Thomas B. Miller

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Preliminary Investigation on Battery Sizing

Investigation for Thrust Vector Control on

Ares I and Ares V Launch Vehicles

NASA/TM—2011-216899

February 2011
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Thomas B. Miller

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Preliminary Investigation on Battery Sizing

Investigation for Thrust Vector Control on

Ares I and Ares V Launch Vehicles

NASA/TM—2011-216899

February 2011

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135
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NASA/TM—2011-216899 1 

Preliminary Investigation on Battery Sizing Investigation for 

Thrust Vector Control on Ares I and Ares V Launch Vehicles 

Thomas B. Miller 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Glenn Research Center 

Cleveland, Ohio 44135 

Abstract 

An investigation into the merits of battery powered Electro Hydrostatic Actuation (EHA) for Thrust 

Vector Control (TVC) of the Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles is described. A top level trade study was 

conducted to ascertain the technical merits of lithium-ion (Li-ion) and thermal battery performance to 

determine the preferred choice of an energy storage system chemistry that provides high power discharge 

capability for a relatively short duration. 

Introduction 

Historically, missiles and launch vehicles have employed hydrazine (N2H4) to feed into an auxiliary 

power unit which provides turbine power to operate hydraulic pumps for the TVC servo actuators. The 

actuators mechanically position the solid rocket nozzle to steer the vehicle to the correct trajectory. While 

this approach has been used successfully with a high reliability, NASA is interested in pursuing a less 

toxic, electric power approach that offers lower cost and improved operability. 

Figure 1 depicts the overall architecture associated with the EHA system and the interfaces with a 

launch vehicle. The Flight Control Computer (FCC) communicates via the 1553 data bus to the Booster 

Control Unit (BCU) to command the Motor Control Unit (MCU). The MCU provides the necessary 

position and torque values to the electric motor to drive the hydraulic pump and ultimately drive the 

actuator which directs the thrust from the launch vehicle to obtain the proper yaw and pitch trajectory. 

The electrical energy necessary to power the EHA is derived from the high voltage battery system. The 

selection of the appropriate 270 V battery Line Replaceable Unit (LRU) is the focus of this paper. Ground 

Support Equipment (GSE) interfaces to the battery to provide state-of-health monitoring, proper 

temperature control, and power to recharge the batteries. 

The current TVC architecture was based upon the following assumptions: 

 4 battery channels in parallel 

 4 Motor Control Units 

 2 TVC actuators each with a dual redundant internal design 

 The 4 batteries are each tied to a single motor control unit. Each motor control unit provides input 

power to one channel of each actuator. 

Battery requirements: 

 The maximum power output of the actuators is expected to be 57 horsepower (hp). This 

corresponds to a 92 hp maximum output of the electric motors. Using a 70 percent efficiency of 

all components back to the battery, this is equates to a 100 kW output requirement at the batteries. 

Two batteries summed together must supply this power. 

 Each battery should be designed for 270 +80/–30 VDC nominal operating range. 

 Total energy requirement is 5110 hp-sec (1058 Wh) at the electric motor for two batteries based 

on mission duty cycle. 

 5110 hp-sec energy with a 70 percent power management and distribution efficiency yields 

7300 hp-sec (1512 Whr). 

 Two fault tolerant battery systems imply two batteries must supply the total energy demand. 

 Each battery is therefore required to deliver 3650 hp-sec or 756 Whr. 
NASA/TM—2011-216899 2 

Figure 1.—Electro-hydrostatic actuator block diagram. 

 Ares I Ares V

 Crew launch vehicle Cargo launch vehicle 

Figure 2.—Constellation launch vehicles. 

A key driver in the selection of both battery and TVC hardware dealt with the Technology Readiness 

Level (TRL) and the ability to support development motor static firing tests in August 2010. Due to the 

tight schedule, existing heritage hardware was to be used to avoid extensive development time and to 

reduce overall risk to the program. A TRL of six “system/subsystem model or prototype demonstration in 

a relevant environment” was the minimum TRL to evaluate various concepts. EHA designs based upon 

the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) TVC were evaluated for the integration into the Ares I 

Crew Launch Vehicle and the Ares V Cargo Launch Vehicle first stage as depicted in Figure 2. 

Motor 

Controller

EHA System Design/Architectural Selection 

• Power System—Battery Assemblies 

• Control Electronics—Motor Control Units 

• Actuation—Two Redundant EHAs 

Reservoirs

Cross Port 

Relief Valve

Bypass 

Valves

Hydraulic

Pump

Electric

Motor

Motor 

Control 

Unit

Integrated Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator LRU

270V 

Battery

1553 

Command 

Telemetry

270VDC

GSE Interface

Telemetry

Motor 

Controller

Motor 

Controller

Controller

(BCU)

1553 FCC

Battery LRU

Hydraulic

Pump

Electric

Motor

Hydraulic

Pump

Electric

Motor

Hydraulic

Pump

Electric

Motor

Hydraulic

Pump

Electric

Motor
NASA/TM—2011-216899 3 

The trade study assessed the overall sizing of the TVC actuators and battery subsystems to meet the 

performance requirements of the vehicle. The selection of battery chemistry to power the EHA was based 

upon near-term cell level and battery level packaging concepts that would require minimal development 

resources. Factors of merit that were evaluated as part of the trade included mass of the packaged battery, 

system level impacts to the vehicle, and complexity of integration.

Mission Profile 

Since the two Constellation launch vehicles are planned to replace the existing Space Shuttle system, 

a commonality assessment was evaluated to reduce the overall development cost of a TVC system. For 

the purpose of this evaluation it was assumed that the EHA system would be developed for the higher 

power worst case design. Figure 3 depicts the estimated duty cycle for the TVC system which bounds 

both launch vehicles. 

Based upon previous NASA studies, electrically powered TVC system performance is predicated 

upon the selection of operating voltage. Systems with voltages of 28 VDC, 56 VDC, 118 VAC, and 

270 VDC were evaluated with various architectures to evaluate overall electrical power system mass and 

battery performance. The major driver to decrease overall electrical power system mass was the selection 

of the highest bus voltage to assist in reducing electrical conductor mass to carry electrical current to meet 

the mission power demand (Ref. 1). Here the higher bus voltage equates to a minimum electrical power 

system mass. Figure 4 provides a summary of power system mass versus operating voltage at key 

voltages from 28 to 270 VDC. Specifically, a higher bus voltage reduced power management and 

distribution component mass, actuator mass and actuator mounting structures mass. 

Figure 3.—Estimated TVC mission cycle bounds both Ares I and Ares V 1st stage. 

HeAPU MDC

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

-30 -10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130

Time (sec)

Power at HeAPU Shaft (hp)

Total energy = 5041 hp-sec

Shaft Horsepower vs. Mission Time 

Total Energy = 5100 hp-sec
NASA/TM—2011-216899 4 

Figure 4.—TVC power system mass versus operating voltage. 

Battery Chemistry Comparison 

Lithium-ion and thermal battery systems were considered as potential energy storage candidates for 

this application. Table 1 compares the overall battery attributes between lithium-ion and thermal battery 

systems. 

Thermal Batteries 

There are three major aerospace thermal battery vendors: Eagle-Picher, ENSER, and Saft. Thermal 

battery technology is quite mature. ENSER fabricated and demonstrated a very large thermal battery for 

NASA’s Solid Rocket Booster Thrust Vector Control System (Ref. 2). The logistics associated with a 

launch scrub is still a problem. Thermal batteries are inert and harmless until activated. Thermal batteries 

can be activated only once, whether they are used or not. After they cool down, they cannot be reutilized 

again. 

Thermal batteries are primary, single use, reserve type devices often used for military applications. 

They are entirely inert until activated. Activation occurs when the electrolyte which is solid at room 

temperature, is heated to the molten state. They have a historically proven storage life of over 20 years 

and contain no liquids to spill or leak. When activated they can deliver full power in less than a second. 

Thermal batteries typically produce 1.85 V/cell, 65 Whr/kg, 150 Whr/L, and 2.5 kW/kg. Thermal 

batteries can operate over a temperature range of –55 to 75 °C. Thermal batteries can operate at any 

altitude, in any attitude, under conditions of extreme shock, acceleration, vibration or spin. Expended 

thermal batteries contain no lead, mercury, or cadmium and can be disposed of without lasting 

environmental impact. Thermal batteries have a low cost of ownership and require no maintenance. 

Thermal batteries have a 50+ year history of safety with no field injuries ever reported (Ref. 3). On the 

negative side, thermal batteries do get hot once activated with a skin temperature between about 50 to 

135 C, and once started, the reaction cannot be stopped. 

 

Power System Mass vs. Operating Voltage

658

519

397 401

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Nominal Distribution Voltage, VDC

Mass, Lbs

Mass, Lbs
NASA/TM—2011-216899 5 

TABLE 1.—LITHIUM-ION VERSUS THERMAL BATTERY ATTRIBUTES FOR 1st STAGE TVC 

 Lithium ion Thermal 

Operational considerations Secondary battery can be recharged multiple 

times 

Primary battery can only be used once. 

Thermal battery is inert prior to activation 

and can only be activated once. Once the 

thermal battery is activated, operation cannot 

be interrupted. 

Safety 

Pre-flight Can be designed incorporating dead-facing 

switching or “keys” for safe handling of the 

fully charged 270 V battery 

Inactive, no voltage on fully charged battery 

prior to activation of the battery. 

Recovery Continue to operate hydraulic pump off 

battery after separation. This will discharge 

the battery prior to recovery. 

When battery temperature falls below 

operating temperature, after salt water 

immersion, battery is inactive/safe 

Corona mitigation A combination of coatings or immersion in 

high dielectric fluids has been successfully 

demonstrated. 

Immersion in high dielectric fluids within a 

sealed battery box. 

High operating battery temperature may limit 

selection of dielectric material 

High rate discharge Capable, High rate cells have been developed 

for F-35 aircraft 

Capable 

270 V development Space qualified design available 

Vendors include ABSL, Saft 

Under development 

Venders include Enser, and Eagle-Picher 

Pad operation 

Extended stand time Battery recharging may be necessary 

Battery self-discharge rate will need to be 

assessed. 

Possible prior to activation of the battery 

Pre-flight check of battery/Electrical system Feasible Not-feasible prior to battery activation 

Readiness for flight after abort Quick turn-around after an abort situation. 

Lithium battery may require recharge prior to 

reinitiation of countdown 

Thermal battery must be replaced after 

activation. Longer turn-around time before 

reinitiation of countdown. 

Exercise of TVC Pre-flight Feasible. Battery can be designed with 

additional capacity or recharged prior to 

flight 

Feasible. However, flight battery must be 

replaced prior to flight or external ground 

batteries/equipment used. 

Reliability Proven—Commercial, Military, Space 

applications 

Proven—Low voltage missile systems 

Mass (lbs) (Estimated) 114 126 

 
NASA/TM—2011-216899 6 

Lithium-ion Batteries 

Li-ion batteries are much lighter than thermal batteries and in recent years have demonstrated 

excellent high power capability. Li-ion batteries can produce high power for short “pulses”. Li-ion 

batteries are secondary batteries, can be recharged and used over and over. Lithium-ion batteries typically 

produce 3.6 V/cell, 90 Whr/kg, 250 Whr/L, and 700 W/kg. The organic electrolyte in the lithium-ion 

battery provides a –20 to 40 °C operating temperature. The lithium-ion battery cells are hermetically 

sealed and can operate in any orientation. While lithium-ion batteries have a higher initial cost, they have 

lower operational costs due to the ability to recharge and reuse the battery after multiple scrubs. 

Based upon the benefits and drawback comparisons between the thermal and lithium-ion battery 

chemistries, it was determined that the thermal battery option would be dropped from the trade space and 

the focus would be solely on lithium-ion batteries. This was mainly based on the single use only 

associated with the thermal battery along with launch abort logistics associated with the costs for 

replacing the thermal battery and impacts on the schedule to remove and install a new set of thermal 

batteries. 

Battery Sizing Approach 

The battery sizing for this study was based on the voltage, current and power from the mission power 

profile from Figure 3. By using the total integrated energy from the mission profile, the duration of the 

mission, and factors such as electrical distribution efficiency and the desired depth-of-discharge for the 

battery to maintain the necessary design margin, the required watt-hours can be calculated. Next, the total 

ampere-hour capacity of the battery was determined by dividing the watt-hours by the average system 

voltage. The computed value for the total ampere-hour capacity of the battery provides a basis for the 

individual cell capacity required and allows a selection of possible cell candidates. Ampere-hour capacity 

of the battery can be achieved by paralleling strings. The number of cells required in series is determined 

by the required 270 V system voltage. In the case of thrust vector control missions, the high power 

application drives the selection of the lithium-ion cell that can meet both the peak and continuous 

discharge current. The mass estimate for the packaged battery was based on a mass packing factor (MPF) 

to scale-up from the lithium-ion cell level mass to the battery level mass. The MPF includes peripheral 

items of wiring, connectors and other related structural hardware associated with the battery design. 

Conservative packing factors of 1.8 for cylindrical cells were used based upon flight heritage battery 

designs. 

Lithium-ion Battery Sizing 

In order to minimize development risk and utilize flight heritage lithium-ion battery technology, the 

Saft high power lithium-ion battery cell developed for the Joint Strike Fighter F-35 was selected due to its 

high TRL 8 development, its high power discharge capability, and human-rated qualification for aircraft.

Strict safety and abuse testing criteria are imposed on the batteries to ensure adequate performance 

margins are maintained under worst case conditions including two fault tolerant designs at the battery 

level. Saft’s model VL4V lithium-ion cell was selected to size the Ares I/V TVC common design point. 

Although 270 V was specified as the system voltage, a higher operating bus voltage was advantageous to 

reduce peak discharge currents. 84 lithium-ion cells in a single series configuration were baselined to 

meet the energy and power demands for the TVC system. 

 84 cells in series @ 4.1 V/cell = 344 V fully charged 

 84 cells in series @ 3.0 V/cell = 252 V under peak load 

 50 kW peak/battery @ 252 V end-of-mission equates to 198 A for the worst case discharge rate 

 The F-35 JSF lithium-ion cell VL4V nameplate is rated at 4.4 A-h 
NASA/TM—2011-216899 7 

 198 A/4.4 A-h = 45C discharge rate which is within the performance capability of the cell. 

 Based upon 270 V average discharge voltage for mission estimated at 3.2 V/cell therefore 

756 Whr/270 V = 2.8 A-h 

 At the constant discharge 45C rate, the Saft VL4V cell provides 85 percent of its room 

temperature capacity which is equivalent to a 75 percent depth-of-discharge and provides little 

power margin for the mission. 

Conclusions 

Based upon the mission profile for the battery supported Thrust Vector Control system for Ares I/V, 

the lithium-ion battery selection is recommended. This was due to the rechargeable feature of lithium-ion 

chemistry which is advantageous for launch pad delays and scrubs. In addition, the lithium-ion cell design 

is at a higher Technology Readiness Level than the thermal battery/cell design which provides greater risk 

reduction. Finally, the lithium-ion battery system provides a slightly lower mass for the energy storage 

system. The actual mission profile for the TVC may increase in both duration and peak power demand 

which could skew the selection of specific lithium-ion cell and battery designs. The conservative 

electrical power management and distribution efficiencies of 70 percent from the output of the battery to 

the input of the electric motor are truly worst case. Improvements in motor design, electrical cable harness 

size, and the motor controller itself would greatly improve the inherent design margin of the battery by 

eliminating power losses. Recent developments at Saft have increased the performance of the VL4V cell 

design by increasing ampere-hour capacity within the existing cell dimensions to upwards of 6 A-h. It 

should be noted that the induced environments of the launch vehicle such as shock, vibration, and 

especially the thermal interface have not been factored into the analysis since they are ill-defined at this 

time. Additional refinement of the energy storage design can be made to quantify performance margins 

and will be performed once the mission profile, natural and induced environments, and available lithiumion cell designs mature. 

References 

1. “Electrical Actuation Systems for ARES I Upper Stage Thrust Vector Control,” January 17, 2007, 

James L. Dolce, Vicki J. Crable, Ramon C. Lebron-Velilla, Don Fong, Michael T. Kussmaul, Susan 

Roalofs. 

2. “Thermal Battery Design and Trade Study Analysis for the SRB Electric Auxiliary Power Unit 

(EAPU),” Enser Corporation, June, 2000. 

3. Private communication Dr. David Ryan, WPAFB 09/18/2007. 
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14. ABSTRACT

An investigation into the merits of battery powered Electro Hydrostatic Actuation (EHA) for Thrust Vector Control (TVC) of the Ares I and 

Ares V launch vehicles is described. A top level trade study was conducted to ascertain the technical merits of lithium-ion (Li-ion) and 

thermal battery performance to determine the preferred choice of an energy storage system chemistry that provides high power discharge 

capability for a relatively short duration. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Thermal batteries; Lithium batteries; Thrust vector control; Ares I; Ares V 

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