, and the rule of lenity does

not apply.” Id.; see also Mujahid v. Daniels, 413 F.3d 991, 998-

99 (9th Cir. 2005) (reaffirming Pacheco-Camacho).

The district court recognized that the FEC was entitled to

deference were there ambiguity. (GER 7). Congress delegated the

FEC responsibility to “prescribe rules, regulations and forms to

carry out the provisions of this Act,” 2 U.S.C. § 438(a)(8), and

to “administer, seek to obtain compliance with, and formulate

policy with respect to, this Act,” 2 U.S.C. § 437c(b)(1), and the

Supreme Court and this Court have held that the FEC is entitled

to deference, DSCC, 454 U.S. at 37 (FEC “is precisely the type of

agency to which deference should presumptively be afforded”);

THCC, 852 F.2d at 1113-15 (Chevron deference to FEC); FEC v.

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Although the court accepted deference applied, defendant 27

argued that deferring to interpretations of criminal statutes is

inappropriate because courts (not agencies) are charged with

enforcing them. (GER 121-22 n.6; United States v. Douglas, 974

F.2d 1046, 1048 n.1 (9th Cir. 1992) (“unclear whether an agency's

interpretation of a criminal statute is entitled to deference”)

(emphasis omitted)); Crandon v. United States, 494 U.S. 152, 177

(1990) (Scalia, J., concurring) (“the law in question, a criminal

statute, is not administered by any agency but by the courts;”

rejecting notion of deference to Department of Justice). Whether

defendant’s argument would have force if Section 441f were itself

a criminal statute and the government sought deference to the

Department of Justice’s interpretation, neither is the case. 

Section 441f is an election statute with civil and criminal

penalties and the FEC is entrusted with enforcing it. A

regulation by an agency in such circumstances is entitled to

deference. Babbitt, 515 U.S. at 703-04 & n.18, 708 (so holding);

Kanchanalak, 192 F.3d at 1047 n.17 (“Defendants argue that this

court should not give Chevron deference to the FEC’s

interpretation of an ambiguous statute in a criminal proceeding.

. . . That criminal liability is at issue does not alter the

fact that reasonable interpretations of the act are entitled to

deference.”) (citing Babbitt, 515 U.S. at 703-05). And, as noted

in the text, the Supreme Court and this Court have held that the

FEC is entitled to deference.

57

Furgatch, 869 F.2d 1256, 1260 (9th Cir. 1989). Accordingly, 27

were there ambiguity, the court erred by not deferring to the

FEC’s regulation which, at a minimum, reasonably interprets

Section 441f to apply here.

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58

VI

CONCLUSION

For these reasons, this Court should reverse the dismissal.

DATED: September 14, 2009 Respectfully submitted,

GEORGE S. CARDONA

Acting United States Attorney

CHRISTINE C. EWELL

Assistant United States Attorney

Chief, Criminal Division

__________/s/____________________

ERIK M. SILBER

Assistant United States Attorney

Criminal Appeals Section

Attorneys for Plaintiff-Appellant 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

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59

STATEMENT OF RELATED CASES

The government is not aware of any related cases pending in

this Circuit.

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Form 8. Certificate of Compliance Pursuant to Fed. R. App. P. 32(a)(7)(C) and Circuit

Rule 32-1 for Case Number ___________________________

(see next page) Form Must Be Signed By Attorney or Unrepresented Litigant and attached

to the back of each copy of the brief

I certify that: (check appropriate option(s))

__1. Pursuant to Fed. R. App. P. 32 (a)(7)(C) and Ninth Circuit Rule 32-1, the attached

opening/answering/reply/cross-appeal brief is

 Proportionately spaced, has a typeface of 14 points or more and contains _________ words

(opening, answering, and the second and third briefs filed in cross-appeals must not exceed 14,000

words; reply briefs must not exceed 7,000 words),

or is

 Monospaced, has 10.5 or fewer characters per inch and

contains _______ words or ________ lines of text (opening,

answering, and the second and third briefs filed in cross-appeals

must not exceed 14,000 words or 1,300 lines of text; reply briefs

must not exceed 7,000 words or 650 lines of text).

__2. The attached brief is not subject to the type-volume limitations of Fed. R. App. P. 32(a)(7)(B)

because

 This brief complies with Fed. R. App. P. 32(a)(1)-(7) and is a principal brief of no more than

30 pages or a reply brief of no more than 15 pages;

 This brief complies with a page or size-volume limitation established by separate court order

dated ____________ and is

 Proportionately spaced, has a typeface of 14 points or more and contains _______

words,

or is

 Monospaced, has 10.5 or fewer characters per inch and

contains ______pages or_______ words or ________ lines of

text.

09-50296

✔

✔

 13,909

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__3. Briefs in Capital Cases

 This brief is being filed in a capital case pursuant to the type-volume limitations set forth at

Circuit Rule 32-4 and is

 Proportionately spaced, has a typeface of 14 points or more and contains _________

words (opening, answering, and the second and third briefs filed in cross-appeals must not

exceed 21,000 words; reply briefs must not exceed 9,800 words)

or is

 Monospaced, has 10.5 or fewer characters per inch and

contains _______ words or ________ lines of text (opening,

answering, and the second and third briefs filed in crossappeals must not exceed 75 pages or 1,950 lines of text;

reply briefs must not exceed 35 pages or 910 lines of text).

__4. Amicus Briefs

 Pursuant to Fed. R. App. P. 29(d) and 9th Cir. R. 32-1, the attached amicus brief is

proportionally spaced, has a typeface of 14 points or more and contains 7000 words or less,

or is

 Monospaced, has 10.5 or fewer characters per inch and contains not more than either 7000

words or 650 lines of text,

or is

 Not subject to the type-volume limitations because it is an amicus brief of no more than 15

pages and complies with Fed. R. App. P. 32(a)(1)(5).

__________________________ _________________________________

Date Signature of Attorney or 

Unrepresented Litigant

09/14/2009 /s/ Erik M. Silber

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CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE

When All Case Participants are Registered for the

Appellate CM/ECF System

(date)

with the Clerk of the Court for the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit

by using the appellate CM/ECF system.

I certify that all participants in the case are registered CM/ECF users and that service will

be accomplished by the appellate CM/ECF system.

I hereby certify that on , I electronically filed the foregoing

Signature

(date)

with the Clerk of the Court for the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit

by using the appellate CM/ECF system.

Participants in the case who are registered CM/ECF users will be served by the appellate

CM/ECF system.

I further certify that some of the participants in the case are not registered CM/ECF users.

I have mailed the foregoing document by First-Class Mail, postage prepaid, or have

dispatched it to a third party commercial carrier for delivery within 3 calendar days to the

following non-CM/ECF participants:

I hereby certify that on , I electronically filed the foregoing

Signature

CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE

When Not All Case Participants are Registered for the

Appellate CM/ECF System

***********************************************************************

Sep 14, 2009

/ERIK M. SILBER/

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