Subcontract Report

NREL/SR-500-43471

May 2010

Aeroacoustic Testing of 

Wind Turbine Airfoils

February 20, 2004 – February 19, 2008

W. Devenport, R.A. Burdisso, H. Camargo, 

E. Crede, M. Remillieux, M. Rasnick, and 

P. Van Seeters

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Blacksburg, Virginia
National Renewable Energy Laboratory

1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393

303-275-3000 • www.nrel.gov

NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC

Contract No. DE-AC36-08-GO28308

Subcontract Report

NREL/SR-500-43471

May 2010

Aeroacoustic Testing of 

Wind Turbine Airfoils

February 20, 2004 – February 19, 2008

W. Devenport, R.A. Burdisso, H. Camargo, 

E. Crede, M. Remillieux, M. Rasnick, and 

P. Van Seeters

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 

Blacksburg, Virginia

NREL Technical Monitor: P. Moriarty

Prepared under Subcontract No. ZAM-4-33226-01
NOTICE

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iii

Foreword

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), working through its National Renewable Energy 

Laboratory (NREL), is engaged in a comprehensive research effort to improve the understanding 

of wind turbine aeroacoustics. The motivation for this effort is the desire to exploit the large 

expanse of low wind speed sites that tend to be close to U.S. load centers. Quiet wind turbines 

are an inducement to widespread deployment, so the goal of NREL’s aeroacoustic research is to 

develop tools that the U.S. wind industry can use in developing and deploying highly efficient, 

quiet wind turbines at low wind speed sites. NREL’s National Wind Technology Center 

(NWTC) is implementing a multifaceted approach that includes wind tunnel tests, field tests, and 

theoretical analyses in direct support of low wind speed turbine development by its industry 

partners. NWTC researchers are working hand in hand with engineers in industry to ensure that 

research findings are available to support ongoing design decisions.

To that end, wind tunnel aerodynamic tests and aeroacoustic tests have been performed on six 

airfoils that are candidates for use on small wind turbines. Results are documented in two 

companion NREL reports.

Wind Tunnel Aeroacoustic Tests of Six Airfoils for Use on Small Wind Turbines, 

Stefan Oerlemans, Principal Investigator, the Netherlands National Aerospace 

Laboratory.

Wind Tunnel Aerodynamic Tests of Six Airfoils for Use on Small Wind Turbines,

Michael Selig, Principal Investigator, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 

(UIUC).

A similar effort was undertaken for three airfoils that are candidates for use on large wind 

turbines. Results are reported in the following NREL report and in various conference papers.

Aeroacoustic Testing of Wind Turbine Airfoils, William Devenport and Ricardo 

Burdisso, Principal Investigators, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State 

University.

These reports provide valuable airfoil databases for designers who wish to consider the airfoils 

tested.

1

Predicting the aeroacoustic emission spectra of a particular airfoil shape is extremely difficult, 

but predicting the aerodynamic characteristics of a particular airfoil shape is routine practice. 

Nevertheless, there is always some uncertainty about the accuracy of the predictions in comparison to the results of wind tunnel tests or field performance, and there are questions about the 

efficacy of two principal airfoil analysis methods: the Eppler and XFOIL codes. To address these 

Inevitably, however, designers will want to evaluate other airfoils that have not been 

tested. And not only are wind tunnel tests expensive, it is often difficult to schedule the facilities 

required within the overall time frame of a project development plan. This dilemma begs the 

question “Is it really necessary to conduct wind tunnel tests, or can we rely on theoretical 

predictions?”

 1 The extensive test data discussed in these reports can be provided in electronic format by the NWTC library (303-

384-6963).
iv

related issues, at least in part, a theoretical analysis was commissioned of the same airfoils tested 

in the wind tunnel. The results are documented in the following NREL report.

Theoretical Aerodynamic Analyses of Six Airfoils for Use on Small Wind Turbines 

Using Eppler and XFOIL Codes, D.M. Somers and M.D. Maughmer, Principal 

Investigators, Airfoils, Inc.

Possessing both theoretically predicted aerodynamic characteristics and wind tunnel test data for 

the same six airfoils provides an extraordinary opportunity to compare the performance, 

measured by energy capture, of wind turbine rotors designed with the different data. This will 

provide the insight needed to assist designers in deciding whether to pursue wind tunnel tests.

Although some differences in the resulting blade planforms (chord and twist distributions) can be 

expected, a more important question relates to the difference in energy capture and its 

significance in driving the choices that need to be made during the preliminary design stage. 

These issues are addressed in a report that compares the differences in Eppler and XFOIL 

predictions to the UIUC wind tunnel tests and examines the planform and energy capture 

differences in resulting blade designs.

Comparison of Optimized Aerodynamic Performance of Small Wind Turbine 

Rotors Designed with Theoretically Predicted versus Experimentally Measured 

Airfoil Characteristics, Michael Selig, Principal Investigator, University of 

Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC).

Another research effort undertaken in support of the U.S. wind turbine industry involves a series 

of aeroacoustic field tests conducted at the NWTC. Using well documented, consistently applied 

test procedures, noise spectra were measured for eight small wind turbine configurations. Test 

results provide valuable information to manufacturers as well as potential users of these turbines. 

To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive database of noise data for small wind turbines.

The results of this effort are documented in another NREL report.

Aeroacoustic Field Tests of Eight Small Wind Turbines, J. van Dam and A. 

Huskey, Principal Investigators, NREL’s National Wind Technology Center.

Wind tunnel tests, field tests and theoretical analyses provided useful information for 

development and validation of a semi-empirical noise prediction code developed at NREL. This 

effort is described in the following reports.

Semi-Empirical Aeroacoustic Noise Prediction Code for Wind Turbines, 

P. Moriarty and P. Migliore, Principal Investigators, NREL’s National Wind 

Technology Center.

Prediction of Turbulent Inflow and Trailing-Edge Noise for Wind Turbines,

P. Moriarty, G. Guidati and P. Migliore, Principal Investigators, NREL 

subcontracted research.

The codes will be continuously improved, but ultimately could give way to more sophisticated, 

physics-based computational aeroacoustic codes also being developed by NREL and its 

subcontractors. For example, researchers at Florida State University (FSU) and the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) applied modern computational methods to 

analyze wind turbine blade tip noise. This work was reported in the journal article listed below.
v

Large-Eddy Simulation of Wing Tip Vortex on Overset Grids, Ali Uzun and 

Yousuff Hussaini of FSU and Craig Streett of the NASA Langley Research 

Center, Principal Investigators.

In addition, a comprehensive research effort at the Pennsylvania State University was reported in 

a series of conference papers and other writings, including:

An Aeroacoustic Analysis of Wind Turbines, Philip Morris, Lyle Long and Ken 

Brentner, Principal Investigators;

A 3D Parabolic Equation Method for Wind Turbine Noise Propagation in Moving 

Inhomogeneous Atmosphere, R. Cheng, Philip Morris and Ken Brentner, Principal 

Investigators;

Rotational Effects on the Aerodynamics and Aeroacoustics of Wind Turbine 

Airfoils, Steven Miller and Philip Morris, Principal Investigators; and

3-D Time-Accurate Inviscid and Viscous CFD Simulations of Wind Turbine Rotor 

Flow Fields, Nilay Sezer-Uzol, Ankur Gupta and Lyle Long, Principal 

Investigators.

Many of the documents described above are published as NREL reports. Some results are 

presented in various journal articles or conference papers. All of the NREL reports will be 

available on NREL’s Web site at http://www.nrel.gov/publications/. Collectively, these reports 

represent a significant compendium of information on the aerodynamics and aeroacoustics of 

contemporary wind turbines.

Clearly, this work represents a significant commitment of DOE resources as well as a significant 

commitment of personnel over an extended period. We are sure we express the sentiments of all 

the research participants in saying we sincerely hope the results of these efforts prove beneficial 

to the wind energy community.

Paul G. Migliore

NREL/NWTC Project Manager, Retired

Patrick Moriarty

NREL/NWTC Project Manager
vi

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the National Renewable 

Energy Laboratory (NREL), in particular Dr. Pat Moriarty and Dr. Paul Migliore, through grant 

ZAM-4-33226-01. The support of the Office of Naval Research (under grants N00014-05-1-

0464 and N00014-04-1-0493) and its technical monitor, Dr. Ronald Joslin also is gratefully

acknowledged.
vii

List of Acronyms

CFD computational fluid dynamics

CMM coordinate measuring machine

MDF medium-density fiberboard

NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory

SNR signal-to-noise ratio

SPL sound pressure level
viii

Table of Contents

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ix

List of Tables..........................................................................................................................xxvi

1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................1

2. Apparatus and Instrumentation.............................................................................................1

2.1. Stability Wind Tunnel.........................................................................................................1

2.2. Anechoic System ................................................................................................................3

2.2.1. Physical Layout..........................................................................................................3

2.2.2. Calibration Information ...........................................................................................11

2.3. Airfoil Models...................................................................................................................15

2.4. Aerodynamic Instrumentation ..........................................................................................19

2.4.1. Reference Conditions...............................................................................................19

2.4.2. Airfoil Pressure Distributions..................................................................................20

2.4.3. Airfoil Wake Measurements....................................................................................20

2.4.4. Hot-Wire Anemometry ............................................................................................22

2.5. Acoustic Instrumentation..................................................................................................24

3. Aerodynamic Results and Discussions..............................................................................31

3.1. Mean Pressure Distributions.............................................................................................32

3.2. Wake Measurements.......................................................................................................111

3.3. Trailing-Edge Boundary-Layer Properties .....................................................................129

4. Acoustic Results and Discussions ...................................................................................172

4.1. Average Noise Spectrum ................................................................................................172

4.2. Acoustic Maps ................................................................................................................172

4.3. Integrated Spectrum........................................................................................................172

4.4. Empty-Tunnel Results ....................................................................................................175

4.5. Airfoil Results.................................................................................................................177

4.5.1. Small Chord NACA 0012 Airfoil..........................................................................177

4.5.2. NACA 0012 Airfoil ...............................................................................................182

4.5.3. Delft DU96 Airfoil.................................................................................................201

4.5.4. Risø B1-18 Airfoil .................................................................................................204

4.5.5. S831 Airfoil ...........................................................................................................209

4.5.6. Airfoil Trailing-Edge Noise Comparison ..............................................................216

5. Summary..............................................................................................................................218

6. References...........................................................................................................................220

Appendix A. Wing Section Measurements ...........................................................................222

Appendix B. Definition of One-Twelfth Octave Bands ........................................................235

Appendix C. Normalized Noise Spectra................................................................................236

C.1. Small Chord NACA 0012 Airfoil ..................................................................................237

C.2. NACA 0012 Airfoil........................................................................................................238

C.3. Delft DU96 Airfoil.........................................................................................................240

C.4. Risø B1-18 Airfoil..........................................................................................................241

C.5. NREL S831 Airfoil ........................................................................................................242
ix

List of Figures

Figure 1. Photograph (a) and plan-view schematic (b) of the Virginia Tech Stability Tunnel in 

anechoic configuration; photo shows connection to Randolph Hall through metal building 

at center of picture (a pressure-sealed steel room, containing the test section and 

operating console)............................................................................................................... 2

Figure 2. Plan view cross-section of the anechoic system as installed, showing the test section 

flanked by the two anechoic chambers (dimensions in meters); areas of the test-section 

sidewalls that are acoustically treated are shown in blue ................................................... 4

Figure 3. Cross section of the anechoic chambers and test section looking downstream 

(dimensions in meters)........................................................................................................ 5

Figure 4. Exterior view of the anechoic test section with the acoustic windows and the port side 

anechoic chamber removed; starboard-side anechoic chamber visible in the background 6

Figure 5. View of the lower wall of the wind tunnel test section, as configured for the July 2007 

entry, showing the collar used to hold one end of the airfoil support tube (note that the 

Kevlar acoustic windows that form the sidewalls of this part of the test section have been 

removed) ............................................................................................................................. 7

Figure 6. Airfoil model mounted in the test section as configured for the July 2007 entry, as seen 

from downstream; identical support and panel arrangements are used on the lower and 

upper walls.......................................................................................................................... 8

Figure 7. Airfoil model mounted in the test section as configured for the November-December 

2007 entry, as seen from downstream (note the end plates on airfoil model and the 

partially installed trailing-edge hot-wire traverse).............................................................. 8

Figure 8. Photo of the central portion of acoustic test section with the starboard-side anechoic 

chamber and Kevlar acoustic window removed (the port-side acoustic window); an airfoil 

model installed with end plates and the trailing-edge hot-wire traverse 

are visible ............................................................................................................................ 9

Figure 9. Photo matching Figure 5, but taken from beneath the test section showing the collar 

and bearing arrangement that form the airfoil-mount bearing arrangement..................... 10

Figure 10. Out-of-flow noise levels in the starboard-side anechoic chamber 1.9 m from the 

center of the acoustic window (2.7 m from the test-section center) as a function of flow 

speed in the empty test section (a) 1-Hz bandwidth SPL, and (b) 1-Hz bandwidth 

A-weighted SPL................................................................................................................ 12

Figure 11. Attenuation of sound passing through the (a) acoustic Kevlar windows and 

(b) boundary layer as a function of frequency in one-third octave bands ........................ 14

Figure 12. Mean pressure distribution on a 0.91-m chord NACA 0012 airfoil model positioned 

at the same location as the airfoils in the current test and at a geometric angle of attack 

of 10.4°.............................................................................................................................. 15

Figure 13. Comparison of airfoil section shapes (to scale), circles at the leading edges show 

leading-edge radius; table compares leading-edge radius and thickness to 

chord ratios........................................................................................................................ 16

Figure 14. “Soiled” trip applied to the leading edge of the DU96 airfoil; top shows wide-angle 

view of leading edge looking downstream, bottom shows detail of the leading edge 

with a schematic cross section showing the region of application ................................... 19

Figure 15. Photograph of the traverse gear mounted in the anechoic test section (looking 

upstream)........................................................................................................................... 21
x

Figure 16. Dwyer 160 Pitot static probe in straight configuration (dimensions in mm) .............. 21

Figure 17. Pitot static-probe rake detail (dimensions in mm)....................................................... 22

Figure 18. Photographs of the hot-wire traverse........................................................................... 23

Figure 19. Microphone arrays used in the two test entries (a) star array and (b) equal-aperture 

spiral array ........................................................................................................................ 25

Figure 20. Microphone phased-array patterns.............................................................................. 26

Figure 21. Array (a) resolution or beamwidth and (b) signal-to-noise ratio in one-twelfth octave 

bands for the 500 Hz to 5,000 Hz frequency range at a distance of 3.0 m; flow in the 

tunnel section is not accounted for in these results........................................................... 27

Figure 22. Star-array point-spread function for one-twelfth octave bands with center frequencies 

at (a) 542.4 Hz, (b) 1024.0 Hz, (c) 2048.0 Hz, and (d) 4096.0 Hz at a distance of 3.0 m 

(flow in the tunnel section is not accounted for in these results)...................................... 28

Figure 23. Position of the equal-aperture spiral array position on the starboard-side used 

during the July entry ......................................................................................................... 29

Figure 24. Position of the star array on the port side used during the November-December 

entry .................................................................................................................................. 30

Figure 25. Measurement locations and coordinate systems for the tests; Z coordinate measured 

from center-span out of the paper..................................................................................... 31

Figure 26. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 0° effective angle of attack 

and a Reynolds number of 1,030,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; 

(a) pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus 

edge length (s/c)................................................................................................................ 36

Figure 27. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 0° effective angle of attack 

and a Reynolds number of 1,450,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 37

Figure 28. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 0° effective angle of attack 

and a Reynolds number of 3,070,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols pressure indicate side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 38

Figure 29. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 0.4° effective angle of attack 

and a Reynolds number of 1,490,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 39

Figure 30. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 8.1° effective angle of attack 

and a Reynolds number of 1,480,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 40
xi

Figure 31. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 8.1° effective angle of attack 

and a Reynolds number of 1,520,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 41

Figure 32. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -4.7° effective angle of attack and 

a Reynolds number of 3,200,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 42

Figure 33. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -4° effective angle of attack and 

a Reynolds number of 3,200,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 43

Figure 34. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -3.5° effective angle of attack and 

a Reynolds number of 2,980,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 44

Figure 35. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,130,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction 

side, open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; 

(a) pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus 

edge length (s/c)................................................................................................................ 45

Figure 36. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -2.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,090,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 46

Figure 37. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -2° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,570,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 47

Figure 38. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -1.6° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,600,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 48

Figure 39. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -1.3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,020,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction 

side, open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 49
xii

Figure 40. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -1.9° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,000,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction 

side, open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 50

Figure 41. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 2.7° effective angle of attack 

and a Reynolds number of 2,940,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; 

(a) pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 51

Figure 42. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 2.9° effective angle of attack and 

a Reynolds number of 1,510,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 52

Figure 43. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,200,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

........................................................................................................................................... 53

Figure 44. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 3.3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,550,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

........................................................................................................................................... 54

Figure 45. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 3.3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,940,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

........................................................................................................................................... 55

Figure 46. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 3.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,040,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction 

side, open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 56

Figure 47. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 4.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,900,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

........................................................................................................................................... 57

Figure 48. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 5.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,030,000 with the soiled trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 58
xiii

Figure 49. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 5.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,550,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

........................................................................................................................................... 59

Figure 50. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 5.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,500,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction 

side, open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 60

Figure 51. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 5.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,920,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

........................................................................................................................................... 61

Figure 52. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 6° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,170,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

........................................................................................................................................... 62

Figure 53. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 6° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,250,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction 

side, open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 63

Figure 54. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 11° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,640,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 64

Figure 55. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 11° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,110,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 65

Figure 56. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 11.5° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,540,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 66

Figure 57. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 13° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,200,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 67
xiv

Figure 58. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at -4.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,560,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 69

Figure 59. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at -4.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,840,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 70

Figure 60. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at -0.9° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,610,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 71

Figure 61. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,600,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 72

Figure 62. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,580,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 73

Figure 63. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,540,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 74

Figure 64. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,850,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 75

Figure 65. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 6.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,930,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 76

Figure 66. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 6.7° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,500,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction 

side, open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 77
xv

Figure 67. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 7° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,870,000 with the soiled trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; 

(a) pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus 

edge length (s/c)................................................................................................................ 78

Figure 68. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 7.2° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,530,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 79

Figure 69. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 7.2° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,860,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction 

side, open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; 

(a) pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus 

edge length (s/c)................................................................................................................ 80

Figure 70. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,610,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 81

Figure 71. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,190,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 82

Figure 72. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 10.2° effective angle of attack and 

a Reynolds number of 1,530,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 83

Figure 73. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 10.2° effective angle of attack and 

a Reynolds number of 2,850,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 84

Figure 74. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 12° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,570,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 85

Figure 75. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 12° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,150,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 86
xvi

Figure 76. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -7.5° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,060,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 88

Figure 77. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -7.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,500,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 89

Figure 78. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -7.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,510,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 90

Figure 79. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -7.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,060,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 91

Figure 80. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -4.5° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,620,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 92

Figure 81. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -2° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,570,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 94

Figure 82. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -1.7° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,050,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 95

Figure 83. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -0.9° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,480,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 96

Figure 84. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 4.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,620,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 97
xvii

Figure 85. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 4.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,190,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 98

Figure 86. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 5.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,490,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ........................................................................................................................ 99

Figure 87. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 5.0° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,150,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ...................................................................................................................... 100

Figure 88. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 5.9° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,510,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ...................................................................................................................... 101

Figure 89. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 6.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,980,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ...................................................................................................................... 102

Figure 90. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 6.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,020,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction 

side, open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) 

pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ...................................................................................................................... 103

Figure 91. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 8.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,100,000 with the soiled trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; 

(a) pressure plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ...................................................................................................................... 104

Figure 92. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 7.6° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,130,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ...................................................................................................................... 105

Figure 93. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,620,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge 

length (s/c) ...................................................................................................................... 106
xviii

Figure 94. Definition of the edge-length (s) and of the nomenclature for the force and 

moment calculations....................................................................................................... 107

Figure 95. Integrated lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the NACA 0012........ 107

Figure 96. Integrated moment coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the 

NACA 0012 .................................................................................................................... 108

Figure 97. Integrated lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the B1-18 .................. 108

Figure 98. Integrated moment coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the B1-18.......... 109

Figure 99. Integrated lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the DU96 .................. 109

Figure 100. Integrated moment coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the DU96 ........ 110

Figure 101. Integrated lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the S831.................. 110

Figure 102. Integrated moment coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the S831.......... 111

Figure 103. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the NACA0012 at a Reynolds number of 1,510,000 and 0° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 114

Figure 104. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c=3.74 

downstream of the NACA 0012 at a Reynolds number of 1,450,000 and 8.1° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 114

Figure 105. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 1,470,000 and 2.9 ° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 115

Figure 106. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 3° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 116

Figure 107. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 1,490,000 and 5.8° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 116

Figure 108. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 6° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 117

Figure 109. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 1,650,000 and 6° effective angle of 

attack, serrated-tape trip.................................................................................................. 118

Figure 110. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 3,170,000 and 6° effective 

angle of attack, serrated-tape trip.................................................................................... 118

Figure 111. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 1,540,000 and 3.1° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 119

Figure 112. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 3,170,000 and 3° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 120

Figure 113. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 1,540,000 and 7.2° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 120
xix

Figure 114. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 7° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 121

Figure 115. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 1,610,000 and 7° effective 

angle of attack, serrated-tape trip.................................................................................... 121

Figure 116. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 3,150,000 and 7° effective 

angle of attack, serrated-tape trip.................................................................................... 122

Figure 117. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 3,120,000 and 7° effective 

angle of attack, soiled trip............................................................................................... 122

Figure 118. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 1,580,000 and –2° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 123

Figure 119. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 3,220,000 and -2° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 124

Figure 120. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 1,570,000 and -5° effective 

angle of attack, no trip .................................................................................................... 124

Figure 121. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 3,220,000 and 5° effective angle 

of attack, no trip .............................................................................................................. 125

Figure 122. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 3,240,000 and 5° effective angle 

of attack, serrated-tape trip ............................................................................................. 125

Figure 123. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 

downstream of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 3,270,000 and 5° effective angle 

of attack, soiled trip......................................................................................................... 126

Figure 124. Control volume used for drag analysis based on wake profiles.............................. 126

Figure 125. Integrated drag coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the NACA 0012 ... 127

Figure 126. Integrated drag coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the B1-18.............. 127

Figure 127. Integrated drag coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the DU96.............. 128

Figure 128. Integrated drag coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the S831................ 128

Figure 129. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm 

downstream of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,550,000 and 3° effective 

angle of attack, no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence 

intensity, (b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............. 132

Figure 130. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm 

downstream of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,550,000 and 3° effective 

angle of attack, no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence 

intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............. 134
xx

Figure 131. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm |

downstream of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,560,000 and 6° effective 

angle of attack, no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence 

intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............. 135

Figure 132. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm 

downstream of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,560,000 and 6° effective 

angle of attack, no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence 

intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............. 136

Figure 133. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 19 mm upstream

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,600,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 137

Figure 134. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 19 mm upstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,570,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, no 

trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 138

Figure 135. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 3° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity;

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 140

Figure 136. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 3° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 141

Figure 137. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,140,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 142

Figure 138. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,140,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 143

Figure 139. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,100,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, 

serrated-tape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 144

Figure 140. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,100,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, 

serrated-tape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 145

Figure 141. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,600,000 and 3.1° effective angle of attack, 

serrated-tape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 147
xxi

Figure 142. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,600,000 and 3.1° effective angle of attack, 

serrated-tape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 148

Figure 143. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the DU96 airfoil 16.2 mm upstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,580,000 and 3.1° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 149

Figure 144. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the DU96 airfoil 16.2 mm upstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,570,000 and 3.1° effective angle of attack, no 

trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 150

Figure 145. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,560,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 151

Figure 146. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,560,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 152

Figure 147. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,140,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 153

Figure 148. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,140,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 154

Figure 149. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,130,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, 

serrated-tape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 155

Figure 150. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,130,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, 

serrated-tape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 156

Figure 151. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,550,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 158

Figure 152. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,550,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 159
xxii

Figure 153. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 16.2 mm upstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,590,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 160

Figure 154. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 16.2 mm upstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,630,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 161

Figure 155. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,570,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 162

Figure 156. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,570,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations (note thick flow 

preventing determination of, and normalization on, boundary-layer parameters).......... 163

Figure 157. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,130,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 164

Figure 158. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,130,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 165

Figure 159. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,180,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 166

Figure 160. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,180,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, 

no trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 167

Figure 161. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,620,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, 

serrated-tape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 168

Figure 162. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,620,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, 

serrated-tape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations (note thick 

separated flow preventing determination of, and normalization on, boundary-layer 

parameters)...................................................................................................................... 169
xxiii

Figure 163. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, 

serrated tape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations.............................. 170

Figure 164. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, 

serrated-tape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; 

(b) autospectra of velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations (note thick 

separated flow preventing determination of, and normalization on, boundary-layer 

parameters)...................................................................................................................... 171

Figure 165 (a) Beamforming measurement plane for the computation of the acoustic maps; 

(b) typical acoustic map and color scale for airfoil noise level ...................................... 173

Figure 166. Beamforming measurement volume for the computation of the integrated 

spectrum to estimate trailing-edge noise......................................................................... 174

Figure 167 (a) Average noise spectrum for empty tunnel in one-twelfth octave bands; and 

(b) levels normalized using the sixth power of the flow velocity; tunnel entry: 

July 2007 (black), November-December (blue) 2007 .................................................... 176

Figure 168. Integrated spectrum for 0.2-m chord NACA0012 airfoil for both tripped and 

no-trip conditions at nominal chord Reynolds numbers (a) 500,000 and 

(b) 625,000...................................................................................................................... 178

Figure 169. Trailing-edge noise spectra in the one-third octave band measured by Brooks et al. 

(solid black lines) in an open-jet wind tunnel for a 22.86-cm-chord airfoil in flow with a 

speed of 39.6 m/s and measured in the VT Stability Wind Tunnel for a 20-cm-chord 

airfoil (red solid dots) in a flow with a speed of 40.5 m/s, at angles of attack of (a) 0° 

and (b) 5.3° ..................................................................................................................... 180

Figure 170. Acoustic maps for tripped small 0.2-m chord NACA 0012 airfoil at 5.3° AoA at 

40 m/s flow speed (Re = 500,000); acoustic maps are in one-third octave bands.......... 181

Figure 171. Acoustic maps for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° AoA at 28.5 m/s flow 

speed (scale: one-twelfth octave bands) ......................................................................... 185

Figure 172. Acoustic maps for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° AoA at 28.5 m/s flow speed 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands).................................................................................... 186

Figure 173. Acoustic maps for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° AoA at 28.5 m/s flow 

speed (scale: one-twelfth octave bands) ......................................................................... 187

Figure 174. Acoustic maps for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° AoA at 28.5 m/s flow 

speed (scale: one-twelfth octave bands) ......................................................................... 188

Figure 175. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 0°, 2°, and 4°effective 

“AoA for 28 m/s, 42m/s, and 54 m/s; nominal chord Reynolds number from 1,500,000 

to 3,200,000 (scale: one-twelfth octave bands); tunnel entry data for July 2007 (black) 

and November-December 2007 data (blue and green) ................................................... 189

Figure 176. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 0° effective AoA 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands); tunnel entry data for July 2007 (black).................... 190

Figure 177. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 2° effective AoA 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands); tunnel entry data for July 2007 (black) and 

November-December 2007 (blue) .................................................................................. 191
xxiv

Figure 178. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° (blue) and -4° (green) 

effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: NovemberDecember 2007).............................................................................................................. 191

Figure 179. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 6° (blue) and -6° (green) 

effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: NovemberDecember 2007).............................................................................................................. 193

Figure 180. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 8° (blue) and -8° (green) 

effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: NovemberDecember 2007).............................................................................................................. 194

Figure 181. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at -10° (green) effective AoA 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: November-December 2007); note that 

the trailing-edge noise for 10° AoA was not observed................................................... 195

Figure 182. Acoustic maps for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at -12° and 12° AoA at 28.3 m/s 

flow speed (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: NovemberDecember 2007).............................................................................................................. 196

Figure 183. Integrated spectrum for untripped (black) and tripped (red) NACA 0012 airfoil 

at 0° effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007) ............ 197

Figure 184. Integrated spectrum for untripped (black and blue) and tripped (red) NACA 0012 

airfoil at 2° effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 

(black and red) and November-December (blue) 2007)................................................. 198

Figure 185. Integrated spectrum for untripped (blue) and tripped (red) NACA 0012 airfoil at 

4° effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July (red), 

November-December (blue) 2007)................................................................................. 198

Figure 186. Integrated spectrum for untripped (green) versus tripped (red) NACA 0012 airfoil 

at -8° effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: NovemberDecember 2007).............................................................................................................. 200

Figure 187. Integrated spectrum for untripped DU96 airfoil at 3°, 6°, 7, 8°, and 10° effective 

AoA for 28 m/s, 42 m/s, and 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number: 1,500,000–

3,200,000). Single result for 12° effective AoA is for 54 m/s (blue). (scale: one-twelfth 

octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007) ........................................................................... 203

Figure 188. Integrated spectrum for untripped (black) and tripped (red) DU96 airfoil at 3°, 6°, 7°, 

8°, and 10° effective AoA for 28 m/s, 42 m/s, and 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds 

number: 1,500,000–3,200,000) (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: 

July 2007)........................................................................................................................ 204

Figure 189. Integrated spectrum for untripped B1-18 airfoil at (a) 3°, 6°, 7°, and 8° and (b) 8°, 

10°, 11°, and 13° effective AoA for 28 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number: 

1,500,000) (scale one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007) ........................... 206

Figure 190. Integrated spectrum for untripped B1-18 airfoil at -4°, 3°, 6°, 7°, 8°, 11°, and 13° 

effective AoA for 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number: 3,200,000) (scale onetwelfth octave bands. Tunnel entry: July (black) and Nov.-Dec. (blue) 2007) .............. 207

Figure 191. Integrated spectrum for untripped (black) and tripped (red) Risø airfoil at (a) 3° and 

(b) 3° effective AoA for 28 m/s and 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number 1,500,000–

3,200,000) (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007).......................... 208
xxv

Figure 192. Integrated spectrum for untripped S831 airfoil at -7°, -2°, 0°, 3°, 5°, 6°, 7°, and 8° 

effective AoA for 28 m/s and 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number 1,500,000–

3,200,000) (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July (black), NovemberDecember (blue) 2007) ................................................................................................... 210

Figure 193. Integrated spectrum for untripped S831 airfoil as a function of AoA at (a) 28 m/s 

and (b) 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number 1,500,000–3,200,000) (scale: onetwelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007)............................................................... 211

Figure 194. Acoustic maps for (a) S831 airfoil at -7° effective AoA at 28 m/s (Re = 1,500,000) 

and (b) two-dimensional CFD solution showing a separation bubble near the leading 

edge on the pressure side ................................................................................................ 213

Figure 195. Acoustic maps for S831 airfoil at 5° effective AoA at 54 m/s (Re = 3,200,000): 

(a) no trip, (b) tripped, (c) soiled..................................................................................... 214

Figure 196. Integrated spectrum for untripped (black) and tripped (red) S831 airfoil at (a) -2° 

and (b) 5° effective AoA for 28 m/s and 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number 

1,500,000–3,200,000) (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007)........ 215

Figure 197. Integrated spectrum for untripped (a) NACA0012, (b) DU96, (c) Risø, and 

(d) S831 airfoils at Reynolds numbers of 1,500,000 and 3,200,000 .............................. 217

Figure 198. Integrated spectrum for untripped and tripped (a) NACA 0012, (b) DU96, 

(c) Risø, and (d) S831 airfoils at Reynolds number of 1,500,000 and 3,200,000 .......... 218

Figure 199. FARO Fusion Arm CMM used for measuring the manufactured wing models..... 222

Figure 200. Comparison between measured and design profiles of the NACA 0012 airfoil; 

(a) Direct comparison between measured and design profiles, (b) profile difference 

(defined as the distance between measured and design profiles along the direction normal 

to the measured section), (c) vortex panel method pressure distributions obtained from 

the measured and design profiles at an effective angle of attack of 8°........................... 224

Figure 201. Comparison between measured and design profiles of the B1-18 airfoil; (a) the direct 

comparison between measured and design profiles is not included, (b) profile difference 

(defined as the distance between measured and design profiles along the direction normal 

to the measured section), (c) vortex panel method pressure distributions obtained from 

the measured and design profiles at an effective angle of attack of 8°........................... 226

Figure 202. Comparison between measured and design profiles of the DU96 airfoil; (a) direct 

comparison between measured and design profiles, (b) profile difference (defined as the 

distance between measured and design profiles along the direction normal to the 

measured section), (c) vortex panel method pressure distributions obtained from the 

measured and design profiles at an effective angle of attack of 8°................................. 228

Figure 203. Comparison between measured and design profiles of the S831 airfoil; (a) direct 

comparison between measured and design profiles, (b) profile difference (defined as the 

distance between measured and design profiles along the direction normal to the 

measured section), (c) vortex panel method pressure distributions obtained from the 

measured and design profiles at an effective angle of attack of 8°................................. 230

Figure 204. Graphic representation of one-twelfth octave bands............................................... 235

Figure 205. Normalized integrated spectrum for tripped 0.2 chord NACA 0012 ...................... 237

Figure 206. Normalized integrated spectrum for tripped 0.2 chord NACA 0012 ...................... 238

Figure 207. Normalized integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 .................................. 239

Figure 208. Normalized integrated spectrum for tripped NACA 0012 ...................................... 240

Figure 209. Normalized integrated spectrum for untripped DU96............................................. 240
xxvi

Figure 210. Normalized integrated spectrum for tripped DU96................................................. 241

Figure 211. Normalized integrated spectrum for untripped B1-18............................................. 241

Figure 212. Normalized integrated spectra for tripped B1-18.................................................... 242

Figure 213. Normalized integrated spectra for untripped S831.................................................. 242

Figure 214. Normalized integrated spectra for tripped S831...................................................... 243

List of Tables

Table 1. Free-Stream Turbulence Levels in the Empty Hard-Wall Test Section of the Stability 

Tunnel as a Function of Flow Speed (measured May 2006); Turbulence Levels Are 

Based on Spectral Integrations that Exclude Electrical Noise at Frequencies Exceeding 

100 Hz; Low Frequency Cut-Off is Selected to Remove Obvious Flow Unsteadiness 

(When the Spectrum Inflects), and High-Frequency Cut-Off is Chosen at the 

Spectrum Minimum ............................................................................................................ 3

Table 2. Nominal Chordwise Locations (x/c) of Pressure Taps on Both Sides of the 

Airfoil Models................................................................................................................... 17

Table 3. Test Matrix for the NACA 0012 Surface-Pressure Measurements ................................ 32

Table 4. Test Matrix for the B1-18 Surface-Pressure Measurements........................................... 32

Table 5. Test Matrix for the DU96 Surface-Pressure Measurements........................................... 33

Table 6. Test Matrix for the S831 Surface-Pressure Measurements ............................................ 33

Table 7. Test Matrix for the Wake Measurements ..................................................................... 111

Table 8. Test Matrix for the Hot-Wire Measurements ............................................................... 129

Table 9. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased Array Measurements of Empty Tunnel .............. 175

Table 10. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased-Array Measurements of Small 

NACA 0012 Airfoil ........................................................................................................ 177

Table 11. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased Array Measurements of NACA 0012 Airfoil... 182

Table 12. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased Array Measurements of DU96 Airfoil ............. 201

Table 13. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased Array Measurements of Risø B1-18 Airfoil..... 205

Table 14. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased Array Measurements of S831 Airfoil............... 209

Table 15. Measured Pressure Taps Location for the NACA 0012 Model.................................. 231

Table 16. Measured Pressure Taps Location for the DU96 Model ............................................ 232

Table 17. Measured Pressure Taps Location for the S-831 Model............................................. 233
1

1. Introduction

The aeroacoustic noise produced by wind turbines is a significant environmental factor affecting 

their deployment and operation. Quieter wind turbines can be sited closer to population centers 

where their power is needed, and can be deployed in greater numbers in such locations. Making

such turbines requires not only better physical understanding of the sources and mechanisms of 

noise production, but also the development of an experimental database of measurements that 

allows designers to balance aerodynamic and aeroacoustic performance when selecting an airfoil. 

Additionally, the measurements can be used to improve and validate aeroacoustic prediction 

methods. One of the principal hurdles in initiating and expanding such a database is the lack of 

aerodynamic and acoustic data at realistic Reynolds numbers.

The Advanced Turbulent Flow Research Group and the Vibrations and Acoustics Laboratories of 

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) undertook an extensive 

aerodynamic and acoustic experimental study of three wind turbine airfoils (0.914-m chord) 

provided by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). An NACA 0012 airfoil of the 

same chord also was tested extensively. The testing took place at the Virginia Tech Stability 

Wind Tunnel in its newly developed anechoic configuration. The main goal of this research 

effort was to obtain measurements of the aeroacoustic properties of these airfoils over a range of 

conditions, providing the foundation of the aeroacoustic database needed by wind-turbine 

designers. The tests were performed in two tunnel entries, July 2007 and November-December

2007; most of the aerodynamic and acoustic data were collected during the first entry.

For each model, data were collected at various effective angles of attack ranging from zero lift to 

stall condition (-7° to 14° depending on the airfoil), and various flow speeds ranging from 28 m/s 

to 66 m/s for nominal chord Reynolds numbers of 1,500,000 to 3,800,000. For certain measurements the model boundary layers were tripped. Researchers conducted aerodynamic flow 

measurements consisting of static-pressure distributions on the airfoil surfaces, wake-profile 

measurements downstream of the mid-span of the airfoil, and single hot-wire measurements in 

the vicinity of the trailing edge. The noise measurements consisted of far-field acoustic data 

using two 63-microphone phased array systems.

This report is organized into five sections. The facility, aerodynamic and acoustic instrumentation, and the airfoil models are described below in the “Apparatus and Instrumentation” section. 

The aerodynamic and acoustic results are presented in Section 3 and Section 4, respectively. The 

last section is a brief summary of the work performed.

2. Apparatus and Instrumentation

This report presents results obtained as the result of two wind tunnel entries conducted during 

July 2007 and November-December 2007. If changes were made to the apparatus and 

instrumentation between the entries, then both systems are described. The results associated with 

each wind tunnel entry are distinguished in the subsequent sections.

2.1. Stability Wind Tunnel

All tests were performed in the Virginia Tech Stability Wind Tunnel. This facility is a 

continuous, single-return, subsonic wind tunnel with 7.3-m long removable rectangular test 
2

sections of square cross section that is 1.83 m on edge. The general layout is illustrated in 

Figure 1.

Figure 1. Photograph (a) and plan-view schematic (b) of the Virginia Tech Stability Tunnel in 

anechoic configuration; photo shows connection to Randolph Hall through metal building at 

center of picture (a pressure-sealed steel room, containing the test section and operating console)

The tunnel is powered by a 0.45-MW variable-speed DC motor driving a 4.3-m propeller at 

speeds as great as 600 rpm. This provides a maximum speed in the test section (with no blockage) of about 75 m/s and a Reynolds number per meter up to about 5,000,000. The tunnel forms 

a closed loop but has an air exchange tower open to the atmosphere to allow for temperature 

stabilization. The air exchange tower is located downstream of the fan and motor assemblies. 

Air exchange 

tower

Control room

0.5MW Drive and Fan

Steel control room

Flow

Flow

Acoustic test section

Anechoic chambers

3m
3

Downstream of the tower, the flow is directed into a 5.5-m × 5.5-m settling chamber containing 

7 turbulence-reducing screens each with an open area ratio of 0.6 and separated by 0.15 m. Flow 

exits this chamber through the 9:1 contraction nozzle, which further reduces turbulence levels 

and accelerates the flow to test speed. At the downstream end of the test section, flow passes into 

a 3° diffuser. Sixteen 0.16-m high-vortex generators arranged at intervals of 0.39 m around the 

floor, walls, and ceiling of the flow path at the entrance to the diffuser serve to mix momentum 

into the diffuser boundary layer, minimizing the possibility of separation and the consequent 

instability and inefficiency. The 4 corners in the flow path (2 between the air exchange tower and 

settling chamber, and 2 between diffuser and fan) are equipped with diagonal arrays of shaped 

turning vanes. Spacing between the vanes is 0.3 m, except in the corner immediately before the 

settling chamber where the spacing is 0.076 m.

The test section itself is located in a hermetically sealed steel building (Figure 1). The pressure 

inside this control room is equalized with the static pressure in the test-section flow, this being 

below atmospheric by an amount roughly equal to the dynamic pressure. Pressure is equalized 

through a small aperture in the tunnel sidewall at the upstream entrance to the diffuser.

Flow through the empty test section (measured with a hard-wall test section in place) is both 

closely uniform and of very low turbulence intensity. Table 1 contains recent (2006) 

measurements of free-stream turbulence levels as a function of flow speed. Turbulence levels are 

as low as 0.016% at 12 m/s and increase gradually with flow speed. Choi and Simpson (1987)

measured the lateral integral scales of the streamwise velocity in both the horizontal (Lz) and 

vertical (Ly) directions. They found Lz = 56 mm for 15 m/s and 28 mm for 37.5 m/s, and Ly =

122 mm for 15 m/s and 25 mm for 37.5 m/s.

Table 1. Free-Stream Turbulence Levels in the Empty Hard-Wall Test Section of the Stability 

Tunnel as a Function of Flow Speed (measured May 2006); Turbulence Levels Are Based on 

Spectral Integrations that Exclude Electrical Noise at Frequencies Exceeding 100 Hz;

Low Frequency Cut-Off is Selected to Remove Obvious Flow Unsteadiness (When the Spectrum 

Inflects), and High-Frequency Cut-Off is Chosen at the Spectrum Minimum

Freestream 

Velocity

V [m/s]

RMS Streamwise 

Fluctuations

u'/V

Frequency Range 

fR [Hz]

12 0.016% 7–250

21 0.021% 24–725

30 0.024% 33–2,186

48 0.029% 40–3,641

57 0.031% 75–5,112

2.2. Anechoic System

2.2.1. Physical Layout

The Stability Wind Tunnel is unique in that it has an anechoic system that can be installed and 

removed as needed. The anechoic system permits acoustic as well as aerodynamic flow 

measurements and was used for all tests reported here. The anechoic system consists of an 

acoustic test section flanked by 2 anechoic chambers (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3).
4

Figure 2. Plan view cross-section of the anechoic system as installed, showing the test section 

flanked by the two anechoic chambers (dimensions in meters); areas of the test-section sidewalls 

that are acoustically treated are shown in blue

To

Diffuser

Port 

chamber

Starboard 

chamber

4.21

2.57

1.83

5.6

Foam transition

Door

Door

Kevlar acoustic window

Kevlar over 

perforate 

floor/ceiling 

panels
5

Figure 3. Cross section of the anechoic chambers and test section looking downstream 

(dimensions in meters)

The acoustic test section is shown in Figure 2 to Figure 7. The test section consists of 

acoustically treated upper and lower walls that run the full 7.3-m length of the test section and 

partial sidewalls (also treated) at the test-section entrance and exit. Large rectangular openings in 

the sidewalls which extend 4.2 m in the streamwise direction and cover the full 1.83-m height of 

the test section serve as acoustic windows (Figure 4). Sound generated in the test flow exits the 

test section through these into the anechoic chambers to either side. Large tensioned panels of 

Kevlar cloth cover these openings, permitting the sound to pass and containing the bulk of the 

flow. The test-section arrangement thus acoustically simulates a half-open jet. The Kevlar 

windows eliminate the need for a jet catcher and, by containing the flow, substantially reduce the 

lift interference when airfoil models are placed into the test flow. This arrangement is unique to 

the Virginia Tech Stability Wind Tunnel and, like the anechoic system itself, is a relatively 

recent innovation.

Port 

chamber

Starboard 

chamber

Test Section

8.26

2.44

Do

or

Kevlar 

acoustic 

windows

Kevlar 

over 

perforate 

floor/ceilin

g panels 

and 0.46-

m wedges

6.10

Upper 

segment

Lower 

Segment

Platform
6

Figure 4. Exterior view of the anechoic test section with the acoustic windows and the port side 

anechoic chamber removed; starboard-side anechoic chamber visible in the background
7

Figure 5. View of the lower wall of the wind tunnel test section, as configured for the July 2007 

entry, showing the collar used to hold one end of the airfoil support tube (note that the Kevlar 

acoustic windows that form the sidewalls of this part of the test section have been removed)

The upper wall of the test section is formed from a series of perforated steel-sheet panels bonded 

to a layer of Kevlar cloth, forming a smooth, quiet, but acoustically transparent flow surface. The 

volume behind this flow surface is filled with 0.457-m–high foam wedges that eliminate any 

acoustic reflections at frequencies greater than 190 Hz. For the two wind-tunnel entries reported 

here, the construction of the lower wall of the test section was the same as the upper wall with 

one exception. For the November-December entry, a 1.83-m × 0.84-m section of the acoustically 

treated lower wall immediately around the model mount was replaced by medium-density 

fiberboard (MDF) panels (Figure 7, Figure 8). The MDF panels can be removed and replaced, 

this provides access through which models can be installed more easily. The partial sidewalls 

(Figure 2) include 150-mm deep acoustic absorbers filled with a combination of melamine foam 

and fiberglass insulation and covered with a tensioned Kevlar flow surface.

Direction of flow

Removable floor panels 

around model support Collar used to hold and 

trap airfoil model 

support tube
8

Figure 6. Airfoil model mounted in the test section as configured for the July 2007 entry, as seen 

from downstream; identical support and panel arrangements are used on the lower and 

upper walls

Figure 7. Airfoil model mounted in the test section as configured for the November-December 

2007 entry, as seen from downstream (note the end plates on airfoil model and the partially 

installed trailing-edge hot-wire traverse)

Metal tape used 

to seal and fair 

gap between the 

upper and lower 

walls and the 

ends of the 

airfoil model
9

The upper and lower walls contain hardware for the (vertical) mounting of two-dimensional 

airfoil models. For the July 2007 entry, simple split-aluminum collars located just below the test 

section floor and just above its ceiling were used to hold—and trap at a given angle—an 

88.9-mm diameter airfoil-model support tube (see Figure 5, Figure 6). The collars were mounted 

using steel beams embedded in the upper and lower walls to the test section structure. The same 

collar assembly was used at the upper wall of the test section for the November-December entry. 

At the lower wall, however, a more-sophisticated bearing system was employed (Figure 9). The 

bearing system was designed to fit the same 88.9-mm tube, but allowed for the more rapid 

installation and removal of models and easier rotation to angle of attack.

Figure 8. Photo of the central portion of acoustic test section with the starboard-side anechoic 

chamber and Kevlar acoustic window removed (the port-side acoustic window); an airfoil model 

installed with end plates and the trailing-edge hot-wire traverse are visible

Both mounting systems place the axis of the mounting tube midway between the acoustic 

windows (i.e., test-section sidewalls) and 3.56 m from the upstream end of the test section. To 

date, all airfoil models tested in the anechoic test section have been built to completely span the 

vertical height of the test section with a tube of this size protruding from both spanwise ends. 

Starboard side 

acoustic window

Acoustically 

treated upper wall

Foam wedges

Foam wedges

Acoustically 

treated lower wall

Hard wall portion 

of lower wall

Support collar and bearing for 

airfoil beneath hard wall portion

Airfoil model

Upper endplate Hotwire traverse
10

The axis of the tube—and thus the axis of rotation—of the model is located one quarter of the 

distance from the leading to trailing edge.

Figure 9. Photo matching Figure 5, but taken from beneath the test section showing the collar and 

bearing arrangement that form the airfoil-mount bearing arrangement

Plain-weave Kevlar 120 cloth (7.9 grams/m2) is used to form the acoustic windows. This use of 

the material was pioneered by Jaeger et al. (2000). They investigated different means of shielding a phased-array microphone system embedded in the wall of a test section. They found that, 

up to at least 25 kHz, this cloth transmits sound with very little attenuation. The Stability Tunnel 

is the first anechoic wind tunnel to employ this technology on a facility scale. The Kevlar cloth 

forming the acoustic windows is stretched on a 5.37-m × 2.51-m tensioning frame to a tension of 

the order of 0.5 tonnes per linear meter. The Kevlar windows are sewn from 3 lengths of Kevlar 

cloth. When mounted, the two 40-mm-wide seams run streamwise along the test section 0.19 m 

to 0.28 m below the upper wall and a similar distance above the lower wall.

Support collar for airfoil 

model

Bearing used to control 

rotation to angle of 

attack

Hard wall portion of lower 

test section wall

Airfoil pressure tubing
11

Two anechoic chambers are positioned on either side of the test section (Figure 2, Figure 3, 

Figure 4). Each chamber extends 5.6 m in the streamwise direction. The internal width of each 

chamber is 2.6 m (out from the test section acoustic window), and the internal length is 4.2 m in 

the streamwise direction. The chamber walls are constructed from medium density fiberboard 

(MDF) supported by a network of external steel beams, and are lined internally with 0.610-mhigh acoustic foam wedges that eliminate acoustic reflections at frequencies greater than 140 Hz. 

Quarter-elliptical foam sections surround the acoustic windows so as to form a smooth transition 

between the lower and upper walls of the test section on the inside of the windows, and the 

acoustically treated walls of the anechoic chambers on the outside of the acoustic windows. The 

chamber sections are designed to seal to the sides of the test section and minimize (if not 

eliminate) any net flow through either acoustic window.

2.2.2. Calibration Information

The anechoic system was constructed and installed in the Stability Wind Tunnel in 2006. Work

on the system, the acoustic treatment of the rest of the tunnel circuit, and the calibration of the 

facility is ongoing. Details of the calibration are given in Crede (2008), Staubs (2008), 

Remillieux, Camargo, Burdisso (2007), and Remillieux et al. (2008), and are summarized here. 

Figure 10 shows empty test-section background sound pressure levels (SPL) in the starboard-side 

anechoic chamber as a function of flow speed. Noise levels in the port-side chamber are nearly 

identical. These measurements were made 1.9 m from the center of the starboard-side acoustic 

window using a single 12.7-mm diameter B&K microphone. Note that at the slowest speed 

(11.2 m/s) the tunnel is quiet enough that the spectrum is dominated by the electrical noise of the 

microphone system and thus, in this specific case, the overall shape of this spectrum should not 

be taken as an indicator of actual acoustic levels. Background noise levels that are less than 

200 Hz mostly are associated with fan tones. Background noise levels greater than 200 Hz 

primarily are broadband and believed to be due to a combination of noise sources including the 

fan, turning vanes, and scrubbing noise from flow surfaces in and around the test section.
12

Figure 10. Out-of-flow noise levels in the starboard-side anechoic chamber 1.9 m from the center 

of the acoustic window (2.7 m from the test-section center) as a function of flow speed in the 

empty test section (a) 1-Hz bandwidth SPL, and (b) 1-Hz bandwidth A-weighted SPL

10

2

10

3

10

4

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

f(Hz)

SPL

Out of flow noise, 1.9m from the center of starboard acoustic window

U∞=11.2m/s

U∞=21.6m/s

U∞=30.5m/s

U∞=41.5m/s

U∞=50.2m/s

U∞=57.1m/s

10

2

10

3

10

4

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

f(Hz)

A-weighted SPL

Out of flow noise, 1.9m from the center of starboard acoustic window

U∞=11.2m/s

U∞=21.6m/s

U∞=30.5m/s

U∞=41.5m/s

U∞=50.2m/s

U∞=57.1m/s

(a)

(b)
13

In an effort to accurately determine the absolute noise levels of the model tested, an initial

procedure for amplitude calibration of the microphone phased array was developed for this new 

facility. In addition to determining the array sensitivity, corrections were made to account for the 

noise-attenuation effects of the Kevlar and the shear layer by Remillieux et al. (2007). The 

correction factors to account for the loss through the shear layer and the Kevlar window must be 

added to the array output. That is:

SPLTrue (dB) = SPLMeasured + ΔK + ΔF.

Where the actual level at the array position is SPLTrue (dB), the array output is SPLMeasured and ΔK

and ΔF denote the corrections for the losses through the Kevlar window and the flow effects, 

respectively.

Figure 11(a) and (b) shows the corrections ΔK and ΔF as a function of frequency in one-third 

octave bands. In these figures, a positive value of the curve indicates a loss (in decibels). Due to 

the small noise source used in this calibration, results that are less than 2,500 Hz are not very 

reliable. In Figure 11(a), the losses through the Kevlar window should converge to zero at low 

frequencies, and thus the results were curve fitted (dashed line). Figure 11(b) depicts the losses 

due to the boundary layer at Mach 0.12 (solid curve), Mach 0.15 (dashed curve), and Mach 0.17 

(smaller-dashed curve) as a function of frequency. The results indicate a weak dependence of the 

losses with frequency while increasing with flow speed.
14

Figure 11. Attenuation of sound passing through the (a) acoustic Kevlar windows and 

(b) boundary layer as a function of frequency in one-third octave bands

Figure 12 shows sample mean pressure measurements made on a 0.91-m chord NACA 0012 

airfoil positioned in the test-section center at an angle of attack of 10.3°. The pressure distribution closely matches panel-method predictions for an angle of attack of 8.1°, suggesting an 

interference correction of -22%. A consistent correction is seen at other flow speeds, angles of 

attack, and with other airfoils of the same chord length.

(a)

(b)

Curve Fitting
15

Figure 12. Mean pressure distribution on a 0.91-m chord NACA 0012 airfoil model positioned at 

the same location as the airfoils in the current test and at a geometric angle of attack of 10.4°

Consistent with this, a detailed comparison of the measured and predicted pressure distributions 

along with panel-method simulations shows no sign of any camber correction, implying that the 

effects of the Kevlar windows on the airfoil flow are confined to the aerodynamic far field. The 

interference correction is a result of the slight residual flow through the Kevlar windows and the 

windows’ deflection under the pressure load imposed by flow field around the airfoil. Direct 

measurements show the windows’ deflection increasing with flow speed and airfoil angle of 

attack. When the NACA 0012 airfoil is at this angle of attack and with a flow speed of 28 m/s, 

the maximum deflection is close to 40 mm. Pressure-difference measurements suggest a 

maximum flow velocity through the Kevlar windows of between 5% and 10% of the free-stream 

velocity when under this condition. Boundary-layer measurements on the test-section walls show 

a boundary-layer thickness of about 100 mm at the downstream end of the windows with no 

model present, and a thickness of about 135 mm for the NACA 0012 model at 0° angle of attack. 

As with all closed-section tunnels, the blockage associated with a model, the viscous wake it 

sheds, and any viscous flows it produces at the walls of the test section, result in some 

acceleration of free-stream flow between the test-section entrance and exit. When the NACA 

0012 model is at 8° effective angle of attack, this acceleration increases the free-stream velocity 

by about 3.5% from the entrance to the exit of the test section.

2.3. Airfoil Models

Aerodynamic and acoustic measurements were performed on 4 airfoil models with NACA 0012, 

Risø B1-18, DU96, and S831 (developed by NREL) sections. Section shapes, except for the 

proprietary B1-18 airfoil, are shown in Figure 13, which also includes a comparison of airfoil 

thicknesses and leading-edge radii. Note that, with the exception of the NACA 0012, all the 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

NACA0012, Re=1480000, α

geom

=10.39o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

Pressure-side

Suction-side

Panel method, α=8.1042o, Cl=0.96036
16

airfoils are 18% thick. Leading-edge radii vary by a factor of 5, however, from the very sharp 

leading edge of the S831 (0.42% chord radius) to the rounded B1-18 (2.19% chord radius).

The models, constructed by Novakinetics LLC, were designed to span the complete vertical 

height of the test section. These models have a 1.8-m span and 914-mm chord, and are built 

around 88.9-mm diameter steel tube that forms a spar centered on the quarter-chord location. The 

models have fiberglass composite skin and a fill of fiberboard and polyurethane foam. The steel 

tube projects 166 mm past the ends of each airfoil and was used for mounting. Novakinetics 

proof tested the NACA 0012 model to a load of 27 kN evenly distributed across the span—this 

being much greater than the maximum expected aerodynamic load. Deflection at this load at 

center span was approximately 5 mm.

Figure 13. Comparison of airfoil section shapes (to scale), circles at the leading edges show 

leading-edge radius; table compares leading-edge radius and thickness to chord ratios

Models were instrumented with approximately 80 pressure taps having 0.5-mm internal diameter 

located near the mid-span. The nominal chordwise locations of the pressure taps were the same 

NACA 0012

rle /c t/c

NACA 0012 0.0172 0.12

S831 0.0042 0.18

DU96 0.0089 0.18

B1-18 0.0219 0.18

S831

DU96
17

on all the airfoils and on both sides of each airfoil (listed in Table 2). The taps appeared free 

from burrs and other defects. The taps were connected internally to 1.6-mm Tygon tubing that 

exited the model through the center of the steel tube. To provide access to the interior of the 

model in the area of the pressure taps, a hatch was provided on one side of the model and fixed 

in place by countersinking a series of flathead bolts into the airfoil surface. Both bolt heads and 

the slight step at the edge of hatch were covered with 0.05-mm Scotch tape during testing.

Table 2. Nominal Chordwise Locations (x/c) of Pressure Taps on Both Sides of the Airfoil Models

0.00E+00 7.50E-02 3.50E-01 7.50E-01

2.50E-03 1.00E-01 3.75E-01 8.00E-01

5.00E-03 1.25E-01 4.00E-01 8.50E-01

7.50E-03 1.50E-01 4.25E-01 9.00E-01

1.00E-02 1.75E-01 4.50E-01 9.20E-01

1.25E-02 2.00E-01 4.75E-01 9.40E-01

1.50E-02 2.25E-01 5.00E-01 9.60E-01

1.75E-02 2.50E-01 5.50E-01 9.80E-01

2.00E-02 2.75E-01 6.00E-01

2.50E-02 3.00E-01 6.50E-01

5.00E-02 3.25E-01 7.00E-01

A coordinate measuring machine (CMM), manufactured by FARO (Fusion model) was used to 

compare the machined profile shapes provided by Novakinetics to the model airfoils. 

Measurements were made at 4 locations across the span (1⁄4 span, midspan, 3⁄4 span, and at the 

pressure taps access hatch). Measurements showed maximum deviations of 5 mm (0.6% chord) 

from the design profiles. Pressure tap locations were also measured. A standard linear vortex 

panel method, similar to that described by Kuethe and Chow (1986), was used to investigate the 

influence of these geometry variations on the pressure distributions. The panel method results, as

well as all the CMM measurements are reported in Appendix A.

During testing the airfoil models were mounted vertically in the test section (as shown in Figure 

6 and Figure 7), with the leading edge 3.33 m downstream of the test section entrance and 

perpendicular to the oncoming flow. For the July 2007 wind tunnel entry (Figure 6), the gaps 

between the ends of the model and the upper and lower test-section walls were covered and 

faired using aluminum foil tape. Support for the tape over the larger gap at the upper wall was 

provided by acoustic foam pieces—cut to the airfoil profile—that were placed into the gap 

before tape was applied. For the November-December tunnel entry tape was not used, and 

instead end plates were attached to both ends of the model (Figure 7). These plates were 1.68-m 

long in the chordwise direction, 0.66-m wide, and had semicircular ends of radius 0.33 m. The 

plates were attached to the ends of the model and rotated with it to the angle of attack. At the 

edges of the endplates, the roughly 20-mm step to the surrounding wind tunnel wall was faired 

using closed-cell foam strips with a quarter-circle cross section mounted around the periphery of 

the end plates. The end plates reduced noise and improved the aerodynamics of the flow 

generated at the junctions between the airfoil models and upper and lower walls.

The zero geometric angle of attack of the models was determined using the measured pressure 

distribution, and is discussed below. For the July 2007 entry, angles relative to zero were 
18

determined by measuring the location of the trailing edge on the lower wall of the test section. 

For the November-December entry, relative angles were set by using a lever arm and scale 

arrangement attached to the bearing below the test section. The accuracy of changes in angle of 

attack was estimated to be ±0.3° in both cases.

For certain measurements, the model boundary layers were tripped to ensure a stable and 

spanwise uniform transition location and a fully turbulent boundary layer at the trailing edge. 

Two different types of trip were used. The first, fabricated from serrated trip tape (GlasfaserFlugzeug-Service GmbH 3D Turbulator Tape), was applied along the entire span with its leading 

edge at the 5% chord location on the airfoil suction side, and at the 10% chord location on the 

pressure side. The tape has a thickness of 0.5 mm and is 12 mm in overall width. The leading and 

trailing edges were cut to form aligned serrated edges with a 6-mm distance between points. The 

second consisted of a random distribution of Number 60 silicon carbide grit particles, applied in 

a 100-mm-wide spanwise band centered on the leading edge. The grit size and pattern were 

designed to simulate a soiling of the airfoil leading edge caused by insects. The trip was 

fabricated on 100-mm-wide 0.1-mm-thick double-sided tape. Grit was applied to one side of the 

tape using a template manufactured by NREL so as to provide a repeatable panel, the other side 

of the tape then was smoothly applied to the model. Figure 14 shows this “soiled” trip applied to 

the leading edge of one of the airfoil models. The density of grit locations is about 5 per square 

centimeter near the leading edge, and 1.5 per square centimeter near the edge of the trip. Note 

that, when applied, the soiled trip covered only the middle half-span of the airfoil models.
19

Figure 14. “Soiled” trip applied to the leading edge of the DU96 airfoil; top shows wide-angle view 

of leading edge looking downstream, bottom shows detail of the leading edge with a schematic 

cross section showing the region of application

2.4. Aerodynamic Instrumentation

2.4.1. Reference Conditions

During all measurements, various tunnel flow conditions were monitored. Flow speed was 

monitored using an 8-mm diameter reference Pitot static probe located near the exit of the 

Leading 

edge line

0.1-mm thick double 

sided tape

Silicon 

Carbide Grit

100mm
20

contraction. The probe was positioned 0.035 m upstream of the test-section entrance, 1.22 m 

from the floor, and 0.23 m from the port-side wall. The free-stream dynamic pressure was sensed 

using a Setra Model 239 pressure transducer. Temperature in the test section was monitored 

using an Omega Thermistor type 44004 (accuracy ±0.2°C) and the ambient absolute pressure 

was determined using a Validyne DB-99 Digital Barometer (resolution 0.01" Hg).

2.4.2. Airfoil Pressure Distributions

A series of Setra model 239 pressure transducers (with ranges of ±7.5" H2O, ±15" H2O, and 

±2.5 psi) were used to measure static pressures on the airfoil surfaces. These transducers were 

zeroed and calibrated against each other to minimize errors associated with difference in offset 

and sensitivity. Pressures from the taps on the airfoil model surfaces were directed through a 

Scanivalve system for measurement. The pressure from each tap—converted to voltage by the 

transducer—was measured simultaneously with the reference dynamic pressure, using a 16-bit 

Agilent E1432 Digitizer. After switching the Scanivalve and allowing the pressure to settle for 

0.5 seconds, 5 records of 1,024 samples were measured at a sampling rate of 3,200 Hz, over a 

total sampling time of 3 seconds, to determine the mean pressure.

2.4.3. Airfoil Wake Measurements

The two-axis wind tunnel traverse shown in Figure 15 was used to position wake probes in the 

test section. To determine airfoil drag, wake profiles were measured downstream of the mid-span 

of the airfoil models at X/c = 3.74. The traverse was mounted inside the test section and 

produced an overall solid blockage of about 10%. Probes were mounted well upstream of the 

traverse to avoid the region of flow acceleration associated with the blockage. Wake profiles 

were measured using a rake of 5 Dwyer model 160 Pitot–static probes. These 3.18-mm diameter 

probes—which normally include a 90° bend—were specially made in the straight configuration 

shown in Figure 16. The 5 probes were held at 25.4-mm intervals across the flow using the 

bracket shown in Figure 17. The bracket, in turn, was held using a 32-mm diameter sting 

attached to the traverse gear. Total distance from the upstream end of the traverse to the tips of 

the probes was close to 1.4 m, the probe tips being approximately 340 mm upstream of the 

bracket. To prevent relative movement of the probe tips a thin spacer (made of aluminum tape) 

was used to tie the probes together between 100 mm and 150 mm from the probe tips.

Ten Omega Model PX277-30D5V pressure transducers set to a range of ±7.5 in of water were 

used to sense the pressures from the 5 probes relative to the wind tunnel free-stream static 

pressure. Voltage outputs from the 10 transducers along with that from the wind tunnel reference 

transducer were recorded using the 16-bit Agilent E1432 Digitizer (described above). A single 

Agilent VEE program was used to control the data acquisition, the traverse position, and the data 

processing and saving. The 5 stagnation and 5 static-pressure coefficients sensed by the probe 

rake were calculated by averaging 30,000 samples of the pressure transducer outputs recorded at 

a rate of 3,200 Hz. To set the transducer offsets, profile measurements were made with no flow

before each rake occurred. For the July 2007 entry, measurements were made with the probe 

rake oriented in the spanwise direction so as to simultaneously measure 5 profiles at slightly 

different spanwise stations. During the November-December entry, measurements were made 

with the probe rake oriented perpendicular to the span so that the 5 probes simultaneously 

recorded pressures from 5 different positions across the same wake profile, minimizing the 

number of profile points needed.
21

Figure 15. Photograph of the traverse gear mounted in the anechoic test section

(looking upstream)

Figure 16. Dwyer 160 Pitot static probe in straight configuration (dimensions in mm)

405

27

3.2

Static ports

Pitot port
22

Figure 17. Pitot static-probe rake detail (dimensions in mm)

2.4.4. Hot-Wire Anemometry

Hot-wire profiles were measured in the vicinity of the trailing edge of the B1-18, DU96, and 

S831 airfoils using single hot-wire probes. These measurements all were made as part of the 

November-December 2007 entry. The probes were positioned using the specially built traverse 

shown in Figure 18.

The traverse was powered by 2 synchronized stepper-motor driven linear stages mounted to the 

airfoil endplates downstream of the trailing edge. Probes were held using a 12.7-mm thick strut 

mounted across the airfoil span some 330 mm downstream of its trailing edge. The strut 

connected the 2 stages and traversed with them. A single angle bracket rigidly held the 4.6-mm 

diameter hot-wire probe stem positioning the hot-wire at mid-span immediately downstream of 

the trailing edge. Additional diagonal beams (also 12.7-mm thick) attached to the strut above and 

below the probe (see Figure 18) and connected to the stages added rigidity to the probe support 

to minimize vibration. A further non-traversing 25.4-mm-thick strut with rounded leading and 

trailing edges was attached 180 mm downstream of the probe support, fixing the distance 

between the stages. The entire assembly rotated to angle of attack with the airfoil and endplates. 

One shortcoming of this traverse arrangement was that the traverse structure experiences an 

unsteady loading when the airfoil wake impinges on one or both of the spanwise struts. This 

loading could lead to probe vibration. Although this vibration could not be observed directly 

(probes were monitored using a video camera located on the test-section wall), there is some 

evidence in spectral measurements made at certain conditions. This evidence is discussed below, 

along with the presentation of results.

A straight-type single hot-wire probe, either an Auspex AHWU-100 or a TSI type 1210-T1.5, 

was used for all measurements. Probes were balanced and operated using a Dantec 90C10 

Streamline Bridge System and used to obtain mean velocity, turbulence quantities, and spectra. 

Probes Bracket

Sting

Tape spacer

~100

~340
23

The Agilent E1432 16-bit digitizer was used for data acquisition. Hot-wire calibration, 

traversing, and the data acquisition all were controlled using Agilent VEE programs written at 

Virginia Tech. Flow temperature was monitored continuously during hot-wire measurements, 

and corrections were made using the method developed by Bearman (1971).

Figure 18. Photographs of the hot-wire traverse

Hot-wire measurements were used to reveal the flow and turbulence structure in the trailing-edge 

boundary layer relative to the local-edge velocity (defined as 98% of the free-stream velocity), 

rather than in absolute terms. For this reason hot-wire probes could be calibrated by positioning 

(a)

(b)

Endplate 

with 

translation 

stage 

attached

Traverse 

struts

Airfoil

Probe 

support 

strut

Diagonal 

strut

Downstream 

strut

Probe stem

Bracket

Hotwire 

sensor
24

them in the potential flow region outside the airfoil boundary layer (saving much test time). In 

this case, the hot-wire was calibrated by determining its output voltage as a function of the tunnel 

free-stream speed, and fitting this to King’s law of convective heat transfer with an exponent of 

0.45. King’s Law assumes that the correlation between the convective heat loss of a hot-wire and 

the flow velocity are related:

E2

= A + Bun

where E is the sensor voltage, u the velocity, n the exponent, and A, B are constants.

Although the flow speed at the calibration points was not equal to the tunnel free stream, speeds 

were expected to be closely proportional. In effect, this means that subsequent hot-wire velocity 

and turbulence measurements (after dividing by the tunnel free-stream velocity) were obtained 

normalized on the velocity at the calibration point Ucal. Except for conditions where no 

boundary-layer edge could be observed (such as stall), data subsequently were renormalized on 

the observed edge velocity Ue.

Each boundary-layer hot-wire profile consisted of measurements at some 40 points, typically 

covering about 60 mm in the direction normal to the trailing edge. At most points, mean velocity 

and turbulence intensity were obtained by averaging approximately 20 records each of 

1,024 points measured at a rate of 3,200 Hz. At every fifth point, 50 records of 1,024 points were 

recorded at a rate of 51,200 Hz, so that low-uncertainty velocity spectra also could be calculated.

2.5. Acoustic Instrumentation

Acoustic data were collected using 2 microphone phased arrays (shown in Figure 19). The equalaperture spiral was used in the July tunnel entry and the star array in the November-December 

tunnel entry. Both arrays have 63 microphones arranged in 7 arms with 9 microphones per arm. 

The inside and outside diameters are 0.25 m and 1.5 m for the star array and the equal-aperture 

spiral has diameters of 0.1 m and 1.47 m, respectively. The array patterns are shown in Figure 

20. The array center bodies have a laser pointer that projects a laser dot along a line perpendicular to the array plane passing through the array origin. This laser pointer is used for alignment 

purposes. Both arrays have the same type of microphones and signal conditioning. The microphones are Panasonic WM-60AY Electret and have a flat frequency response in the 200 Hz to 

18,000 Hz range. The microphone signal rolls off steeply at 18 kHz. The microphone signal 

conditioning has a high-pass filter with a corner frequency of approximately 200 Hz. A key 

difference between these arrays is in the microphone structural mounting. In the equal-aperture 

spiral array the microphones are mounted on a very stiff honeycomb plate, and the star array uses 

carbon-composite tubes. The acoustically reflective surface of the equal-aperture spiral array 

results in a doubling of the microphone signals. To compare the results between the arrays, the 

output levels of the equal-aperture array must be reduced by 6 dB.
25

Figure 19. Microphone arrays used in the two test entries (a) star array and (b) equal-aperture 

spiral array

(a)

(b)
26

Figure 20. Microphone phased-array patterns

The resolution and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the arrays were determined by computing the 

point-spread function for all the one-twelfth octave bands in the 500 Hz to 5,000 Hz frequency 

range. The resolution and SNR as a function of the frequency for a plane 3 m from the array are

shown for each array in Figure 21. The plots show differences between the arrays. The resolution 

for the equal-aperture spiral array is slightly better than for the star array. The SNR data shows 

(a)

(b)
27

that the equal-aperture array is better at frequencies below 2,000 Hz and the star array is better 

above this frequency.

Figure 21. Array (a) resolution or beamwidth and (b) signal-to-noise ratio in one-twelfth octave 

bands for the 500 Hz to 5,000 Hz frequency range at a distance of 3.0 m; flow in the tunnel section 

is not accounted for in these results

For illustrative purposes, the array point-spread function for the star array at a distance of 3.0 m 

from the arrays is plotted in Figure 22 for 4 one-twelfth octave bands in the frequency range of 

interest. For comparison, the size of the models (1-m chord) is shown in Figure 22(a), where it is 

(b)

(a)

Star Array

Equal-aperture Spiral Array

Star Array

Equal-aperture Spiral Array
28

clear that the spot size at the 542.4-Hz band is larger than for the airfoil chord. Thus, the noise 

sources in the acoustic maps below this band would appear larger than the size of the airfoil. This 

would make the identification of the noise source location very difficult. Additionally, the 

computation of the trailing-edge noise spectrum by integration over the trailing-edge region 

would be inaccurate.

Figure 22. Star-array point-spread function for one-twelfth octave bands with center frequencies at 

(a) 542.4 Hz, (b) 1024.0 Hz, (c) 2048.0 Hz, and (d) 4096.0 Hz at a distance of 3.0 m (flow in the tunnel 

section is not accounted for in these results)

Phased-array data were acquired using a 64-Channel Agilent Data Acquisition System. The raw 

data consists of the time series of the 63 array microphones for each run. Fifty records, each of 

16,384 points, were acquired from each microphone. A sampling frequency of 51,200 Hz was 

used. Acoustic maps were generated using a conventional frequency domain beamforming algorithm with diagonal removal. The algorithm incorporates the convective effect of the flow in the 

test section and the flow velocity discontinuity between the test section and the anechoic chamber. 

This algorithm has been used in previous experiments at Virginia Tech (Remillieux et al. 2007).

(a) 542.4 Hz (b) 1024 Hz

(c) 2048.0 Hz (d) 4096.0 Hz

Airfoil
29

The equal-aperture spiral array was installed in the starboard-side chamber for the cases 

measured during the July entry. The star array was used in the second tunnel entry and installed 

in the port-side chamber. Figure 23 and Figure 24 show the position of the spiral and star arrays

relative to the model, respectively. In all cases, the array was positioned 3 m away from the 

models.

Figure 23. Position of the equal-aperture spiral array position on the starboard-side 

used during the July entry

0.92 m 

(36.5’’)

Center of rotation of 

the airfoil

3.0 m 

(119.85’’)

0.92 m 

(36.5’’)

Center of the array coincident with 

the rotation axis of the airfoil

Top View

Side View

Array

Test Section
30

Figure 24. Position of the star array on the port side used during the 

November-December entry

Center of the array coincident with 

the rotation axis of the airfoil

0.92 m 

(36.5’’)

Center of rotation of 

the airfoil

3.0 m 

(119.85’’)

0.92 m 

(36.5’’)

Top View

Side View
31

3. Aerodynamic Results and Discussions

Figure 25 shows the coordinate systems used in presenting the results of the airfoil tests. The 

chord-aligned airfoil system (x, y) has its origin at the leading edge of the airfoil, that origin 

moving with the leading edge as the angle of attack (α) is varied. This system is used to present 

mean-pressure distributions measured on the airfoil and to define the locations of the trailingedge boundary-layer measurements. The tunnel fixed system (X, Y, Z) has its origin at the midspan of the leading edge when the airfoil is at 0° angle of attack. This system is used for the 

wake and phased-array measurements. In terms of physical orientation in the wind tunnel, the 

view shown in Figure 25 is that seen looking downward along the airfoil span, and the starboardside chamber appears at the top of the diagram.

Figure 25. Measurement locations and coordinate systems for the tests; Z coordinate measured 

from center-span out of the paper

As discussed below, the effective angle of attack origin was determined through measurements 

of the airfoil pressure distributions. The origin of the geometric angle of attack was arbitrarily 

defined to be the same as that of the effective angle of attack (αg and αe both are 0 at the same 

airfoil position). This means that, for a cambered airfoil, a geometric angle of attack of 0 will not 

correspond to the position where the airfoil chord line is aligned with the test-section axis. 

Additionally, due to the interference correction, a variation of 1° in the geometric angle of attack 

results in a 0.78° change in effective angle of attack.

Kevlar window

0.93m

Y

X

x

y

Wake profiles at 

X/c=3.74

Hot-wire trailing edge 

profiles at Z/c=0

Phased array measurements 

from this side

α

U∞
32

It is important to remember that the results presented below were measured as part of two tunnel 

entries and separated by four months. These tunnel entries used different airfoil-mounting 

arrangements and were separated by the complete dismantling and reassembly of the anechoic 

test section and chamber systems. As needed, this report indicates measurement dates and, thus, 

which tunnel entry these measurements were part of (either July 2007 or November-December 

2007). For the most part, data from the two entries appears satisfyingly consistent. Where there 

are differences, they are pointed out and discussed as the data are presented. Measurements made 

during the July tunnel entry were carried out simultaneously with the calibration and understanding of the acoustic test section and its aerodynamic properties, and represent results from the first 

use of much of the hardware described above. In many cases, better understanding derived from 

a test yielded more-accurate estimates of the test conditions and any subsequent correction of the 

measurements. Although these final conditions do not fit as neatly into a test matrix, for the most 

part they do cover the same range of conditions originally intended.

3.1. Mean Pressure Distributions

Table 3 to Table 6 list the cases for which the mean pressure distributions were measured with 

each of the 4 airfoils. Most measurements were made at nominal Reynolds numbers of 

approximately 1,500,000 and 3,000,000, with angles of attack varying from zero lift to stall. In 

many cases, measurements were made both with and without boundary-layer trips.

Table 3. Test Matrix for the NACA 0012 Surface-Pressure Measurements

Date of 

Measurement

Geometric 

AoA αg, deg. 

Effective AoA, 

αe, deg. Chord Re Trip Cl Cm Data File

7/3/2007 0 0 1030000 No trip -0.011 0.004 0012A

7/3/2007 0 0 1450000 No trip -0.007 0.001 0012A

7/2/2007 0.5 0.4 1490000 No trip 0.03 0.001 0012A

7/3/2007 10.4 8.1 1480000 No trip 0.947 -0.012 0012A

7/3/2007 10.4 8.1 1520000 No trip 0.982 -0.018 0012A

7/3/2007 0 0 3070000 No trip -0.012 0 0012A

Table 4. Test Matrix for the B1-18 Surface-Pressure Measurements

Date of 

Measurement

Geometric 

AoA, αg, deg. 

Effective 

AoA, αe, deg. Chord Re Trip Cl Cm Data File

11/28/2007 -2.6 -2 1570000 No trip 0.247 -0.116 B118Cp

11/28/2007 -2.1 -1.6 1600000 No trip 0.271 -0.108 B118Cp

7/13/2007 3.7 2.9 1510000 No trip 0.864 -0.132 B118A

11/28/2007 4.3 3.3 1550000 No trip 1.017 -0.128 B118Cp

7/13/2007 7.4 5.8 1550000 No trip 1.244 -0.135 B118A

11/28/2007 14.2 11 1640000 No trip 1.333 -0.153 B118Cp

7/13/2007 14.8 11.5 1540000 No trip 1.665 -0.138 B118A

11/28/2007 -6 -4.7 3200000 No trip -0.157 -0.096 B118Cp

11/28/2007 -5.2 -4 3190000 No trip -0.075 -0.099 B118Cp

7/24/2007 -4.4 -3.5 2980000 No trip 0.026 -0.111 B118D

7/23/2007 -3.6 -2.8 3090000 No trip 0.098 -0.112 B118D

7/23/2007 3.5 2.7 2940000 No trip 0.901 -0.132 B118D

11/28/2007 3.9 3 3200000 No trip 0.869 -0.125 B118Cp

7/21/2007 4.3 3.3 2940000 No trip 0.901 -0.132 B118B
33

Date of 

Measurement

Geometric 

AoA, αg, deg. 

Effective 

AoA, αe, deg. Chord Re Trip Cl Cm Data File

7/21/2007 6.2 4.8 2900000 No trip 1.114 -0.138 B118B

11/28/2007 7.7 6 3170000 No trip 1.273 -0.13 B118Cp

11/28/2007 14.2 11 3110000 No trip 1.765 -0.12 B118Cp

11/28/2007 16.7 13 3200000 No trip 1.394 -0.165 B118Cp

7/16/2007 7.4 5.8 1500000 Serrated tape 1.195 -0.129 B118A

7/21/2007 -3.8 -3 3130000 Serrated tape 0.126 -0.108 B118C

7/20/2007 -1.7 -1.3 3020000 Serrated tape 0.403 -0.132 B118B

7/20/2007 2.5 1.9 3000000 Serrated tape 0.768 -0.122 B118B

7/23/2007 4.9 3.8 3040000 Serrated tape 0.952 -0.129 B118C

7/21/2007 7.5 5.8 2920000 Serrated tape 1.312 -0.14 B118B

11/28/2007 7.7 6 3250000 Serrated tape 1.231 -0.127 B118Cp

7/24/2007 6.9 5.4 3030000 Soiled trip B118D

Table 5. Test Matrix for the DU96 Surface-Pressure Measurements

Date of 

Measurement

Geometric 

AoA, αg, deg. 

Effective AoA, 

αe, deg. Chord Re Trip Cl Cm Data File

7/16/2007 -5.3 -4.1 1560000 No trip -0.148 -0.04 DU96A

11/30/2007 -1.2 -0.9 1610000 No trip 0.182 -0.047 DU96Cp

11/30/2007 1.3 1 1600000 No trip 0.402 -0.054 DU96Cp

7/16/2007 3.9 3.1 1540000 No trip 0.628 -0.052 DU96A

11/30/2007 3.8 3 1580000 No trip 0.676 -0.061 DU96Cp

7/16/2007 9.2 7.2 1530000 No trip 1.061 -0.062 DU96A

11/30/2007 10.3 8 1610000 No trip 1.165 -0.064 DU96Cp

7/16/2007 13.1 10.2 1530000 No trip 1.228 -0.086 DU96A

11/30/2007 15.4 12 1570000 No trip 1.084 -0.066 DU96Cp

11/30/2007 15.4 12 1590000 No trip 1.087 -0.066 DU96Cp

7/19/2007 -5.3 -4.1 2840000 No trip -0.126 -0.032 DU96B

7/19/2007 3.9 3.1 2850000 No trip 0.578 -0.049 DU96B

7/20/2007 7.9 6.1 2930000 No trip 0.994 -0.067 DU96B

11/30/2007 10.3 8 3190000 No trip 1.072 -0.074 DU96Cp

7/19/2007 13.1 10.2 2850000 No trip 1.215 -0.075 DU96B

11/30/2007 15.4 12 3150000 No trip 1.18 -0.083 DU96Cp

7/18/2007 8.5 6.7 1500000 Serrated tape 0.951 -0.051 DU96B

7/19/2007 9.2 7.2 2860000 Serrated tape 1.078 -0.075 DU96B

7/26/2007 9 7 2870000 Soiled trip DU96C

Table 6. Test Matrix for the S831 Surface-Pressure Measurements

Date of 

Measurement

Geometric 

AoA, αg, deg. 

Effective AoA, 

αe, deg. Chord Re Trip Cl Cm Data File

7/10/2007 -9.1 -7.1 1510000 No trip -0.176 -0.119 S831A1

7/12/2007 -9.1 -7.1 1500000 No trip -0.053 -0.119 S831B

12/3/2007 -5.7 -4.5 1620000 No trip 0.342 -0.171 S831Cp

7/12/2007 -2.6 -2 1570000 No trip 0.471 -0.115 S831B

7/10/2007 -1.1 -0.9 1480000 No trip 0.619 -0.136 S831A1

12/3/2007 5.6 4.4 1620000 No trip 1.106 -0.154 S831Cp
34

Date of 

Measurement

Geometric 

AoA, αg, deg. 

Effective AoA, 

αe, deg. Chord Re Trip Cl Cm Data File

7/10/2007 6.5 5.1 1490000 No trip 1.155 -0.141 S831A1

7/12/2007 7.6 5.9 1510000 No trip 1.131 -0.125 S831B

7/25/2007 -9.6 -7.5 3060000 No trip -0.102 -0.131 S831C

7/12/2007 -9.1 -7.1 3060000 No trip -0.102 -0.131 S831B

7/25/2007 -2.2 -1.7 3050000 No trip 0.506 -0.13 S831C

12/3/2007 5.6 4.4 3190000 No trip 1.256 -0.162 S831Cp

12/3/2007 6.4 5 3150000 No trip 1.327 -0.166 S831Cp

7/25/2007 8.2 6.4 2980000 No trip 1.358 -0.164 S831C

12/3/2007 9.8 7.6 3130000 No trip 1.405 -0.157 S831Cp

7/24/2007 8.2 6.4 3020000 Serrated tape 1.226 -0.135 S831C

7/26/2007 8.2 6.4 3100000 Soiled trip 1.206 -0.135 S831C

The angle of attack origin of each airfoil was determined aerodynamically. After installing the 

airfoil, it was placed approximately (by eye) at zero angle of attack. A trial pressure distribution 

then was measured at a Reynolds number of approximately 3,000,000. The measured mean 

pressure distribution then was compared to a panel-method solution for the airfoil that assumed 

free-flight conditions to establish the actual effective angle of attack. The geometric angle of 

attack was determined using the 22% interference correction from Section 2. After the test 

matrix of pressure measurements was completed, this selection of the geometric angle of attack 

was reassessed by comparing the measured pressure distributions under all conditions with the 

panel-method solution.

The panel method described here is a standard linear-vortex panel method, similar to that 

described by Kuethe and Chow (1986). The method fixes the overall circulation by enforcing 

Kutta condition at the trailing edge. About 200 panels were used to represent the design shapes 

of the airfoils. The method included no means to model the splitter plate or its effects. The 

uncertainty in the zero value of the geometric angle of attack that is determined by comparison 

with the panel method is estimated to be ±0.3o

.

Measured pressure distributions are plotted in Figure 26 to Figure 93 in terms of both chordwise 

distance (x/c) and edge-length (s/c—defined as the distance along the airfoil surface) measured 

from the trailing edge in the clockwise direction (defined in Figure 94). Plotting against s/c

reveals details of the pressure distribution around the leading edge. Edge length is determined 

from chordwise position of the pressure taps using theoretical airfoil shapes. Pressures are 

plotted in terms of the following coefficient.

2

2

1

∞

∞

∞ ∞

∞ − = −

− = U

p p

p p

p p C

o

p ρ

Where p is the local pressure, p0∞ and p∞ are the reference free-stream stagnation and static 

pressures, and U∞ is the free-stream velocity.

The measured pressure distributions were integrated to estimate the lift and moment coefficients. 

To do this, the distributions first were interpolated in terms of edge length to 200 points 

distributed around the airfoil contour. To improve the accuracy of the interpolation around the 
35

stagnation region, a single data point of unit pressure coefficient at the theoretically determined 

stagnation location was added to the experimental data. The coefficients are plotted against effective angle of attack in Figure 95 through Figure 102 and are listed in Table 3 through Table 6. The 

lift coefficient plots include comparison with panel-method predictions. The overall lift and 

moment were not estimated for the cases where a soiled trip was used, because the trip covered 

too many of the pressure ports in the leading-edge region for such estimates to be accurate.

The pressure distributions for the NACA 0012 airfoil (Figure 26 to Figure 31) conform to the 

expectations of the panel-method predictions and largely confirm the free-flight behavior of this 

airfoil in the acoustic test section. The 3 pressure distributions measured at 0° angle of attack 

(Figure 26 to Figure 28) show little discernable influence of Reynolds number over a 3:1 range. 

The effects of a small angle of attack change can be discerned clearly in the pressure distribution 

measured at 0.5° effective angle of attack (Figure 29), the small difference between the upper 

and lower pressure distributions accurately tracks the panel-method solution in this case. The 

measurements at greater angle of attack (Figure 30, Figure 31) appear to confirm the interference 

correction of -22%, the pressure distributions measured at 10.4° geometric angle of attack fall 

very close to those predicted for an effective angle of attack of 8.1°, particularly over the forward 

part of the airfoil. In the trailing-edge region, measured pressures are slightly less than those 

predicted, perhaps as a result of the acceleration of the flow in this (almost) closed test section, 

as discussed above in Section 2. Good agreement between measurement and prediction also is 

seen in the integrated lift coefficients (Figure 95).
36

Figure 26. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 0° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,030,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

NACA0012, Re=1030000, α

geom=0o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
37

Figure 27. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 0° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,450,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

NACA0012, Re=1450000, α

geom=0o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

C

 

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

s/c

 

(a)

(b)
38

Figure 28. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 0° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,070,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

pressure indicate side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

s/c

-Cp

 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

NACA0012, Re=3070000, α

geom=0o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
39

Figure 29. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 0.4° effective angle of attack and 

a Reynolds number of 1,490,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

NACA0012, Re=1490000, α

geom

=0.45455o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
40

Figure 30. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 8.1° effective angle of attack and 

a Reynolds number of 1,480,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

s/c

-Cp

 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

NACA0012, Re=1480000, α

geom=10.39o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
41

Figure 31. Mean pressure distribution on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 8.1° effective angle of attack and 

a Reynolds number of 1,520,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

Pressure distributions for the B1-18 airfoil are organized by increasing angle of attack in Figure 

32 to Figure 57. Corresponding lift and moment coefficient data are shown in Figure 97, Figure 

98, and Table 4. Except at very low and very high angles of attack, the B1-18 airfoil appears to 

behave almost exactly as inviscid theory predicts. Measured lift coefficients and pressure distributions are close to those predicted using the panel method. Effects of Reynolds number and the 

serrated tape trip appear small (c.f. Figure 49 through Figure 53). For the one condition at which 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

NACA0012, Re=1520000, α

geom=10.39o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
42

it was tested (Figure 48), the soiled trip appears to slightly increase the airfoil loading, but produces no qualitative change in the measured pressure distributions. At the largest effective negative angles of attack (Figure 32, Figure 33) the suction-side pressures fail to reach the peak negative values suggested by the panel method, resulting in an overall lift generated by the airfoil that 

is somewhat less than predicted. Indeed, the integrated lift results (Figure 97) show this to be part 

of a larger trend—the measured results deviate from inviscid expectations below about -2°. The 

researchers speculate that viscous flow effects in the leading-edge region might be responsible.

Figure 32. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -4.7° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,200,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

RISO B1-18, Re=3200000, α

geom=-6o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
43

Figure 33. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,200,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

At very high angles of attack, a more dramatic departure is observed as a result of separation of 

the flow from the suction surface. At the higher Reynolds number, the flow over the suction side 

appears almost completely attached at an 11° angle of attack (Figure 55), but is stalled almost 

completely at 13° (Figure 57). At the lower Reynolds number the behavior is more confusing, 

with the flow apparently stalled at 11° (Figure 54), but then partially attached at 11.5° (Figure 

56). It is tempting to eliminate one or other of these results as some sort of experimental error. 

Careful re-examination of the experimental record, however, indicates that this is unlikely. 

Indeed, the low Reynolds number and high Reynolds number 11° results were measured as part 

of the same test run. Instead, researchers suspect that the low Reynolds number high angle of 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

RISO B1-18, Re=3190000, αgeom=-5.2o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
44

attack flow over this airfoil might be sensitive to whether it is developing from a stalled or 

unstalled state as the tunnel is brought to test conditions. The 11° and 11.5° low Reynolds 

number measurements, could have been made at different stages of this stall behavior thus 

resulting in the difference. Such hysteresis in the stall behavior is a definite possibility given that 

they were obtained some 4 months apart as part of the 2 tunnel entries (see Table 4).

Figure 34. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -3.5° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,980,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

B1-18, Re=2980000, α

geom=-4.44o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
45

Figure 35. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,130,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

B1-18, Re=3130000, α

geom=-3.8492o

.Serrated tape trip

x/c

-Cp

C

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
46

Figure 36. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -2.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,090,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

B1-18, Re=3090000, α

geom=-3.59o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
47

Figure 37. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -2° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,570,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

RISO B1-18, Re=1570000, α

geom=-2.6o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
48

Figure 38. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -1.6° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,600,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

RISO B1-18, Re=1600000, α

geom=-2.1o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
49

Figure 39. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -1.3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,020,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

B1-18, Re=3020000, α

geom=-1.6755o

.Serrated tape trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
50

Figure 40. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at -1.9° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,000,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

B1-18, Re=3000000, α

geom=2.4945o

.Serrated tape trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
51

Figure 41. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 2.7° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,940,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

B1-18, Re=2940000, α

geom=3.5o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
52

Figure 42. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 2.9° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,510,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

B1-18, Re=1510000, α

geom=3.69o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
53

Figure 43. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,200,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

RISO B1-18, Re=3200000, α

geom=3.9o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
54

Figure 44. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 3.3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,550,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

RISO B1-18, Re=1550000, α

geom=4.3o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
55

Figure 45. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 3.3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,940,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

B1-18, Re=2940000, α

geom=4.2908o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
56

Figure 46. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 3.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,040,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

B1-18, Re=3040000, α

geom=4.8757o

.Serrated tape trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
57

Figure 47. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 4.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,900,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

B1-18, Re=2900000, α

geom=6.2154o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
58

Figure 48. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 5.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,030,000 with the soiled trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted 

versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

B1-18, Re=3030000, α

geom=6.91o

.Soiled trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
59

Figure 49. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 5.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,550,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

B1-18, Re=1550000, α

geom=7.39o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
60

Figure 50. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 5.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,500,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

B1-18, Re=1500000, α

geom=7.39o

.Serrated tape trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
61

Figure 51. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 5.8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,920,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

B1-18, Re=2920000, α

geom=7.4985o

.Serrated tape trip

x/c

-Cp

 

p

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
62

Figure 52. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 6° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,170,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

RISO B1-18, Re=3170000, α

geom=7.7o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
63

Figure 53. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 6° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,250,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

RISO B1-18, Re=3250000, α

geom=7.7o

.Serrated tape trip

x/c

-Cp

C

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
64

Figure 54. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 11° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,640,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.5 1 1.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

RISO B1-18, Re=1640000, α

geom=14.2o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
65

Figure 55. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 11° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,110,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

RISO B1-18, Re=3110000, α

geom=14.2o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
66

Figure 56. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 11.5° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,540,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

B1-18, Re=1540000, α

geom=14.75o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
67

Figure 57. Mean pressure distribution on the B1-18 airfoil at 13° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,200,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

Integrated lift coefficient values for the DU96 airfoil (Figure 99) show close agreement with the 

inviscid results around the zero lift angle of attack (approximately -3°), that slowly worsens as 

the angle of attack is increased. Over much of the angle of attack range, measured lift 

coefficients are about 10% below those predicted by the panel method. The pressure distributions 

(Figure 58 to Figure 75) show that this difference primarily is due to the suction-side flow, 

particularly over the forward half of the airfoil. Figure 69 is a typical example. The inviscid 

pressure distribution inferred from the design shape is characterized by a plateau region in which 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

RISO B1-18, Re=3200000, α

geom=16.7o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
68

the pressure remains almost constant from the leading-edge region until about the 30% or 40% 

location. Except at the lowest angles of attack, the predicted pressure distribution is consistently 

overestimating this low pressure region. The magnitude of the resulting difference increases with 

increasing angle of attack and appears continuous with the effects of stall. These become clearly 

visible as the angle of attack is increased to 10.2° and 12° (Figure 72 to Figure 75). The soiled 

trip has little qualitative or quantitative effect on the pressure distribution (c.f. Figure 67 and 

Figure 68), whereas the serrated-tape trip slightly worsens the agreement with the panel method 

(see Figure 68, Figure 69).
69

Figure 58. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at -4.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,560,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

DU96, Re=1560000, α

geom=-5.25o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
70

Figure 59. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at -4.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,840,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

DU96, Re=2840000, α

geom=-5.25o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
71

Figure 60. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at -0.9° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,610,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

DU96, Re=1610000, α

geom=-1.2o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
72

Figure 61. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,600,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

DU96, Re=1600000, α

geom=1.3o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
73

Figure 62. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,580,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

DU96, Re=1580000, α

geom=3.8o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
74

Figure 63. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,540,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

DU96, Re=1540000, α

geom=3.94o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
75

Figure 64. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 3° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,850,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

DU96, Re=2850000, α

geom=3.938o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
76

Figure 65. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 6.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,930,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

DU96, Re=2930000, α

geom=7.876o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
77

Figure 66. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 6.7° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,500,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

DU96, Re=1500000, α

geom=8.5335o

.Serrated tape trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
78

Figure 67. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 7° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,870,000 with the soiled trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted 

versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

DU96, Re=2870000, α

geom=8.981o

.Soiled trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
79

Figure 68. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 7.2° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,530,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

DU96, Re=1530000, α

geom=9.19o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
80

Figure 69. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 7.2° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,860,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

DU96, Re=2860000, α

geom=9.19o

.Serrated tape trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
81

Figure 70. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,610,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

0

1

2

3

4

DU96, Re=1610000, α

geom=10.3o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
82

Figure 71. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,190,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

0

1

2

3

4

DU96, Re=3190000, α

geom

=10.3o.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
83

Figure 72. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 10.2° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,530,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

DU96, Re=1530000, α

geom

=13.13o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
84

Figure 73. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 10.2° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,850,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

DU96, Re=2850000, α

geom

=13.128o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
85

Figure 74. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 12° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,570,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

DU96, Re=1570000, α

geom

=15.4o.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
86

Figure 75. Mean pressure distribution on the DU-96 airfoil at 12° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,150,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

DU96, Re=3150000, α

geom

=15.4o.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
87

The pressure measurements with the S831caused considerable upset in the test schedule of the 

first wind tunnel entry. This was the first airfoil tested after the NACA 0012, and immediately it 

was found that the pressure distribution—even at moderate angles of attack—did not correlate 

well with expectations based on the panel method. At that time, researchers had limited 

experience with the facility therefore much time was spent attempting to fix this “problem.” 

Now, with the benefit of hindsight, the researchers realize that the airfoil itself was not performing well over a substantial portion of the test matrix. The measured pressure distributions 

(Figure 76 to Figure 93) show the best agreement with the panel method at near zero lift (close to 

-7°). At -7.5° and -7.1° the inviscid pressure distribution contains a sharp spike near the leading 

edge on the pressure side where, theoretically, the pressure coefficient falls below -7. This spike 

is associated with flow around the rather sharp leading edge of this airfoil from the suction-side 

stagnation point produced at this angle of attack. The flow would not be expected to actually 

achieve such a low pressure but instead to smooth this feature through a local thickening of the 

boundary layer or a region of local separation. Such a region of separation is visible in the low–

Reynolds number measurements (see Figure 77, Figure 78). In particular, a region of nearconstant pressure occupies the first 10% chord of the pressure-side pressure distribution. At high 

Reynolds numbers (Figure 76, Figure 79) the correlation with the panel method is much better, 

the signs of separation in the pressure distribution being much reduced. A good agreement with 

the inviscid calculation is also seen at -4.5° (Figure 80), but not at any greater angles of attack.
88

Figure 76. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -7.5° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,060,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

0

2

4

6

8

S831, Re=3060000, α

geom

=-9.57o.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-2

0

2

4

6

8

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
89

Figure 77. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -7.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,500,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

S831, Re=1500000, α

geom

=-9.1o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
90

Figure 78. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -7.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,510,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

0

2

4

6

8

S831, Re=1510000, α

geom

=-9.1o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-2

0

2

4

6

8

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
91

Figure 79. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -7.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,060,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

0

2

4

6

8

S831, Re=3060000, α

geom

=-9.1o.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-2

0

2

4

6

8

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
92

Figure 80. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -4.5° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,620,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

S831, Re=1620000, α

geom

=-5.7o.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
93

Two different behaviors are seen relative to the panel-method predictions at larger angles of 

attack. The first—clearly seen in Figure 81, but visible in all the pressure distributions measured 

at angles of attack greater than -4.5°—is that the pressure distributions measured aft of 

mid-chord simply fail to follow the predictions; the difference between the pressures on the two 

sides of the airfoils being about half of that expected. Wake measurements (described below) and 

tuft flow visualizations showed this to be the result of a large three-dimensional region of 

separation located on the suction side downstream of mid-chord. The second behavior is seen for 

angles of attack greater than 4°. At approximately this angle of attack, the predicted suction-side 

pressure distribution (e.g., Figure 84) develops a distinct knee or peak in the leading-edge region 

that is followed by a region of almost constant pressure that occupies the forward half of the 

airfoil. At low Reynolds numbers the low pressures predicted for the constant-pressure region 

simply never are achieved, presumably because of viscous effects in the leading-edge region. At 

high Reynolds numbers, the flow does follow this behavior but only up to an angle of attack of 

5°, beyond which the same discrepancy appears. Neither of the two trips seems to have much 

positive impact upon either of these behaviors (c.f. Figure 89 through Figure 91). At all angles of 

attack greater than -4.5°, the integrated lift coefficients fall well below those expected from the 

panel method (Figure 101).
94

Figure 81. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -2° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,570,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

S831, Re=1570000, α

geom=-2.6o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
95

Figure 82. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -1.7° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,050,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

S831, Re=3050000, α

geom

=-2.163o.No trip

x/c

-Cp

C

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
96

Figure 83. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at -0.9° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,480,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

S831, Re=1480000, α

geom=-1.1032o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
97

Figure 84. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 4.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,620,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

S831, Re=1620000, α

geom=5.6o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
98

Figure 85. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 4.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,190,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

S831, Re=3190000, α

geom=5.6o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
99

Figure 86. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 5.1° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,490,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

S831, Re=1490000, α

geom=6.4868o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
100

Figure 87. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 5.0° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,150,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

S831, Re=3150000, α

geom=6.4o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
101

Figure 88. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 5.9° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,510,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

S831, Re=1510000, α

geom=7.6o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
102

Figure 89. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 6.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 2,980,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

S831, Re=2980000, α

geom=8.209o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
103

Figure 90. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 6.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,020,000 with the serrated-tape trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, 

open symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure 

plotted versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

S831, Re=3020000, α

geom=8.21o

.Serrated tape trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
104

Figure 91. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 8.4° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,100,000 with the soiled trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open 

symbols indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted 

versus chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

S831, Re=3100000, α

geom=8.209o

.Soiled trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
105

Figure 92. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 7.6° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 3,130,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

S831, Re=3130000, α

geom

=9.8o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
106

Figure 93. Mean pressure distribution on the S831 airfoil at 8° effective angle of attack and a 

Reynolds number of 1,620,000 without trip; filled symbols indicate suction side, open symbols 

indicate pressure side, dashed line indicates panel-method result; (a) pressure plotted versus

chordwise distance (x/c), and (b) pressure plotted versus edge length (s/c)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

S831, Re=1620000, α

geom

=10.4o

.No trip

x/c

-Cp

 

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

s/c

-Cp

 

(a)

(b)
107

Figure 94. Definition of the edge-length (s) and of the nomenclature for the 

force and moment calculations

Figure 95. Integrated lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the NACA 0012

Cn

s

Cp

∆ x

∆y

Ca

Cl

Cd

∆s

αeff

αeff

Cm

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 Lift coefficient

Effective angle of attack

Untripped, Re = 1030000

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

Panel method
108

Figure 96. Integrated moment coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the NACA 0012

Figure 97. Integrated lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the B1-18

-0.3

-0.25

-0.2

-0.15

-0.1

-0.05

-3E-16

0.05

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 Moment coefficient

Effective angle of attack

Untripped, Re = 1030000

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 Lift coefficient

Effective angle of attack

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

Serrated tape, Low Re

Serrated tape, High Re

Panel method
109

Figure 98. Integrated moment coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the B1-18

Figure 99. Integrated lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the DU96

-0.3

-0.25

-0.2

-0.15

-0.1

-0.05

0

0.05

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 Lift coefficient

Effective angle of attack

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

Serrated tape, Low Re

Serrated tape, High Re

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 Lift coefficient

Effective angle of attack

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

Serrated tape, Low Re

Serrated tape, High Re

Panel method
110

Figure 100. Integrated moment coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the DU96

Figure 101. Integrated lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the S831

-0.3

-0.25

-0.2

-0.15

-0.1

-0.05

0

0.05

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 Lift coefficient

Effective angle of attack

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

Serrated tape, Low Re

Serrated tape, High Re

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 Lift coefficient

Effective angle of attack

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

Serrated tape, High Re

Panel method
111

Figure 102. Integrated moment coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the S831

3.2. Wake Measurements

Stagnation pressure and static pressure profiles were measured through the airfoil wakes at 

x/c = 3.74, almost 3 chord lengths downstream of the airfoil trailing edges. Measurements were 

made for the B1-18, DU96, and S831 airfoils for the conditions listed in Table 7 as part of the 2 

tunnel entries. For the first tunnel entry in July 2007, measurements were made with the rake 

mounted spanwise with the 5 probes evenly spaced near the mid-span between Z/c = 0.042 and 

0.152. In all cases but one (discussed in detail below) the profiles measured at the 5 probe 

locations were identical to within the accuracy of the measurement. For the second tunnel entry 

in November-December 2007 the rake was mounted perpendicular to the span so that the 5 

probes could be used together to measure one profile at one spanwise location (Z/c = -0.013) 

very close to mid-span. The configuration used in each case can be inferred from the dates listed 

in Table 7.

Table 7. Test Matrix for the Wake Measurements

Date of 

Measurement

Airfoil 

Configuration

Geometric AoA, 

αg, deg. 

Effective AoA, 

αe, deg. Chord Re Trip Cd

7/6/2007 NACA 0012 0 0 1510000 No trip 0.0059

7/6/2007 NACA 0012 10.4 8.1 1450000 No trip 0.0115

7/14/2007 B1-18 3.7 2.9 1470000 No trip 0.0089

7/14/2007 B1-18 7.4 5.8 1490000 No trip 0.0094

11/28/2007 B1-18 3.8 3 3160000 No trip 0.0062

11/28/2007 B1-18 7.7 6 3160000 No trip 0.0076

11/28/2007 B1-18 7.7 6 1650000 Serrated tape 0.0142

11/28/2007 B1-18 7.7 6 3170000 Serrated tape 0.012

-0.3

-0.25

-0.2

-0.15

-0.1

-0.05

0

0.05

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 Lift coefficient

Effective angle of attack

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

Serrated tape, High Re
112

Date of 

Measurement

Airfoil 

Configuration

Geometric AoA, 

αg, deg. 

Effective AoA, 

αe, deg. Chord Re Trip Cd

7/17/2007 DU96 3.9 3.1 1540000 No trip 0.0072

7/17/2007 DU96 9.2 7.2 1540000 No trip 0.0074

11/30/2007 DU96 3.9 3.05 3170000 No trip 0.0059

11/30/2007 DU96 9 7 3160000 No trip 0.006

11/30/2007 DU96 9 7 1610000 Serrated tape 0.0148

11/30/2007 DU96 9 7 3150000 Serrated tape 0.0103

11/30/2007 DU96 9 7 3120000 Soiled trip 0.0126

7/11/2007 S831 -2.6 -2 1580000 No trip 0.0078

12/3/2007 S831 -2.6 -2 3220000 No trip 0.0063

7/11/2007 S831 6.5 5.07 1570000 No trip n/a

12/3/2007 S831 6.4 5 3220000 No trip 0.0102

12/3/2007 S831 6.4 5 3240000 Serrated tape 0.0053

12/3/2007 S831 6.4 5 3270000 Soiled trip 0.0327

Profiles of the pressure coefficients and velocity (normalized by the free-stream velocity) are 

plotted in Figure 103 to Figure 123 against Y position measured relative to the wake centers Ycl. 

Pressures are plotted in terms of the following coefficients.

∞ ∞

∞

−

− = p pp p C

o

p

∞ ∞

∞

−

− = p pp p C

o

o

po

Where po is the measured Pitot pressure and p is the measured static pressure.

These data were used to estimate the total airfoil drag through a straightforward momentum 

balance. Consider the control volume shown in Figure 124.

Per unit span, the difference of the mass flowing into the volume on the left and flowing out on 

the right is as follows.

∫ ρU∞ − ρU dY

This, of course, is the mass flow out per unit span of the sides of the volume. The researchers 

assume that this occurs with an average X component of velocity of:

( ) 2

1 U∞ +Ue

where Ue is the potential flow velocity on the right-hand face of the volume.
113

Per unit span, the net X-momentum flux out of the volume is:

∫ ∫ U −U∞ dY + (U∞ +Ue ) U∞ −U dY 2

2 2 1 ρ ρ

and the X-component of the pressure force on the volumes is:

∫ p∞ − p dY

where p is the pressure on the right-hand face. The total drag force per unit span on the airfoil 

located in the volume thus is:

dY p p d U U U Ue U U

ρ

ρ ∞

∞ ∞ ∞

− = − − + − − ∫ ( )( ) 2

2 2 1

and the drag coefficient is as follows.

2 2 (1 )(1 ) ( / ) 2

2

C d Y c

U

U

U

U

U

U C p

e

d = − − + − −

∞ ∞ ∞

∫

In terms of the stagnation and static pressure coefficients measured on the downstream face, Cp0

and Cp, this becomes the following.

2 2 (1 1 )(1 ) ( / )

2 2( ) (1 1 )(1 ) ( / )

0 0

0 0

C C C C C d Y c

C C C C C C C d Y c

p p p p p

d p p p p p p

= − + − + − − −

= − − − + − − − −

∫

∫

The integrand is zero outside the viscous wake, therefore the limits of the integral can be taken as 

the edges of the wake. Results of this integration are listed in Table 7 and plotted in Figure 125 

to Figure 128. Note that transducer difficulties and probe-mounting issues might have influenced 

the static-pressure coefficients measured with the rake probes by as much as 0.05 (particularly 

for the first tunnel entry). As formulated above, however, the drag coefficient only is weakly 

dependent upon the static-pressure coefficient value. For a typical case (B1-18 airfoil at 5.8° 

angle of attack), changing Cp by 0.15 has less than a 3% effect on Cd.

Wake measurements on the NACA 0012 airfoil at 0° angle of attack at the lower Reynolds 

number of 1,510,000 (Figure 103) show a symmetric wake roughly 0.1 c in width and with a 

minimum stagnation pressure coefficient of 0.88 at its center. Not surprisingly, increasing the 

angle of attack to 8.1° (Figure 104) both widens and deepens the wake somewhat. These wake 

profiles imply drag coefficients of 0.0059 and 0.0115 respectively, values that are broadly 

consistent with previous 0012 measurements. Sheldahl and Klimas (1981) report values of 

0.0065 and 0.0119 for a chord Reynolds number of 1,000,000.
114

Figure 103. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the NACA0012 at a Reynolds number of 1,510,000 and 0° effective angle of attack, no trip

Figure 104. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c=3.74 downstream 

of the NACA 0012 at a Reynolds number of 1,450,000 and 8.1° effective angle of attack, no trip

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

NACA0012, Re=1510000, αgeom=0o

, αeff

=0o,No trip, Cd=0.0059309

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y-Ycl /c

YYY/c

cl /c

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

NACA0012, Re=1450000, αgeom=10.4o

, αeff

=8.1o

,No trip, Cd=0.011469

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
115

At the lower Reynolds number, and without trip, the B1-18 airfoil (Figure 105, Figure 107) 

produces quite similar wakes to the NACA 0012. The drag coefficients, of 0.0089 and 0.0094 at 

the 2.9° and 5.8° angles of attack also are similar, bearing in mind the -4° zero-lift angle of attack 

for this foil.

Figure 105. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 1,470,000 and 2.9 ° effective angle of attack, no trip

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

B1-18, Re=1470000, α

geom=3.7o

, αeff=2.9o

,No trip, Cd=0.00888

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
116

Figure 106. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 3° effective angle of attack, no trip

Figure 107. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 1,490,000 and 5.8° effective angle of attack, no trip

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

B1-18, Re=3160000, αgeom=3.8o

, αeff=3o,No trip, Cd=0.0062227

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c

-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

B1-18, Re=1490000, αgeom=7.4o

, αeff

=5.8o

,No trip, Cd=0.0094345

-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
117

Figure 108. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, no trip

Doubling the Reynolds number at fixed angle of attack (compare Figure 105 and Figure 106 with 

Figure 107 and Figure 108) noticeably reduces the intensity and width of the wake, the 

corresponding drag values falling by 20% to 30% (Figure 126). Adding the serrated-tape trip 

widens and deepens the wake somewhat at both Reynolds numbers (Figure 109, Figure 110),

increasing the drag coefficient in both cases by about 0.0045 (Figure 126). That the trip increases 

the drag in this way suggests that most of the drag in the untripped configuration is the result of 

skin friction.

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

B1-18, Re=3160000, α

geom=7.7o

, αeff=6o

,No trip, Cd=0.0075652

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
118

Figure 109. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 1,650,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape trip

Figure 110. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the B1-18 at a Reynolds number of 3,170,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape trip

-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

B1-18, Re=1650000, αgeom=7.7o

, αeff

=6o

,Serrated tape trip, Cd

=0.014207

-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

B1-18, Re=3170000, αgeom=7.7o

, αeff

=6o,Serrated tape trip, Cd

=0.012047

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
119

Overall, the behavior of the DU96 as revealed in the wake profiles (Figure 111 to Figure 117) 

and in the drag coefficients (Figure 127) is quite similar to the B1-18, with the exception that the 

drag coefficient and wake intensity shows almost no dependence on angle of attack between 3° 

and 7° (zero lift angle of attack for this airfoil is -3°). As with the B1-18, adding the serrated-tape 

trip significantly increases the drag coefficient—by about 0.0045 at the higher Reynolds number. 

Interestingly, the soiled trip produces a greater drag increment (0.0066) despite its lower profile.

Figure 111. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 1,540,000 and 3.1° effective angle of attack, no trip

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

DU96, Re=1540000, α

geom=3.9o

, αeff

=3.1o

,No trip, Cd=0.007236

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
120

Figure 112. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 3,170,000 and 3° effective angle of attack, no trip

Figure 113. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 1,540,000 and 7.2° effective angle of attack, no trip

-0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

DU96, Re=3170000, αgeom=3.9o

, αeff

=3.05o

,No trip, Cd

=0.0059345

-0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

DU96, Re=1540000, αgeom=9.2o

, αeff

=7.2o,No trip, Cd=0.0074174

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
121

Figure 114. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, no trip

Figure 115. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 1,610,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape trip

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

DU96, Re=3160000, αgeom=9o

, αeff

=7o,No trip, Cd

=0.0060136

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c

-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

DU96, Re=1610000, αgeom=9o, αeff=7o,Serrated tape trip, Cd=0.014754

-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
122

Figure 116. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 3,150,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape trip

Figure 117. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the DU96 at a Reynolds number of 3,120,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, soiled trip

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

DU96, Re=3150000, αgeom=9o

, αeff

=7o,Serrated tape trip, Cd=0.01032

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

DU96, Re=3120000, αgeom=9o

, αeff=7o,Soiled trip, Cd=0.012611

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
123

At –2° angle of attack, untripped, the wake of the S831 (Figure 118, Figure 119) and the drag 

values it implies (Figure 128), appear unremarkable and broadly similar to those of the NACA 

0012. This sense of normalcy is undermined by the remaining profile data, however. Particularly 

revealing are the measurements shown in Figure 120, made untripped at the lower Reynolds 

number and 5.1° angle of attack. These profiles were measured as part of the first tunnel entry 

and thus are comprised of five parallel profiles made at slightly different spanwise stations. 

These profiles have been distinguished in Figure 120 because they are different. At the higher 

spanwise stations the wake profile appears symmetric and well behaved. Moving towards midspan, however, the profile develops a broad second minimum to the suction side of the original 

wake profile. This is part of the complex wake shed from the three-dimensional separation 

observed in the flow visualization described with the mean-pressure measurements (above). The

other wake measurements made at this angle of attack (Figure 121 to Figure 123), at higher 

Reynolds numbers, and including the serrated and soiled trips only were measured at a single 

spanwise station. These profiles and the drag values they imply, however, appear erratic (drag 

coefficient varying by a factor of 6), presumably due to the presence of the same or a similar stall 

pattern. For this reason researchers think that the drag values for this airfoil—at least for 5° angle 

of attack—are unreliable and should be ignored because they represent only the integration of a 

single profile through a highly three-dimensional flow.

Figure 118. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 1,580,000 and –2° effective angle of attack, no trip

-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

S831, Re=1580000, α

geom=-2.6o

, αeff

=-2o

,No trip, Cd=0.0077938

-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
124

Figure 119. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 3,220,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, no trip

Figure 120. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 1,570,000 and -5° effective angle of attack, no trip

-0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

S831, Re=3220000, αgeom=-2.6o

, αeff

=-2o

,No trip, Cd=0.0062988

-0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c

-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

0.8

0.9

1

Y/c

Cpo

S831, Re=1570000, αgeom=6.5o, αeff=5.1o,No trip

-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

Y/c

Cp

Z/c=0.041667

Z/c=0.069444

Z/c=0.097222

Z/c=0.125

Z/c=0.15278

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
125

Figure 121. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 3,220,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, no trip

Figure 122. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 3,240,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape trip

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

S831, Re=3220000, αgeom=6.4o

, αeff

=5o,No trip, Cd

=0.010155

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

S831, Re=3240000, αgeom=6.4o, αeff=5o,Serrated tape trip, Cd=0.0052678

-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c
126

Figure 123. Stagnation and static-pressure coefficient profiles measured at X/c = 3.74 downstream 

of the S831 at a Reynolds number of 3,270,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, soiled trip

Figure 124. Control volume used for drag analysis based on wake profiles

-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.8

0.9

1

y/c

Cpo

S831, Re=3270000, α

geom=6.4o

, αeff=5o,Soiled trip, Cd

=0.032672

-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

y/c

Cp

Y/c

Y/c

Y-Ycl /c

Y-Ycl /c

U∞,, p∞

Ue, p

U(Y)

Face 1 Face 2

Face 4

Face 3
127

Figure 125. Integrated drag coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the NACA 0012

Figure 126. Integrated drag coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the B1-18

0

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.01

0.012

0.014

0 2 4 6 8 10

Drag Coefficient

Angle of attack

Untripped, Low Re

0

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.01

0.012

0.014

0.016

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Drag Coefficient

Angle of attack

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

Serrated tape, Low Re

Serrated tape, High Re
128

Figure 127. Integrated drag coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the DU96

Figure 128. Integrated drag coefficient as a function of angle of attack for the S831

0

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.01

0.012

0.014

0.016

0 2 4 6 8

Drag Coefficient

Angle of attack

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

Serrated tape, Low Re

Serrated tape, High Re

Soiled, High Re

0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 Drag Coefficient

Angle of attack

Untripped, Low Re

Untripped, High Re

Serrated tape, High 

Re

Soiled, High Re
129

3.3. Trailing-Edge Boundary-Layer Properties

As discussed in Section 2 (above), a single hot-wire probe was use to measure trailing-edge 

boundary layers for both sides of the B1-18, DU96, and S831 airfoils. These measurements were 

all taken during the second wind tunnel entry in November-December 2007. Conditions and 

locations for the measurements, along with boundary-layer parameters, are listed in Table 8. 

Most measurements were made between 1.9 mm and 2.3 mm aft of the trailing edge of the airfoil 

to reduce the risk of probe damage. This study therefore assumes that there was no significant 

evolution of the boundary-layer flow over this short distance.

Table 8. Test Matrix for the Hot-Wire Measurements

Geometric 

Angle of 

attack 

αg, deg. 

Effective 

Angle of 

attack αe, 

deg. Chord Re Trip

x-xte

(mm) Side δ (mm)

δ * 

(mm)

θ

(mm)

B1-18 3.8 3 1,550,000 No trip 1.9 Pressure 16.9 1.6 1.2

B1-18 3.8 3 1,550,000 No trip 1.9 Suction 26.7 9.1 4.1

B1-18 3.8 3 3,160,000 No trip 1.9 Pressure 12.8 1.8 1.1

B1-18 3.8 3 3,160,000 No trip 1.9 Suction 26.1 8.8 4.0

B1-18 7.7 6 1,560,000 No trip 1.9 Pressure 14.5 1.3 0.8

B1-18 7.7 6 1,560,000 No trip 1.9 Suction 31.9 12.9 4.9

B1-18 7.7 6 1,600,000 No trip -19 Pressure 13.9 1.3 0.9

B1-18 7.7 6 1,570,000 No trip -19 Suction 29.0 10.6 4.6

B1-18 7.7 6 3,140,000 No trip 1.9 Pressure 11.9 1.9 1.0

B1-18 7.7 6 3,140,000 No trip 1.9 Suction 30.9 11.4 4.8

B1-18 7.7 6 3,100,000 Serrated tape 1.9 Pressure 15.5 2.5 1.4

B1-18 7.7 6 3,100,000 Serrated tape 1.9 Suction 38.7 16.1 5.8

DU96 4 3.1 1,600,000 No trip 1.9 Pressure 14.0 2.0 1.4

DU96 4 3.1 1,600,000 No trip 1.9 Suction 26.5 8.4 3.9

DU96 4 3.1 1,580,000 No trip -16.2 Pressure 15.1 2.3 1.5

DU96 4 3.1 1,570,000 No trip -16.2 Suction 23.6 6.2 3.5

DU96 9 7 1,560,000 No trip 1.9 Pressure 11.4 1.5 1.0

DU96 9 7 1,560,000 No trip 1.9 Suction 30.6 11.8 4.6

DU96 9 7 3,140,000 No trip 1.9 Pressure 9.7 1.9 1.0

DU96 9 7 3,140,000 No trip 1.9 Suction 23.9 8.8 3.7

DU96 9 7 3,130,000 Serrated tape 1.9 Pressure 14.0 3.3 1.6

DU96 9 7 3,130,000 Serrated tape 1.9 Suction 44.4 19.7 6.1

S831 -2.6 -2 1,550,000 No trip 2.3 Pressure 14.8 2.1 1.5

S831 -2.6 -2 1,550,000 No trip 2.3 Suction 24.7 7.9 3.6

S831 -2.6 -2 1,590,000 No trip -16.2 Pressure 14.1 1.4 1.0

S831 -2.6 -2 1,630,000 No trip -16.2 Suction 33.5 10.5 4.9

S831 -2.6 -2 3,130,000 No trip 2.3 Pressure 17.3 3.2 2.2

S831 -2.6 -2 3,130,000 No trip 2.3 Suction 27.1 13.4 3.6

S831 6.4 5 1,570,000 No trip 2.3 Pressure 12.6 1.0 0.5

S831 6.4 5 1,570,000 No trip 2.3 Suction Not applicable

S831 6.4 5 3,180,000 No trip 2.3 Pressure 8.4 1.5 0.7

S831 6.4 5 3,180,000 No trip 2.3 Suction 58.5 30.9 6.9

S831 6.4 5 1,620,000 Serrated tape 2.3 Pressure 9.0 1.1 0.6
130

Geometric 

Angle of 

attack 

αg, deg. 

Effective 

Angle of 

attack αe, 

deg. Chord Re Trip

x-xte

(mm) Side δ (mm)

δ * 

(mm)

θ

(mm)

S831 6.4 5 1,620,000 Serrated tape 2.3 Suction Separated

S831 6.4 5 3,160,000 Serrated tape 2.3 Pressure 9.8 2.3 1.1

S831 6.4 5 3,160,000 Serrated tape 2.3 Suction Separated

Velocity measurements are presented in Figure 129 to Figure 164. Velocities and spectral values 

in almost all cases are normalized on the boundary-layer edge velocity, and the y locations 

(measured relative to the apparent extension of the airfoil surface |y-yo|) are normalized on the 

boundary-layer thickness values δ given in Table 8. The only exceptions are three suction-side 

profiles measured at 5° angle of attack at the trailing edge of the S831 airfoil (Figure 160, Figure 

162, Figure 164). In these cases, the profiles indicate the presence of a region of partially or 

completely separated flow at the trailing edge that is too thick for the boundary-layer edge to be 

visible in the profile. For these cases, distances therefore are given in millimeters, and velocities 

and spectral values provided in terms of the velocity at the calibration point, Ucal.

In processing these data it was found that the boundary-layer edge location (needed to define δ

and Ue) could not be inferred reliably from the mean velocity profile alone. This is because the 

flow velocity is not constant outside the boundary layer near the trailing edge due to the local 

flow curvature. This gradient tends to obscure the boundary-layer edge. Instead, the edge was 

defined as the location where the interpolated turbulence intensity u/Ue passes through 2%. The 

boundary-layer thickness was measured to this point, and the edge velocity determined from the 

interpolated mean velocity here. (Note that the use of the edge velocity is recursive, and so a few 

iterations are needed to converge to the true edge location.) For a flat plate, the location of the 

boundary-layer edge determined in this way, together with the location determined using the 

more conventional definition (point where the velocity is 99% of the uniform free stream), 

produce very similar answers. The displacement thickness δ* and momentum thickness θ given 

in Table 8 were integrated using the usual definitions (provided below).

0

0

0

0

1

1

e

e e

U dy y U

U U dy y U U

δ

δ

δ

θ

∗   =− −    

  =− −    

∫

∫

Measurements were made just downstream of the trailing edge, therefore points were measured 

close to or below the level of the airfoil trailing-edge surface, where the flow clearly was not 

representative of the boundary layer upstream. Measurements at these points are shown in the 

plots using grey symbols, and were not included in the integral thickness calculations. In all 

cases where measurements were made downstream of the trailing edge, the profiles themselves 

(e.g., Figure 129, Figure 130) provide a fairly clear indication of the position yo of the origin of 

the boundary-layer profile on both sides of the trailing edge. In most cases (but not in all) this 

position agreed within a fraction of a millimeter with the origin of the hot-wire traverse, which 

was set (by eye) with the hot-wire in line with the center of the trailing edge. (Note that some 

adjustment would be expected even if the alignment were perfect, given the finite thickness of 
131

the trailing edges and uncertainty in the flow direction immediately downstream). For the

profiles measured upstream of the trailing edge, the origin of the traverse was set using the point 

where the hot-wire probe stem made contact with the airfoil surface and the probe geometry. In 

two cases (shown in Figure 134 and Figure 154) this position was inferred after the fact from the 

apparent reversal of the near-wall velocity gradient generated by the deflection of the probe stem 

after contacting the surface.

At 3° angle of attack and a Reynolds number of 1,500,000 without trip the structure of the 

trailing-edge boundary layers on the B1-18 airfoil (Figure 129, Figure 130) betrays the pressure 

gradient history that they have experienced over the upstream surfaces of the airfoil, visible in 

Figure 42. The pressure-side mean-velocity profile (Figure 129) appears quite full (resulting in 

quite low displacement and momentum thicknesses as compared to δ, see Table 8) presumably 

because of the strong favorable pressure gradient it experiences over the last 20% chord of the 

airfoil. The distribution of turbulence intensity in the layer, however, is not typical of a purely 

accelerated boundary layer. The profile shows a bulge of higher turbulence levels near the midheight of the boundary layer, which could well be a remnant of flow structure produced by the

adverse pressure gradient imposed between the 30% and 80% chord locations. Velocity spectra 

measured throughout the boundary layer have a fairly typical turbulent character and display an 

inertial subrange (of -5/3 slope) and a high-frequency roll off. There is no evidence of periodic 

behavior such as vortex shedding.
132

Figure 129. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,550,000 and 3° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity, (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

101 102

103 104 105

106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, pressure side,No trip, Re=1550000, αeff

 =3

|y-yo

|=2.54δ

|y-yo|=0.92δ

|y-yo|=0.37δ

|y-yo|=0.19δ

|y-yo

|=0.12δ

|y-yo|=0.1δ

|y-yo|=0.1δ

|y-yo|=0.09δ

|y-yo|=0.09δ

|y-yo|=0.08δ

|y-yo|=0.06δ

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, pressure side,No trip, Re=1550000, αeff

 =3

U/Ue

5u/Ue

(a)

(b)
133

The suction-side boundary layer (Figure 130) is about 60% thicker than the pressure side but its 

displacement and momentum thicknesses are three to five times as large, reflecting the much 

lower momentum in the mean-velocity profile. The long and nearly constant adverse pressure 

gradient experienced by this layer over the last 80% of the foil is responsible for this loss of 

momentum and the higher turbulence levels that are felt throughout this layer. There is no 

evidence of separation in either the mean-velocity or turbulence-intensity profiles. Spectra in the 

boundary layer show a longer inertial subrange than that of the pressure side.

Increasing the angle of attack increases the intensity of the pressure gradients on both sides of the 

foil, but does not change their qualitative character (Figure 42 to Figure 47). Not surprisingly, 

therefore, the pressure-side boundary layer (Figure 131) becomes more full and its displacement 

and momentum thicknesses fall (Table 8), whereas the reverse effects are seen in the suction-side 

boundary layer (Figure 132). The spectral character of the boundary-layer velocity fluctuations 

does not appear to change much, with the exception of the appearance of additional energy at 

low-frequencies (< 200 Hz) in the spectrum measured closest to the bottom of the boundary layer 

on the pressure side (Figure 131). These elevated levels likely are not a feature of the flow but 

the result of slight vibration of the probe stem combined with the steep near-wall velocity 

gradients that characterize this accelerated flow. These measurements, for 6° angle of attack, 

were measured both downstream (Figure 131, Figure 132) and upstream (Figure 133, Figure 

134) of the trailing edge. The profiles and boundary-layer parameters (Table 8) show remarkably 

little evolution of the boundary layers as they cross the trailing edge. The largest difference (in 

the peak level of the turbulence intensity on the suction side) might have more to do with the 

evolution or selection of the normalizing edge velocity than any absolute change in the 

boundary-layer structure. The close agreement between the integral boundary-layer parameters 

(Table 8) obtained upstream and downstream of the trailing edge is probably spurious. Both the 

momentum and displacement thickness values depend heavily on the nearest wall part of the 

profile which is inevitably missing for the profiles measured upstream of the trailing edge. The 

integral thickness values for these cases thus have significant additional uncertainty associated 

with the interpolation assumed in this region.
134

Figure 130. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,550,000 and 3° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, suction side,No trip, Re=1550000, αeff =3

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, suction side,No trip, Re=1550000, αeff =3

|y-yo|=0.1δ

|y-yo|=0.45δ

|y-yo|=1.47δ

(a)

(b)
135

Figure 131. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,560,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, pressure side,No trip, Re=1560000, αeff

 =6

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, pressure side,No trip, Re=1560000, αeff

 =6

|y-yo

|=2.81δ

|y-yo|=0.92δ

|y-yo

|=0.28δ

|y-yo

|=0.06δ

(a)

(b)
136

Figure 132. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,560,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, suction side,No trip, Re=1560000, αeff

 =6

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, suction side,No trip, Re=1560000, αeff =6

|y-yo|=0.01δ

|y-yo|=0.01δ

|y-yo|=0.02δ

|y-yo|=0.02δ

|y-yo|=0.02δ

|y-yo|=0.03δ

|y-yo|=0.07δ

|y-yo|=0.17δ

|y-yo|=0.46δ

|y-yo|=1.31δ

(a)

(b)
137

Figure 133. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 19 mm upstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,600,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, pressure side,No trip, Re=1600000, αeff

 =6

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101

102

103

104

105

106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, pressure side,No trip, Re=1600000, αeff

 =6

|y-yo

|=4.84δ

|y-yo|=2.7δ

|y-yo

|=1.5δ

|y-yo

|=0.84δ

|y-yo

|=0.47δ

|y-yo

|=0.26δ

|y-yo

|=0.14δ

|y-yo

|=0.08δ

(a)

(b)
138

Figure 134. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 19 mm upstream of the 

trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,570,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, no trip;

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, suction side,No trip, Re=1570000, αeff =6

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, suction side,No trip, Re=1570000, αeff

 =6

|y-yo|=2.27δ

|y-yo|=1.25δ

|y-yo|=0.68δ

|y-yo

|=0.36δ

|y-yo|=0.18δ

|y-yo|=0.08δ

(a)

(b)
139

Figure 135 to Figure 138 show the same sequence of boundary-layer profiles but at double the 

Reynolds number. The suction-side profiles (Figure 136, Figure 138) and the associated 

boundary-layer parameters (Table 8) show almost no effect of Reynolds number. Effects on the 

pressure-side profiles are dominated by the near-wall region where the increase in Reynolds 

number, rather surprisingly, produces a decrease in the near-wall velocity gradient. The velocity 

spectra on both sides of the foil show the inertial subrange extending to higher frequencies 

(indicating a higher-turbulence Reynolds number). Those on the pressure side reveal increased 

effects of probe vibration in this higher-speed flow. Effects of adding the serrated-tape trip at the 

higher Reynolds number are barely discernable in the normalized profiles (compare Figure 137 

and Figure 138 with Figure 139 and Figure 140). The boundary-layer parameters (see Table 8) 

reveal, however, that both boundary layers are about 25% thicker with the trip.
140

Figure 135. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 3° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity;(b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, pressure side,No trip, Re=3160000, αeff

 =3

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, pressure side,No trip, Re=3160000, αeff

 =3

|y-yo

|=3.45δ

|y-yo

|=1.32δ

|y-yo

|=0.6δ

|y-yo

|=0.35δ

|y-yo

|=0.27δ

|y-yo

|=0.24δ

|y-yo

|=0.23δ

|y-yo

|=0.23δ

|y-yo

|=0.22δ

|y-yo|=0.21δ

|y-yo

|=0.18δ

|y-yo|=0.1δ

(a)

(b)
141

Figure 136. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 3° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, suction side,No trip, Re=3160000, αeff

 =3

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, suction side,No trip, Re=3160000, αeff =3

|y-yo|=0.06δ

|y-yo|=0.42δ

|y-yo|=1.46δ

(a)

(b)
142

Figure 137. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,140,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, pressure side,No trip, Re=3140000, αeff =6

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, pressure side,No trip, Re=3140000, αeff =6

|y-yo|=3.46δ

|y-yo|=1.18δ

|y-yo

|=0.4δ

|y-yo

|=0.14δ

|y-yo|=0.05δ

(a)

(b)
143

Figure 138. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,140,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, suction side,No trip, Re=3140000, αeff =6

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101

102103

104

105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, suction side,No trip, Re=3140000, αeff

 =6

|y-yo

|=0.02δ

|y-yo

|=0.13δ

|y-yo

|=0.43δ

|y-yo

|=1.31δ

(a)

(b)
144

Figure 139. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream 

of the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,100,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, serratedtape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of 

velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, pressure side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3100000, αeff =6

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103 104 105

106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, pressure side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3100000, αeff =6

|y-yo|=2.68δ

|y-yo|=0.92δ

|y-yo|=0.32δ

|y-yo|=0.12δ

|y-yo|=0.05δ

(a)

(b)
145

Figure 140. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the B1-18 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,100,000 and 6° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape 

trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

B1-18, suction side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3100000, αeff

 =6

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101

102

103

104

105

106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

B1-18, suction side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3100000, αeff

 =6

|y-yo

|=0.09δ

|y-yo

|=0.33δ

|y-yo

|=1.03δ

(a)

(b)
146

The measurements made upstream and downstream of the trailing edge of the DU96 airfoil 

(Figure 141 through Figure 144) show that here too, there is very little change in the quantitative 

or qualitative flow structure in the immediate vicinity of the trailing edge. As with the B1-18, 

there is a small change (increase) in the peak turbulence levels on the suction side as the trailing 

edge is passed which we attribute to a change in the Ue scale. Again, note that the integral 

thicknesses (Table 8) probably are more reliable for the profiles measured downstream.

The qualitative form of the boundary-layer profiles for the DU96 and their behavior with angle 

of attack and Reynolds number is quite similar to that seen for the B1-18. At 3.1° (Figure 141, 

Figure 142) the pressure-side boundary layer clearly is much fuller and thinner than the suctionside layer, and the overall boundary-layer thicknesses are similar to those seen on the B1-18 at 

this condition (Table 8). Increasing the angle of attack to 7° (Figure 145, Figure 146) further 

emphasizes the differences between the two sides. Increasing the Reynolds number (Figure 147, 

Figure 148), as with the B1-18, again has its largest effect on reducing the near-wall velocity 

gradient in the pressure-side boundary layer. The serrated-tape trip (Figure 149, Figure 150) 

again produces a significant thickening of the boundary layer on both sides of the airfoil. For the 

DU96, however, the trip changes the character of the suction-side mean velocity profile, 

introducing a distinct inflection that suggests that the flow is at or near separation.
147

Figure 141. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,600,000 and 3.1° effective angle of attack, serratedtape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of 

velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

DU96, pressure side,No trip, Re=1600000, αeff =3.1

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

DU96, pressure side,No trip, Re=1600000, αeff =3.1

|y-yo

|=3.2δ

|y-yo|=1.25δ

|y-yo|=0.58δ

|y-yo|=0.36δ

|y-yo|=0.28δ

|y-yo|=0.25δ

|y-yo|=0.25δ

|y-yo|=0.24δ

|y-yo|=0.24δ

|y-yo|=0.23δ

|y-yo|=0.2δ

|y-yo|=0.12δ

(a)

(b)
148

Figure 142. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,600,000 and 3.1° effective angle of attack, serratedtape trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of 

velocity fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

DU96, suction side,No trip, Re=1600000, αeff

 =3.1

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

DU96, suction side,No trip, Re=1600000, αeff

 =3.1

|y-yo

|=0.03δ

|y-yo

|=0.38δ

|y-yo

|=1.41δ

(a)

(b)
149

Figure 143. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the DU96 airfoil 16.2 mm upstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,580,000 and 3.1° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

DU96, pressure side,No trip, Re=1580000, αeff

 =3.1

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

DU96, pressure side,No trip, Re=1580000, αeff

 =3.1

|y-yo

|=4.43δ

|y-yo

|=2.47δ

|y-yo|=1.38δ

|y-yo|=0.77δ

|y-yo

|=0.43δ

|y-yo

|=0.24δ

|y-yo|=0.13δ

(a)

(b)
150

Figure 144. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the DU96 airfoil 16.2 mm upstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,570,000 and 3.1° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

DU96, suction side,No trip, Re=1570000, αeff =3.1

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

DU96, suction side,No trip, Re=1570000, αeff

 =3.1

|y-yo

|=2.85δ

|y-yo|=1.59δ

|y-yo|=0.88δ

|y-yo|=0.49δ

|y-yo

|=0.27δ

|y-yo

|=0.15δ

|y-yo

|=0.09δ

|y-yo|=0.05δ

(a)

(b)
151

Figure 145. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,560,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

DU96, pressure side,No trip, Re=1560000, αeff =7

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101

102

103

104

105

106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

DU96, pressure side,No trip, Re=1560000, αeff

 =7

|y-yo

|=3.63δ

|y-yo

|=1.23δ

|y-yo

|=0.41δ

|y-yo

|=0.13δ

|y-yo

|=0.04δ

|y-yo

|=0.01δ

(a)

(b)
152

Figure 146. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,560,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

DU96, suction side,No trip, Re=1560000, αeff

 =7

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

DU96, suction side,No trip, Re=1560000, αeff =7

|y-yo

|=0.01δ

|y-yo

|=0.05δ

|y-yo

|=0.15δ

|y-yo|=0.45δ

|y-yo|=1.34δ

(a)

(b)
153

Figure 147. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,140,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

DU96, pressure side,No trip, Re=3140000, αeff =7

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103

104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

DU96, pressure side,No trip, Re=3140000, αeff

 =7

|y-yo|=4.28δ

|y-yo|=1.46δ

|y-yo

|=0.5δ

|y-yo|=0.18δ

|y-yo|=0.06δ

(a)

(b)
154

Figure 148. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,140,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

DU96, suction side,No trip, Re=3140000, αeff

 =7

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103

104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

DU96, suction side,No trip, Re=3140000, αeff

 =7

|y-yo|=0.02δ

|y-yo|=0.15δ

|y-yo

|=0.54δ

|y-yo|=1.68δ

(a)

(b)
155

Figure 149. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,130,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape 

trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

DU96, pressure side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3130000, αeff

 =7

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

DU96, pressure side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3130000, αeff =7

|y-yo

|=2.98δ

|y-yo|=1.03δ

|y-yo

|=0.37δ

|y-yo|=0.14δ

|y-yo|=0.06δ

(a)

(b)
156

Figure 150. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the DU96 airfoil 1.9 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,130,000 and 7° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape 

trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

DU96, suction side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3130000, αeff

 =7

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

DU96, suction side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3130000, αeff =7

|y-yo|=0.05δ

|y-yo

|=0.26δ

|y-yo|=0.88δ

(a)

(b)
157

The S831 boundary-layer profiles measured at -2° angle of attack at the lower Reynolds number 

(Figure 151 to Figure 154) show the bigger change in the flow as it passes the trailing edge, than 

with the other two airfoils. The pressure-side boundary layer, in particular, appears slightly fuller 

measured downstream of the trailing edge than upstream. The unconventional behavior of the 

S831 airfoil is as apparent in the boundary-layer measurements as in the wakes and pressure 

distributions described above. Doubling the Reynolds number at -2° (compare Figure 151 and 

Figure 152 with Figure 157 and Figure 158) significantly increases the boundary-layer thickness

and reduces the fullness of the mean velocity profiles on both sides. Indeed, on the suction side 

the change is from a clearly attached adverse-pressure gradient type profile (Figure 152), to one 

that strongly suggests separation (Figure 158). At 5° angle of attack, regardless of trip (Figure 

159 to Figure 164) the suction-side profiles either show the flow to be partially or completely 

stalled, consistent with the wake measurements discussed above. The velocity spectra measured 

in the pressure-side boundary-layer profiles at 5° are by far the most affected by probe vibration, 

therefore observations concerning the detailed near-wall properties of these boundary layers 

probably should be made with caution. It is clear from the overall form of these profiles,

however, that in all of these cases the pressure-side boundary layer is attached and quite thin.
158

Figure 151. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,550,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, pressure side,No trip, Re=1550000, αeff

 =-2

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, pressure side,No trip, Re=1550000, αeff =-2

|y-yo

|=2.79δ

|y-yo|=0.94δ

|y-yo|=0.32δ

|y-yo|=0.1δ

|y-yo|=0.03δ

|y-yo

|=0.01δ

(a)

(b)
159

Figure 152. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,550,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, suction side,No trip, Re=1550000, αeff

 =-2

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, suction side,No trip, Re=1550000, αeff

 =-2

|y-yo|=0.01δ

|y-yo|=0.01δ

|y-yo|=0.03δ

|y-yo

|=0.07δ

|y-yo

|=0.2δ

|y-yo

|=0.57δ

|y-yo

|=1.68δ

(a)

(b)
160

Figure 153. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 16.2 mm upstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,590,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, no trip;

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, pressure side,No trip, Re=1590000, αeff =-2

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103

104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, pressure side,No trip, Re=1590000, αeff

 =-2

|y-yo|=4.75δ

|y-yo|=2.65δ

|y-yo

|=1.47δ

|y-yo|=0.82δ

|y-yo|=0.46δ

|y-yo|=0.25δ

|y-yo|=0.14δ

|y-yo|=0.08δ

(a)

(b)
161

Figure 154. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 16.2 mm upstream of the 

trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,630,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, suction side,No trip, Re=1630000, αeff =-2

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103

104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, suction side,No trip, Re=1630000, αeff

 =-2

|y-yo|=1.93δ

|y-yo

|=1.04δ

|y-yo|=0.54δ

|y-yo|=0.27δ

|y-yo

|=0.11δ

(a)

(b)
162

Figure 155. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,570,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, pressure side,No trip, Re=1570000, αeff =5

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103

104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, pressure side,No trip, Re=1570000, αeff

 =5

|y-yo

|=3.32δ

|y-yo

|=1.15δ

|y-yo

|=0.42δ

|y-yo

|=0.17δ

|y-yo

|=0.08δ

|y-yo

|=0.06δ

|y-yo|=0.05δ

|y-yo

|=0.04δ

|y-yo

|=0.03δ

|y-yo

|=0.02δ

(a)

(b)
163

Figure 156. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,570,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations (note thick flow preventing determination of, and 

normalization on, boundary-layer parameters)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

|y-yo| (mm)

S831, suction side,No trip, Re=1570000, αeff =5

U/Ucal

5u/Ucal

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/Ucal

2

S831, suction side,No trip, Re=1570000, αeff

 =5

|y-yo

|=1mm

|y-yo|=4.1mm

|y-yo

|=13.4mm

|y-yo|=40.7mm

(a)

(b)
164

Figure 157. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,130,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, pressure side,No trip, Re=3130000, αeff

 =-2

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, pressure side,No trip, Re=3130000, αeff =-2

|y-yo|=2.48δ

|y-yo|=0.9δ

|y-yo|=0.37δ

|y-yo|=0.19δ

|y-yo|=0.12δ

|y-yo

|=0.1δ

|y-yo|=0.1δ

|y-yo|=0.09δ

|y-yo|=0.09δ

|y-yo|=0.08δ

|y-yo|=0.06δ

(a)

(b)
165

Figure 158. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,130,000 and -2° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, suction side,No trip, Re=3130000, αeff =-2

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101102103104105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, suction side,No trip, Re=3130000, αeff

 =-2

|y-yo

|=0.08δ

|y-yo

|=0.43δ

|y-yo

|=1.43δ

(a)

(b)
166

Figure 159. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,180,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, pressure side,No trip, Re=3180000, αeff =5

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, pressure side,No trip, Re=3180000, αeff

 =5

|y-yo

|=5.06δ

|y-yo

|=1.84δ

|y-yo

|=0.74δ

|y-yo

|=0.37δ

|y-yo|=0.24δ

|y-yo

|=0.2δ

|y-yo

|=0.18δ

|y-yo

|=0.17δ

|y-yo

|=0.17δ

|y-yo|=0.15δ

|y-yo|=0.11δ

(a)

(b)
167

Figure 160. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,180,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, no trip; 

(a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, suction side,No trip, Re=3180000, αeff

 =5

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, suction side,No trip, Re=3180000, αeff

 =5

|y-yo

|=0.03δ

|y-yo

|=0.19δ

|y-yo

|=0.66δ

(a)

(b)
168

Figure 161. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,620,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape 

trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, pressure side,Serrated tape trip, Re=1620000, αeff

 =5

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, pressure side,Serrated tape trip, Re=1620000, αeff

 =5

|y-yo

|=4.72δ

|y-yo|=1.7δ

|y-yo|=0.67δ

|y-yo|=0.32δ

|y-yo|=0.2δ

|y-yo|=0.16δ

|y-yo|=0.15δ

|y-yo|=0.14δ

|y-yo

|=0.14δ

|y-yo

|=0.12δ

|y-yo|=0.08δ

(a)

(b)
169

Figure 162. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 1,620,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape 

trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations (note thick separated flow preventing determination of, 

and normalization on, boundary-layer parameters)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

|y-yo| (mm)

S831, suction side,Serrated tape trip, Re=1620000, αeff =5

U/Ucal

5u/Ucal

101

102103104

105106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/Ucal

2

S831, suction side,Serrated tape trip, Re=1620000, αeff =5

|y-yo|=0.3mm

|y-yo|=3.5mm

|y-yo

|=12.7mm

|y-yo|=40mm

(a)

(b)
170

Figure 163. Velocity measurements on the pressure side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, serrated tape 

trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

0

0.5

1

1.5

|y-yo|/δ

S831, pressure side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3160000, αeff =5

U/Ue

5u/Ue

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/U2

e

S831, pressure side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3160000, αeff

 =5

|y-yo

|=4.24δ

|y-yo

|=1.45δ

|y-yo|=0.5δ

|y-yo

|=0.18δ

|y-yo|=0.07δ

|y-yo

|=0.03δ

(a)

(b)
171

Figure 164. Velocity measurements on the suction side of the S831 airfoil 2.3 mm downstream of 

the trailing edge at a Reynolds number of 3,160,000 and 5° effective angle of attack, serrated-tape 

trip; (a) normalized profiles of mean velocity and turbulence intensity; (b) autospectra of velocity 

fluctuations at selected profile locations (note thick separated flow preventing determination of, 

and normalization on, boundary-layer parameters)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

|y-yo| (mm)

S831, suction side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3160000, αeff =5

U/Ucal

5u/Ucal

101 102 103 104 105 106 10-12

10-11

10-10

10-9

10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

Frequency (Hz)

Guu/Ucal

2

S831, suction side,Serrated tape trip, Re=3160000, αeff

 =5

|y-yo|=0.1mm

|y-yo

|=0.5mm

|y-yo

|=1.5mm

|y-yo

|=4.7mm

|y-yo

|=13.9mm

|y-yo

|=41.2mm

(a)

(b)
172

4. Acoustic Results and Discussions

The data from the 63 microphones in the arrays were processed to compute the following results.

4.1. Average Noise Spectrum

The average spectrum of all 63 microphones in the array was computed. It provides an estimate 

of the noise inside the anechoic chamber. It is useful to obtain noise results at low frequency, 

below 500 Hz, where the array resolution is very poor and noise maps are not computed. Strong 

vortex shedding occurring below 500 Hz has been successfully measured from some airfoils with 

blunt trailing edge (Devenport and Burdisso 2008). For the airfoils tested here, data from the 

average spectrum prove useful only for the large chord NACA 0012 airfoil at an angle of attack 

greater than 4° and 28 m/s flow speed. For these few cases, vortex shedding takes place and the 

fundamental shedding frequency occurs below 500 Hz. The average spectrum was computed in 

narrow band (3.125 Hz resolution) and in one-twelfth octave bands. The one-twelfth octave band 

data were obtained by adding spectral lines within the band. The definition of the one-twelfth 

octave bands used here is described in Appendix B.

4.2. Acoustic Maps

The acoustic maps were computed over a plane along the center of the test section as illustrated 

in Figure 165(a). The acoustic maps were computed for the one-twelfth octave bands in the 

500 Hz to 5,000 Hz range. The beamforming grid has 201 points along the test-section direction 

(grid resolution of 2.54 cm) and 73 points from floor to ceiling (grid resolution of 2.54 cm) for a 

total of 14,600 grid points. The color contours in the acoustic maps range from the maximum 

level in the map down to 10 dB as illustrated in Figure 165(b). The level (color) in the acoustic 

maps represents the noise observed at the array plane due to sources at the grid points.

4.3. Integrated Spectrum

Using the point-spread function, the levels in the scanning grid encompassing the trailing edge

were summed to a single value for each frequency to compute the integrated spectrum. In this 

work, the levels were integrated 5 dB down from the peak value to avoid adding the effects of 

the sidelobes from other sources. The integrated spectrum was computed for all the configurations in one-twelfth octave bands in the 500 Hz to 5,000 Hz range. To compute the 

integrated spectrum, a volume enclosing the trailing edge of the airfoil was defined for the 

beamforming-integration process. The volume for the integration is shown in Figure 166. The 

volume has a square cross section and it is aligned with the airfoil trailing edge (Figure 166, 

green box). The parts of the trailing edge next to the junction with the tunnel were excluded to 

avoid noise due to end effects as well as other spurious noise sources seen on the test-section 

floor and ceiling. Therefore, the integrated spectrum represents the trailing-edge noise radiated 

by the center two-thirds of the airfoil as measured at the array position. The noise levels are 

presented as un-weighted decibels reference to 20 x 10-6 Pa.

For the sake of completeness and to provide additional insight, the integrated spectra were 

normalized and presented in Appendix C. The noise levels were scaled using the free-stream 

velocity using the fifth power law. Prior to normalizing the spectra, the noise levels were 

corrected to account for the losses through the boundary-layer Kevlar cloth as explained in the 

appendix. The frequency was scaled using the Strouhal number with the chord as the length scale 

(St = ƒC∕U∞ with C=chord and U∞ = free-stream velocity).
173

The complete set of maps was visually inspected to identify configurations showing the presence 

of trailing-edge noise. In the integrated spectrum, results are presented for only the one-twelfth 

frequency bands that show trailing-edge noise.

Figure 165 (a) Beamforming measurement plane for the computation of the acoustic maps;

(b) typical acoustic map and color scale for airfoil noise level

(a)

(b)

Microphone Phased Array

Flow

Test Section

Airfoil Leading Edge

Flow
174

Figure 166. Beamforming measurement volume for the computation of the integrated spectrum to 

estimate trailing-edge noise

The following subsections present the results for the empty tunnel and the airfoils. The test 

matrices for the microphone phased array measurements are shown in Table 9 through Table 14 

0.305 m

(12’’)

0.305 m

(12’’)

0.610 m

(24’’)

0.610 m

(24’’)

0.610 m

(24’’)

0.610 m

(24’’)

Integration Volume
175

for the empty tunnel, small (0.2-m chord) NACA 0012, large chord NACA 0012, DU96, B1-18, 

and S831 airfoils, respectively. These tables list all of the configurations tested, the tunnel flow 

speed, the effective angle of attack, and the tunnel condition, such as fan speed (rpm) and tunnel 

temperature. The effective angle of attack was estimated from the pressure distribution discussed 

in Section 3 (above).

The reason for including results for the small NACA 0012 is that testing of a similar size NACA 

airfoil has been conducted in the past in an open-jet anechoic tunnel (Brooks et al. 1989). This 

allows for a preliminary validation of the new Virginia Tech tunnel to previously accepted data 

from an open-jet anechoic facility.

4.4. Empty-Tunnel Results

The empty-tunnel noise was measured for both tunnel entries as shown in Table 9. The onetwelfth octave band average noise spectra of the empty tunnel at 28 m/s, 42 m/s, and 54 m/s for 

both tunnel entries are shown in Figure 167(a). The data from both entries agree well, in 

particular considering the significant difference in tunnel temperature. The empty-tunnel 

spectrum essentially is broadband, but several tones are observed, in particular below 900 Hz.

The July empty-tunnel spectra then were scaled by the sixth power of the flow velocity and 

shown in Figure 167(b). The noise spectra scale well with the sixth-power law. Scaling with 

respect to the fan speed leads to the same results, e.g. fan and flow speed for the empty tunnel are 

linear. It is important to note that the empty-tunnel noise spectra are not a true indication of the 

background noise with the model installed. The models produce blockage, therefore the tunnel 

fan must operate faster and, consequently, the background noise is louder than that measured 

with the empty tunnel. The fan speed operates at 459 rpm to achieve a 57 m/s flow speed (run 

160 in Table 9), for example, and must run at 595 rpm when the S831 airfoil is installed at an 

effective angle of attack of 6° for a flow speed of 56.47 m/s (run 150 in Table 14).

Table 9. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased Array Measurements of Empty Tunnel

Airfoil 

Configuration

Effective 

AoA (deg) Trip

Flow Speed 

(m/s)

Fan Speed 

(rpm)

Tunnel 

Temp. (°F)

Run 

Number Date

Empty tunnel N/A N/A 16 139 27.7 155 7/27/2007

Empty tunnel N/A N/A 20 180 27.7 156 7/27/2007

Empty tunnel N/A N/A 28 235 27.6 157 7/27/2007

Empty tunnel N/A N/A 40 335 27.6 158 7/27/2007

Empty tunnel N/A N/A 50 416 27.4 159 7/27/2007

Empty tunnel N/A N/A 56 459 27.3 160 7/27/2007

Empty tunnel N/A N/A 57 469 27.3 161 7/27/2007

Empty tunnel N/A N/A 28 233 64.7 112 11/2007

Empty tunnel N/A N/A 42 343 65.3 113 11/2007

Empty tunnel N/A N/A 54 432 67.7 114 11/2007
176

Figure 167 (a) Average noise spectrum for empty tunnel in one-twelfth octave bands; and 

(b) levels normalized using the sixth power of the flow velocity; tunnel entry: July 2007 (black), 

November-December (blue) 2007

28 m/s

40 m/s

54 m/s

(a)

(b)
177

4.5. Airfoil Results

This section presents the results for the tested airfoils. The data in this section consist of the 

integrated spectra and selected acoustic maps in one-twelfth octave bands.

4.5.1. Small Chord NACA 0012 Airfoil

Table 10 shows the test matrix for this airfoil. Measurements were performed for 42 m/s and 

54 m/s flow speeds corresponding to nominal chord Reynolds number of 500,000 and 625,000. 

The boundary layer was tripped from the leading edge to 20%-chord. The acoustic maps show an 

extremely clear noise source at the trailing edge of the airfoil at virtually all of the one-twelfth 

octave bands from 500 Hz to 5,000 Hz.

Figure 168 shows the integrated spectra for both tripped and no-trip conditions. To aid in the 

visualization of the results, the data for the tripped airfoil cases are presented in red. The 

integration volume is very similar to that used for the large models (see Figure 166). It extends 

along the same two-thirds spanwise direction of the airfoil length but the cross section is smaller 

(0.15 m × 0.15 m). The untripped conditions show vortex shedding at all angles of attack tested. 

Based on a comparison to a similar airfoil measured by Brooks et al. (1989), the noise source 

mechanism is identified as laminar-boundary-layer vortex shedding. The vortex shedding 

frequencies match very closely the data shown by Brooks et al. (1989). These frequencies also 

collapse very well with the Strouhal number as shown in Figure 205. Noise maps at the peak of 

the vortex shedding are also included in Figure 168 (flow is from right to left). The maps clearly 

shows two distinct noise sources near the airfoil mid-span at the trailing edge. The results 

indicate the tripping of the boundary layer to be very effective at eliminating the clear vortex 

shedding. The noise spectra for the tripped airfoils for different angles of attack are virtually 

undistinguishable. As shown in Figures 205 and 206, the levels follow the fifth power law well 

for both untripped and tripped conditions.

Table 10. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased-Array Measurements of Small NACA 0012 Airfoil

Airfoil 

Configuration

Effective 

AoA (deg) Trip

Flow Speed 

(m/s)

Fan Speed 

(rpm)

Tunnel 

Temp. (°F)

Run 

Number Date

Small NACA 0012 0 No trip 43.46 383 99.4 64 7/9/2007

Small NACA 0012 0 No trip 43.13 383 98.5 65 7/9/2007

Small NACA 0012 0 No trip 54.67 482 98.7 66 7/9/2007

Small NACA 0012 3.1 No trip 43.54 382 100 62 7/9/2007

Small NACA 0012 3.1 No trip 54.92 480 101 63 7/9/2007

Small NACA 0012 7.3 No trip 41.49 350 85.5 80 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 7.3 No trip 52.21 350 86 81 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 0 Tripped 40.31 334 76.7 67 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 0 Tripped 50.89 420 78.1 68 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 0 Tripped 40.48 337 78.1 69 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 0 Tripped 51.04 423 79.3 70 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 2 Tripped 40.63 341 79.2 71 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 2 Tripped 40.63 341 79.2 72 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 2 Tripped 51.40 428 81.1 73 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 4 Tripped 40.94 343 81.4 74 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 4 Tripped 51.59 429 82.4 75 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 5.3 Tripped 41.11 345 83 76 7/10/2007

Small NACA 0012 5.3 Tripped 52.02 435 84.8 77 7/10/2007
178

Figure 168. Integrated spectrum for 0.2-m chord NACA0012 airfoil for both tripped and no-trip 

conditions at nominal chord Reynolds numbers (a) 500,000 and (b) 625,000

Tripped

No Trip

(a) 40 m/s – Re =0.5 millions

(b) 52 m/s – Re =0.625 millions

Tripped

No Trip

SPLmax=48.9dB

SPLmax=69.6dB

0°AoA

3.1°AoA

7.3°AoA

0°AoA

3.1°AoA

7.3°AoA
179

To gain confidence in the trailing-edge measurements in this new facility, the results for this 

small NACA 0012 airfoil were compared to the data reported by Brooks et al. (1989). For a valid 

comparison, the Virginia Tech integrated spectrum had to be corrected to put the results in the 

same basis as in the work by Brooks et al. (1989). Thus, the integrated spectrum was corrected 

for losses through the Kevlar window, the shear layer, distance to the model, model span, and 

levels adjusted from one-twelfth to one-third octave bands. Figure 169 compares trailing-edge 

noise measured by Brooks et al. (1989) for a 22.86-cm-chord airfoil (solid line) and measured in 

the VT Stability Wind Tunnel for a 20-cm-chord airfoil, at angle of attack of 0° and 5.3° (red 

symbols). The flow speeds in the open-jet and VT wind tunnels were 40 m/s and 40.5 m/s, 

respectively. Results obtained in the VT wind tunnel are in good agreement with those obtained 

by Brooks et al. (1989), particularly in the 1,000 Hz to 4,000 Hz range. However, differences of 

up to about 6 dB are observed below 1,000 Hz. Considering that the tests were conducted in 

different wind tunnel facilities and using different methods to compute the airfoil self-noise, the 

comparison can be considered acceptable and provides a first validation of the facility. For the 

sake of completeness, Figure 170 shows the noise maps for 5.3° angle of attack at 40 m/s for the 

tripped condition in one-third octave bands. For frequencies of less than 1,000 Hz, beamforming 

maps are dominated by strong noise sources at the junction of the airfoil with the test-section 

floor and ceiling. The volume used to compute the integrated spectra excludes the junction 

region so these junction sources are not included in the computation of the trailing-edge noise.

Results for frequencies greater than 4,000 Hz are not reliable due to the large size of the array 

and because the array was not calibrated for phase.
180

Figure 169. Trailing-edge noise spectra in the one-third octave band measured by Brooks et al. 

(solid black lines) in an open-jet wind tunnel for a 22.86-cm-chord airfoil in flow with a speed of 

39.6 m/s and measured in the VT Stability Wind Tunnel for a 20-cm-chord airfoil (red solid dots) in 

a flow with a speed of 40.5 m/s, at angles of attack of (a) 0° and (b) 5.3°

(a) 0°AoA

(b) 5.3°AoA

Brooks et al.

VT

SPL1/3 (dB)

Brooks et al.

VT

SPL1/3 (dB)

Frequency (kHz)

Frequency (kHz)
181

Figure 170. Acoustic maps for tripped small 0.2-m chord NACA 0012 airfoil at 5.3° AoA at 40 m/s 

flow speed (Re = 500,000); acoustic maps are in one-third octave bands

630 Hz

800 Hz

1250 Hz

1600 Hz

2000 Hz

2500 Hz

3150 Hz

1000 Hz

Flow

Airfoil Trailing edge

4000 Hz
182

4.5.2. NACA 0012 Airfoil

The test matrix for this model is provided in Table 11. The NACA 0012 was tested extensively 

in both tunnel entries. During the July tunnel entry, the airfoil was tested at small effective angles 

of attack (0° to 4°), for a broad range of flow speeds (nominal chord Reynolds numbers from 

800,000 to 3,800,000), and for both tripped and untripped conditions. The November-December 

entry focused on a wider range of angle of attack (from 14° to -14° in steps of 2°) and 3 flow 

speeds (nominal chord Reynolds number 1,500,000; 2,200,000; and 3,200,000) mainly for clean 

configurations (no trip).

Trailing-edge noise was measured successfully for nearly all of the configurations at effective 

angles of attack of ±10° and smaller, and at most of the one-twelfth octave bands. Figure 171 

through Figure 174 illustrate the 38 one-twelfth octave band acoustic maps for the case of 

untripped 4° angle of attack at 28.5 m/s (Re = 1,500,000). The plots show the flow from right to 

left, and each plot has its own scale. The maps use rectangles to indicate the airfoils, and show 

the one-twelfth octave center frequency in the top-left corner. This case was selected because it 

clearly shows trailing-edge noise in most of the frequency bands, for example for the 542-Hz 

through 3,649-Hz bands (except for the 3,251-Hz band).

Table 11. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased Array Measurements of NACA 0012 Airfoil

Airfoil 

Configuration

Effective 

AoA (deg) Trip

Flow Speed 

(m/s)

Fan Speed 

(rpm)

Tunnel 

Temp. (°F)

Run 

Number Date

NACA 0012 -14 No trip 28.53 274 68.1 107 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -14 No trip 42.28 404 67.8 108 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -14 No trip 54.59 523 70 109 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -14 No trip 54.14 518 69.2 110 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -12 No trip 28.25 265 66.4 104 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -12 No trip 42.35 397 66.9 105 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -12 No trip 54.09 507 68.7 106 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -10 No trip 28.39 261 65.8 101 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -10 No trip 42.20 386 65.9 102 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -10 No trip 54.01 491 67.1 103 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -8 No trip 28.16 252 65.9 95 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -8 No trip 42.61 376 65.5 96 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -8 No trip 54.03 475 67.1 97 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -6 No trip 28.29 246 65.1 92 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -6 No trip 42.27 363 64.9 93 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -6 No trip 53.97 460 66.1 94 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -4 No trip 28.84 247 65.1 89 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -4 No trip 42.47 358 64.6 90 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -4 No trip 53.62 445 65.7 91 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -2 No trip 28.84 240 65.3 86 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -2 No trip 42.53 356 64.8 87 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -2 No trip 53.96 447 65.9 88 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 16.01 140 84.6 30 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 20.09 177 85.8 31 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 28.05 245 90.2 32 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 30.02 258 91.1 33 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 40.15 340 92.2 34 7/3/2007
183

Airfoil 

Configuration

Effective 

AoA (deg) Trip

Flow Speed 

(m/s)

Fan Speed 

(rpm)

Tunnel 

Temp. (°F)

Run 

Number Date

NACA 0012 0 No trip 50.08 431 92.4 35 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 58.07 491 93 36 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 60.11 504 94.4 37 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 66.45 560 95 38 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 28.39 238 68 62 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 42.33 349 68.5 63 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 0 No trip 54.09 439 69.7 64 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 2 No trip 28.51 239 69.5 65 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 2 No trip 42.48 355 69.7 66 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 2 No trip 54.28 455 70.7 67 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 2 No trip 15.29 138 74.4 58 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 2 No trip 19.78 177 74.4 59 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 2 No trip 27.84 245 74.3 60 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 4 No trip 28.52 244 70 68 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 4 No trip 42.39 359 70.1 69 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 4 No trip 54.53 461 71.5 70 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 6 No trip 28.62 252 71 71 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 6 No trip 42.43 371 71.1 72 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 6 No trip 54.32 472 72.4 73 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 8 No trip 28.55 259 71.3 74 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 8 No trip 42.46 382 71.7 75 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 8 No trip 54.34 492 72.7 76 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 8 No trip 27.84 275 74.4 61 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 10 No trip 28.48 263 71.7 77 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 10 No trip 42.47 396 72 78 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 10 No trip 54.38 510 73.8 79 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 14 No trip 28.41 283 69.4 80 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 14 No trip 42.49 420 70 81 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 14 No trip 54.30 538 72.2 82 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 12 No trip 28.31 270 62.9 83 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 12 No trip 42.12 410 63.6 84 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 12 No trip 53.77 521 66.1 85 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 0 Tripped 10.40 97 99 39 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 Tripped 16.24 145 99.7 40 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 Tripped 20.36 177 99.6 41 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 Tripped 28.07 240 99.4 42 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 Tripped 30.02 258 98.8 43 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 Tripped 40.06 342 97.1 44 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 Tripped 50.02 415 96.6 45 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 Tripped 58.03 469 94 46 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 Tripped 60.06 479 94.5 47 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 0 Tripped 66.57 526 94.5 48 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 2 Tripped 27.94 246 75.1 57 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 2 Tripped 16.09 105 89.1 49 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 2 Tripped 20.86 193 90 50 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 4 Tripped 15.48 143 77.3 51 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 4 Tripped 19.96 184 78.6 52 7/3/2007
184

Airfoil 

Configuration

Effective 

AoA (deg) Trip

Flow Speed 

(m/s)

Fan Speed 

(rpm)

Tunnel 

Temp. (°F)

Run 

Number Date

NACA 0012 4 Tripped 28.07 257 77 53 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 5.3 Tripped 15.45 146 75.8 54 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 5.3 Tripped 19.81 186 75.7 55 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 5.3 Tripped 27.97 262 75.9 56 7/3/2007

NACA 0012 -8 Tripped 28.13 253 64.8 98 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -8 Tripped 42.38 376 65 99 12/10/2007

NACA 0012 -8 Tripped 53.87 475 66.6 100 12/10/2007
185

Figure 171. Acoustic maps for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° AoA at 28.5 m/s flow speed 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands)

542.45 Hz

574.70 Hz

645.08 Hz

683.44 Hz

724.08 Hz

767.14 Hz

812.75 Hz

912.29 Hz

861.08 Hz

608.88 Hz

Flow

Airfoil Trailing edge
186

Figure 172. Acoustic maps for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° AoA at 28.5 m/s flow speed 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands)

1024.01 Hz

1084.90 Hz

1149.41 Hz

1217.76 Hz

1366.88 Hz

1448.16 Hz

1534.28 Hz

1625.51 Hz

966.53 Hz 1290.17 Hz
187

Figure 173. Acoustic maps for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° AoA at 28.5 m/s flow speed 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands)

2733.77 Hz

1824.57Hz

2048.01 Hz

2169.79 Hz

1933.07 Hz

2435.51 Hz

2298.82 Hz

2580.33 Hz

2896.33 Hz

1722.17 Hz
188

Figure 174. Acoustic maps for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° AoA at 28.5 m/s flow speed 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands)

In terms of the angle of attack, the NACA 0012 airfoil shows a clear demarcation in its behavior. 

Namely, at all flow speeds vortex shedding takes place for angles of attack that are equal to or 

greater than 6°. Figure 175 shows the integrated spectra for 0°, 2°, and 4° angles of attack at flow 

velocities of 28 m/s, 42 m/s, and 54 m/s. This plot shows the trailing-edge noise as a relatively 

flat spectrum that rolls off at a particular flow-dependent frequency.

3068.55 Hz 3866.13 Hz

3251.02 Hz 4096.03 Hz

3444.33 Hz 4339.59 Hz

3649.15 Hz 4597.64 Hz
189

Figure 175. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 0°, 2°, and 4°effective AoA for 

28 m/s, 42m/s, and 54 m/s; nominal chord Reynolds number from 1,500,000 to 3,200,000 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands); tunnel entry data for July 2007 (black) and November-December 

2007 data (blue and green)

The results are also plotted in more detail in Figure 176 through Figure 186. These figures show 

the integrated spectra for the cases of untripped airfoil for effective angles of attack of 0°, 2°, 4°, 

6°, 8°, and 10°. Results are shown for nominal chord Reynolds numbers of from 800,000 to 

3,200,000. Figure 176 and Figure 177 for 0° and 2° angles of attack show very similar results, an 

essentially flat spectrum that rolls off with a slope of approximate 10 dB per octave. A few 

acoustic maps also are supplied (flow is from right to left). The 2° angle of attack at the 28 m/s 

configuration was tested in both tunnel entries, thus enabling direct comparison of the same 

configuration tested five months apart. These two results are provided in Figure 177. They show 

very good agreement for the flat part of the spectrum, although they differ on the slope of the roll 

off. The acoustic maps for the same 1,084.9 Hz band from both tunnel entries also are included, 

and the maximum level is indicated. Note that the maximum level for the July map is 4.7 dB 

higher. To compare the two maps, reduce the levels in the July maps by 6 dB (due to the 

reflective surface of the spiral array used during the July tunnel entry). The actual difference in 

levels is only 1.3 dB; the integration gives virtually the same result. Figure 178 shows the case of 

±4° angle of attack. The results for positive and negative angles of attack match relatively well, 

with some differences occurring at the lowest speed of 28 m/s. Also, the spectrum at this speed is 

not as flat as that of the smaller angles of attack. The normalized spectra in Figure 207 show that 

the fifth power law collapses the data very well for these configurations, in particular for 0° and 

2° angles of attack.

28 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s
190

Figure 176. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 0° effective AoA 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands); tunnel entry data for July 2007 (black)

16 m/s 20 m/s

28 m/s

50 m/s

66 m/s

58 m/s
191

Figure 177. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 2° effective AoA (scale: onetwelfth octave bands); tunnel entry data for July 2007 (black) and November-December 2007 (blue)

Figure 178. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° (blue) and -4° (green) 

effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: November-December 2007)

16 m/s 20 m/s

28 m/s (July Entry)

42 m/s

54 m/s

28 m/s (Nov.-Dec. Entry)

SPLmax = 27.7dB

SPLmax = 32.4dB

28 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s
192

The results for 6°, 8°, and 10° angles of attack shown in Figure 179 through Figure 181 differ 

from the previous results in that they clearly show vortex shedding from the trailing edge. For 

these cases both positive and negative angles were measured and, in general, shedding took place 

in all conditions except for the 8° and ±10° angles of attack at 28 m/s. The fundamental shedding 

frequency at the lowest flow speed of 28 m/s occurs at approximately 350 Hz and it therefore 

isn’t shown in the integrated spectra (e.g., the first peak shown in Figure 179 and Figure 180 is 

the first harmonic). The existence of vortex shedding at high angles of attack and Reynolds 

numbers in the NACA0012 airfoil has been previously observed (Paterson et al. 1973). In this 

work, it was concluded that the presence of the vortex shedding was associated with a laminar 

boundary layer on the airfoil pressure surface. They also provided a scaling frequency law to 

estimate the vortex shedding frequency. Using this equation for the airfoil tested here predicts 

the vortex shedding to occur at 418 Hz, 768 Hz, and 1,120 Hz for 28 m/s, 40 m/s, and 52 m/s, 

respectively. These values agree well with the experimentally observed frequencies (e.g.,

350 Hz, 650 Hz, 900 Hz). Also, the shedding frequency scales very well with the Strouhal 

number as shown in Figure 207. Therefore, laminar-boundary-layer-vortex shedding is the noise 

mechanism for the results in Figure 179 through Figure 181.

To provide further insight, these figures include selected acoustic maps. The acoustic images 

reveal that there are multiple noise sources at the trailing edge along the span radiating at slightly 

different frequencies. In Figure 181 (42 m/s), for example, the airfoil sheds vortices at 608 Hz 

from the upper part of the airfoil and shows a shedding frequency of 812 Hz from the lower 

section of the trailing edge. In fact, three distinct shedding frequencies are evident from different 

parts of the airfoil edge. Again the existence of multiple tones was also observed by 

Paterson et al. (1973). They concluded that these multiple frequencies were aerodynamic in 

nature. This observation of multiple frequencies is not surprising because the flow is threedimensional; it is impossible to get a purely two-dimensional response at a single shedding 

frequency.
193

Figure 179. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 6° (blue) and -6° (green) 

effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: November-December 2007)

28 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s

(b)

(a)

(c)
194

Figure 180. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at 8° (blue) and -8° (green) 

effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: November-December 2007)

28 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s

(b)

(a)

(c)
195

Figure 181. Integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at -10° (green) effective AoA 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: November-December 2007); note that the trailingedge noise for 10° AoA was not observed

28 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s

Trailing Edge Noise Not Observed

(b)

(a)

(c)
196

At the greatest angles of ±12° and ±14°, there are strong noise sources at the junctions of the 

airfoil with the tunnel floor and ceiling on the leading edge. Additionally, there seems to be a 

noise source that is one-quarter chord downstream from the leading edge of the airfoil—

suggesting a potential flow irregularity, such as unsteady laminar-to-turbulence boundary 

transition or a separation bubble. These noise sources, particularly at the junctions, hide noise 

from the trailing edge. Figure 182 illustrates this behavior in a few selected maps for ±12° 

effective angle of attack at 28.3 m/s flow speed.

Figure 182. Acoustic maps for untripped NACA 0012 airfoil at -12° and 12° AoA at 28.3 m/s flow 

speed (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: November-December 2007)

The effect of tripping the airfoil is evaluated in Figure 183 through Figure 186. The data for the 

tripped airfoil cases are presented in red. The corresponding untripped data also are plotted in the 

same figures (most is shown above in Figure 175 through Figure 181). Figure 183 shows the 

case of 0° angle of attack for flow speeds ranging from 16 m/s to 66 m/s (Re from 800,000 to 

3,800,000). Tripping the boundary layer leads to trailing-edge noise reduction mainly in the roll 

off portion of the spectrum. Noise attenuations are in the 2 dB to 3 dB range, with the better 

results at the lower Reynolds numbers. The acoustic maps for the 1,722.17 Hz band at 28 m/s 

illustrate the trailing-edge noise reduction. The maximum levels in these maps also are indicated 

because they are not the same. The levels are very similar (25.1 dB to 24.5 dB), however, and 

enable a direct visual comparison of the maps.

2048.0 Hz

912.29 Hz

-12° AoA 12°AoA

Noise source at junction with the tunnel

Leading edge noise source
197

Figure 183. Integrated spectrum for untripped (black) and tripped (red) NACA 0012 airfoil at 0° 

effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007)

Figure 184 shows the same results for 2° angle of attack at 16 m/s, 20 m/s, and 28 m/s (higher 

Reynolds numbers were not measured). Tripping is more effective for this angle of attack with a 

maximum noise reduction of approximately 5 dB. The attenuation, however, again mostly is in 

the roll-off section of the spectrum. Tripping for the 4° angle of attack case can be evaluated only 

for the flow speed of 28 m/s (e.g. run 68 from the November-December versus run 53 from 

July). This comparison is shown in Figure 185, which also includes data from untripped airfoil at 

42 m/s and 54 m/s as well as from the tripped airfoil at 16 m/s and 20 m/s. The noise reduction is 

significant, ranging from 5 dB at low frequency to 18 dB at 2,000 Hz. Unlike the results in 

Figure 183 and Figure 184, the reduction in Figure 185 is based on comparing data that were 

measured 5 months apart. Comparing the results for 28 m/s in Figure 183 through Figure 185, 

there is a clear increase in the reduction due to tripping with increasing angles of attack. 

However, it is likely that the attenuation at 4° is overestimated.

16 m/s

20 m/s

28 m/s

50 m/s

66 m/s

58 m/s

40 m/s

SPLmax = 25.1dB

SPLmax = 24.5dB
198

Figure 184. Integrated spectrum for untripped (black and blue) and tripped (red) NACA 0012 airfoil 

at 2° effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July (black and red) and 

November-December (blue) 2007)

Figure 185. Integrated spectrum for untripped (blue) and tripped (red) NACA 0012 airfoil at 4° 

effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July (red), November-December 

(blue) 2007)

16 m/s

20 m/s

28 m/s (July Entry)

28 m/s (Nov.-Dec. Entry)

5 dB

28 m/s – No trip

42 m/s – No Trip

54 m/s – No Trip

28 m/s - Tripped

20 m/s - Tripped

16 m/s - Tripped

5 dB

18 dB
199

The effect of tripping for higher angles of attack can be evaluated for the case of -8° angle of 

attack for 28 m/s, 42 m/s, and 54 m/s flow speeds as shown in Figure 186. For this configuration 

the noise from the clean (no trip) airfoil is dominated by vortex shedding at distinct frequencies. 

Tripping the boundary layer leads to significant reduction of some of the shedding (and thus 

attenuation of noise), in particular at 42 m/s and 54 m/s (Figure 186(b), (c)). Not all the shedding 

is reduced, however. In Figure 186(b), for example, the shedding in the 608 Hz band clearly is 

reduced (but not eliminated completely). The shedding occurring in the 812 Hz band is virtually 

unaffected. Additional insight can be gained by revisiting the work of Paterson et al. (1973). 

They found that the only effective location for the trip to eliminate the vortex shedding was 

forward of 80% chord on the pressure surface. This result confirms that lack of effectiveness of 

the trip used in the experiments here. Furthermore, it also confirms that the noise source is 

laminar-boundary-layer-vortex shedding. As shown in Appendix C, the tripped cases scale well 

with the fifth power of the free-stream velocity, in particular for the lower angles of attack where 

vortex shedding doesn’t take place.
200

Figure 186. Integrated spectrum for untripped (green) versus tripped (red) NACA 0012 airfoil at -8° 

effective AoA (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: November-December 2007)

28 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s

(b)

(a)

(c)

SPLmax = 45.6dB

SPLmax = 53.2dB

SPLmax = 68.7dB

SPLmax = 54.7dB

SPLmax = 72.9dB 

(Tripped)

SPLmax = 70.4dB 

(No Trip)
201

4.5.3. Delft DU96 Airfoil

The test matrix for the DU96 airfoil is shown in Table 12. Most of the test configurations (27 out 

of 33) were measured during the July tunnel entry. Unfortunately, the 6 cases tested during the 

November-December entry did not show trailing-edge noise except at a very few low-frequency 

bands. The results from the first entry are presented here. Airfoil data are available for 3 

Reynolds numbers (1,500,000, 2,500,000, 3,200,000) and angles of attack of 3°, 6°, 7°, 8°, and 

10° for the untripped condition. Trailing-edge noise was not clearly observed at the highest angle 

of attack tested (12°) at 54 m/s flow speed. More specifically, strong noise sources were 

observed at the junction of the model and test section (both at the leading and trailing edges) as 

well as other extraneous sources in the test section. Therefore, care must be exercised for 

interpretation of the 12° results. It should also be noted that the airfoil probably stalls at this 

angle (see the pressure data shown in Figure 75) and it is possible that separation-stall noise 

dominates. Additionally, selected cases were tested tripping the boundary layer, and only a single 

soiled case was tested.

Table 12. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased Array Measurements of DU96 Airfoil

Airfoil 

Configuration

Effective 

AoA (deg) Trip

Flow Speed 

(m/s)

Fan Speed 

(rpm)

Tunnel 

Temp. (°F)

Run 

Number Date

DU96 1 No trip 27 231 50.4 48 11/30/2007

DU96 3 No trip 26 238 52.1 49 11/30/2007

DU96 3 No trip 29 276 80.1 102 7/17/2007

DU96 3 No trip 41 417 106.3 117 7/19/2007

DU96 3 No trip 59 598 107.2 118 7/19/2007

DU96 6 No trip 29 297 84.2 103 7/17/2007

DU96 6 No trip 41 433 105.8 119 7/19/2007

DU96 6 No trip 59 621 108.3 120 7/19/2007

DU96 7 No trip 41 440 106.6 121 7/19/2007

DU96 7 No trip 59 629 109.6 122 7/19/2007

DU96 7 No trip 29 302 85.1 104 7/17/2007

DU96 7 No trip 29 292 85.6 127 7/20/2007

DU96 7 No trip 58 609 85.6 128 7/20/2007

DU96 8 No trip 41 445 106.4 123 7/19/2007

DU96 8 No trip 59 638 110.5 124 7/19/2007

DU96 8 No trip 29 305 86.7 105 7/17/2007

DU96 8 No trip 27 259 53.4 50 11/30/2007

DU96 8 No trip 54 522 57.7 51 11/30/2007

DU96 8 No trip 55 525 61.3 521 11/30/2007

DU96 10 No trip 30 313 90.0 106 7/17/2007

DU96 10 No trip 41 452 107.0 125 7/19/2007

DU96 10 No trip 59 645 110.2 126 7/19/2007

DU96 12 No trip 55 538 64.0 53 11/30/2007

DU96 3 Tripped 29 268 77.8 108 7/18/2007

DU96 3 Tripped 41 413 104.0 115 7/19/2007

DU96 3 Tripped 58 597 106.8 116 7/19/2007

DU96 3 Tripped 57 510 78.6 109 7/19/2007

DU96 7 Tripped 28 281 75.7 107 7/18/2007

DU96 7 Tripped 58 631 103.4 113 7/19/2007

DU96 7 Tripped 40 437 90.0 114 7/19/2007
202

Airfoil 

Configuration

Effective 

AoA (deg) Trip

Flow Speed 

(m/s)

Fan Speed 

(rpm)

Tunnel 

Temp. (°F)

Run 

Number Date

DU96 10 Tripped 57 601 80.0 110 7/19/2007

DU96 10 Tripped 57 603 88.0 111 7/19/2007

DU96 10 Soiled 58 565 100.1 154 7/26/2007

Note that the data were not saved.

Figure 187 shows the trailing-edge noise for all clean conditions (no trip) for the three flow 

speeds at angles of attack of 3° through 10°. The case of 12° AoA at 54 m/s was also included 

(blue curve). Note that—in many cases—at the higher speed, trailing-edge noise was difficult to 

observe from the noise maps. Therefore results greater than 1,000 Hz for 42 m/s and 54 m/s 

should be regarded as preliminary. A few illustrative noise maps are also shown. The data show 

a very weak dependence of the noise levels on the angle of attack for all three speeds. In fact, the 

data are within a range of about 2 dB and thus no obvious trend can be concluded. The noise 

maps for the 574 Hz band show the noise source located at the trailing edge as the result of the 

scattering of the turbulence with the trailing edge, e.g. turbulence-boundary-layer-trailing-edge 

noise. On the other hand, the spectrum for the 12° angle of attack shows a noticeable increase. 

Moreover, the acoustic map for the 2,435 Hz band reveals a dominant source on the lower half of 

the airfoil. It is interesting that the source is slightly downstream from the trailing edge. This 

likely is an indication of separation-stall noise. Similar behavior is discussed for the B1-18 

airfoil later.

To assess the effect of tripping the boundary layer, the data for tripped cases are superimposed 

with the clean conditions in Figure 188. Again the data shows virtually no clear angle of attack 

effect on the tripped cases (shown in red). There is a noticeable reduction in the noise, however, 

for the tripped condition at the lowest speed. The reduction ranges from 2 dB at low frequency to 

about 5 dB at 2,000 Hz. The normalized spectra are shown in Figures 209 and 210. It again 

shows a good collapse of the data with the fifth power law.
203

Figure 187. Integrated spectrum for untripped DU96 airfoil at 3°, 6°, 7, 8°, and 10° effective AoA for 

28 m/s, 42 m/s, and 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number: 1,500,000–3,200,000). Single result 

for 12° effective AoA is for 54 m/s (blue). (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007)

28 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s

SPLmax = 35.6dB SPLmax = 45.6dB SPLmax = 56.2dB

574 Hz Band - 3° AoA

12°AoA

2435 Hz Band - 12° AoA

Potential Separation 

Stall Noise
204

Figure 188. Integrated spectrum for untripped (black) and tripped (red) DU96 airfoil at 3°, 6°, 7°, 8°, 

and 10° effective AoA for 28 m/s, 42 m/s, and 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number: 1,500,000–

3,200,000) (scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007)

4.5.4. Risø B1-18 Airfoil

The test matrix for the B1-18 airfoil is shown in Table 13. As was the case for the DU96 airfoil, 

most of the test configurations were measured during the July tunnel entry. Data were collected 

for two flow speeds (28 m/s, 54 m/s), effective angles of attack from -4° (zero lift) to 13° (stall), 

and both clean and tripped boundary-layer conditions. Figures 189 through 191 show the noise 

spectrum for all the untripped cases for both speeds (including only data at the frequency bands 

where trailing-edge noise was identified in the acoustic maps). Figure 190 presents the spectra 

for angles of attack ranging between 3° and 13°. To better illustrate the dependence of the noise 

with the angle of attack, the results are presented for small (3° through 8°) and large (8° and 13°) 

angles separately. As a reference, the 8° case is shown in both plots. The results in Figure 190(a) 

show that trailing-edge noise decreases at higher frequencies (≥ 1,000 Hz) as the angle of attack 

increases from 3° to 8°. The noise levels remain virtually unchanged at the lower frequencies. As 

shown in Figure 190(b), this trend is reversed as the angle of attack goes beyond 8°. There is a 

noticeable increase in levels of the whole spectrum at the greatest angle of 13°. In Figure 190, 

the same behavior is observed when the angle of attack is increased from -4° to 3° without 

noticeable changes below 1,000 Hz. Note that reliable data for 6°, 7°, and 8° angles of attack 

extend from 500 Hz to just slightly above 1,000 Hz. Once again for the 11° and 13° angles of 

attack, a significant increase of the levels is observed (e.g., 8-10 dB). This behavior likely is due 

to potential flow separation as suggested by the mean-pressure distribution results (see Section 3)

(e.g., separation stall noise). It was found that at the greater Reynolds number the flow over the 

suction side appeared almost completely stalled at 13° (see Figure 57). The pressure data indicate 

that the same separation behavior also seems to have occurred at the lower Reynolds number. 

28 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s
205

This flow separation could explain the jump in the spectrum at 28 m/s (Figure 189(b)). To gain 

further insight, acoustic maps at the 2,048 Hz and 3,649 Hz bands are shown in Figure 190. 

Similar to the DU96 airfoil, it is evident that the dominant noise source is just downstream of the 

trailing edge. This source appears in the maps quite differently from those produced by the 

turbulent or laminar boundary layer trailing-edge noise where the source is exactly on the trailing 

edge. These maps provide additional evidence that the airfoil is stalled and the source is 

separation-stall noise.

Table 13. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased Array Measurements of Risø B1-18 Airfoil

Airfoil 

Configuration

Effective 

AoA (deg) Trip

Flow Speed1

(m/s)

Fan Speed 

(rpm)

Tunnel 

Temp. (°F)

Run 

Number Date

Risø -4.7 No trip 56 452 58.0 40 11/28/2007

Risø -4 No trip 58 445 56.0 41 11/28/2007

Risø 3 No trip - - 60.0 1331 7/24/2007

Risø 3 No trip 56 561 63.0 134 7/24/2007

Risø 3 No trip 56 562 63.0 135 7/24/2007

Risø 3 No trip 28 283 71.9 92 7/13/2007

Risø 3 No trip 56 507 58.4 422 11/28/2007

Risø 6 No trip 56 529 60.3 43 11/28/2007

Risø 6 No trip 28 300 71.9 93 7/13/2007

Risø 6 No trip 28 301 72.4 94 7/13/2007

Risø 6 No trip 56 585 64.0 136 7/24/2007

Risø 7 No trip 56 593 66.2 137 7/24/2007

Risø 7 No trip 28 307 73.0 95 7/13/2007

Risø 8 No trip 56 597 67.0 138 7/24/2007

Risø 8 No trip 56 602 67.9 139 7/24/2007

Risø 8 No trip 28 310 73.0 96 7/13/2007

Risø 10 No trip 28 315 73.0 97 7/13/2007

Risø 10 No trip 56 – 71.5 1403 7/24/2007

Risø 11 No trip 57 623 74.9 141 7/24/2007

Risø 11 No trip 57 623 74.4 142 7/24/2007

Risø 11 No trip 28 317 73.1 98 7/13/2007

Risø 11 No trip 56 545 61.8 44 11/28/2007

Risø 11 No trip 28 268 60.0 45 11/28/2007

Risø 13 No trip 56 544 58.3 46 11/28/2007

Risø 13 No trip 28 303 73.3 99 7/13/2007

Risø -3 Tripped 56 499 71.2 129 7/23/2007

Risø 3 Tripped 58 589 95.1 131 7/23/2007

Risø 3 Tripped 30 297 87.7 100 7/16/2007

Risø 6 Tripped 56 529 59.6 47 11/28/2007

Risø 6 Tripped 30 317 87.5 101 7/16/2007

Risø 6 Tripped 57 601 91.6 132 7/23/2007

Risø 7 Tripped 58 594 102.3 1304 7/23/2007

Risø 6 Soiled 57 597 79.4 143 7/24/2007

NOTES

1. Flow speed data were not available.

2. Data were not saved.

3. Fan speed was not recorded.

4. Data file was corrupted and case could not be processed.
206

Figure 189. Integrated spectrum for untripped B1-18 airfoil at (a) 3°, 6°, 7°, and 8° and (b) 8°, 10°, 

11°, and 13° effective AoA for 28 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number: 1,500,000) (scale onetwelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007)

(a) 

(b) 

13°AoA

8°AoA

8°AoA

3°AoA
207

Figure 190. Integrated spectrum for untripped B1-18 airfoil at -4°, 3°, 6°, 7°, 8°, 11°, and 13° 

effective AoA for 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number: 3,200,000) (scale one-twelfth octave 

bands. Tunnel entry: July (black) and Nov.-Dec. (blue) 2007)

As listed in Table 11, measurements with the boundary layer tripped were performed for only the 

-3° and 6° angles of attack. The data file for the 7° angle of attack was corrupted and the data 

could not be processed. Figure 191(a) and (b) show the results for the tripped boundary-layer 

cases (shown in red). The corresponding no-trip results (shown in black) also are plotted. It is 

clear that tripping the boundary layer has a minor effect—for example an approximate reduction 

of 1 dB to 2 dB at 28 m/s for frequencies above 1,000 Hz. The result for soiled configuration is 

undistinguishable from the tripped case. The scaled spectra are shown in Figures 211 and 212. 

As was the case for the other airfoils, the data scale well with the fifth power except for the 

stalled conditions.

-4° AoA

28 m/s

13°AoA

11°AoA

6°, 7°, and 8° AoA

Potential Separation 

Stall Noise

3°AoA
208

Figure 191. Integrated spectrum for untripped (black) and tripped (red) Risø airfoil at (a) 3° and 

(b) 3° effective AoA for 28 m/s and 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number 1,500,000–3,200,000) 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007)

28 m/s

54 m/s

28 m/s

54 m/s

(a) 3°AoA

(b) 6°AoA

Soiled and Tripped Cases
209

4.5.5. S831 Airfoil

The test matrix for the S831 airfoil is shown in Table 14. Most of the test configurations again 

were measured during the July tunnel entry. Measurements were performed for two flow speeds 

(28 m/s, 54 m/s), effective angle of attack from -7° to 8°, and both untripped and tripped 

boundary-layer conditions. Figure 192 shows the noise spectrum for all the untripped cases for 

both speeds (including only data at the frequency bands where trailing-edge noise was identified 

in the acoustic maps). Unlike the previous DU96 and Risø airfoils, the S831 model shows 

significant scattering as a function of the angle of attack, in particular above 800 Hz. The 8° 

angle of attack for the higher flow-speed case doesn’t follow this trend, however, and instead 

shows a significant jump (~6 dB) for the whole spectrum. Similar to the Risø B1-18 airfoil, this 

increase in the spectrum could be due to flow-separation effects. To help better identify trends, 

the results again are plotted in Figure 193(a) and (b) for the 28 m/s and 54 m/s flow speed 

separately, and only for the July entry. These figures show opposite behavior for the two flow 

speeds. For the greater speed the levels increase with the angle of attack. At the lower flow speed 

the noise levels are reduced as the angle of attack increases from the no lift (-7°) case to angles 

greater than 3°. Beyond this angle the noise seems insensitive to the angle of attack.

Table 14. Test Matrix for Microphone Phased Array Measurements of S831 Airfoil

Airfoil

Effective 

AoA (deg) Trip

Flow Speed 

(m/s)

Fan Speed 

(rpm)

Tunnel 

Temp. (°F)

Run 

Number Date

S831 -7 No trip 29 277 80.1 82 7/11/2007

S831 -7 No trip 60 567 83.4 83 7/11/2007

S831 -2 No trip 29 286 76.1 84 7/11/2007

S831 -2 No trip 56 557 70.7 146 7/25/2007

S831 0 No trip 56 569 70.0 147 7/25/2007

S831 3 No trip 29 315 83.2 85 7/11/2007

S831 3 No trip 56 584 71.5 148 7/25/2007

S831 5 No trip 30 324 87.5 86 7/11/2007

S831 5 No trip 57 593 70.2 149 7/25/2007

S831 5 No trip 28 254 38.9 54 12/3/2007

S831 5 No trip 53 506 43.5 55 12/3/2007

S831 6 No trip 56 595 71.3 150 7/25/2007

S831 6 No trip 30 329 86.5 87 7/11/2007

S831 7 No trip 30 328 85.3 88 7/11/2007

S831 7 No trip 56 605 71.7 1511 7/25/2007

S831 8 No trip 29 315 80.0 89 7/11/2007

S831 8 No trip 57 633 73.7 152 7/25/2007

S831 8 No trip 53 509 45.3 56 12/3/2007

S831 -2 Tripped 30 310 95.0 90 7/12/2007

S831 -2 Tripped 56 551 69.9 145 7/25/2007

S831 5 Tripped 56 595 69.9 144 7/25/2007

S831 5 Tripped 30 311 95.3 91 7/12/2007

S831 5 Soiled 57 586 71.6 153 7/26/2007

Notes

1. Data file was corrupted and case could not be processed.
210

Figure 192. Integrated spectrum for untripped S831 airfoil at -7°, -2°, 0°, 3°, 5°, 6°, 7°, and 8° 

effective AoA for 28 m/s and 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number 1,500,000–3,200,000) 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July (black), November-December (blue) 2007)

28 m/s

54 m/s 8° AoA
211

Figure 193. Integrated spectrum for untripped S831 airfoil as a function of AoA at (a) 28 m/s and 

(b) 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number 1,500,000–3,200,000) (scale: one-twelfth octave 

bands; tunnel entry: July 2007)

(a) 28 m/s

-7° AoA

-2°AoA

3°, 5°, 6°, 7°, and 8°AoA

8°AoA

6°AoA

5° AoA

3° AoA

-2°AoA

(b) 54 m/s
212

The reason for the unusual behavior described above is not clear. The S831 airfoil, however, 

shows some flow anomalies that were measured by the array (as well as the aerodynamic data). 

Figure 194(a) shows the acoustic maps for the S831 airfoil at -7° angle of attack at 28 m/s for 

two one-twelfth octave frequency bands (816 Hz, 1,024 Hz). These acoustic images reveal a 

strong noise source close to the leading edge of the airfoil, strongly suggesting a flow anomaly 

(e.g., separation bubbles). This leading-edge noise source is observed clearly in all frequency 

bands that are 816 Hz and higher. To gain insight, a two-dimensional computational fluid 

dynamics (CFD) calculation of the flow field around the airfoil for the -7° angle of attack at 

28 m/s case was performed using a k-ε turbulent model. Figure 194(b) shows the streamlines 

around the airfoil and a zoomed-in view on the leading edge. The presence of a separation 

bubble is confirmed by the CFD predictions. The pressure data (Section 3.1 above) also 

confirmed a potential flow separation. Similar acoustic results also were observed in the case of 

the higher Reynolds number (54 m/s) at the same -7° angle of attack. Although not as clear, 

similar leading-edge noise around 812 Hz also can be observed in the case of the higher

Reynolds number (54 m/s) at 5° angle of attack for both the clean and soiled conditions, but it 

completely vanishes when tripped. This effect can be observed in the acoustic maps for these 

three cases (Figure 195).
213

Figure 194. Acoustic maps for (a) S831 airfoil at -7° effective AoA at 28 m/s (Re = 1,500,000) and 

(b) two-dimensional CFD solution showing a separation bubble near the leading edge on the 

pressure side

812.08 Hz 1024.01 Hz

Flow

Separation Bubble

(a)

Leading Edge View

Separation Bubble

(b)
214

Figure 195. Acoustic maps for S831 airfoil at 5° effective AoA at 54 m/s (Re = 3,200,000): 

(a) no trip, (b) tripped, (c) soiled

As listed in Table 14, measurements with the boundary layer tripped were performed for only the 

-2° and 5° angles of attack. Figure 196(a) and (b) show the results for the tripped boundary-layer 

cases (red) as well as the no-trip results (black). It is clear that tripping the boundary layer has a 

minor effect (e.g., an approximate reduction of 1dB to 2 dB at 28 m/s for frequencies greater 

than 1,000 Hz). The result for soiled configuration again is indistinguishable from that of the 

tripped case. The normalized spectra are shown in Figures 213 and 214. For this particular 

airfoil, the data didn’t scale well with the fifth power law.

812.75 Hz

Flow

(a)

812.75 Hz

(b)

812.75 Hz

Flow

(c)
215

Figure 196. Integrated spectrum for untripped (black) and tripped (red) S831 airfoil at (a) -2° and 

(b) 5° effective AoA for 28 m/s and 54 m/s (nominal chord Reynolds number 1,500,000–3,200,000) 

(scale: one-twelfth octave bands; tunnel entry: July 2007)

28 m/s

54 m/s

28 m/s

54 m/s

(a) -2°AoA

(b) 5°AoA

Soiled and Tripped Cases
216

4.5.6. Airfoil Trailing-Edge Noise Comparison

This section presents a direct comparison of the trailing-edge noise from the 4 airfoils tested at 

Reynolds numbers of 1,500,000 and 3,200,000. The NACA 0012 airfoil is the only model that 

showed vortex shedding at angles of attack greater than 6°, therefore only data for 0°, 2°, 4°, and 

6° are included. Figure 197 shows the untripped trailing-edge noise spectra for the 4 airfoils. For 

clarity, the stalled conditions in these plots are indicated. The tripped conditions are shown in 

Figure 198 together with the corresponding no-trip cases. All the tripped cases were measured at 

small angles of attack for all 4 airfoils, therefore the no-trip cases for angles of attack greater 

than 6° were deleted from these plots, i.e. no stalled cases. Inspection of Figure 197 and Figure 

198 shows a clearly striking overall difference in the acoustic behavior between models. The 

most important differences are summarized below.

• At both Reynolds numbers, the noise spectrum for the NACA 0012 airfoil clearly is 

different from that of the three wind-turbine airfoils in both levels and shape.

• Tripping the boundary layer leads to noise reduction only for the NACA 0012 and DU96 

airfoils at the lower Reynolds number.

• The S831 airfoil noise shows the greatest dependence upon angle of attack at the higher 

Reynolds number. The other models appear to be less sensitive to angle of attack than the 

S831.

• Separation-stall noise is characterized by an increase of at least 8-10 dB across the whole 

spectrum relative to pre-stall conditions.

• Particularly for small angles of attack without the presence of vortex shedding, the noiselevel scales well with the fifth power of the free-stream velocity for the NACA 0012, 

DU96, and B1-18. The S831 airfoil data didn’t collapse with the 5th power law. The 

scaling analysis is discussed in greater detail in Appendix C.
217

Figure 197. Integrated spectrum for untripped (a) NACA0012, (b) DU96, (c) Risø, and (d) S831 

airfoils at Reynolds numbers of 1,500,000 and 3,200,000

(c) B1-18 (d) S831

(a) NACA0012 (b) DU96

Stalled

Stalled

Stalled

Stalled
218

Figure 198. Integrated spectrum for untripped and tripped (a) NACA 0012, (b) DU96, (c) Risø, and 

(d) S831 airfoils at Reynolds number of 1,500,000 and 3,200,000

5. Summary

Aerodynamic and acoustic measurements of three wind turbine airfoils with a 0.914-m chord 

were tested at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Stability Wind Tunnel, in 

its anechoic configuration. The models used were the Delft DU96, Risø B1-18, and NREL S831. 

A NACA 0012 model of the same chord also was tested. The four models were tested for a range 

of flow conditions, with nominal chord Reynolds numbers of from 800,000 to 3,800,000. The 

Virginia Tech Stability Tunnel aeroacoustic configuration is new, therefore noise measurements 

of a small 0.2-m chord NACA 0012 airfoil also were obtained (referred to as small NACA). 

Results for this small-size airfoil were compared to data obtained in an open-jet aeroacoustic 

tunnel with a NACA 0012 model of almost the same chord (Brooks et al. 1989). Results obtained 

using the Virginia Tech wind tunnel are in good agreement with those obtained by Brooks et al. 

(1989). This comparison provided the first validation of the capabilities of the new Virginia Tech 

anechoic tunnel.

(c) B1-18 (d) S831

(a) NACA0012 (b) DU96
219

The aerodynamic flow measurements of the NACA 0012, DU96, B1-18, and S831 airfoils 

consisted of static-pressure distributions on the airfoil surfaces, wake-profile measurements 

downstream of the mid-span of the airfoil, and single hot-wire measurements in the vicinity of 

the trailing edge. The hot-wire measurements were performed for DU96, B1-18, and S831 

airfoils. The noise measurements consisted of far-field acoustic data using 63-microphone 

phased array systems of all models.

The mean-pressure distributions were used in conjunction with a panel-method code (for freeflight conditions) to compute effective angles of attack. Interestingly, the interference correction 

was found to be 22% for all cases (i.e. independent of the airfoil profile). Pressure distributions 

also were used to compute lift and pitching moment. Wake measurements were performed and 

used to estimate drag. A single hot-wire probe also was used to measure trailing-edge boundary 

layers near the trailing edge for the DU96, B1-18, and S831 airfoils.

Noise measurements using the phased arrays were successful in identifying trailing-edge noise 

for most of the configurations, in particular for the lower angles of attack. At greater angles, 

junction vortices at the leading edge of the airfoils and the resulting turbulence interacting with 

the trailing edge produced sources that masked the trailing-edge noise. This effect appeared in 

both tunnel entries, although it was less significant in the second entry after the test modifications were implemented. Thus, when interpreting the results and drawing conclusions, it is 

important to remember that self-noise data at the greater angles of attack are limited.

The measurements revealed significant differences and similarities in the noise characteristic of 

the wind-turbine airfoils. The first and likely most important similarity is that the DU96, B1-18, 

and S831 airfoils did not show any vortex shedding. Conversely, the NACA 0012 did shed 

vortices from the trailing edge at an angle of attack greater than 6°. Tripping the boundary layer 

was only marginally effective in alleviating this problem. The vortex shedding from the NACA 

0012 at high Reynolds numbers has been observed in previous experiments (Paterson et al. 1973).

Differences in the noise characteristics are more numerous. The DU96 airfoil trailing-edge noise 

seems to be rather insensitive to the angle of attack, in particular at the lower flow speed of 

28 m/s (Re = 1,500,000). The B1-18 and S831, however, clearly show an increase in noise with 

increasing angle of attack—which was more dramatic at the highest Reynolds number measured 

(3,200,000). A flow anomaly (separation bubble) for the S831 model at the zero lift (-7°) 

configuration also was found. The flow irregularity was identified by the mean-pressure 

measurement, and was supported by two-dimensional CFD predictions. From the noise maps, it 

appears that this flow irregularity near the leading edge still persisted even at greater angles of 

attack (5°). Another important difference is that tripping the boundary layer leads to noise 

reduction only for the DU96 airfoil at the lower flow speed of 28 m/s. Acoustically, there is no 

convincing effect of tripping the boundary layer for any of the airfoils at the greatest speed tested 

(Re = 3,200,000). The trip using random distribution of silicon carbide grit particles on the 

leading-edge region (soiled trip) did not result in any noticeable noise increase. The acoustic data 

scaled well with the fifth power of the free-stream velocity.

Despite the difficulties and limitations found during these experiments, they yielded a set of 

useful flow and noise results enabling formation of an initial experimental database of aerodynamic and aeroacoustic measurements for wind-turbine airfoils at high Reynolds numbers. It 
220

is possible to improve the noise results by reprocessing the data using more advanced (but time 

consuming) beamforming algorithms.

6. References

Bearman, P. W. (1971). “Corrections for the Effect of Ambient Temperature Drift on Hot-Wire 

Measurements in Incompressible Flow.” DISA Information, 11, pp. 25–30.

Brooks, T. F.; Pope, D. S.; Marcolini, M. A. (1989). Airfoil Self Noise and Prediction. NASARP-1218.

Choi, K.; Simpson, R. L. (1987). Some Mean Velocity, Turbulence and Unsteadiness Characteristics of the VPI & SU Stability Wind Tunnel. Report VPI-Aero-161. Blacksburg, VA: Department of Aerospace and Ocean Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

Crede, E. (2008). Aerodynamics and Acoustics of the Virginia Tech Stability Tunnel Anechoic 

System. Master’s Thesis. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

Available at http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-08112008-094223/unrestricted/

Thesis.pdf. Accessed September 5, 2009.

Devenport, W.; Burdisso, R. A. (April 2008). “Aeroacoustic Testing of Sandia National Labs 

Wind Turbine Airfoils.” Virginia Tech Report.

Jaeger, S. M.; Horne, W. C.; Allen, C. S. (2000). “Effect of Surface Treatment on Array 

Microphone Self-Noise.” Prepared for the 6th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference, June 

2000. AIAA Paper 2000-1937. Mountainview, CA: Aerospace Computing, Inc. 10 pp.

Kuethe, A.; Chow, C. (1986). Foundations of Aerodynamics: Bases of Aerodynamic Design,

4th Edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Paterson, R.W.; Vogt, P.G.; Fink M.R. (1973) “Vortex Noise of Isolated Airfoils,” J. Aircraft, 

Vol. 10, No. 5, Mau.

Remillieux, M. C.; Camargo, H. E.; Burdisso, R. A. (2007). “Calibration of a Microphone 

Phased-Array for Amplitude in the Virginia Tech Anechoic Wind Tunnel.” Prepared for NOISECON 2007, October 2007.

Remillieux, M. C.; Camargo, H. E.; Burdisso, R. A.; Ng Wing, F. (2007). “Aeroacoustic Study 

of a 26%-Scale, High-Fidelity, Boeing 777 Main Landing Gear in a Semi-Anechoic WindTunnel Test Section.” Prepared for Proceedings of the 13th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics 

Conference (28th AIAA Aeroacoustics Conference), May 2007. AIAA-2007-3453.
221

Remillieux, M.; Crede, E.; Camargo, H.; Burdisso, R.; Devenport, W.; Rasnick, M.; van Seeters,

P.; Chou, A. (2008). “Calibration and Demonstration of the New Virginia Tech Anechoic Wind 

Tunnel.” Proceedings of the 14th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Meeting, May 2008. AIAA-2008-

2911.

Staubs, J. (May 2008). Real Airfoil Effects on Leading Edge Noise. Ph.D. Dissertation.

Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Available at 

http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05282008-002246/unrestricted/

JKS_Dissertation.pdf. Accessed September 5, 2009.
222

Appendix A. Wing Section Measurements

The four airfoil models used in this study were measured to determine the deviations from the 

design profiles. For each model (NACA 0012, B1-18, DU96, S831), the section shape was 

measured at four locations along the span (1⁄4 span, midspan, 3⁄4 span, and at the pressure taps 

access hatch). Measurements were made with a FaroArm CMM (model Fusion) connected to a 

laptop PC running a Windows version of CAM2 Measure X (CMM control software). The 

FaroArm (Figure 199) was used with a 3-mm diameter spherical probe and provides 0.1-mm 

measurement accuracy.

Figure 199. FARO Fusion Arm CMM used for measuring the manufactured wing models

The resulting measurements are presented in Figures 200 through 203 for the NACA 0012, B1-

18, DU96, and S831, respectively. Each figure is composed of three different plots.

• The top plot presents a direct comparison between the measured and design profiles,

plotted in terms of their chord-aligned airfoil coordinates (x and y, as described in Section

3) normalized on the airfoil chord.

• The difference between the measured and design profiles (defined as the distance 

between the two profiles along the direction normal to the measured section and 

expressed as percentage of the chord) is plotted in the middle chart against the 
223

normalized edge-length s/c (defined in Section 3.1). A positive difference implies that the 

measured profile is thicker than the design shape.

• The measured and design profiles are used as an input in a linear-vortex panel method 

code to determine the influence of the section shape deviations on the pressure 

distribution. The resulting pressure distributions are shown in the bottom plot for an 

effective angle of attack of 8°.

For each figure the sections measured at the 1⁄4 span, midspan, 3⁄4 span, and at the pressure taps 

access hatch are plotted as blue, green, magenta, and red curves, and the associated design 

profile is shown in black.

For the NACA 0012 model, examination of Figure 200(b) shows that at 1⁄4 span, midspan, and 

3⁄4 span the shape has an offset on the order of 0.1% chord (0.9 mm) on most of the suction side 

of the wing (positive y/c or s/c of less than 1). On the pressure side (negative y/c or s/c greater 

than 1), the offset from the design increases from 0.1% chord at the leading edge to about 0.25% 

chord (2.3 mm) at the trailing edge. The consistently positive offset at 1⁄4 span, midspan, and 

3⁄4 span suggests that the model was manufactured 1 mm to 2.3 mm too thick as compared to the 

design shape. The same type of deviation behaviors can be observed at the pressure ports hatch 

location. The offset is relatively constant on the suction side (and less than 0.5 mm) although it 

consistently increases on the pressure side, from 0.23% chord (2.1 mm) at the leading edge to 

0.37% chord (3.4 mm) at the trailing edge. Such positive offset on the pressure side suggests that 

the hatch is raised above the rest of the wing surface by 1 mm to 1.5 mm. These differences in 

profile shape do not seem to lead to significant changes in the pressure distribution other than 

near the location of minimum pressure as seen in Figure 200(c). Due to the increased thickness, 

the magnitude of the minimum pressure is increased at the 1⁄4 span, midspan, and 3⁄4 span. At the 

hatch, the pressure distribution is remarkably close to the design loading (a result in agreement 

with the measured pressure distribution at 8° presented in Figure 30).
224

Figure 200. Comparison between measured and design profiles of the NACA 0012 airfoil; (a) Direct 

comparison between measured and design profiles, (b) profile difference (defined as the distance 

between measured and design profiles along the direction normal to the measured section),

(c) vortex panel method pressure distributions obtained from the measured and design profiles at 

an effective angle of attack of 8°

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

Edge-length s/c

- Cp

(a)

(b)

(c)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

x/c

y/c

1

4 span 1

2 span 34 span hatch design

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Edge-length s/c

Profile Difference [%c ]

0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1 1.02 1.04 2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

Edge-length s/c

- Cp
225

The measured profiles around the B1-18 model and the associated pressure distributions are 

presented in Figure 201. The B1-18 profile is proprietary, therefore Figure 201(a) intentionally is 

left blank. Figure 201(b) shows that most of the profile differences are greater on the suction side 

(s/c < 1) than on the pressure side (s/c > 1). This is also apparent by looking at Figure 201(c) in 

which the pressure distribution on the pressure side shows little deviation from the design 

loading. On the suction side, Figure 201(b) shows that the model was manufactured with a 

greater thickness than the design shape. As expected, the increased thickness results in a lower 

pressure on the suction side as compared to the design shape (clearly seen in the leading-edge 

area blow-up of Figure 201(c)). Figure 53 shows that the panel method predicts a pressure in the 

leading-edge area on the suction side that is lower than that which actually was measured. It 

should be noted, however, that the model was assumed to have the design shape when the lift 

interference corrections were computed. It therefore is possible that the difference in the airfoil 

shape could result in a different correction.
226

Figure 201. Comparison between measured and design profiles of the B1-18 airfoil; (a) the direct 

comparison between measured and design profiles is intentionally not included (see text), (b) 

profile difference (defined as the distance between measured and design profiles along the 

direction normal to the measured section), (c) vortex panel method pressure distributions 

obtained from the measured and design profiles at an effective angle of attack of 8°

1

4 span 1

2 span 34 span hatch design

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Edge-length s/c

Profile Difference [%c ]

(a)

(b)

(c)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

Edge-length s/c

- Cp

0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Edge-length s/c

- Cp
227

The measurements on the DU96 are provided in Figure 202. Visual inspection of Figure 202(a) 

shows that the manufactured wing has a consistently smaller thickness than the design shape. 

This observation is confirmed by Figure 202(b) that shows maximum negative deviations of up 

to 0.6% chord (5.5 mm) from the design profile. Not only are these deviations quite great, but the 

region where they occur is particularly important. Independently of the spanwise location, the 

deviation from the design shape reaches two minima around s/c = 0.7 and 1.37. These locations 

correspond to 30% chord on the suction side and 35% chord on the pressure side, respectively, 

which coincides with the location of maximum thickness. It therefore is not surprising to observe 

that these changes in the maximum thickness result in significant variations in the associated 

pressure distributions (Figure 202(c)). This plot is important because it shows that the difference 

between the pressure distributions associated with the measured profile at the hatch (red curve) 

and design profile (a difference of 0.1 to 0.2 (in terms of Cp) on the suction side) is very similar 

to the difference between the measured pressure distribution and the design pressure distribution 

(0.1 to 0.15 (in terms of Cp) on the suction side, as shown in Figure 70). It therefore follows that 

the difference observed between the measured pressure distribution and design distribution could 

be due mostly to the uncertainty in the model fabrication. Also note that the DU96 is the model 

that displays the greatest deviations from the design shape (up to 0.6% chord or 5.5 mm).
228

Figure 202. Comparison between measured and design profiles of the DU96 airfoil; (a) direct 

comparison between measured and design profiles, (b) profile difference (defined as the distance 

between measured and design profiles along the direction normal to the measured section),

(c) vortex panel method pressure distributions obtained from the measured and design profiles at 

an effective angle of attack of 8°

(a)

(b)

(c)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

x/c

y/c

1

4 span 12 span 3

4 span hatch design

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Edge-length s/c

Profile Difference [%c ]

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

Edge-length s/c

- Cp

0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Edge-length s/c

- Cp
229

The S831 measurements are presented in Figure 203. Figure 203(b) shows that the manufactured 

model is sizably thicker than the design shape except for the first 50% chord on the suction side 

of the wing (0.5 < s/c < 1). The profile differences are particularly noticeable near the leading 

edge on the pressure side (1.05 < s/c < 1.2) where the maximum deviation of 0.25% chord 

(2.3 mm) occurs. Such deviation also occurs near the trailing edge on the suction side (s/c ≈ 0). 

These variations in the model shape result in deviation from the design pressure distribution as 

shown in Figure 203(c). Interestingly, the pressure distribution obtained from the profile 

measured at the hatch shows good agreement with the design loading, even to the point of 

minimum pressure. Figure 92 shows that the measured pressure distribution, however, was 

significantly lower than the design loading. As mentioned earlier, the discrepancy could be the 

result of an error in the lift-interference correction originating from the use of the incorrect 

surface geometry. Additionally, the spanwise variation in the wing loading shown in Figure 

203(c) could have resulted in three-dimensional effects on the model surface, and therefore 

might have contaminated the measured pressure distribution.
230

Figure 203. Comparison between measured and design profiles of the S831 airfoil; (a) direct 

comparison between measured and design profiles, (b) profile difference (defined as the distance 

between measured and design profiles along the direction normal to the measured section),

(c) vortex panel method pressure distributions obtained from the measured and design profiles at 

an effective angle of attack of 8°

(a)

(b)

(c)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

x/c

y/c

1

4 span 1

2 span 34 span hatch design

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Edge-length s/c

Profile Difference [%c ]

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

Edge-length s/c

- Cp

0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Edge-length s/c

- Cp
231

Finally, the CMM also was used to measure the location of the pressure ports on the manufactured models. The measured coordinates are presented for the NACA 0012, DU96, and S831 in 

Table 15 through Table 17.

Table 15. Measured Pressure Taps Location for the NACA 0012 Model

Suction Side Pressure Side

Tap # x/c y/c z/c x/c y/c z/c

1 9.84E-05 0.00155 -0.93107 0.002824 -0.00907 -1.05983

2 0.003155 0.010315 -0.93457 0.004078 -0.01081 -1.05745

3 0.006373 0.014396 -0.93336 0.008392 -0.01598 -1.05609

4 0.008506 0.016504 -0.93556 0.01092 -0.01778 -1.05572

5 0.00989 0.017523 -0.93485 0.013053 -0.01921 -1.05347

6 0.012893 0.019943 -0.93721 0.014167 -0.02003 -1.05487

7 0.015599 0.02206 -0.93742 0.016989 -0.02218 -1.05422

8 0.017301 0.02307 -0.9361 0.018561 -0.02324 -1.05389

9 0.018616 0.02385 -0.93716 0.026836 -0.02706 -1.05268

10 0.025311 0.027385 -0.93942 0.051504 -0.03661 -1.0467

11 0.051362 0.037278 -0.94345 0.074813 -0.0427 -1.04242

12 0.074043 0.042995 -0.95007 0.099902 -0.04748 -1.0351

13 0.102196 0.048369 -0.95588 0.125015 -0.05135 -1.02953

14 0.12745 0.052024 -0.9613 0.148143 -0.05411 -1.02343

15 0.152295 0.054726 -0.96659 0.173138 -0.05639 -1.01796

16 0.175494 0.056795 -0.97443 0.201575 -0.05829 -1.01177

17 0.200654 0.058465 -0.97851 0.225214 -0.05952 -1.00806

18 0.2274 0.059804 -0.98424 0.250292 -0.06037 -1.00064

19 0.277839 0.061173 -0.99593 0.273898 -0.06074 -0.99471

20 0.300704 0.061251 -1.00329 0.300221 -0.06089 -0.99059

21 0.325758 0.061127 -1.00756 0.325485 -0.06067 -0.98483

22 0.350956 0.060607 -1.01306 0.348741 -0.06047 -0.97726

23 0.377668 0.059893 -1.0194 0.375192 -0.05991 -0.97331

24 0.400979 0.059047 -1.0267 0.400331 -0.05915 -0.96418

25 0.425695 0.058016 -1.03097 0.426458 -0.05811 -0.96057

26 0.451503 0.05661 -1.03713 0.450156 -0.05703 -0.95417

27 0.47749 0.055332 -1.04118 0.475357 -0.05568 -0.94837

28 0.49918 0.054048 -1.04687 0.500399 -0.05428 -0.94443

29 0.550643 0.050713 -1.05616 0.549989 -0.051 -0.93014

30 0.601116 0.047012 -1.04502 0.600667 -0.04718 -0.94299

31 0.652969 0.042463 -1.03487 0.650945 -0.04294 -0.95585

32 0.702829 0.037561 -1.02372 0.700593 -0.03833 -0.96462

33 0.750993 0.032556 -1.01323 0.750228 -0.03336 -0.97804

34 0.801141 0.02714 -1.00215 0.799282 -0.02808 -0.98947

35 0.851095 0.021529 -0.9887 0.850503 -0.02216 -0.99916
232

Suction Side Pressure Side

Tap # x/c y/c z/c x/c y/c z/c

36 0.901626 0.015557 -0.9772 0.900398 -0.016 -1.01265

37 0.921456 0.013087 -0.97252 0.920683 -0.01329 -1.01558

38 0.939591 0.010697 -0.96806 0.938922 -0.01077 -1.02178

39 0.960936 0.007788 -0.96314 0.960496 -0.00763 -1.02629

40 0.982035 0.004224 -0.95857 0.980536 -0.00461 -1.02934

Table 16. Measured Pressure Taps Location for the DU96 Model

Suction Side Pressure Side

Tap # x/c y/c z/c x/c y/c z/c

1 0.003292 0.011995 -1.3942 0.000854 -0.00565 -1.26718

2 0.006171 0.015623 -1.38964 0.000911 -0.00577 -1.22113

3 0.00922 0.018909 -1.39099 0.001678 -0.0073 -1.22098

4 0.010154 0.019839 -1.39042 0.002752 -0.00863 -1.22084

5 0.013419 0.022889 -1.392 0.002796 -0.00857 -1.26764

6 0.016083 0.025185 -1.39054 0.004044 -0.0099 -1.22068

7 0.017281 0.02617 -1.38893 0.00544 -0.01119 -1.27064

8 0.02206 0.029853 -1.38773 0.007695 -0.01299 -1.26927

9 0.048202 0.045765 -1.38361 0.01033 -0.01486 -1.26951

10 0.074082 0.05795 -1.37583 0.013293 -0.01677 -1.27079

11 0.100009 0.068147 -1.37045 0.015552 -0.01811 -1.26927

12 0.12343 0.076129 -1.36237 0.018681 -0.01983 -1.26992

13 0.149184 0.083665 -1.35856 0.07332 -0.03849 -1.28323

14 0.174394 0.08991 -1.35277 0.096759 -0.04359 -1.29056

15 0.197125 0.094688 -1.34697 0.125797 -0.04859 -1.29678

16 0.223405 0.099349 -1.33941 0.149663 -0.05193 -1.30109

17 0.248699 0.103042 -1.33523 0.173986 -0.05474 -1.30844

18 0.27201 0.105778 -1.32985 0.198674 -0.05704 -1.31364

19 0.296888 0.107984 -1.32393 0.222899 -0.05879 -1.31985

20 0.322516 0.109478 -1.31889 0.246907 -0.06021 -1.32519

21 0.348243 0.110215 -1.31491 0.273438 -0.0614 -1.33115

22 0.373451 0.11023 -1.30569 0.299987 -0.06216 -1.33697

23 0.398311 0.109564 -1.30133 0.323587 -0.06254 -1.3427

24 0.422993 0.108208 -1.29514 0.350657 -0.06261 -1.34841

25 0.447856 0.106142 -1.29136 0.372243 -0.06239 -1.35316

26 0.474186 0.103351 -1.28393 0.398174 -0.06184 -1.36015

27 0.498357 0.100354 -1.27672 0.424065 -0.06093 -1.36588

28 0.549352 0.092895 -1.26626 0.446895 -0.05981 -1.37243

29 0.597992 0.084761 -1.27802 0.471678 -0.05826 -1.37726

30 0.648524 0.075557 -1.28986 0.499128 -0.05614 -1.3829
233

Suction Side Pressure Side

Tap # x/c y/c z/c x/c y/c z/c

31 0.696585 0.066204 -1.30128 0.546927 -0.05147 -1.39402

32 0.747025 0.056086 -1.31315 0.598768 -0.04527 -1.38139

33 0.798813 0.045484 -1.32663 0.646769 -0.0388 -1.37208

34 0.848341 0.035031 -1.33653 0.697434 -0.0315 -1.36065

35 0.899085 0.024063 -1.34649 0.710651 -0.02959 -1.22352

36 0.918749 0.019844 -1.3528 0.711728 -0.02944 -1.22237

37 0.938233 0.015491 -1.3572 0.712803 -0.02928 -1.22122

38 0.959148 0.01093 -1.36243 0.713879 -0.02913 -1.22006

39 0.979041 0.006548 -1.36695 0.748834 -0.02406 -1.34861

40 0.799684 -0.01689 -1.33766

41 0.848019 -0.01068 -1.32439

42 0.89811 -0.0051 -1.31206

43 0.918486 -0.00332 -1.30975

44 0.938007 -0.00202 -1.3054

45 0.957932 -0.00027 -1.29924

46 0.977996 -4.3E-05 -1.29593

Table 17. Measured Pressure Taps Location for the S-831 Model

Suction Side Pressure Side

Tap # x/c y/c z/c x/c y/c z/c

1 0.00313 0.00841 -1.47328 0.00055 -0.00318 -1.34733

2 0.00589 0.01234 -1.47299 0.00388 -0.00724 -1.34927

3 0.00858 0.01592 -1.47213 0.00582 -0.00914 -1.34977

4 0.01028 0.01787 -1.47328 0.00837 -0.01018 -1.34738

5 0.01362 0.02121 -1.47143 0.01101 -0.01105 -1.35111

6 0.01561 0.02326 -1.47209 0.01334 -0.01174 -1.35009

7 0.01706 0.02469 -1.47013 0.01630 -0.01247 -1.35237

8 0.01949 0.02674 -1.46959 0.01825 -0.01282 -1.35165

9 0.02516 0.03153 -1.47007 0.02128 -0.01329 -1.35226

10 0.05025 0.04789 -1.46121 0.02605 -0.01412 -1.35500

11 0.07379 0.05987 -1.45705 0.05121 -0.01787 -1.35722

12 0.09890 0.07078 -1.45111 0.07392 -0.02043 -1.36426

13 0.12538 0.08072 -1.44708 0.09992 -0.02313 -1.37063

14 0.15050 0.08919 -1.44123 0.12594 -0.02574 -1.37799

15 0.17713 0.09712 -1.43395 0.15022 -0.02794 -1.38182

16 0.19925 0.10306 -1.42797 0.17479 -0.03006 -1.38739

17 0.22723 0.10995 -1.42238 0.20122 -0.03212 -1.39369

18 0.25036 0.11482 -1.41663 0.22552 -0.03389 -1.40152

19 0.27558 0.11992 -1.41247 0.25038 -0.03551 -1.40634
234

Suction Side Pressure Side

Tap # x/c y/c z/c x/c y/c z/c

20 0.30444 0.12450 -1.40481 0.27641 -0.03709 -1.40959

21 0.32390 0.12772 -1.39922 0.29937 -0.03838 -1.41476

22 0.35063 0.13092 -1.39183 0.32478 -0.03964 -1.42306

23 0.37569 0.13362 -1.38610 0.35085 -0.04071 -1.42886

24 0.40081 0.13604 -1.38182 0.37568 -0.04145 -1.43407

25 0.42739 0.13770 -1.37602 0.40007 -0.04185 -1.44067

26 0.45064 0.13853 -1.37191 0.42620 -0.04205 -1.44679

27 0.47557 0.13898 -1.36446 0.45081 -0.04178 -1.45033

28 0.50093 0.13859 -1.36016 0.47570 -0.04118 -1.45860

29 0.55064 0.13536 -1.34695 0.50049 -0.04005 -1.46611

30 0.60076 0.12882 -1.35673 0.55087 -0.03652 -1.47728

31 0.65107 0.11923 -1.37184 0.60010 -0.03117 -1.46263

32 0.70123 0.10699 -1.38329 0.65030 -0.02427 -1.45066

33 0.75134 0.09263 -1.39177 0.70086 -0.01658 -1.44315

34 0.80102 0.07689 -1.40473 0.74859 -0.00922 -1.43019

35 0.85162 0.05925 -1.41459 0.80061 -0.00188 -1.41649

36 0.90217 0.03997 -1.42814 0.85146 0.00344 -1.40728

37 0.92158 0.03213 -1.43109 0.90126 0.00616 -1.39663

38 0.94162 0.02402 -1.43545 0.92139 0.00635 -1.39153

39 0.96189 0.01586 -1.44189 0.94211 0.00599 -1.38670

40 0.98105 0.00820 -1.44615 0.96156 0.00493 -1.38035

41 0.98145 0.00268 -1.37956
235

Appendix B. Definition of One-Twelfth Octave Bands

The one-twelfth octave bands were computed as follows.

• Upper band limit in terms of the nth band center frequency

1

12 2 n n

u c f f =

• Lower band limit in terms of the nth band center frequency

1

12 2 n n

c f f −

 =

• The bands center frequency sequence is then computed as:

1

24 1 2 n n

c c f f − =

where the “reference” center frequency is 1 Hz (band number 1).

Figure 204 illustrates the one-twelfth octave band boundaries in the 500 Hz to 5,000 Hz 

frequency range.

Figure 204. Graphic representation of one-twelfth octave bands

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Frequency (Hz)

One-twelfth-octave 

band width fc=4096 
236

Appendix C. Normalized Noise Spectra

The dependence of the airfoil self-noise with the free-stream velocity is the most critical 

parameter, therefore the normalized spectra are presented in this appendix. For all cases, the 

reference free-stream velocity in the normalized plots is 54 m/s. The frequency is scaled using 

the Strouhal number with the chord as the length scale and the fifth power of the free stream for 

the amplitude. In these plots the actual free-stream velocity of the data is included in the upperright corner of the figure.

Prior to normalizing the spectra, the data was corrected for the acoustic losses through the 

boundary-layer Kevlar cloth, as shown in Figure 11. Note that losses through Kevlar are 

insignificant at less than 5,000 Hz, for example ΔK ≈ 0 dB. In this figure, the losses due to flow 

effects, ΔF, increase with the free-stream velocity; for example, there is a difference of ~ 2 dB in 

noise levels from 41 m/s (M = 0.12) to 58 m/s (M = 0.17). Thus, the array output levels at greater

flow speeds are underestimated. Because the data in Figure 11 below 2,500 Hz are not reliable, 

an approximate approach was used here to correct the data (e.g., to determine ΔF in Section 

2.2.2). It was assumed that the losses due to flow effects are frequency independent. Assuming 

an average difference of ~ 2 dB between the 41 m/s and 58 m/s cases in Figure 11(b) (valid for 

frequencies less than 5,000 Hz), a simple power law in terms of the flow velocity is easily 

established as ΔF = 2 dB = m10 × Log10(58 / 41) → m = 1.3. Thus, the levels prior to the 

normalization were adjusted as SPLcorrected = 1.3 10 × Log10(58 ∕ 41) → m = 1.3 SPLTrue(db) = 

SPLMeasured + 1.3 × 10 × Log10(U∞ ∕ 41). The acoustic losses through the boundary-layer Kevlar

cloth should be measured more accurately, in particular for frequencies that are less than

2,500 Hz.
237

C.1. Small Chord NACA 0012 Airfoil

(a) 0° AoA (b) 3.1° AoA

(c) 7.3° AoA

Figure 205. Normalized integrated spectrum for tripped 0.2 chord NACA 0012

43 m/s

54 m/s

43 m/s

54 m/s

43 m/s

54 m/s
238

(a) 0° AoA (b) 2° AoA

(c) 4° AoA

Figure 206. Normalized integrated spectrum for tripped 0.2 chord NACA 0012

C.2. NACA 0012 Airfoil

(a) 0° AoA (b) 2° AoA 

16 m/s

20 m/s

28 m/s

50 m/s

58 m/s

60 m/s

66 m/s

16 m/s

20 m/s

28 m/s

40 m/s

51 m/s

40 m/s

51 m/s

40 m/s

51 m/s
239

(c) 4° AoA (d) 6° AoA

(e) 8° AoA (f) -8° AoA

(g) -10° AoA

Figure 207. Normalized integrated spectrum for untripped NACA 0012

16 m/s

20 m/s

28 m/s

28 m/s

42 m/s

58 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s

28 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s
240

(a) 0° AoA (b) 2° AoA

(c) 4° AoA (d) -8° AoA

Figure 208. Normalized integrated spectrum for tripped NACA 0012

C.3. Delft DU96 Airfoil

(a) 3°AoA (b) 6°AoA

Figure 209. Normalized integrated spectrum for untripped DU96

16 m/s

20 m/s

28 m/s

30 m/s

40 m/s

50 m/s

58 m/s

60 m/s

66 m/s

16 m/s

20 m/s

28 m/s

16 m/s

20 m/s

28 m/s

28 m/s

41 m/s

58 m/s

42 m/s

58 m/s

28 m/s

42 m/s

54 m/s
241

(a) 3°AoA

Figure 210. Normalized integrated spectrum for tripped DU96

C.4. Risø B1-18 Airfoil

(a) 3°AoA (b) 6°AoA

(c) 13°AoA

Figure 211. Normalized integrated spectrum for untripped B1-18

Stalled

28 m/s

41 m/s

58 m/s

28 m/s

56 m/s

28 m/s

56 m/s

28 m/s

56 m/s
242

(a) 3°AoA (b) 6°AoA

Figure 212. Normalized integrated spectra for tripped B1-18

C.5. S831 Airfoil

(a) -2°AoA (b) 3°AoA

(c) 6°AoA (d) 8°AoA

Figure 213. Normalized integrated spectra for untripped S831

28 m/s

56 m/s

29 m/s

56 m/s

29 m/s

56 m/s

29 m/s

56 m/s

29 m/s

57 m/s

29 m/s

57 m/s
243

(a) -2°AoA (b) 5°AoA

Figure 214. Normalized integrated spectra for tripped S831

30 m/s

56 m/s

30 m/s

56 m/s
F1146-E(10/2008)

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February 20, 2004–February 19, 2008

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Aeroacoustic Testing of Wind Turbine Airfoils: 

February 20, 2004 – February 19, 2008

5a. CONTRACT NUMBER

DE-AC36-08-GO28308

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6. AUTHOR(S)

W. Devenport, R.A. Burdisso, H. Camargo, E. Crede, M. Remillieux, 

M. Rasnick, and P. Van Seeters

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NREL/SR-500-43471

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WE10.3113

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Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 

Blacksburg, Virginia

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14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 Words)

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), working through its National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), is 

engaged in a comprehensive research effort to improve the understanding of wind turbine aeroacoustics. The 

motivation for this effort is the desire to exploit the large expanse of low wind speed sites that tend to be close to U.S. 

load centers. Quiet wind turbines are an inducement to widespread deployment, so the goal of NREL’s aeroacoustic 

research is to develop tools that the U.S. wind industry can use in developing and deploying highly efficient, quiet 

wind turbines at low wind speed sites. NREL’s National Wind Technology Center (NWTC) is implementing a 

multifaceted approach that includes wind tunnel tests, field tests, and theoretical analyses in direct support of low 

wind speed turbine development by its industry partners. NWTC researchers are working hand in hand with 

engineers in industry to ensure that research findings are available to support ongoing design decisions.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

wind turbine; aeroacoustics; airfoils; quiet wind turbines

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