Water Quality, Physical Habitat, and Biology

of the Kijik River Basin, Lake Clark National

Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2004-2005

Prepared in cooperation with the

National Park Service

Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5123

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Cover Photographs. Kijik Lake, looking to the east and sockeye salmon at the mouth of Little Kijik River, August 2004. Photograph taken by 

Daniel A. Long, U.S. Geological Survey. 
Water Quality, Physical Habitat, and 

Biology of the Kijik River Basin, Lake

Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska,

2004-2005

By Timothy P. Brabets and Robert T. Ourso

Prepared in Cooperation with the National Park Service

Scientific Investigations Report 2006–5123

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

Dirk Kempthorne, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

P. Patrick Leahy, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2006

For Additional Information:

U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, Chief Water Resources Office, 4230 University Dr., Anchorage, AK 

99508-4664

For more information on the USGS--the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, 

natural hazards, and the environment:

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Brabets, T.P., Ourso, R.T., 2006, Water Quality, Physical Habitat, and Biology of the Kijik River Basin, Lake Clark 

National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2004-2005; U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5123.
Contents

Abstract............................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Description of Study Area.............................................................................................................................5

Methods of Data Collection and Analysis..................................................................................................7

Water Quality of the Kijik River Basin........................................................................................................10

Streamflow Discharge and Suspended Sediment.........................................................................10

Water Temperature.............................................................................................................................10

Specific Conductance.........................................................................................................................10

pH...........................................................................................................................................................15

Dissolved Oxygen................................................................................................................................15

Alkalinity................................................................................................................................................16

Major Ions, Dissolved Solids, Iron, and Manganese.....................................................................16

Nutrients and Dissolved Organic Carbon........................................................................................16

Trace Elements in Streambed Sediments........................................................................................20

Physical Habitat, Benthic Communities, and Lake Zooplankton of the Kijik River Basin.................25

Physical Habitat...................................................................................................................................25

Zooplankton..........................................................................................................................................25

Macroinvertebrates............................................................................................................................25

Algae......................................................................................................................................................42

Summary........................................................................................................................................................49

Acknowledgments...............................................................................................................................50

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................50

iii
	 Figures

	 	 1. Location of the Kijik River and Lake Clark National Park and Preserve...............2

. . 2. Major river basins of the Lake Clark Basin................................................................3

. . 3. Kijik River Basin and sampling sites...........................................................................4

. . 4. Sockeye salmon escapement from Lake Clark,1980-84 and 2000-2005................5

. . 5A. Kijik Lake depth soundings taken in 1979...................................................................6

. . 5B. Lachbuna and Portage Lakes depth soundings taken in 1979...............................6

. . 6. Average daily water temperature from June 8, 2004, to September 30, 2004,

for the four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.................................................14

. . 7. Water temperature profiles of Lachbuna Lake, 2004-2005...................................14

. . 8. Water temperature profiles of Kijik Lake, 2004-2005..............................................15

. . 9. Trilinear diagram of water samples collected from six sites in the Kijik

River Basin................................................................................................................18

. . 10. Major geomorphic features of the Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake study

reach..........................................................................................................................26

. . 11. Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake physical habitat reach......................................27

. . 12. Major geomorphic features of the Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake study

reach..........................................................................................................................28

. . 13. Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake physical habitat reach......................................29

. . 14. Major geomorphic features of the Kijik River above Little Kijik River and

Kijik River 2.5 kilometers above mouth study reaches......................................31

. . 15. Physical habitat reach of the Kijik River 2.5 kilometers above mouth................31

. . 16. Dendrogram from the results of cluster analysis on the presence or

absence of macroinvertebrates found at the four Kijik River sites.................40

. . 17. Dendrogram from the results of cluster analysis on the presence or

absence of macroinvertebrates found at the four Kijik River sites

and sites in the Cook Inlet Basin...........................................................................42

. . 18. Dendrogram from the results of cluster analysis on the presence or

absence of algae found at the four Kijik River sites...........................................47

	 Tables

. . 1. Location of water-quality sites and basin characteristics, Kijik River Basin......7

. . 2. Analyses made on water samples and streambed sediments collected during

the study period.........................................................................................................8

. . 3. Physical field parameters measured at surface water sites in the Kijik River

	 	 Basin............................................................................................................................9

. . 4. Physical field parameters measured at Kijik Lake.................................................11

. . 5. Physical field parameters measured at Lachbuna Lake.......................................12

. . 6. Concentrations of major ions and trace elements iron and manganese in

water samples collected in the Kijik River Basin...............................................17

. .

. .

iv	 	
. . Concentrations of nutrients, dissolved organic carbon, and chlorophyll-a in

water samples collected in the Kijik River Basin...............................................19

. . 8. Trace-element concentrations and percent organic carbon measured in

streambed sediments collected from stream sites in the Kijik River

Basin, October 2004.................................................................................................21

. . 9. Comparison of concentrations of trace elements measured in streambed

sediments from the USGS National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA)

program, and from four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin, three stream

sites in the Crescent River Basin, and eight stream sites in the Johnson

River Basin................................................................................................................22

. . 10. Comparison of streambed sediment quality guidelines to concentrations

measured in streambed sediments in the Kijik River Basin for selected

trace elements..........................................................................................................23

. . 11. Concentrations of priority pollutant trace elements in streambed sediments

finer than 0.063 millimeter for sites located in Lake Clark National Park

and Preserve.............................................................................................................24

. . 12. Macrozooplankton data for Kijik Lake and Lachbuna Lake..................................30

. . 13. Seasonal means of length and biomass of zooplankton from Kijik Lake and

Lachbuna Lake.........................................................................................................30

. . 14. Macroinvertebrate taxa for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected

at four sites in the Kijik River Basin......................................................................32

. . 15. Macroinvertebrate taxa collected at the Kijik and Little Kijik River sites...........36

. . 16. Sites used in cluster analysis....................................................................................39

. . 17. Macroinvertebrate community metrics for four stream sites in the Kijik River

Basin..........................................................................................................................41

. . 18. Jaccard and Sorenson similarity coefficients for stream sites in the Kijik River

Basin..........................................................................................................................43

. . 19. Algal taxa present in qualitative-multi-habitat samples collected at four

stream sites in the Kijik River Basin......................................................................43

. . 20. Metrics of algae data collected at four sites in the Kijik River Basin.................48
Conversion Factors, Datums, and Acronyms

SI to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain

Length

millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch (in.)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

Area

hectare (ha) 0.003861 square mile (mi2)

square kilometer (km2) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)

Flow rate

meter per second (m/s) 3.281 foot per second (ft/s) 

cubic meter per second (m3/s) 35.31 cubic foot per second (ft3/s)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F)

as follows:

. . . . °F= (1.8×°C) +32.

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical

Datum of 1929 (NAVD 29).

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of

1927 (NAD 27).

Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

vi

Acronyms used in this report:

LACL Lake Clark National Park and Preserve

NAWQA National Water-Quality Assessment Program

ISQG Interim Freshwater Sediment Quality Guideline

CCME Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment

PEL Probable Effect Level

TEC Threshold Effect Concentration

PEC Probable Effect Concentration

DOC Dissolved Organic Carbon

POC Particulate Organic Carbon

NPS National Park Service

USGS United States Geological Survey

NWQL National Water-Quality Laboratory

QMH Qualitative Multi-Habitat

IDAS Invertebrate Data Analysis System

EPT Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera
Water Quality, Physical Habitat, and Biology of the Kijik

River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve,

Alaska, 2004-2005

By Timothy P. Brabets and Robert T. Ourso

Abstract

The U.S. Geological Survey and the National Park 

Service conducted a water-quality investigation of the Kijik 

River Basin in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve from 

June 2004 to March 2005. The Kijik River Basin was studied 

because it has a productive sockeye salmon run that is important to the larger Kvichak River watershed. Water-quality, 

physical habitat, and biological characteristics were assessed. 

Water type throughout the Kijik River Basin is calcium 

bicarbonate although Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake does 

have slightly higher concentrations of sulfate and chloride. 

Alkalinity concentrations are generally less than 28 milligrams 

per liter, indicating a low buffering capacity of these waters. 

Lachbuna Lake traps much of the suspended sediment from 

the glacier streams in the headwaters of the basin as evidenced 

by low secchi-disc transparency of 1 to 2 meters and low 

suspended sediment concentrations in the Kijik River downstream from the lake. Kijik Lake is a fed by clearwater streams 

and has secchi-disc readings ranging from 11 to 15 meters. 

Streambed sediments collected from four surface sites analyzed for trace elements indicated that arsenic concentrations 

at all sites were above proposed guidelines. However, arsenic 

concentrations are due to the local geology, not anthropogenic 

factors.

Benthic macroinvertebrate qualitative multi-habitat 

samples collected from two sites on the Little Kijik River and 

two sites on the main stem of the Kijik River indicated a total 

of 69 taxa present among the four sites. The class Insecta, 

made up the largest percentage of macroinvertebrates, totaling 

70 percent of the families found. The insects were comprised 

of four orders; Diptera (flies and midges), Ephemeroptera 

(mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), and Trichoptera (caddisflies). One-hundred twenty-two species of periphytic algae 

were identified in qualitative multi-habitat samples collected 

at the four stream sites. Eight species of non-motile, diatoms 

were collected from all four stream sites suggesting that the 

areas from which they were collected are relatively stable and 

unaffected by sedimentation.

Introduction

The Kvichak River watershed, one of the most prolific 

salmon-producing basins in Alaska, encompasses about 

one-third of Lake Clark National Park and Preserve (LACL) 

and includes Lake Iliamna and Lake Clark, the largest and 

sixth largest lakes in Alaska (fig. 1). Each year, millions of 

fish make their way up from Bristol Bay to spawn in lakes, 

streams, and rivers throughout the Kvichak system. In some 

years, up to 9 million fish may travel through Lake Iliamna 

and up the Newhalen River on their way into Lake Clark. 

From there, salmon migrate to the major Lake Clark tributaries, including the Kijik River system (fig. 2).

Conservation of sockeye (red) salmon and their habitat is 

one of the primary purposes stated in the LACL’s enabling legislation: “ . . . protect the watershed necessary for perpetuation of the red salmon fishery in Bristol Bay; . . . maintain 

unimpaired the scenic beauty and quality, including . . . wild 

rivers, lakes, waterfalls . . . in their natural state” (Alaska 

National Interest Lands Conservation Act, 1980). Although 

the Kijik River appears to be a relatively small contributor 

to the Lake Clark ecosystem, the river is probably one of the 

most important rivers for sockeye salmon production of all the 

tributaries flowing into Lake Clark. Up to 40 percent of the 

sockeye salmon that enter Lake Clark may spawn in the Kijik 

River system. The river’s physical and chemical characteristics 

influence the morphology, genetic differentiation, and productivity of salmon. Kijik, Lachbuna, and Portage lakes (fig. 3) 

trap sediment from upstream tributaries and moderate streamflow variations. Further evidence of the Kijik River as a main 

source of salmon is the fact that numerous archeological sites, 

demonstrating a rich history of traditional salmon harvest and 

use, are found near the mouth of the Kijik in Kijik National 

Historic Landmark.

Sockeye salmon, a keystone species bridging aquatic and 

terrestrial ecosystems in LACL, are declining for unknown 

reasons (fig. 4). Local residents, resource managers, and sports 

fishing groups are concerned about the decline of sockeye 

salmon. The decline could be due to many factors within the 

Kvichak system or outside the basin. One concern is that 
0

0 100 MILES

200 KILOMETERS

50

50 100 150

62o

58o

60o

154o 158o 156o 152o

Lake Clark

Iliamna

Lake

Bristol Bay

Cook Inlet

Lake Clark 

National Park 

and Preserve

Kvichak River

Location

ALASKA

Chigmit Mountains

Boundary of 

the Kvichak

River Basin 

Anchorage

Neocola Mountains

Newhalen River

Kijik River

Crescent

River

Johnson

River

Figure	1.	 Location.of.the.Kijik.River.and.Lake.Clark.National.Park.and.Preserve.
N

0

0

5

5

10

10 15 MILES

15 20 25 KILOMETERS

153o 156o 155 154o

61o

60o30'

60o

 o

Tlikakila River Basin

Chokotonk River Basin

Currant Creek Basin

Tanalian River Basin

Kijik River Basin

Chulitna River Basin

Lake Clark

EXPLANATION

Basin boundary

Port

Alsworth

Highest elevation (2830 m)Lowest elevation (77 m)

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1:63,360, 1957

Albers Equal-Area Conic projection

Standard parallels 55o00' N and 65o00' N, central meridian - 154o00' W

LittleLake Clark Kijik River

Figure	2.. Major.river.basins.of.the.Lake.Clark.Basin.

Introduction	 	 
changes in water-quality characteristics of the Kijik River may 

be affecting the productivity of salmon in Lake Clark.

Because much of the Kijik River shoreline has been 

selected for transfer out of federal ownership, it is critical 

that state and federal managers understand factors important 

in protecting fish habitat. Private development could threaten 

the integrity of salmon habitat that ranks among the most 

productive in the world. The Kijik River Basin is also one of 

the most popular park destinations for anglers and campers 

in Alaska, who access the area by motorboat and floatplane. 

During one 30-day period in 1999, park employees contacted 

169 anglers, most of them concentrated in the small, shallow 

area at the outlet of Kijik Lake and in the Little Kijik River, 

where salmon spawn in large numbers. Fuel spills, riverbank 

and shoreline erosion due to intense recreational use, and 

fecal contamination all could affect water quality and salmon 

habitat.

An assessment of the water quality and hydrology of 

the Kijik River Basin is needed in order to understand the 

natural conditions of the aquatic resources relative to sockeye 

salmon habitat. Any change in water quality in the Kijik River, 

whether caused by human activities or natural factors, could 

contribute to salmon declines. Basic knowledge of the water 

resources is needed to help understand the conditions in which 

Kijik salmon spawn. To date, only a sparse amount of water 

resource and fisheries data exists for the Kijik River system.

To address the above concerns and the need for information, a 2-year study of the Kijik River basin was initiated as a 

cooperative effort between the National Park Service (NPS) 

and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The purpose of the 

study was to determine (1) the water-quality, physical habitat, 

and biological characteristics of the Kijik River and (2) the 

limnological features of Kijik and Lachbuna Lakes.

154o25' 154o

50' 153o

35'

60o

30'

60o

20'

60o

40'

0 5

0 5 10 MILES

10 15 20 KILOMETERS

Sampling site

Glacier

Lake

Gravel bar

EXPLANATION

1

Kijik

Lake

Lachbuna Lake

1

2 3

4

5

6

Little Kijik River

Kijik River

Portage Lake

Figure	.	 Kijik.River.Basin.and.sampling.sites.
Description of Study Area

The Kijik River, which drains an area of about 777 km2, 

originates in a glacial valley to the north of Portage Lake and 

is fed by Portage, Lachbuna, and Kijik Lakes as it descends 

approximately 80 km to Lake Clark (figs. 2 and 3). Near its 

mouth, the river flows through the Kijik National Historic 

Landmark. The river shifts from a contained single channel to 

a braided channel, with many side sloughs flanked by numerous beaver dams. The effects from these beaver dams have 

been to divert flow, forming new channels, or forming small 

ponds that last until high flows destroy them. On the basis of 

miscellaneous discharge measurements made in 1999-2001, 

the Kijik River accounts for about 5 percent of the total inflow 

to Lake Clark (Brabets, 2002).

Lachbuna Lake (sampling site number 6) is in the middle 

of the basin, has a surface area of about 3 km2 and an average 

depth of about 30 meters (fig. 5B). Lachbuna Lake receives 

the glacier-fed water of the Kijik River system. Kijik Lake is a 

clearwater lake near the mouth of the Kijik River, has a surface 

area of about 4 km2 and an average depth of about 100 meters 

(fig. 5A). Most salmon that enter the Kijik River travel to Kijik 

Lake, and of the three lakes within the Kijik River Basin, Kijik 

Lake is the most popular for sportfishing. The Little Kijik 

River, the lake’s wide, shallow outlet stream, flows about 2 km 

before emptying into the mainstem of the Kijik River. Little 

Kijik River is a clear, gravel-bottomed river flowing through 

mixed spruce-birch-poplar forest. Its deep pools and shallow riffles provide habitat for numerous fish species and are 

important areas for salmon spawning (fig. 5A).

Climate change is occurring in the study area. For 

example, a previous study on the glacial history of the 

Tlikakila River Basin (fig. 2), remote sensing and airborne 

laser profiling showed that most glaciers in the Tlikakila River 

Basin have retreated and thinned from 1957 to the present 

(Brabets and others, 2004). Volume loss from 1957 to 2001 

from the Tanaina Glacier, the largest glacier in the Tlikakila 

River Basin, was estimated to be 6.09 x 109 m3 or 1.38 x 108

m3/year. For the study period, the 2004 winter snowpack and 

spring breakup was near normal. However, the summer of 

2004 was hot and dry. Record high temperatures and low rainfall produced record low flows at clearwater streams throughout Alaska. Glacier-fed streams showed the opposite response 

to hot, dry conditions. Many long-term glacier-fed streams 

experienced the highest average streamflow of record in July 

through September.

3,500

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

SALMON ESCAPEMENT, IN THOUSANDS

YEAR

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Figure	4.	 Sockeye.salmon.escapement.from.Lake.Clark,1980-84.and.2000-2005.

Description	of	Study	Area	 	 5
N

Kijik

River

Little Kijik

River

Kijik

Lake

71.4

71.1

46.8 4.1

96.9

98.8

98.2

65.5

96.0

98.8

98.5

4.6

9.5

16.0

27.7

0

0 1 MILE

.5 2 KILOMETERS

.5

1 1.5

N

Portage Lake

Kijik River

Lachbuna Lake

15.4

College

Creek

13.8

15.1

13.5

32.6 36.3

35.4 33.2

24.6

24.6

34.1

35.1

7.4

48.3

46.2

37.5

39.1

52.0

47.4

17.2

17.5

0

0 1 MILE

.5 2 KILOMETERS

.5

1 1.5

Figure	5A.	 Kijik.Lake.depth.soundings.taken.in.1979.(depth.in.meters).

Figure	5B.	 Lachbuna.and.Portage.Lakes.depth.soundings.taken.in.1979.(depth.in.meters).

	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Methods of Data Collection and

Analysis

For this study, characterization of the water quality and 

habitat conditions in the Kijik River Basin included four 

stream sites and two lake sites (fig. 3 and table 1). The four 

stream sites were located on the Kijik River above the Little 

Kijik River, above and below Kijik Lake, and about 2 km 

above the mouth of the Kijik River. Lachbuna Lake and Kijik 

Lake were sampled at one location, the middle of each lake. 

Water quality and biological data were collected throughout 

the summer of 2004 and the winter of 2005 from these sites to 

gain a better understanding of the Kijik River Basin.

Water samples were collected at all sites in June, July, 

August, and October 2004 and at Kijik Lake and Lachbuna 

Lake in February and March 2005. The samples collected 

from the streams were analyzed for field parameters, major 

ions and total dissolved solids, total and dissolved nutrients, 

dissolved organic carbon, phytoplankton chlorophyll-a, and 

trace elements (table 2). The field-collection and processing 

equipment used was made from Teflon, glass, or stainless 

steel to prevent sample contamination and to minimize analyte losses through adsorption. All sampling equipment was 

cleaned prior to use with a nonphosphate laboratory detergent 

and deionized water, followed by a native-water rinse prior 

to sample collection. Depth-integrated water samples were 

collected across the stream using the equal-width-increment 

method (Edwards and Glysson, 1988) and processed in the 

field using methods and equipment described by Shelton 

(1994). Samples were collected from Lachbuna and Kijik 

Lakes using a 6.2 liter acrylic Van Dorn sampler. Samples to 

be analyzed for dissolved constituents were filtered through 

0.45 micrometer (μm) capsule filters. Water samples were sent 

to the USGS National Water-Quality Laboratory (NWQL) for 

analysis using standard USGS analytical methods (Fishman 

and Friedman, 1989; Patton and Truitt, 1992; Fishman, 1993). 

A Hydrolab multi-parameter sonde was used to measure field 

parameters (water temperature, dissolved-oxygen concentration, specific conductance, and pH) at the time of sampling. 

Discharge measurements also were made at the time of sampling using methods of Rantz and others (1982).

Streambed sediments were sampled from several depositional areas at each site and analyzed for trace elements. Sediments were collected from the surface of the streambed using 

Teflon tubes or Teflon coated spoons and composited in glass 

bowls (Shelton and Capel, 1994). Because the concentration of 

trace elements on streambed materials is strongly affected by 

the particle-size distribution of the sample, only that portion 

of the sample that was finer than 63 μm was analyzed. Stream 

water was used for sieving the trace-element sample through a 

63 μm mesh. Water included in the trace-element sample was 

decanted after very fine-grained sediments had settled (about 

24 hours). Arbogast (1990) describes laboratory procedures 

followed for processing streambed samples for trace-element 

analysis. Trace elements in streambed sediments were analyzed following a total digestion procedure.

Stream characteristics data were collected at the four 

stream sites in August 2004. Certain physical characteristics 

of each stream reach were collected according to protocols 

described by Fitzpatrick and others (1998). Physical characterization of each stream reach included measurements of 

riparian, bank, and instream aquatic-habitat features such as 

channel aspect, open-canopy angles, and canopy closure, as 

well as the presence of any submerged habitat features such 

as boulders or woody debris. Physical characteristics of each 

stream reach were also documented with a set of notes and 

photographs depicting major geomorphic channel units such 

as sloughs, riffles, rapids, and other features such as beaver 

dams within the identified study reach.

Table 1. Location of water-quality sites and basin characteristics, Kijik River Basin (fig. 3).

[Values in square kilometers, °, degrees; ’, minutes; ”, seconds]

Site Number Latitude/longitude Station Name Area Glaciers Lakes

1 60° 17’ 08” 154° 20’ 35” Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake near 

Port Alsworth, AK

91 0 0

2 60° 18’ 28” 154° 17’ 17” Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake near 

Port Alsworth, AK

108 0 4.4

3 60° 18’ 33” 154° 15’ 41” Kijik River above Little Kijik River 

near Port Alsworth, AK

619 19 6

4 60° 18’ 01” 154° 14’ 36” Kijik River 2.5 kilometers above mouth 

near Port Alsworth, AK

818 19 10

5 60° 17’ 58” 154° 19’ 32” Kijik Lake near Port Alsworth, AK 4.4*

6 60° 29’ 43” 154° 02’ 00” Lachbuna Lake near Port Alsworth, AK 3.4*

*

 surface area of lake

Methods	of	Data	Collection	and	Analysis	 	 
Table 2. Analyses made on water samples and streambed sediments collected during the study period.

Field parameters Trace elements in streambed sediments

Water temperature Aluminum

Specific Conductance Antimony

pH Arsenic

Dissolved Oxygen Barium

Streamflow Cadmium

Cerium

Water-quality constituents Chromium

Cobalt

Alkalinity Copper

Bicarbonate Europium

Calcium Gallium

Chloride Gold

Dissolved solids Holmium

Fluoride Iron

Magnesium Lanthanum

Potassium Lead

Silica Lithium

Sodium Manganese

Sulfate Mercury

Molybdenum

Nutrients Nickel

Niobium

Nitrogen, ammonia – dissolved Scandium

Nitrogen, ammonia + organic – dissolved and total Selenium

Nitrogen, NO2 – dissolved Silver

Nitrogen, NO2 + NO3 – dissolved Strontium

Phosphorus – dissolved and total Tantalium

Orthophosphate – dissolved Thallium

Thorium

Trace elements in water Tin

Titanium

Iron Uranium

Manganese Vanadium

Ytterbium

Suspended sediment Yttrium

Zinc

Concentration

Organics

Dissolved organic carbon

Pheophytin phytoplankton

Chlorophyll-a phytoplankton

	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Qualitative Multi-Habitat (QMH) (Cuffney and others, 

1993) benthic macroinvertebrate samples were collected from 

the variety of available habitats present in the stream reach. 

Macroinvertebrates were identified at the USGS NWQL’s Biological Unit. Subsampling techniques are used in the identification and enumeration of macroinvertebrates at the Biological Unit. QMH samples are subsampled by timed method, 

allowing no more than 2 hours total sorting time (Moulton and 

others, 2000), rather than by the specific number of organisms. Because the abundance of organisms is not determined 

for QMH samples, the taxonomist need only sort out a few 

individuals of each taxon for identification.

QMH algae samples were collected according to protocols outlined by Porter and others (1993). An assessment 

of the algal community was done to identify the species of 

algae present at multiple habitats within each stream reach. 

Algae samples were collected in habitats similar to the QMH 

macroinvertebrate samples (depositional zones, woody debris, 

and rocks). Algae samples were analyzed by the Philadelphia 

Academy of Natural Science in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Zooplankton samples were collected from Lachbuna and 

Kijik Lakes in July, August, and October 2004. Samples were 

collected using a 0.5-meter-diameter, 153-μm meshed, conical 

plankton net. Vertical tows were made from 1 meter above the 

lake bottom at Lachbuna Lake and from 30 meters at Kijik 

Lake to the surface, and the contents were preserved in 10 

percent buffered formalin. Macro-zooplankton were identified 

to species, enumerated from triplicate subsamples, and sized 

(length) to the nearest 0.02 millimeters in the laboratory using 

a 70X-power dissecting scope by the Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game. Counts were converted to areal and volumetric 

zooplankton density estimates.

After the data were collected, checked, and compiled, 

data analysis was undertaken. The concentrations of various 

water-quality constituents in the Kijik River were compared 

to known or published concentrations that are recommended 

for fish survival. Trace-element concentrations in streambed 

sediments were compared with those collected by the USGS 

National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) program, 

and with guidelines established by the Canadian Council of 

Ministers of the Environment (1999). The macroinvertebrate 

and algae data were also compared with those collected by the 

NAWQA program.

Table 3. Physical field parameters measured at surface water sites in the Kijik River Basin.

[Values in m3/s, cubic meter per second; mg/L, milligram per liter; μs/cm, microsiems per centimeter; °C, degrees Celsius]

Date Time Discharge

(m3/s)

Dissolved

Oxygen

(mg/L)

pH

(units)

Specific

Conductance

(μs/cm at

25°C)

Water

Temperature

(°C)

Suspended

Sediment

(mg/L)

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake (site 1)

6/9/2004 1430 1.0 10.1 7.2 40 9.3 5

7/14/2004 1200 0.3 11.3 6.4 48 6.7 1

8/24/2004 1345 0.1 10.2 6.2 56 6.5 5

10/6/2004 1700 0.3 9.8 6.8 54 5.3 2

Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake (site 2)

6/9/2004 1420 2.2 11.3 7.2 56 9.9 1

7/14/2004 1630 1.0 9.9 7.8 60 19.4 1

8/25/2004 1100 0.5 9.2 7.2 64 16.0 5

10/6/2004 1415 0.7 10.9 6.2 62 8.3 1

Kijik River above Little Kijik River (site 3)

6/8/2004 1200 6.4 12.2 7.0 82 6.7 21

7/13/2004 1500 5.2 9.8 7.3 81 16.9 4

8/26/2004 1345 3.3 10 7.6 79 12.3 3

10/4/2004 1450 2.2 11.4 7.4 92 6.5 1

Kijik River 2.5 kilometers above mouth (site 4)

6/8/2004 1530 8.7 11.9 7.2 77 7.6 15

7/13/2004 1630 6.2 9.6 7.2 80 16.6 6

8/26/2004 1130 3.7 10.0 7.4 78 11.4 3

10/4/2004 1610 3.0 11.1 7.5 87 6.8 5

Methods	of	Data	Collection	and	Analysis	 	 
Water Quality of the Kijik River Basin

Water-quality data collected in the Kijik River Basin in 

2004 and 2005 included 1) field measurements of streamflow, 

specific conductance, pH, water temperature, and dissolved 

oxygen, 2) collection and analysis of water samples for suspended sediment, major inorganic ions, nutrients, dissolved 

organic carbon (DOC), and chlorophyll-a, and 3) collection 

and analysis of streambed sediments for trace elements. Biological data included samples of algae and invertebrates from 

streams and samples of zooplankton from Kijik and Lachbuna 

Lakes. These data provide baseline biological and water quality information for the Kijik River Basin from which future 

changes can be measured and can be used to evaluate the current conditions as they relate to salmon production in the Kijik 

River Basin.

Streamflow Discharge and Suspended Sediment

Typical of most rivers in southwest Alaska, most of the 

annual flow of the Kijik River occurs from June to September. Flow in June is dominated by snowmelt; in July through 

September, by rainfall. Measured discharge ranged from .45 

cubic meter per second (m3/s) to 3.5 m3/s at Little Kijik River 

above Kijik Lake (site 1) and from 1.7 m3/s to 7 m3/s at Little 

Kijik River below Kijik Lake (table 3). At the Kijik River 

above Little Kijik River (site 3), discharge ranged from 7 m3/s 

to 21 m3/s, and at the Kijik River 2.5 km above the mouth (site 

4), discharge ranged from 10 m3/s to 28 m3/s (table 3). Highest 

discharges at all sites were measured in June, which is generally the highest runoff period due to snowmelt. The lowest 

discharges on the main stem of the Kijik River were measured 

in October, reflecting the effects of lake runoff when outflow 

from Lachbuna and Kijik Lakes is minimal. The lowest discharges at the Little Kijik River were measured in late August, 

reflecting a dry period with minimal rainfall.

Sediment in rivers is transported in suspension (water 

column) and along the bed (bedload). Suspended sediment 

generally consists of fine particles such as clay, silt, and 

fine sand that are transported in the stream while being held 

in suspension by the turbulence of flowing water. Bedload 

consists of coarse sediment particles such as sands, gravels, 

and sometimes boulders that are transported along or near the 

streambed.

Measured values of suspended sediment in the Kijik 

River Basin were low at all four surface-water sites. The 

maximum concentrations of suspended sediment measured 

were 21 milligrams per liter (mg/L) at the Kijik River above 

Little Kijik River and 15 mg/L at the Kijik River 2.5 km above 

the mouth (table 3). Both of these measurements were made 

during the high-flow period in June. Minimum concentrations 

of 1.0 mg/L were measured several times. Concentrations of 

suspended sediment at Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake and 

at Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake ranged from 1 mg/L 

to 5 mg/L (table 3). Secchi-disc transparencies, an indicator 

of the clarity of lake water, were between 11 and 15 meters 

at Kijik Lake and 0.9 and 2 meters at Lachbuna Lake (tables 

4 and 5). These values provide some general information on 

sediment content of these lakes. For example, Kijik Lake, a 

clear-water lake with little or no suspended sediment inflow, 

will have higher Secchi-disc transparency, which indicates the 

clarity of the water. Lachbuna Lake is a glacier-fed lake and 

the relatively lower values are indicative of suspended sediment, mainly from glacier flour, that has entered the lake and 

is in suspension.

Water Temperature

Water temperature determines the amount of oxygen 

water can contain when at equilibrium with the atmosphere, 

and it also controls the metabolic rates of fish and their rates 

of growth. Sockeye salmon have adapted to specific spawning times and water temperatures in order that incubation 

and emergence occur at the most favorable time of the year 

– spring and early summer (R&M Consultants Inc., 1981). For 

this species, the range in water temperature for all life stages 

(migration, spawning, incubation, and rearing) ranges from 

2.0°C to 17.8°C (R&M Consultants Inc., 1981).

Water temperatures were as high as 20°C at Little Kijik 

River below Kijik Lake, reflecting the warm summer air 

temperatures in 2004 (fig. 6). At the Little Kijik River above 

Kijik Lake, water temperatures reached a high of only 6.5°C, 

reflecting the influence of springs and shading on this inflow 

stream to Kijik Lake. Depth profiles of water temperature of 

Lachbuna and Kijik Lakes indicate changing temperatures 

with depth throughout the summer months (figs. 7 and 8, 

tables 4 and 5). At Lachbuna Lake, water temperature profiles 

indicate mixing/changing temperatures throughout the entire 

depth of the lake and a weak stratification. By October, the 

lake was isothermal, with a constant temperature of 7°C. At 

Kijik Lake, water temperature profiles indicated strong stratification in the summer, and below 30 meters, water temperature 

remained constant at 4°C.

Specific Conductance

Specific conductance is a measure of the ability of water 

to conduct an electric current and can be used to indicate the 

dissolved solids or ion content of the water. As the concentration of ions in solution increases or decreases, so does the 

conductance of the solution. Frequently a statistical relation 

can be developed between specific conductance and the ionic 

components making up the dissolved solids in water. During 

low flow, the conductance of a stream or river is generally 

the highest, indicating a greater component of ground-water 

inflow. Ground water has greater potential to dissolve minerals, having spent more time in contact with rocks and soil 

materials than does rainwater or snowmelt. Periods of low 

specific conductance reflect runoff of rain or snowmelt, which 

typically contain small amounts of dissolved ions. Values of 

10	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Table 4. Physical field parameters measured at Kijik Lake (site 5).

[Values in mg/L, milligrams per liter; μs/cm, microsiems per centimeter; °C, degrees Celcius]

Date Depth

(meters)

Dissolved

Oxygen

(mg/L)

Percent

Saturation

(percent)

pH

(units)

Specific

Conductance

(μs/cm at

25°C)

Water

Temperature

(°C)

SecchiDisc

Transparency

(meters)

6/9/2004 0 11.3 98 7.5 52 9.4 15

5 11.5 96 7.2 52 7.9

10 11.5 95 7.2 51 7.1

15 11.6 93 7.2 51 6.1

20 11.7 91 7.2 51 5.1

25 11.4 88 7.1 52 4.4

30 11.2 85 7.1 52 4.1

35 10.9 83 7.1 52 4.0

40 10.9 83 7.0 52 3.9

45 10.9 82 7.0 52 3.9

50 10.8 82 7.0 52 3.8

55 10.7 80 6.9 52 3.8

7/14/2004 0 10.2 100 7.1 56 18.4 14

5 10.9 100 7.1 58 15.5

10 11.9 100 7.0 58 12.0

15 12.8 100 7.1 58 9.5

20 13.4 100 7.2 57 6.9

25 13.0 100 7.1 57 4.9

30 12.2 93 7.0 57 4.2

35 11.8 89 6.9 58 4.0

40 11.8 90 6.8 58 4.0

45 11.6 88 6.7 58 4.0

50 11.5 87 6.7 58 3.9

55 11.3 86 6.7 58 3.9

60 11.2 85 6.6 58 3.8

65 11.1 84 6.6 58 3.8

8/24/2004 0 9.5 98 7.1 63 17.0 11

5 9.3 96 7.2 63 16.9

10 11.2 100 7.3 62 14.0

15 12.3 100 7.6 62 10.0

20 12.8 100 7.6 61 6.2

25 12.4 96 7.5 61 5.2

30 11.3 87 7.3 62 4.6

35 10.9 83 7.2 62 4.3

40 10.6 80 7.1 62 4.0

45 10.4 79 7.0 63 3.9

50 10.3 78 7.0 63 3.9

55 10.2 77 7.0 63 3.9

60 10.1 76 6.9 63 3.9

65 10.0 75 6.9 63 3.8

Water	Quality	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 11
Table 4. Physical field parameters measured at Kijik Lake (site 5).—Continued

[Values in mg/L, milligrams per liter; μs/cm, microsiems per centimeter; °C, degrees Celcius]

Date Depth

(meters)

Dissolved

Oxygen

Concentration

(mg/L)

Percent

Saturation

(percent)

pH

(units)

Specific

Conductance

(μs/cm at

25°C)

Water

Temperature

(°C)

Secchi-Disc

Transparency

(meters)

3/1/2005 0 9.8 70 6.6 66 1.5

2.5 10.1 74 6.6 63 2.3

5 10.1 74 6.5 64 2.3

7.5 10.4 76 6.6 64 2.3

10 10.6 77 6.6 64 2.3

15 10.5 76 6.6 63 2.4

20 10.5 76 6.9 62 2.6

25 10.3 76 7.0 63 2.7

30 10.0 74 7.0 63 2.7

Table 5. Physical field parameters measured at Lachbuna Lake (site 6).

[Values in mg/L, milligrams per liter; μs/cm, microsiems per centimeter; °C, degrees Celsius]

Date Depth

(meters)

Dissolved

Oxygen

Concentration

(mg/L)

Percent

Saturation

(percent)

pH

(units)

Specific

Conductance

(μs/cm at

25°C)

Water

Temperature

(°C)

SecchiDisc

Transparency

(meters)

7/14/2004 0 9.5 92 7.4 60 14.6 0.9

5 9.9 91 7.3 57 12.1

10 10.0 90 7.3 57 10.9

15 10.2 89 7.3 60 9.8

20 10.6 89 7.2 68 8.0

25 10.8 88 7.2 73 6.7

30 10.7 85 7.1 76 6.0

35 10.4 82 7.1 77 5.8

8/24/2004 0 9.7 90 7.5 57 12.6 1

2.5 9.6 89 7.3 56 12.2

5 9.6 89 7.3 56 11.7

7.5 9.8 89 7.3 56 11.4

10 9.8 89 7.3 56 11.1

12.5 9.9 88 7.2 56 10.7

15 9.9 88 7.2 57 10.5

17.5 9.8 87 7.2 61 10.2

20 9.8 86 7.2 62 9.9

22.5 9.9 85 7.2 65 9.3

25 9.9 84 7.2 69 8.5

27.5 9.9 82 7.2 75 7.4

30 9.9 81 7.1 76 7.0

35 9.7 78 7.1 80 6.2

38 9.1 73 7.3 82 6.0

12	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Table 5. Physical field parameters measured at Lachbuna Lake (site 6).—Continued

[Values in mg/L, milligrams per liter; μs/cm, microsiems per centimeter; °C, degrees Celsius]

Date Depth

(meters)

Dissolved

Oxygen

Concentration

(mg/L)

Percent

Saturation

(percent)

pH

(units)

Specific

Conductance

(μs/cm at

25°C)

Water

Temperature

(°C)

SecchiDisc

Transparency

(meters)

10/6/2004 0 10.6 86 6.6 65 6.9 2

2.5 10.2 83 6.8 64 6.9

5 10.2 83 6.8 64 6.9

7.5 10.2 83 6.8 64 6.9

10 10.1 83 6.8 64 6.9

12.5 10.1 82 6.9 64 6.9

15 10.1 82 6.9 64 6.9

17.5 10.1 82 6.9 63 6.9

20 10.0 82 6.9 64 6.9

22.5 10.0 82 6.9 64 6.9

25 10.0 82 6.9 64 6.9

27.5 9.9 80 7.0 65 6.8

30 9.8 80 7.0 65 6.8

35 9.5 77 7.0 68 6.7

38 9.3 75 7.0 69 6.7

3/1/2005 0 7.7 55 87 0.6

2.5 8.4 59 83 1.0

5 8.6 61 80 1.2

7.5 8.7 62 77 1.6

10 9.0 65 74 1.9

15 9.2 66 75 2.1

20 9.1 66 72 2.3

25 8.8 65 73 2.5

Water	Quality	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 1
JUNE

4 8 12 16 20 24 28

JULY

4 8 12 16 20 24 28

AUGUST

4 8 12 16 20 24 28

SEPTEMBER

4 8 12 16 20 24 28

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

WATER TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

Kijik River above Little Kijik River

Kijik River 2.5 km above mouth

Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake

2004

0

40

30

20

10

DEPTH, IN METERS BELOW WATER SURFACE

WATER TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

October 6, 2004

July 14, 2004

August 24, 2004

March 1, 2005

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Figure	.	 Average.daily.water.temperature.from.June.8,.2004,.to.September.30,.2004,.for.the.four.stream.

sites.in.the.Kijik.River.Basin.

Figure	.	 Water.temperature.profiles.of.Lachbuna.Lake,.2004-2005.

14	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
specific conductance during the study period showed only 

small variations among sites. Specific conductance at the two 

sites on Little Kijik River ranged from 40 to 64 microsiemens 

per centimeter (μs/cm) at 25°C and from 77 to 92 μs/cm at 

25°C at the two sites on the Kijik River (table 3). At Kijik 

Lake and Lachbuna Lake, depth profiles of specific conductance were fairly uniform throughout the water column—values ranged from 51 to 63 μs/cm at 25°C at Kijik Lake and 

from 56 to 82 μs/cm at 25°C at Lachbuna Lake (tables 4 and 

5).

pH

The pH of water is a measure of its hydrogen-ion activity 

and typically ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (alkaline) standard 

units. The pH of natural river water typically ranges between 

6.5 and 8.0 standard units (Hem, 1985). During the study 

period, measured values of pH for all sites ranged from 6.2 

to 7.8 (table 3). The pH values in depth profiles at Lachbuna 

Lake and Kijik Lake varied only slightly, ranging from 6.5 to 

7.6 (tables 4 and 5). All values were within the typical range 

for fish growth and survival.

Dissolved Oxygen

The dissolved-oxygen concentration in a stream is 

controlled by several factors, including water temperature, air 

temperature and atmospheric pressure, hydraulic characteristics of the stream, photosynthetic or respiratory activity of 

stream biota, and the quantity of organic matter present (Hem, 

1985). Salmon and other species of fish require well-oxygenated water at every stage in their life history, as do many forms 

of aquatic invertebrates. Young fish tend to be more susceptible to oxygen deficiencies than adults. Measurements of dissolved oxygen at all Kijik River stream sites during the study 

period ranged from 9.2 mg/L to 12.2 mg/L (table 3), the range 

of values being nearly identical at the two Kijik River sites. 

At Lachbuna Lake and Kijik Lake, depth profiles of dissolved 

oxygen indicated a minimum concentration of 7.7 mg/L and 

a maximum concentration of 13.4 mg/L (tables 4 and 5). All 

measured dissolved-oxygen concentrations were adequate to 

support populations of salmonids.

The affect of water clarity on primary production in Kijik 

and Lachbuna Lakes is demonstrated by the dissolved oxygen profiles (tables 4 and 5). Photosynthesis occurs at depths 

in the water column oftentimes estimated to be about twice 

the secchi-disc transparency. At Kijik Lake, the secchi-disc 

transparency was 11 to 14 m in July and August 2004, times 

at which primary production should be at a maximum, and the 

dissolved oxygen saturation was 100 percent as deep as 25 m. 

Below that depth, respiration exceeds photosynthesis and the 

percent saturation declines. In comparison, the glacier-fed 

Lachbuna Lake had secchi-disc transparencies of 1 m or less 

in July and August 2004. Dissolved oxygen saturation at Lachbuna Lake was a maximum of 92 percent at the surface and 

declined steadily with depth (table 5).

0

80

60

40

20

DEPTH, IN METERS BELOW WATER SURFACE

WATER TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

June 9, 2004 July 14, 2004

March 1, 2005 August 24, 2004

0 4 8 12 16 20

Figure	.	 Water.temperature.profiles.of.Kijik.Lake,.2004-2005.

Water	Quality	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 15
sium concentrations ranged from 0.26 mg/L to 0.50 mg/L at 

all sites (table 6).

Bicarbonate (HCO3) was the dominant anion at both the 

stream and lake sites. Concentrations were more variable at 

the river sites and ranged from 16 to 47 mg/L and less variable 

at the lake sites, ranging from 23 to 30 mg/L (table 6). Silica 

and sulfate, which are dissolved from rocks and soils, are the 

next most abundant anions with concentrations ranging from 

5.2 to 8.6 mg/L for silica and 5.8 to 12.8 mg/L for sulfate. 

Chloride and fluoride concentrations were less than 1.0 mg/L 

at all sites (table 6).

Iron is dissolved from many rocks and soils and is an 

essential element in the metabolism of animals and plants. Iron 

in drinking water does not pose a health threat provided concentrations are less than 300 μg/L. Concentrations at all sites 

were less than 29 μg/L (table 6). Manganese has chemistry 

similar to that of iron and concentrations should generally be 

less than 50 μg/L. All concentrations were less than 5.4 μg/L.

Trilinear diagrams were used to plot the major ions in 

milliequivalents per liter. The trilinear diagram permits the 

chemical composition of multiple samples to be represented 

on a single graph and facilitates classification of the sample 

chemistry. On the basis of analyses of the samples collected 

during this study, the water of the Kijik River sites can be 

classified as calcium bicarbonate water (fig. 9), although the 

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake does have slightly higher 

concentrations of sulfate and chloride.

Nutrients and Dissolved Organic Carbon

Nitrogen is present in the crustal rocks of the earth and in 

the atmosphere. In its reduced or organic forms, it is converted 

by soil bacteria into nitrite and nitrate. Biological fixation is 

accomplished by blue-green algae and certain related organisms that have the capacity of photosynthesis. Nitrogen is an 

important water-quality constituent largely due to its role as 

a component of the chlorophyll in plants and thus is essential for primary productivity in lakes, streams, and rivers. In 

aquatic ecosystems, nitrogen commonly occurs in three ionic 

forms: ammonium (NH4), nitrite (NO2), and nitrate (NO3). In 

the laboratory, ammonium is analyzed as ammonia (NH3); 

thus nitrogen concentrations are reported as total and dissolved ammonia plus organic nitrogen, dissolved ammonia, 

dissolved nitrite plus nitrate, and dissolved nitrite. Nitrate is 

generally more abundant than nitrite in natural waters because 

nitrite readily oxidizes to nitrate in oxygenated water (Hem, 

1985). Total ammonia plus organic nitrogen concentrations for 

whole water samples represent the sum of biologically derived 

organic nitrogen compounds plus any ammonia present. 

Nitrate and nitrite are oxidized forms of inorganic nitrogen 

that make up most of the dissolved nitrogen in well-oxygenated streams such as Kijik River. The dissolved concentrations 

represent the ammonium or nitrite plus nitrate in solution 

and are associated with material capable of passing through a 

0.45-μm-pore filter.

Alkalinity

Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of the substances 

dissolved in water to neutralize acid. In most natural waters, 

alkalinity is produced mainly by bicarbonate and carbonate ions, which are formed when carbon dioxide or carbonate rocks dissolve in water (Hem, 1985). The alkalinity at 

Lachbuna Lake, the farthest upstream site, ranged from 18 to 

23 mg/L (table 6). Downstream, at the two sites on the mainstem of the Kijik River, concentrations of alkalinity ranged 

from 23 to 28 mg/L, slightly higher than concentrations at 

Lachbuna Lake (table 6). In the Little Kijik River watershed, 

the lowest values of alkalinity, ranging from 12 to 15 mg/L, 

were found at Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake (table 6). 

At Kijik Lake, alkalinity ranged from 18 to 19 mg/L (table 6), 

and at Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake, alkalinity concentrations ranged from 18 to 20 mg/L (table 6), the same concentrations found in Kijik Lake. The range of pH measured at all 

sites in the Kijik River Basin indicates that all of the alkalinity can be attributed to dissolved bicarbonate (Hem, 1985). 

Alkalinity measurements of this magnitude indicate that Little 

Kijik River and Kijik River have a low buffering capacity.

Major Ions, Dissolved Solids, Iron, and

Manganese

Major ions and dissolved solids in rivers consist of 

inorganic minerals derived primarily from soil and rock 

weathering. Dissolved cations that constitute a majority of the 

dissolved solids content in natural waters are calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium; the major anions are usually 

represented by sulfate, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, and those 

making up the alkalinity (carbonate and bicarbonate) (Hem, 

1985). Streams draining basins with rocks and soils containing 

insoluble minerals contain lower concentrations of dissolved 

solids than streams draining basins with easily dissolved 

minerals. Analyses of the samples from Kijik River and Little 

Kijik River indicated that dissolved solid concentrations are 

generally low, ranging from about 38 to 62 mg/L (table 6). 

Dissolved solids concentrations in samples from Lachbuna 

Lake and Kijik Lake ranged from 34 to 51 mg/L. Low concentrations of dissolved solids such as these are representative 

of basins containing thin soils and rocks that are not easily 

dissolved.

Calcium and magnesium are common alkaline-earth metals that are essential elements in plant and animal nutrition. 

Both elements are major anion components in most natural 

waters (Hem, 1985). Concentrations ranged from 6.6 to 

13.2 mg/L for calcium and from 0.41 to 1.5 mg/L for magnesium (table 6). Concentrations of these constituents tended to 

be higher at the Kijik River sites and lower at the Little Kijik 

River sites. Sodium and potassium are both present in most 

natural waters, but usually in low concentrations in rivers. 

Sodium concentrations ranged from 1.2 to 2.5 mg/L and potas1	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Table	. Concentrations of major ions and trace elements iron and manganese in water samples collected in the Kijik River Basin.

[Values in milligrams per liter unless otherwise noted; <, less than; E, estimated; μg/L, microgram per liter]

Date Time Alkalinity

BicarbonateCalciumChloride

Dissolved

Solids

FluorideIron

(μg/L)

Manganese

(μg/L)

MagnesiumPotassium Silica SulfateSodium

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake (site 1)

6/9/2004 1430 12 16 6.6 0.48 38 <0.2 <6 E0.6 0.73 0.40 7.0 7.7 1.3

7/14/2004 1200 14 18 7.1 0.41 39 <0.2 E6 1.4 0.81 0.49 7.6 8.4 1.4

8/24/2004 1345 15 20 8.2 0.54 42 <0.2 21 3.2 0.92 0.47 8.6 8.8 1.4

10/6/2004 1700 14 18 7.5 0.41 44 E0.1 9 1.6 0.85 0.36 7.8 9.4 2.0

Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake (site 2)

6/9/2004 1420 19 25 9.0 0.61 43 <0.2 <6 E0.6 0.41 0.46 6.7 7.5 1.5

7/14/2004 1630 18 23 8.7 0.63 43 <0.2 E6 E0.7 0.84 0.43 6.7 7.6 1.5

8/25/2004 1100 20 26 9.5 0.63 39 <0.2 <6 1.1 0.91 0.41 6.8 7.9 1.4

10/6/2004 1415 19 25 8.6 0.50 38 0.1 E3 0.8 0.87 0.34 6.4 7.5 2.1

Kijik River above Little Kijik River (site 3)

6/8/2004 1200 28 36 13.0 0.5 57 <0.2 E4 1.2 1.5 0.44 6.6 12.8 1.8

7/13/2004 1500 25 32 11.8 0.4 56 <0.2 E5 E0.7 1.3 0.45 6.1 11.9 1.6

8/26/2004 1345 23 30 11.5 0.5 44 <0.2 <6 E0.6 1.2 0.39 6.1 10.8 1.5

10/4/2004 1450 28 36 13.2 0.5 62 0.2 8 1.0 1.3 0.27 7.1 12.8 2.5

Kijik River 2.5 kilometers above mouth (site 4)

6/8/2004 1530 26 34 12.3 0.54 57 <0.2 E4 1.1 1.3 0.41 6.8 11.8 1.8

7/13/2004 1630 24 31 11.8 0.47 52 <0.2 E4 0.9 1.3 0.43 6.3 11.6 1.7

8/26/2004 1130 24 31 11.6 0.36 46 <0.2 <6 1.2 1.2 0.48 6.4 10.7 1.6

10/4/2004 1610 26 47 12.5 0.45 58 0.2 9 0.7 1.2 0.35 7.1 11.8 2.3

Kijik Lake (site 5)

6/9/2004 1200 18 23 8.7 0.62 41 <0.2 <6 <.8 0.85 0.5 6.9 5.8 1.5

7/14/2004 1530 19 25 8.6 0.61 45 <0.2 <6 <.8 0.84 0.49 6.5 7.5 1.5

8/24/2004 1555 19 25 9.4 0.65 47 <0.2 <6 <0.8 0.88 0.37 6.7 7.7 1.4

10/6/2004 1600 19 25 8.5 0.49 43 0.1 E5 E0.4 0.87 0.36 6.5 7.4 2.2

3/1/2005 1600 18 23 8.8 0.52 38 0.1 <6 <0.6 0.89 0.44 6.7 -- 1.4

Lachbuna Lake (site 6)

6/9/2004 1000 23 30 11.5 0.51 51 <0.2 7 5.4 1.3 0.42 6.2 11.3 1.8

7/14/2004 930 20 26 9.1 0.45 46 <0.2 <6 E0.7 1.0 0.41 5.3 9.0 1.4

8/24/2004 1015 18 23 8.7 0.3 34 <0.2 17 3.0 0.9 0.36 5.2 7.5 1.2

10/6/2004 1200 21 27 9.0 0.35 48 <0.2 29 2.6 1.0 0.26 5.9 8.7 2.2

2/24/2005 1645 21 27 11.3 0.41 47 0.2 E3 0.8 1.2 0.46 6.3 10.4 1.7

Water	Quality	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 1
All concentrations of the various nitrogen forms were 

less than 1 mg/L (table 7). Due to its toxicity to freshwater 

aquatic organisms, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA) (1976) suggests a limitation of 0.02 mg/L of ammonia as un-ionized ammonia for waters to be suitable for fish 

propagation. Concentrations of ammonia (both ionized and 

unionized) were all below this level at all Kijik River sites.

Phosphorus is a rather common element in igneous rock. 

It is fairly abundant in sediments, but concentrations present 

in solution in natural waters are normally no more than a few 

tenths of a milligram per liter. Phosphorus is an element vital 

to all forms of aquatic biota because it is involved in the capture and transfer of chemical energy, and it is an essential element in nucleic acids (Gaudy and Gaudy, 1988). It occurs as 

organically bound phosphorus or as phosphate. Elevated concentrations of phosphorus in water are not considered toxic to 

human or aquatic life. Elevated concentrations can, however, 

stimulate the growth of algae in lakes and streams. Phosphorus 

concentrations are reported as total phosphorus and dissolved 

orthophosphate. Total phosphate concentrations represent the 

phosphorus in solution, associated with colloidal material, 

and contained in or attached to biotic and inorganic particulate matter. Dissolved concentrations are determined from the 

filtrate that passes through a filter with a nominal pore size of 

0.45 μm. The orthophosphate ion, PO4, is a significant form of 

phosphorus because it is directly available for metabolic use 

by aquatic biota. Concentrations of total phosphorus, dissolved 

phosphorus and orthophosphate were typically low, with values near or below minimum detection levels in nearly all Kijik 

River samples (table 7).

Phytoplankton (algae) can assimilate only three of the 

several different nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) compounds available in aquatic ecosystems. The only forms of 

nitrogen that phytoplankton can use for growth are nitrate, 

nitrite, and ammonia (inorganic nitrogen), whereas orthophosphate is the only form of phosphorus that phytoplankton can 

use for growth (Horne and Goldman, 1994). In general, a N:P 

ratio greater than 10 (by weight) indicates that phosphorus is 

the limiting nutrient, whereas a ratio less than 10 indicates that 

nitrogen is limiting (Horne and Goldman, 1994). For Lachbuna Lake N:P ratios ranged from 7 to 15 while at Kijik Lake, 

N:P ratios ranged from 70 to 82 (table 7). For Kijik Lake, the 

N:P ratios strongly suggest that phosphorus is the limiting 

nutrient. For Lachbuna Lake, since the ratios are closer to 10, 

the lake may be in a transition zone between phosphorus and 

nitrogen limitation.

Percent

Calcium

 100 

 80  60 

 40 

 20 

 0

 0

 20

 40

 60

 80

 100

Magnesium

 0

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Sodium plus Potassium

Chloride, Fluoride, Nitrite plus Nitrate

 0

 20  40  60  80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0

Bicarbonate

 100

 80

 60

 40

 20

 0

Sulfate

 0

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Sulfate plus Chloride

 0

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Calcium plus Magnesium

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0

Percent

Percent

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake

Kijik Lake

Lachbuna Lake

Kijik 2.5 km above Little Kijik River

Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake

Kijik River above Little Kijik River

Figure	.	 Trilinear.diagram.of.water.samples.collected.from.six.sites.in.the.Kijik.River.Basin.

1	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Table	. Concentrations of nutrients, dissolved organic carbon, and chlorophyll-a in water samples collected in the Kijik River Basin.

[Values in milligrams per liter unless otherwise noted; <, less than; E, estimated; μg/L, microgram per liter; N:P, nitrogen-phosphorus ratio; --, no data]

Date Time

Dissolved

Ammonia

Nitrogen

(NH4)

Dissolved

Nitrogen

(NH4

+Org)

Total

Nitrogen

(NH4 +

Org)

Dissolved

Nitrogen

(NO2

+NO)

Dissolved

Nitrogen

(NO2)

Dissolved

Phosphorus

Dissolved

Ortho Phosphate

Total

Phosphorus N:P ratio Dissolved Organic Carbon Pheophy- tin Phyto- plankton (μg/L) Chlorophyll-a Phytoplank- ton (μg/L)

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake (site 1)

6/9/2004 1430 <0.01 <0.1 <0.1 0.50 0.002 <0.004 <0.006 0.006 1.7 0.2 0.3

7/14/2004 1200 <0.01 <0.1 <0.1 0.42 <0.002 <0.004 E0.002 E0.002 0.5 <0.1 <0.18/24/2004 1345 <0.01 <0.1 <0.1 0.41 E0.001 <0.004 0.008 0.008 0.3 0.3 0.310/6/2004 1700 <0.01 E0.05 <0.1 0.42 <0.002 <0.004 0.006 0.006 0.4 <0.1 <0.1

Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake (site 2)

6/9/2004 1420 <0.01 <0.1 <0.1 0.44 0.003 <0.004 <0.006 E0.003 1.0 0.1 <0.1

7/14/2004 1630 <0.01 <0.1 E0.06 0.42 0.004 E0.004 E0.003 <0.004 0.7 0.1 0.28/25/2004 1100 E0.006 <0.1 E0.06 0.40 0.004 <0.004 <0.006 E0.002 0.7 0.5 0.510/6/2004 1415 0.027 0.11 E0.08 0.40 0.003 0.008 <0.006 0.004 0.6 0.5 0.8

Kijik River above Little Kijik River (site 3)

6/8/2004 1200 <0.010 <0.10 <0.10 0.13 0.002 <0.004 <0.006 0.016 1.0 1.0 1.0

7/13/2004 1500 <0.010 <0.10 <0.10 0.07 <0.002 <0.004 <0.006 E0.004 0.5 0.5 0.58/26/2004 1345 <0.010 <0.10 <0.10 0.07 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 E0.003 E0.3 E0.3 E0.310/4/2004 1450 <0.010 <0.10 <0.10 0.21 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 <0.004 0.4 0.4 0.4

Kijik River 2.5 kilometers above mouth (site 4)

6/8/2004 1530 <0.010 <0.010 <0.10 0.21 0.002 <0.004 <0.006 0.012 1.9 0.4 0.6

7/13/2004 1630 <0.010 <0.010 E0.06 0.13 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 0.006 0.5 0.3 0.38/26/2004 1130 <0.010 <0.010 <0.10 0.12 E0.001 E0.002 <0.006 E0.004 0.4 0.2 0.210/4/2004 1610 E0.007 <0.010 <0.10 0.25 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 E0.002 0.8 0.2 0.3

Kijik Lake (site 5)

6/9/2004 1200 <0.01 <0.10 <0.10 0.44 0.002 <0.004 <0.006 0.006 75 1.5 1 1.6

7/14/2004 1530 <0.01 <0.10 E0.09 0.42 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 E0.002 72 0.6 0.7 0.58/24/2004 1555 E0.006 <0.10 E0.06 0.42 0.002 <0.004 <0.006 E0.002 72 0.6 0.4 0.810/6/2004 1600 0.013 E0.07 E0.06 0.41 0.003 <0.004 <0.006 E0.003 70 0.6 0.5 0.8

3/1/2005 1600 <0.01 <0.10 E0.06 0.48 0.002 <0.004 <0.006 E0.003 82 -- -- --

Water	Quality	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 1
Table	. Concentrations of nutrients, dissolved organic carbon, and chlorophyll-a in water samples collected in the Kijik River Basin.—Continued

[Values in milligrams per liter unless otherwise noted; <, less than; E, estimated; μg/L, microgram per liter; N:P, nitrogen-phosphorus ratio; --, no data]

Date Time

Dissolved

Ammonia

Nitrogen

(NH4

)

Dissolved

Nitrogen

(NH4

+Org)

Total

Nitrogen

(NH4 +

Org)

Dissolved

Nitrogen

(NO2

+NO

)

Dissolved

Nitrogen

(NO2

)

Dissolved

Phosphorus

Dissolved

Ortho Phosphate

Total

Phosphorus N:P ratio Dissolved Organic Carbon Pheophy- tin Phyto- plankton (μg/L) Chlorophyll-a Phytoplank- ton (μg/L)

Lachbuna Lake (site 6)

6/9/2004 1000 <0.010 <0.10 <0.10 0.08 0.002 <0.004 <0.006 0.006 15 1.6 0.2 0.3

7/14/2004 930 <0.010 <0.10 E0.08 0.05 <0.002 <0.004 <0.006 0.006 10 0.5 0.1 E0.78/24/2004 1015 <0.010 <0.10 <0.10 0.028 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 0.007 7 0.4 <0.1 <0.110/6/2004 1200 <0.010 <0.10 <0.10 0.047 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 <0.004 10 E0.3 0.2 0.32/24/2005 1645 <0.010 <0.10 <0.10 0.066 0.002 <0.004 <0.006 <0.004 13 -- -- --

DOC is commonly a major component of organic matter 

in aquatic ecosystems. DOC is defined as organic carbon in 

the filtrate (dissolved and colloidal phases) that passes through 

a 0.45-μm pore-size filter (Aiken and Cotsaris, 1995). Generally, DOC is in greater abundance than particulate organic 

carbon (POC), accounting for about 90 percent of the total 

organic carbon of most waters (Aiken and Cotsaris, 1995). For 

the Kijik River and lake sites, concentrations of DOC were all 

less than 1.0 mg/L for the July, August, and October samples. 

For the June samples, concentrations of DOC were higher 

than those found at other times of the year, ranging from 1.0 

to 1.9 mg/L. These higher concentrations of DOC reflect the 

spring runoff.

Trace Elements in Streambed Sediments

Streambed sediments at the 4 stream sites in the Kijik 

River Basin were collected and analyzed for 39 trace elements and organic carbon content (table 8). Most of the trace 

elements do not have an aquatic-life criteria. Thus, to provide 

a general comparison, the concentrations of trace elements in 

samples from the Kijik River sites were compared to concentrations in the NAWQA program data set, which consists 

of about 1,000 samples collected throughout the contiguous 

United States, Alaska, and Hawaii (V. Cory Stephens, U.S. 

Geological Survey, written commun, 2004). Of these samples, 

about 250 samples represent reference or forested areas (V. 

Cory Stephens, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun, 

2004). The concentrations of trace elements at the Kijik River 

sites were also compared to concentrations in streambed sediments collected from two other basins in Lake Clark National 

Park and Preserve: the Crescent River Basin and the Johnson 

River Basin. Both of these basins are in the eastern portion of 

LACL near Cook Inlet (fig. 1). The Crescent River Basin is 

about 647 km2 and supports a strong sockeye salmon fishery. 

The Johnson River Basin is about 249 km2 and also supports 

sockeye and coho salmon.

Most median concentrations of the trace elements collected in the Kijik River Basin were similar to the medians 

of the NAWQA reference/forested sites, with the exception 

of higher concentrations of arsenic and strontium at the Kijik 

River sites (table 9). Concentrations of most trace elements 

found in streambed samples from the Crescent, Johnson, and 

Kijik Rivers were similar. Notable exceptions were higher 

concentrations of arsenic, cerium, chromium, lanthanum, 

lithium, neodymium, thorium, and uranium in the Kijik River 

samples. Concentrations of cadmium, lead, and zinc were 

highest at the Johnson River sites. However, some of these 

sites drain highly mineralized areas which explain these higher 

concentrations (Brabets and Riehle, 2003).

The focus in the literature on criteria for streambed 

sediments has been limited to nine trace elements: arsenic, 

cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, and zinc. The Canadian Council of Ministers of the 

Environment (CCME) (1999) has established guidelines for 

20	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Table	. Trace-element concentrations and percent organic carbon measured in streambed sediments collected from stream sites

in the Kijik River Basin, October 2004 (fig.3).

[Values of carbon, aluminum, iron, and titanium in percent; all other values in micrograms per gram; <, less than]

Site # Site

Aluminum Antimony Arsenic Barium Beryllium Bismuth Cadmium Cerium

1 Little Kijik River above 

Kijik Lake

7.7 1.1 29 850 2.0 <1 0.97 82

2 Little Kijik River below 

Kijik Lake

6.7 1.2 26 680 2.0 <1 0.63 72

3 Kijik River above Little 

Kijik River

7.4 1.9 24 810 2.4 <1 0.44 68

4 Kijik River 2.5 km 

above mouth

7.4 2.0 32 790 2.4 <1 0.73 66

Chromium Cobalt Copper Europium Gallium Gold Holmium Iron

1 Little Kijik River above 

Kijik Lake

110 16 40 1.4 20 <1 1.3 4.7

2 Little Kijik River below 

Kijik Lake

47 8.7 25 1.2 18 <1 1.1 2.9

3 Kijik River above Little 

Kijik River

62 10 26 1.2 19 <1 1.0 3.7

4 Kijik River 2.5 km 

above mouth

69 12 34 1.2 19 <1 1.0 3.9

Lanthanum Lead Lithium Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Nickel

1 Little Kijik River above 

Kijik Lake

43 28 48 1600 0.03 3.2 44 32

2 Little Kijik River below 

Kijik Lake

40 24 32 720 0.03 3.9 40 14

3 Kijik River above Little 

Kijik River

36 24 32 1000 0.02 1.6 37 16

4 Kijik River 2.5 km 

above mouth

38 32 33 1200 <0.02 2.4 37 20

Niobium Scandium Selenium Silver Strontium Tantalum Thallium Thorium

1 Little Kijik River above 

Kijik Lake

21 20 0.95 0.38 240 1.2 <1 12.0

2 Little Kijik River below 

Kijik Lake

16 14 0.63 0.29 230 1.1 <1 7.9

3 Kijik River above Little 

Kijik River

17 15 0.11 0.36 230 1.3 <1 7.0

4 Kijik River 2.5 km 

above mouth

17 15 0.25 0.43 230 1.1 <1 7.6

Tin Titanium Uranium Vanadium Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Carbon

(Organic)

1 Little Kijik River above 

Kijik Lake

3.2 0.59 6.2 140 3.3 34 170 2.43

2 Little Kijik River below 

Kijik Lake

3.1 0.41 10.0 75 2.8 30 120 3.13

3 Kijik River above Little 

Kijik River

3.4 0.50 3.5 90 2.7 28 120 0.42

4 Kijik River 2.5 km 

above mouth

3.6 0.46 4.7 90 2.6 30 150 1.06

Water	Quality	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 21
Table	. Comparison of concentrations of trace elements measured in streambed sediments from the USGS National Water-Quality

Assessment (NAWQA) program, and from four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin, three stream sites in the Crescent River Basin,

and eight stream sites in the Johnson River Basin.

[Values for aluminum, iron, and titanium in percent; all other values in micrograms per gram; --, no data; <, less than]

Trace element

NAWQA Reference

Forested Sites

(number of samples varies

between 241 and 22)

Range in concentration

from Kijik River sites

Range in concentration

from Crescent River sites

Range in concentration from

Johnson River sites

Aluminum 6.5 6.7-7.7 7.5-9.1 8.0-10

Antimony 0.7 1.1-2.0 0.3-0.5 0.4-10

Arsenic 7.0 24-32 2.9-9.0 16-64

Barium 470 680-850 400-600 200-1100

Beryllium 2.0 2.0-2.4 0.5-0.8 0.2-1.0

Bismuth -- <1 <1 <1

Cadmium 0.4 0.44-0.97 <0.1-0.2 <0.1-4.6

Cerium 70 66-82 22-30 21-36

Chromium 63 47-110 20-43 14-66

Cobalt 15 8.7-16 15-31 18-44

Copper 26 25-40 44-110 47-92

Europium 1.0 1.2-1.4 1 1.0-2.0

Gallium 16 18-20 17-20 15-20

Gold -- <1 <1 <1

Holmium -- 1.0-1.3 <1-1 1.0-2.0

Iron 3.6 2.9-4.7 4.1-9.3 4.8-13

Lanthanum -- 36-43 10-13 8-15

Lead 24 24-32 4-8 4.0-230

Lithium -- 32-48 12-16 9-20

Manganese 955 720-1600 1000-1700 1200-2000

Mercury 0.07 <0.02-0.03 <0.02-0.04 0.10-0.93

Molybdenum 1 1.6-3.9 0.9-1.1 0.5-4.0

Neodymium -- 37-44 14-20 15-22

Nickel 26 14-32 12-19 4-25

Niobium -- 16-21 7-8 <4.0

Scandium 12 14-20 19-49 29-56

Selenium 0.7 0.11-0.95 <0.1-0.2 0.2-2.6

Silver 0.2 0.29-0.43 0.2-0.7 <0.1-0.8

Strontium 140 230-240 180-450 8.5-200

Tantalium -- 1.1-1.3 <1 <1

Thallium -- <1 <1 <1-1.3

Thorium 12.0 7-12 2-6 <1-2

Tin 2.5 3.1-3.6 1-2 1-2

Titanium 0.37 0.41-0.59 0.37-0.87 0.5-0.8

Uranium 3.9 3.5-10 1-2.9 0.8-1.1

Vanadium 84 75-140 130-380 140-550

Ytterbium -- 2.6-3.3 2-4 3-4

Yttrium -- 28-34 13-19 27-43

Zinc 110 120-170 72-150 85-1800

22	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
1

 Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (1999)

2

 MacDonald and others (2000)

3

 Van Derveer and Canton (1997)

Table 10. Comparison of streambed sediment quality guidelines to concentrations measured in streambed sediments in the Kijik

River Basin for selected trace elements.

[Values in μg/g micrograms per gram; --, no guideline established]

Trace Element

Interim Freshwater

Sediment Quality

Guideline (ISQG)1

Threshold Effect

Concentration

(TEC)2

Probable Effect

Level (PEL)1

Probable Effect Concentration (PEC)2Range of concentrations

from Kijik River sites

Arsenic 5.9 9.8 17.0 33.0 24 - 32

Cadmium 0.6 0.99 3.5 5.0 0.44 - 0.97

Chromium 37.3 43.4 90 111 47 - 110

Copper 35.7 31.6 197 149 25 - 40

Lead 35.0 35.8 91.3 128 24 - 32

Mercury 0.17 0.18 0.49 1.06 0.02 - 0.03

Nickel -- 22.7 -- 48.6 14 - 32

Selenium3 -- 2.5 -- 4.0 0.11 - 0.95

Zinc 123 121 315 459 120 - 170

some trace elements in unsieved streambed sediment. These 

guidelines use two assessment values: a lower value, called the 

“interim freshwater sediment quality guideline” (ISQG), is the 

concentration below which adverse effects in aquatic biota are 

expected to occur rarely; an upper value, called the “probable 

effect level” (PEL), is the concentration above which adverse 

effects are expected to occur frequently (table 10). Because 

trace-element samples for this study are from sediments finer 

than 0.063 mm, in which concentrations tend to be greatest, 

comparisons with the Canadian guidelines may overestimate 

the effects on aquatic organisms (Deacon and Stephens, 1998). 

However, it was felt that the PEL would be useful for comparative purposes when applied to the finer than 0.063-mm size 

fraction sediment samples analyzed for this study.

MacDonald and others (2000) proposed sediment quality guidelines for eight trace elements, and Van Derveer and 

Canton (1997) proposed guidelines for selenium (table 10). 

These guidelines use the following two concentrations for a 

given trace element: the threshold effect concentration (TEC) 

and the probable effect concentration (PEC) and assume a 

1 percent organic carbon concentration (Kijik River sites 

ranged from 0.42 to 3.13 percent). The TEC is the concentration below which sediment-dwelling organisms are unlikely 

to be adversely affected, and the PEC is the concentration 

above which toxicity is likely. When compared to the different 

guidelines, the concentrations of arsenic from all sites were 

four to five times higher than the ISQG. These concentrations 

reflect the local geology of the area rather than anthropogenic 

sources. Three sites exceeded the ISQG for cadmium, with 

the highest concentration 0.97 μg/g, 0.37 μg/g higher than 

the 0.60 μg/g standard. Chromium concentrations at all sites 

exceeded the guideline of 37.3 μg/g, with the exceedances 

ranging from 11.6 μg/g to 72.7 μg/g. Only one site (40 μg/g) 

was above the copper ISQG of 35.7 μg/g, and two sites 

(150 μg/g and 170 μg/g) were above the zinc concentration 

guideline of 123 μg/g. The TEC of these elements are similar 

to the ISQG concentrations and comparing the concentrations 

from the Kijik River sites indicated that concentrations of arsenic, chromium, copper, nickel, and zinc also were above the 

TEC at approximately the same magnitudes. All concentrations of arsenic were about twice as high as the PEL, and one 

chromium concentration was 20 μg/g higher than the PEL of 

90 μg/g. No concentrations were above the PEC levels.

In addition, MacDonald and others (2000) developed a 

Mean PEC Quotient, which is the toxicity of the combined 

trace element concentrations. The Mean PEC Quotient is computed by summing the concentrations of all the trace elements 

analyzed and dividing by the number of elements. MacDonald 

and others (2000) found that sediments with mean PEC quotients less than 0.5 accurately predicted the absence of toxicity 

in 83 percent of the samples they examined. Mean PEC 

quotients greater than 0.5 accurately predicted toxicity in 85 

percent of the samples. Comparison of the concentrations of 

the trace elements with the percent organic carbon and Mean 

PEC Quotient provides some insights about the bioavailability 

of these trace elements. The concentration of organic carbon 

in sediment is used to indicate the concentration of organic 

matter. The ability of organic matter in concentrating some 

trace elements in stream sediment is well recognized (Gibbs, 

1973; Horowitz, 1991), and this ability varies with the type of 

organic matter. For example, complexation by organic matter, 

such as humic and fulvic acids, has generally been thought to 

reduce bioavailability of certain metals (Spacie and Hamelink, 

1985, Newman and Jagoe, 1994). Results of studies by Decho 

and Luoma (1994) and Winner (1985), however, suggest that 

organic carbon compounds may in some cases enhance uptake 

of certain trace elements. The organic carbon content in three 

of the four streambed sediment samples from the Kijik River 

Water	Quality	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 2
Table 11. Concentrations of priority pollutant trace elements in streambed sediments finer than 0.063 millimeter for sites located in

Lake Clark National Park and Preserve.

[Concentrations in micrograms per gram, dry weight, organic carbon in percent; As, arsenic; Cd, cadmium; Cr, chromium; Cu, copper; Pb, lead; Hg, mercury; 

Ni, nickel; Se, selenium; Zn, zinc; values in bold are concentrations that when normalized to 1 percent organic carbon, exceed Probable Effect Concentration 

(PEC), or for the mean PEC quotient, indicate toxicity for the sum of trace elements excluding selenium (MacDonald and others, 2000)]

Site name Latitude Longitude As Cd Cr Cu Pb Hg Ni Se Zn

Organic

carbon

Mean

PEC

Quotient

Kijik River Basin Lake Clark National Park and Preserve

Little Kijik River above 

Kijik Lake

60°17’08” 154°20’35” 29 0.97 110 40 28 0.03 32 0.95 170 2.43 0.19

Little Kijik River below 

Kijik Lake

60°18’28” 154°17’17” 26 0.63 47 25 24 0.03 14 0.63 120 3.13 0.09

Kijik River above 

Little Kijik River

60°18’33” 154°15’41” 24 0.44 62 26 24 0.02 16 0.11 120 0.42 0.70

Kijik River 2.5 km 

above mouth

60°18’01” 154°14’36” 32 0.73 69 34 32 0.02 20 0.25 150 1.06 0.35

Crescent River Basin Lake Clark National Park and Preserve

North Fork Crescent River 60°26’04” 152°54’00” 4.7 0.1 26 44 6 0.02 12 0.1 72 1.90 0.08

Lake Fork Crescent River 60°21’29” 152°49’07” 9.0 0.2 43 110 8 0.04 19 0.2 120 3.00 0.09

Crescent River near mouth 60°14’36” 152°34’49” 2.9 0.1 20 72 4 0.02 14 0.1 150 7.00 0.03

Johnson River Basin Lake Clark National Park and Preserve

North Fork Ore Creek near 

mouth near Johnson Glacier

60°06’58” 152°58’14” 34 <.1 41 54 <1 0.53 15 0.2 120 0.16 2.21

East Fork Ore Creek near 

mouth near Johnson Glacier

60°07’13” 152°57’40” 64 4.3 14 76 230 0.93 4 2.6 1000 1.00 0.72

Ore Creek near mouth near 

Johnson Glacier

60°07’15” 152°57’28” 44 4.6 23 92 180 0.28 8 1.2 1800 0.24 4.60

Kona Creek 4.8 km above 

mouth above Lateral Glacier

60°08’26” 152°55’44” 19 <.1 38 56 6 0.75 11 0.6 120 0.25 1.27

Kona Creek 4.0 km above 

Lateral Glacier

60°08’03” 152°55’24” 18 0.1 42 57 5 0.16 11 0.6 140 0.26 0.98

Kona Creek 1.3 km above 

mouth above Lateral Glacier

60°06’36” 152°55’14” 16 0.4 48 63 17 0.28 14 0.7 150 0.49 0.62

Unnamed tributary to Kona 

Creek above Lateral 

Glacier

60°06’35” 152°55’09” 18 <.1 77 47 4 0.10 25 0.2 85 1.30 0.23

Johnson River above Lateral 

Glacier

60°05’41” 152°54’38” 16 0.2 66 75 4 0.13 17 0.3 130 0.05 6.02

24	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
sites was greater than 1 percent (1.06, 2.43, and 3.13 respectively), whereas most of the samples from the Crescent and 

Johnson River basins contained less than 1 percent organic 

carbon (table 11). With the exception of one sample, the mean 

PEC quotient in the Johnson River samples was greater than 

0.50, which would indicate some level of potential toxicity 

(table 11). As MacDonald and others (2000) noted, sites containing relatively low concentrations of organic carbon have 

higher potential toxicity. When normalized to percent organic 

carbon, concentrations of arsenic and chromium in the Kijik 

River above Little Kijik River were above the PEC level.

Physical Habitat, Benthic

Communities, and Lake Zooplankton of

the Kijik River Basin

Physical Habitat

The physical habitats of the two sites on the Little Kijik 

River and the two sites on the main stem of the Kijik River 

were surveyed in August 2004. Discharge at the time of the 

surveys was .45 m3/s at Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake, 

1.7 m3/s at Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake, 11 m3/s at 

Kijik River above Little Kijik River, and 12 m3/s at Kijik River 

2.5 km above the mouth. The channel gradients of the 2 Little 

Kijik River sites are relatively flat, as evidenced by the low 

average velocities at each site, 0.1 m/s and 0.2 m/s, respectively. In contrast, the gradients of the 2 Kijik River sites are 

relatively steep, as evidenced by the high average velocities 

at these sites of 1 m/s and 1 m/s, respectively. The channel 

widths at the 4 sites ranged from 18 to 27 m.

The Little Kijik River sites (figs. 10 - 13) represent pristine complex habitats characterized by deep pools, long riffles, 

and extensive gravel bars. A beaver dam is present in the upper 

part of the Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake reach, and some 

woody debris is present in the Little Kijik River below Kijik 

Lake reach. The vegetation at both sites consists of native tall 

shrubs, willows, spruce, and cottonwood. Substrate is dominated by sand, small cobbles, and gravel. Banks are completely vegetated.

The physical habitat reaches for the 2 sites on the Kijik 

River are characterized by steep cut banks about 1 to 2 meters 

high (figs. 14 and 15) along the right bank. The substrate is 

dominated by small cobbles with boulders and sand distributed throughout the reaches and both reaches have mobile 

beds. Streambanks are completely bare of vegetation and 

cutbanks are present at both reaches. The surrounding land 

cover consists of shrubs and alders. Open canopy characterizes both reaches. Instream structure is formed predominantly 

by the distribution of cobbles and boulders, as woody debris 

was nearly absent due to the relatively high velocities in these 

areas.

Zooplankton

Zooplankton samples were collected three times during the study period at both Lachbuna Lake—the glacier fed 

lake—and Kijik Lake—the clear-water lake (tables 12 and 

13). At both lakes the following taxa were identified: Cyclops, 

ovigerous (egg-bearing) Cyclops, Diaptomus, ovigerous Diaptomus, Bosmina, Daphnia, and ovigerous Daphnia. Cyclops

and Diaptomus are primary food sources for rearing sockeye 

salmon juveniles. Notable differences in the taxa number are 

evident between Kijik Lake and Lachbuna Lake (table 12). 

Diaptomus at Kijik Lake averaged about 11 times more than 

at Lachbuna Lake, while Cyclops averaged about 3 times more 

than at Lachbuna Lake. Average size of the zooplankton at 

the two lakes were similar (table 13), but the average biomass 

was approximately five times higher at Kijik Lake. These 

differences can be attributed to the turbidity of Lachbuna 

Lake affecting primary production. Previous studies (Lloyd 

and others, 1987) indicated that seasonal densities in glacially 

turbid lakes were observed to be as little as 5 percent of those 

in clear-water lakes.

Macroinvertebrates

Benthic macroinvertebrate QMH samples were collected 

from two sites on the Little Kijik River and two sites on the 

main-stem of the Kijik River (table 14). Invertebrate QMH 

data represents an overview of the community of organisms 

found in the various types of microhabitats within the stream 

reach being sampled. This sampling technique focuses on the 

simple presence of an organism rather than how many (abundance) of an organism are in a particular area (density). A 

comparison was performed between the two Little Kijik River 

and the two Kijik River sites, as well as comparisons with all 

invertebrate data similarly collected throughout the Cook Inlet 

Basin during the 2000 NAWQA sampling.

Preparation of the raw data (presence/absence) was 

accomplished using the Invertebrate Data Analysis System 

(IDAS) (Cuffney, 2005, version 3.7.6). IDAS is a software 

application designed to parse, organize, and calculate metrics related to macroinvertebrate data collected as part of the 

NAWQA Program. The software adds accuracy and precision 

to data interpretation by tracking and documenting settings 

used in metric generation, thereby yielding easily reproducible and comparable results. The options for data processing 

were set for the default, with the exception of dropping the 

“parent” species and keeping the “children” species in the case 

of identification ambiguities. The Kijik and Little Kijik River 

sites and all of the Cook Inlet Basin sites were processed in a 

similar fashion.

A total of 69 taxa (organisms identified to the lowest 

practical level by the USGS NWQL Biological Unit, Denver, 

CO) were collected among the Kijik and Little Kijik River 

sites (table 15). Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake had 31 

taxa collected within the sample reach, and Little Kijik River 

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 25
Cut bank

TR11 (10 m)

TR10 (11 m)

TR9 (10 m)

TR8 (10 m)

TR7 (7 m)

TR6 (17 m)

TR5 (16 m)

TR4 (8 m)

TR3 (10 m)

TR2 (13 m)

TR1 (17 m)

(not to scale)

Gravel

bar

Gravel

bar

Riffle

Riffle

Pool

Pool

Beaver

pond

Beaver dam

Flow Kijik Lake

Thick

algae

Spruce

Spruce

Spruce

Spruce

Tall

grasses

on both

banks

Spruce

Willow

Cottonwood

and birch 

trees

Willow

Cottonwood

and birch 

trees

Cottonwood

and birch 

trees

Cottonwood

and birch 

trees

N

Figure	10.	 Major.geomorphic.features.of.the.Little.Kijik.River.above.Kijik.Lake.study.reach.

2	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Figure	11.	 Little.Kijik.River.above.Kijik.Lake.physical.habitat.reach.looking.upstream.

below Kijik Lake had 25 taxa. The Kijik River above Little 

Kijik River had 28 taxa, and 22 taxa were collected at Kijik 

River 2.5 km above the mouth. The Little Kijik River sites 

shared 7 taxa in common, whereas the Kijik River sites shared 

14 taxa. All four sites shared only two taxa.

Twenty-seven macroinvertebrate families were found 

within the four sites. The class Insecta, made up the largest 

percentage of macroinvertebrates, totaling 70 percent of the 

families collected. The insects were comprised of four orders; 

Diptera (flies and midges), Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), and Trichoptera (caddisflies). Dipterans 

and Plecopterans each had six families represented among the 

study sites (table 14). However, the Dipterans had the greatest 

diversity below the family level, with the family Chironomidae 

(midges) yielding by far the greatest number of genera (28) of 

all identified macroinvertebrates. Plecopterans accounted for 

six families, but only four genera were able to be identified. 

One Plecopteran, Zapada cinctipes, was identified to the species level (Zapada sp. was one of the four genera mentioned 

above). Trichopterans accounted for four families, seven of 

which were identified to genus, and two of the seven were 

identified to species. There were three Ephemeropteran families identified, which included eight genus identifications, five 

of those refined to the species level.

Examination of insects found at the study sites revealed 

that only the Dipteran (Chironomidae), Cricotopus/Orthocladius sp., was common to all four Kijik and Little Kijik 

River sites. Insects found only at the two Little Kijik River 

sites were the Dipterans (Chironomidae–midges, and Tipulidae–craneflies) Tribelos sp. and Tipula sp., respectively, 

and the Trichopteran (Limnephilidae), Psychoglypha sp. The 

two Kijik River sites had the two Dipterans (Chironomidae 

and Simuliidae–blackflies) Pagastia sp. and Simulium sp., an 

Ephemeropteran (Ephemerellidae) Ephemerella aurivillii, and 

a Plecopteran (Taeniopterygidae) common to only that basin.

The Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake had eight insects 

formerly undocumented in samples collected using NAWQA 

protocols in Alaska including seven Dipterans (all Chironomidae) and one Plecopteran (Pteronarcyidae) (table 16). Five 

Chironomids were found only at this site. Eight insects, all 

identified to the genus level or lower (five Chironomids, one 

Ephemeropteran, one Plecopteran, and one Trichopteran), 

were found only at the Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake 

site. Three Chironomids were documented as shared by at 

least one other study site. The Kijik River above Little Kijik 

River site included four Dipterans (three Chironomids and one 

Tipulid) unique to the site and shared three Chironomids with 

the other study sites. Finally, at the Kijik River 2.5 km above 

the mouth site, no taxa unique to the site were found, but a 

shared Chironomid and Plecopteran were noted as endemic to 

the four study sites.

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 2
Kijik Lake

Flow

N

Spruce

Spruce

Spruce

Spruce

TR11 (34 m)

TR1 (65 m)

TR2 (79 m)

TR3 (80 m)

TR4 (77 m)

TR5 (67 m)

TR6 (87 m)

TR7 (80 m)

TR8 (43 m)

TR9 (36 m)

TR10 (32 m)

Shallow

gravel

bar

Submerged gravel bar

Gravel bars

Large

rocks

Submerged

large

rocks

Aquatic

vegetation

Aquatic

vegetation

Aquatic

vegetation

Tree

(not to scale)

Tall

grasses

on both

banks

Figure	12.	 Major.geomorphic.features.of.the.Little.Kijik.River.below.Kijik.Lake.study.reach.

2	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Figure	1.	 Little.Kijik.River.below.Kijik.Lake.physical.habitat.reach.looking.upstream.

Non-insect macroinvertebrates made up the remaining 

30 percent of families (or coarser taxonomic levels) identified 

at the two Kijik and two Little Kijik River sites (table 14). 

Classes of non-insects included Arachnida (ticks and water 

mites), Bivalvia (freshwater clams and mussels), Gastropoda 

(snails), Malacostraca (scuds), Oligochaeta (worms), Turbellaria (flatworms), and the phylum Nematoda (roundworms). 

The Gastropods were resolved to three separate families and 

then to three separate genera. Oligochaeta also was resolved 

to three families, though further classification of the worms 

to the generic level was not performed by the lab. The Arachnids are broken down only to the subclass Acari, as this is an 

extensive group (many tens of thousands known taxa). Only 

one family, Sphaeriidae (fingernail clams), and more specifically of the genus Pisidium sp., was identified as part of the 

class Bivalvia. One Malacostracan (family Gammaridae, 

Gammarus sp.) was identified as belonging to the ubiquitous 

order Amphipoda. Turbellarians (flatworms including Dugesia 

sp. or Planaria sp.) were identified only to the class level, and 

the Nematodes were left at the phylum level due to the great 

diversity of the group.

One water mite (Acari) and a member of the phylum 

Nematoda were found only at the Kijik River above Little 

Kijik River site. Molluscs (Bivalves and Gastropods) and 

the Turbellarian were collected only at the Little Kijik River 

above Kijik Lake site. The Malacostracan, Gammarus sp., 

was confined to the two sites in the Little Kijik River basin. 

The Oligochaete, Enchtraeidae, was found only at the Little 

Kijik River above Kijik Lake site, whereas Lumbriculidae was 

found at the other three sites. The only non-insect collected at 

all four sites was the Oligochaete, Naididae.

A cluster analysis was used to compare the similarity of 

the Kijik and Little Kijik River sites. Results of the analysis 

indicated the Kijik River sites as being most closely related, 

owing to the many common taxa between Kijik River sites 

and few common taxa between Little Kijik River sites (fig. 

16, table 17). The Little Kijik sites are relatively unrelated to 

the Kijik River sites, as noted in figure 16, and share five taxa 

between one Kijik and one Little Kijik site. The Little Kijik 

River above Kijik Lake site had 14 taxa found only there and 

not at the 3 other study sites. The Little Kijik River below 

Kijik Lake had 15 taxa found only there and not at the other 

sites in this study.

Examination of the percent richness metrics (used here 

to measure the variety of biotic assemblages collected relative to the sites or other biota at the sites) reveals some of the 

possible factors that tend to differentiate the Little Kijik River 

sites from each other as well as the two Kijik sites (table 17). 

The Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake site was the only 

site where there were Gastropods and Molluscs, a disproportionate number of non-midge/non-insect fauna, and a very 

low occurrence of the common invertebrate metric, percent 

EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera) taxa, when 

compared to the other sites. The two Kijik River sites again 

reveal their overall similarity when Jaccard and Sorenson 

similarity coefficients are examined (table 18). Both coefficients are basically the same and corroborate the dendrogram 

for the four sites. When the Kijik and Little Kijik River sites 

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 2
Table 12. Macrozooplankton data for Kijik Lake and Lachbuna Lake.

[Taxa in number per cubic meter]

Kijik Lake

Date Diaptomus Ovigerous

Diaptomus

Cyclops Ovigerous

Cyclops

Bosmina Daphnia Ovigerous

Daphnia

7/14/2004 6,158 475 6,498 158 611 3,351 91

8/24/2004 825 0 425 3 506 958 54

10/6/2004 3,184 0 5,943 0 1,231 5,540 64

Mean 3,389 158 4,288 54 783 3,283 70

Lachbuna Lake

Date Diaptomus Ovigerous

Diaptomus

Cyclops Ovigerous

Cyclops

Bosmina Daphnia

7/14/2004 401 7 1,457 109 0 0

8/24/2004 3 0 125 1 0 0

10/6/2004 598 143 2,520 7 68 7

Mean 334 50 1,367 39 23 2

Table 1. Seasonal means of length and biomass of zooplankton from Kijik Lake and Lachbuna Lake.

[Values in millimeters for length and micrograms per cubic meter for biomass]

Kijik Lake Lachbuna Lake

Mean

Length

Mean

Biomass

Mean

Length

Mean

Biomass

Diaptomus 1.08 18 Diaptomus 1.31 3

Ovigerous Diaptomus 1.29 1 Ovigerous Diaptomus 1.34 <1

Cyclops 0.75 8 Cyclops 0.91 4

Ovigerous Cyclops 1.34 <1 Ovigerous Cyclops 1.33 <1

Bosmina 0.54 2 Bosmina 0.62 <1

Ovigerous Bosmina 0.65 <1 Daphnia 0.86 <1

Daphnia 0.65 6

Ovigerous Daphnia 1.09 <1
Shrubs

Trees

TR1 (20 m)

TR2 (22 m)

TR3 (21 m)

TR4 (21 m)

TR5 (22 m)

TR6 (21 m)

TR7 (19 m)

TR1 (29 m)

TR2 (29 m)

TR3 (30 m)

TR4 (28 m)

TR5 (26 m)

TR6 (25 m)

TR7 (24 m)

Cut bank

about

1.5 meters

high

Cut bank

1 meter

high

59 m

38 m

29 m

5 m

Backwater

Gravel

bar

Large

cobbles

and

gravel

Flow

A B

N

(not to scale) (not to scale)

N

Figure	14.	 Major.geomorphic.features.of.the.Kijik.River.above.Little.Kijik.River.and.Kijik.River.2.5.kilometers.above.

mouth.study.reaches.

Figure	15.	 Physical.habitat.reach.of.the.Kijik.River.2.5.kilometers.above.mouth.

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 1
Table 14. Macroinvertebrate taxa for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected at four sites in the Kijik River Basin.

[*, total for that category]

Class Order Family Biological Unit ID

Little Kijik

River above

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik

River below

Kijik Lake

Kijik River

above

Little Kijik

Kijik River

2.5 km

above

mouth

Total

Arachnida Acari 0 0 1 0 1

* 0 0 1 0 1

* 0 0 1 0 1

Arachnida* 0 0 1 0 1

Bivalvia Veneroida Sphaeriidae Pisidium sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Sphaeriidae* 0 1 0 0 1

Veneroida* 0 1 0 0 1

Bivalvia* 0 1 0 0 1

Gastropoda Basommatophora Lymnaeidae Stagnicola sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Lymnaeidae* 0 1 0 0 1

Planorbidae Gyraulus sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Planorbidae* 0 1 0 0 1

Basommatophora*0 2 0 0 2

Mesogastropoda Valvatidae Valvata sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Valvatidae* 0 1 0 0 1

Mesogastropoda* 0 1 0 0 1

Gastropoda*0 3 0 0 3

Insecta Diptera Ceratopogonidae Ceratopogonidae 1 0 0 1 2

Ceratopogonidae* 1 0 0 1 2

Chironomidae Brillia sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Chaetocladius sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Chironomini 1 0 0 0 1

Chironomus sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Corynoneura sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Cricotopus sp. 0 1 0 1 2

Cricotopus/Orthocladius sp.

1 1 1 1 4

Demicryptochironomus sp.

0 1 0 0 1

Diamesa sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Eukiefferiella sp. 1 0 1 1 3

Heleniella sp. 0 0 1 0 1

Heterotrissocladius sp.

0 1 0 0 1

Hydrobaenus sp. 1 0 1 0 2

Micropsectra sp. 0 1 0 0 1
Table 14. Macroinvertebrate taxa for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected at four sites in the Kijik River Basin.—

Continued

[*, total for that category]

Class Order Family Biological Unit ID

Little Kijik

River above

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik

River below

Kijik Lake

Kijik River

above

Little Kijik

Kijik River

2.5 km

above

mouth

Total

Pagastia sp. 0 0 1 1 2

Pentaneurini 0 0 1 0 1

Phaenopsectra/

Tribelos sp.

1 0 0 0 1

Polypedilum sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Procladius sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Protanypus sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Pseudodiamesa sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Stempellinella sp. 0 0 1 0 1

Tanytarsus sp. 0 0 1 0 1

Thienemanniella 

sp.

1 0 0 0 1

Thienemannimyia 

group sp. (Coffman and Ferrington, 1996)

0 1 1 0 2

Tribelos sp. 1 1 0 0 2

Tvetenia sp. 1 0 1 1 3

Chironomidae* 15 11 11 5 42

Empididae Chelifera/Metachela sp.0 0 1 0 1

Empididae* 0 0 1 0 1

Psychodidae Pericoma/Telmatoscopus sp.0 1 0 0 1

Psychodidae* 0 1 0 0 1

Simuliidae Simulium sp. 0 0 1 1 2

Simuliidae* 0 0 1 1 2

Tipulidae Dicranota sp. 1 0 1 1 3

Rhabdomastix sp. 0 0 1 0 1

Tipula sp. 1 1 0 0 2

Tipulidae* 2 1 2 1 6

Diptera* 18 13 15 8 54

Ephemeroptera Baetidae Acentrella turbida 

(McDunnough)

0 0 0 1 1

Baetis bicaudatus 

(Dodds)

0 0 0 1 1

Baetis tricaudatus 

(Dodds)

0 0 1 0 1

Baetidae* 0 0 1 2 3

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 
Table 14. Macroinvertebrate taxa for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected at four sites in the Kijik River Basin.—

Continued

[*, total for that category]

Class Order Family Biological Unit ID

Little Kijik

River above

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik

River below

Kijik Lake

Kijik River

above

Little Kijik

Kijik River

2.5 km

above

mouth

Total

Ephemerellidae Drunella doddsi 

(Needham)

0 0 0 1 1

Ephemerella aurivillii (Bengtsson)

0 0 1 1 2

Ephemerella sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Ephemerellidae* 0 1 1 2 4

Heptageniidae Cinygmula sp. 1 0 1 1 3

Epeorus sp. 1 0 1 1 3

Heptageniidae* 2 0 2 2 6

Ephemeroptera* 2 1 4 6 13

Plecoptera Capniidae Capniidae 0 0 1 0 1

Capniidae* 0 0 1 0 1

Chloroperlidae Suwallia sp. 1 0 1 1 3

Chloroperlidae* 1 0 1 1 3

Nemouridae Zapada cinctipes 

(Banks)

0 0 1 0 1

Zapada sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Nemouridae* 1 0 1 0 2

Perlodidae Perlodidae 1 0 0 0 1

Skwala sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Perlodidae* 1 1 0 0 2

Pteronarcyidae Pteronarcella sp. 1 0 0 1 2

Pteronarcyidae* 1 0 0 1 2

Taeniopterygidae Taeniopterygidae 0 0 1 1 2

Taeniopterygidae 0 0 1 1 2

Plecoptera* 4 1 4 3 12

Trichoptera Brachycentridae Brachycentrus 

americanus 

(Banks)

0 0 0 1 1

Brachycentridae 0 0 0 1 1

Glossosomatidae Glossosoma sp. 0 0 0 1 1

Glossosomatidae 0 0 0 1 1

Leptoceridae Mystacides alafimbriata (HillGriffin)0 1 0 0 1

Leptoceridae* 0 1 0 0 1

Limnephilidae Ecclisomyia sp. 1 0 1 1 3
Table 14. Macroinvertebrate taxa for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected at four sites in the Kijik River Basin.—

Continued

[*, total for that category]

Class Order Family Biological Unit ID

Little Kijik

River above

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik

River below

Kijik Lake

Kijik River

above

Little Kijik

Kijik River

2.5 km

above

mouth

Total

Psychoglypha sp. 1 1 0 0 2

Limnephilidae* 4 1 1 1 7

Trichoptera* 4 2 1 3 10

Insecta 28 17 24 20 89

MalacostracaAmphipoda Gammaridae Gammarus sp. 1 1 0 0 2

Gammaridae* 1 1 0 0 2

Amphipoda* 1 1 0 0 2

Malacostraca1 1 0 0 2

Oligochaeta Enchytraeida Enchytraeidae Enchytraeidae 1 0 0 0 1

Enchytraeidae* 1 0 0 0 1

Enchytraeida 1 0 0 0 1

Lumbriculida Lumbriculidae Lumbriculidae 0 1 1 1 3

Lumbriculidae* 0 1 1 1 3

Lumbriculida 0 1 1 1 3

Tubificida Naididae Naididae 1 1 1 1 4

Naididae* 1 1 1 1 4

Tubificida* 1 1 1 1 4

Oligochaeta 2 2 2 2 8

Turbellaria Turbellaria 0 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 1

Turbellaria 0 1 0 0 1

Nematoda 0 0 1 0 1

* 0 0 1 0 1

* 0 0 1 0 1

* 0 0 1 0 1

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 5
Table 15. Macroinvertebrate taxa collected at the Kijik and Little Kijik River sites

Class Order Family Tribe Biological Unit ID

Little

Kijik

River

above

Kijik

Lake

Little

Kijik

River

below

Kijik

Lake

Kijik

River

above

Little

Kijik

River

Kijik

River

2.5 km

above

mouth

Count of		

taxa at all

NAWQAsampled

sites.

Larger values equal

more

ubiquitous

taxa

Arachnida Acari 0 0 1 0 37

Bivalvia Veneroida Sphaeriidae Pisidium sp. 0 1 0 0 21

GastropodaBasommatophoraLymnaeidae Stagnicola sp. 0 1 0 0 2

GastropodaBasommatophoraPlanorbidae Gyraulus sp. 0 1 0 0 3

GastropodaMesogastropodaValvatidae Valvata sp. 0 1 0 0 7

Insecta Diptera Ceratopogonidae

Ceratopogonidae 1 0 0 1 4

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Thienemannimyia group sp. 

(Coffman and Ferrington, 

1996)

0 1 1 0 2

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Brillia sp. 1 0 0 0 42

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Chaetocladius sp. 1 0 0 0 3

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Chironomini 1 0 0 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Chironomus sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Corynoneura sp. 1 0 0 0 10

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Cricotopus sp. 0 1 0 1 11

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Cricotopus/Orthocladius sp. 1 1 1 1 48

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Demicryptochironomus sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Diamesa sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Eukiefferiella sp. 1 0 1 1 44

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Heleniella sp. 0 0 1 0 16

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Heterotrissocladius sp. 0 1 0 0 5

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Hydrobaenus sp. 1 0 1 0 10

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Micropsectra sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Micropsectra/Tanytarsus sp. 1 1 1 0 3

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Pagastia sp. 0 0 1 1 2

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Pentaneurini 0 0 1 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Phaenopsectra/Tribelos sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Polypedilum sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Procladius sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Protanypus sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Pseudodiamesa sp. 1 0 0 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Stempellinella sp. 0 0 1 0 1
Table 15. Macroinvertebrate taxa collected at the Kijik and Little Kijik River sites.—Continued

Class Order Family Tribe Biological Unit ID

Little

Kijik

River

above

Kijik

Lake

Little

Kijik

River

below

Kijik

Lake

Kijik

River

above

Little

Kijik

River

Kijik

River

2.5 km

above

mouth

Count of		

taxa at all

NAWQAsampled

sites.

Larger values equal

more

ubiquitous

taxa

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Tanytarsus sp. 0 0 1 0 1

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Thienemanniella sp. 1 0 0 0 26

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Tribelos sp. 1 1 0 0 2

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae Tanytarsini Tvetenia sp. 1 0 1 1 33

Insecta Diptera Empididae Chelifera/Metachela sp. 0 0 1 0 20

Insecta Diptera Psychodidae Pericoma/Telmatoscopus sp. 0 1 0 0 28

Insecta Diptera Simuliidae Simulium sp. 0 0 1 1 22

Insecta Diptera Tipulidae Dicranota sp. 1 0 1 1 50

Insecta Diptera Tipulidae Rhabdomastix sp. 0 0 1 0 1

Insecta Diptera Tipulidae Tipula sp. 1 1 0 0 10

Insecta EphemeropteraBaetidae Acentrella turbida (McDunnough)0 0 0 1 12

Insecta EphemeropteraBaetidae Baetis bicaudatus (Dodds) 0 0 0 1 31

Insecta EphemeropteraBaetidae Baetis tricaudatus (Dodds) 0 0 1 0 22

Insecta EphemeropteraEphemerellidae

Drunella doddsi (Needham) 0 0 0 1 39

Insecta EphemeropteraEphemerellidae

Ephemerella aurivillii (Bengtsson)

0 0 1 1 30

Insecta EphemeropteraEphemerellidae

Ephemerella sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Insecta EphemeropteraHeptageniidae Cinygmula sp. 1 0 1 1 36

Insecta EphemeropteraHeptageniidae Epeorus sp. 1 0 1 1 34

Insecta Plecoptera Capniidae Capniidae 0 0 1 0 13

Insecta Plecoptera Chloroperlidae

Suwallia sp. 1 0 1 1 38

Insecta Plecoptera Nemouridae Zapada cinctipes (Banks) 0 0 1 0 31

Insecta Plecoptera Nemouridae Zapada sp. 1 0 0 0 19

Insecta Plecoptera Perlodidae Perlodidae 1 0 0 0 13

Insecta Plecoptera Perlodidae Skwala sp. 0 1 0 0 1

Insecta Plecoptera Pteronarcyidae

Pteronarcella sp. 1 0 0 1 2

Insecta Plecoptera TaeniopterygidaeTaeniopterygidae 0 0 1 1 4

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 
Table 15. Macroinvertebrate taxa collected at the Kijik and Little Kijik River sites.—Continued

Class Order Family Tribe Biological Unit ID

Little

Kijik

River

above

Kijik

Lake

Little

Kijik

River

below

Kijik

Lake

Kijik

River

above

Little

Kijik

River

Kijik

River

2.5 km

above

mouth

Count of		

taxa at all

NAWQAsampled

sites.

Larger values equal

more

ubiquitous

taxa

Insecta TrichopteraBrachycentridae

Brachycentrus americanus

(Banks)

0 0 0 1 33

Insecta TrichopteraGlossosomatidae

Glossosoma sp. 0 0 0 1 27

Insecta TrichopteraLeptoceridae Mystacides alafimbriata (HillGriffin)0 1 0 0 1

Insecta TrichopteraLimnephilidae

Ecclisomyia sp. 1 0 1 1 36

Insecta TrichopteraLimnephilidae

Hydatophylax sp. 1 0 0 0 4

Insecta TrichopteraLimnephilidae

Limnephilus sp. 1 0 0 0 4

Insecta TrichopteraLimnephilidae

Psychoglypha sp. 1 1 0 0 12

MalacostracaAmphipodaGammaridae Gammarus sp. 1 1 0 0 2

OligochaetaEnchytraeidaEnchytraeidae Enchytraeidae 1 0 0 0 31

OligochaetaLumbriculidaLumbriculidaeLumbriculidae 0 1 1 1 37

OligochaetaTubificida Naididae Naididae 1 1 1 1 32

Turbellaria Turbellaria 0 1 0 0 36

Nematoda 0 0 1 0 5
Table 1. Sites used in cluster analysis.

Site Number Name

15239840 Anchor River above Twitter Creek near Anchor Point

600321151325000 Ninilchik River below tributary 3 near Ninilchik

15240000 Anchor River at Anchor Point

600204151401800 Deep Creek 1.0 km above Sterling Highway near Ninilchik

15240300 Stariski Creek near Anchor Point

595506152403300 Stariski Creek 3.2 km below unnamed tributary near Ninilchik

594507151290000 Beaver Creek 3.2 km above mouth near Bald Mountain near Homer

595126151391000 Chakok River 12 km above mouth near Anchor Point

600945151210900 Ninilchik River 2.4 km below tributary 1 near Ninilchik

600107151112800 North Fork Deep Creek 6.4 km above mouth near Ninilchik

15241600 Ninilchik River at Ninilchik

15266010 Kenai River below Russian River near Cooper Landing

15283550 Moose Creek above Wishbone Hill near Sutton

15276200 Ship Creek at Glenn Highway near Anchorage

15266020 Kenai River at Jim’s Landing near Cooper Landing

585750154101100 Kamishak River near Kamishak

15276570 Ship Creek below power plant at Elmendorf AFB

15294700 Johnson River below Lateral Glacier near Tuxedni Bay

631018149323700 Costello Creek near Colorado

15292304 Costello Creek below Camp Creek near Colorado

15292700 Talkeetna River near Talkeetna

15273020 Rabbit Creek at Hillside Drive near Anchorage

15273100 Little Rabbit Creek near Anchorage

15273090 Little Rabbit Creek at Nickleen Street near Anchorage

15273097 Little Rabbit Creek at Goldenview Drive near Anchorage

15273030 Rabbit Creek at East 140th Avenue near Anchorage

15273040 Rabbit Creek at Porcupine Trail Road near Anchorage

15283700 Moose Creek near Palmer

631629149352000 Colorado Creek near Colorado

15274395 Campbell Creek at New Seward Highway near Anchorage

15274557 Campbell Creek at C Street near Anchorage

15274796 South Branch of South Fork Chester Creek at Tank Trail near Anchorage

15274830 South Branch of South Fork Chester Creek at Boniface Parkway near Anchorage

15292302 Camp Creek at mouth near Colorado

15294630 North Fork Crescent River near Tuxedni Bay

15294650 Crescent River near mouth near Tuxedni Bay

15266110 Kenai River below Skilak Lake outlet near Sterling

15266300 Kenai River at Soldotna

15275100 Chester Creek at Arctic Boulevard at Anchorage

15274000 South Fork Campbell Creek near Anchorage

15294100 Deshka River near Willow

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 
LINKAGE DISTANCE

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake

Kijik River 2.5 km above mouth

Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake

Kijik River above Little Kijik River

4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

Figure	1.	 Dendrogram.from.the.results.of.cluster.analysis.on.the.presence.or.absence.of.

macroinvertebrates.found.at.the.four.Kijik.river.sites.

40	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Table 1. Macroinvertebrate community metrics for four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.

Station EPTRp EPT_CHRp EPEMRp PLECORp PTERYRp TRICHRp ODONORp COLEOPRp DIPRp CHRp ORTHORp ORTHO_CHRp

Little Kijik above 

Kijik Lake

32.3 0.7 6.5 12.9 0.0 12.9 0.0 0.0 58.1 48.4 25.8 0.5

Kijik River 2.5 km 

above mouth

54.5 2.4 27.3 13.6 0.0 13.6 0.0 0.0 36.4 22.7 18.2 0.8

Little Kijik River 

below Kijik Lake

16.0 0.4 4.0 4.0 0.0 8.0 0.0 0.0 52.0 44.0 12.0 0.3

Kijik River above 

Little Kijik River

32.1 0.8 14.3 14.3 0.0 3.6 0.0 0.0 53.6 39.3 17.9 0.5

Station TANYRp TANY_CHRp NCHDIPRp NONINSRp ODIPNIRp MOLCRURp GASTRORp BIVALRp CORBICRp AMPHIRp ISOPRp OLIGORp

Little Kijik above 

Kijik Lake

0.0 0.0 9.7 9.7 19.4 3.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.2 0.0 6.5

Kijik River 2.5 km 

above mouth

0.0 0.0 13.6 9.1 22.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.1

Little Kijik River 

below Kijik Lake

0.0 0.0 8.0 32.0 40.0 20.0 12.0 4.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 8.0

Kijik River above 

Little Kijik River

0.0 0.0 14.3 10.7 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.1

Percent

Richness

Metrics

Definitions Percent

Richness

Metrics

Definitions

EPTRp Percentage of total richness composed of mayflies, stoneflies, and 

caddisflies

ORTHO_

CHRp

Ratio of orthoclad percent richness to midge percent richness

EPT_CHRp Ratio of ept percent richness to midge percent richness NCHDIPRp Percentage of total richness composed of non-midge dipteraEPEMRp Percentage of total richness composed of mayflies

TANY_CHRp Ratio of percent tanytarsanii richness to percent midge richness

PLECORp Percentage of total richness composed of stoneflies ODIPNIRp Percentage of total richness composed of non-midge diptera and non-insectsPTERYRp Percentage of total richness composed of pteronarcys NONINSRp Percentage of total richness composed on non-insectsTRICHRp Percentage of total richness composed of caddisflies GASTRORp Percentage of total richness composed of gastropodaODONORp Percentage of total richness composed of odonata MOLCRURp Percentage of total richness composed of molluscs and crustaceansDIPRp Percentage of total richness composed of diptera CORBICRp Percentage of total richness composed of corbiculaCOLEOPRp Percentage of total richness composed of coleoptera BIVALRp Percentage of total richness composed of bivalviaORTHORp Percentage of total richness composed of orthocladinae midges OLOGORp Percentage of total richness composed of oligochaetaCHRp Percentage of total richness composed of midges ISOPODRp Percentage of total richness composed of isopoda

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 41
were compared to the 39 other sites sampled within the Cook 

Inlet Basin, the downstream Little Kijik River site was more 

closely related to sites on the Kenai River below Kenai Lake 

(15266010 and 15266020) than to other sites in this study. 

This suggests that large lakes in the two systems have a similar 

effect on the downstream macroinvertebrate community composition (fig. 17).

Comparison of the metrics calculated for the Little Kijik 

River and Kijik River should be done with caution because the 

national data set is based on data from streams in the contiguous United States. Because Little Kijik River and Kijik River 

are at relatively high latitudes, MacLean and others (1999) 

have noted that there are probably natural stressors such as 

frozen sediments and extreme temperature ranges that contribute to differences between these sites and streams in the contiguous United States. A database for Alaska streams currently 

does not exist; however, it was felt that comparing data from 

Little Kijik River and Kijik River with the existing national 

data set would still provide some information.

Algae

Periphytic algae QMH samples were collected from Little 

Kijik River and Kijik River in 2004 (table 19). No quantitative 

data were collected at any of the Kijik or Little Kijik River 

sites and thus no quantitative assessments of biovolume or 

standing crop were performed. However, 122 species of algae 

were found within the four drainages and several generalizations can be drawn from the simple presence/absence dataset.

Eight species were identified in samples from all four 

sites, all of which were diatoms. The species include Achnanthes minutissima, Fragilaria vaucheriae, Fragilaria capucina, 

Tabellaria flocculosa, Encyonema minutum, Staurosirella pinnata, Encyonopsis aff. cesatii, and Brachysira microcephala. 

These 8 species do not fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, and 

all but one (Tabellaria flocculosa) are benthic. All are nonmotile, suggesting that the areas from which they were collected are relatively stable. Most of these species also tend to 

prefer neutral to slightly acidic conditions, with salinity values 

of less than 0.9 parts per thousand (ppt) (Stephen Porter, U.S. 

Geological Survey, written commun., 2002).

The 2 Kijik River sites had a total of 50 algal species 

including 42 diatom species, 3 green algae species, and 5 blue15294100

15241600

15276570

15276200

15274395

15274000

15283700

15283550

15274796

15273097

15273090

15273040

15273100

15273030

15273020

15275100

15274830

15274557

15266300

15266110

600945151210900

15266020

585750154101100

15266010

600107151112800

631629149352000

631018149323700

15294700

15292304

15292700

15292302

595506151403300

595126151391000

600321151325000

594507151290000

600204151401800

15240000

15240300

15239840

LINKAGE DISTANCE

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake

Kijik River 2.5 km above mouth

Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake

Kijik River above Little Kijik River

Figure	1.	 Dendrogram.from.the.results.of.cluster.analysis.on.the.presence.or.absence.of.

macroinvertebrates.found.at.the.four.Kijik.river.sites.and.sites.in.the.Cook.Inlet.Basin.

42	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Table 1. Jaccard and Sorenson similarity coefficients for stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.

Station 1 Station 2 Jaccard Sorenson

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake Kijik River above Little Kijik 0.23 0.37

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake 0.14 0.25

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake Kijik River 2.5 km above mouth 0.26 0.42

Kijik River 2.5 km above mouth Kijik River above Little Kijik River 0.39 0.56

Kijik River 2.5 km above mouth Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake 0.09 0.17

Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake Kijik River above Little Kijik River 0.10 0.19

Table 1. Algal taxa present in qualitative-multi-habitat samples collected at four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.

[1, species present; --, species not present]

Taxonomy

Little

Kijik River

above

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik

River below Kijik

Lake

Kijik River

above

Little Kijik

River

Kijik River

2.5 km

above

mouth

PHYLUM

 Family

 Genus species

CYANOPHYTA (blue-green algae)

 (undetermined)

 Unknown Cyanophyte coccoid -- 1 -- --

 Borziaceae

 Komvophoron schmidlei (Jaag) Anagnostidis & Kom rek 1 -- -- --

 Merismopediaceae

 Merismopedia arctica (Kosinskaja) Kom rek et Anagnostidis -- -- 1 --

 Oscillatoriaceae

 Oscillatoria lutea Agardh 1 -- 1 --

 Phormidiaceae

 Phormidium autumnale (CA Agardh) Gomont 1 -- 1 --

 Pseudanabaenaceae

 Geitlerinema splendidum (Greville) Anagnostidis -- 1 -- --

 Homoeothrix sp. 1 -- 1 --

 Pseudanabaena sp. 1 -- 1 1

CHLOROPHYTA (green algae)

 Chaetophoraceae

 Stigeoclonium lubricum (Dillwyn) Kurtzing -- 1 -- --

 Desmidiaceae

 Staurastrum sp. 1 -- -- 1

 Hydrodictyaceae

 Pediastrum boryanum (Turpin) Meneghini -- 1 -- --

 Scenedesmaceae

 Scenedesmus ecornis (Ralfs) Chodat 1 -- -- --

 Volvocaceae

 Eudorina elegans Ehrenberg 1 -- -- --

Zygnemataceae

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 4
Table 1. Algal taxa present in qualitative-multi-habitat samples collected at four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.—Continued

[1, species present; --, species not present]

Taxonomy

Little

Kijik River

above

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik

River below Kijik

Lake

Kijik River

above

Little Kijik

River

Kijik River

2.5 km

above

mouth

 Mougeotia sp. 1 -- -- 1

 Zygnema sp. -- 1 1 --

CHRYSOPHYTA (diatoms)

 Achnanthaceae

 Achnanthes kriegeri Krasske 1 -- -- 1

 Achnanthes minutissima var. jackii (Rabhenhost) Lange-Bertalot et Ruppel 1 1 1 1

 Achnanthes nodosa Cleve 1 1 -- --

 Achnanthidium altergracillima (Lange-Bertalot) Round et Bukhtiyarova -- -- 1 --

 Achnanthidium kranzii (Lange-Bertalot) Round et Bukhtiyarova 1 -- -- --

 Achnanthidium minutissimum (Ktzing) Czarnecki 1 1 -- --

 Cocconeis placentula var. lineata (Ehrenberg) Van Heurck -- -- -- 1

 Eucocconeis flexella (Kützing) Cleve 1 -- 1 1

 Eucocconeis laevis (Ostrup) Lange-Bertalot 1 -- -- 1

 Planothidium frequentissimum (Lange-Bertalot) Lange-Bertalot -- 1 -- --

 Planothidium lanceolatum 1 1 -- --

 Psammothidium grischunum fo. daonensis (Lange-Bertalot ex Lange-Bertalotet 

Krammer) Bukhtiyarova et Round

-- 1 -- --

 Psammothidium helveticum (Hustedt) Bukhtiyarova et Round 1 1 -- --

 Psammothidium lacus-vulcani (Lange-Bertalot et Krammer) Bukhtiyarova et Round -- 1 -- --

 Psammothidium subatomoides (Hustedt) Bukhtiyarova et Round -- 1 -- --

 Psammothidium ventralis (Krasske) Bukhtiyarova et Round 1 -- -- --

 Rossithidium petersennii (Hustedt) Round et Bukhtiyarova 1 1 -- 1

 Rossithidium pusillum (Grunow) Round et Bukhtiyarova -- 1 -- --

 Diatomaceae

 Diatoma mesodon (Ehrenberg) Kützing 1 -- -- --

 Diatoma tenuis Agardh 1 -- 1 1

 Fragilaria capucina DesmaziŠres -- 1 1 --

 Fragilaria capucina var. mesolepta Rabenhorst -- 1 -- --

 Fragilaria capucina var. rumpens (Kützing) Lange-Bertalot 1 1 1 1

 Fragilaria nanana Lange-Bertalot 1 -- -- --

 Fragilaria sp. 8 NAWQA EAM 1 1 -- --

 Fragilaria tenera (Smith) Lange-Bertalot 1 -- -- --

 Fragilaria vaucheriae (Kützing) Petersen 1 1 1 1

 Fragilariforma bicapitata (Mayer) Round et Williams 1 -- -- --

 Fragilariforma sp. 1 NAWQA EAM 1 -- -- --

 Hannaea arcus (Ehrenberg) Patrick 1 -- 1 1

 Meridion circulare (Greville) Agardh 1 -- -- --

 Meridion circulare var. constrictum (Ralfs) Van Heurck 1 -- -- --

 Opephora martyi H‚ribaud -- 1 -- --

44	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Table 1. Algal taxa present in qualitative-multi-habitat samples collected at four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.—Continued

[1, species present; --, species not present]

Taxonomy

Little

Kijik River

above

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik

River below Kijik

Lake

Kijik River

above

Little Kijik

River

Kijik River

2.5 km

above

mouth

 Pseudostaurosira pseudoconstruens (Marciniak) Williams et Round -- 1 -- --

 Pseudostaurosira robusta (Fusey) Williams et Round -- 1 -- --

 Pseudostaurosira sp. 2 NAWQA EAM -- 1 -- --

 Stauroforma exiguiformis Flower, Jones et Round 1 -- -- --

 Staurosira construens (Ehrenberg) Williams et Round -- -- 1 --

 Staurosira construens var. binodis (Ehrenberg) Hamilton -- 1 1 --

 Staurosira construens var. venter (Ehrenberg) Hamilton -- 1 -- --

 Staurosira elliptica (Schumann) Williams et Round 1 1 -- --

 Staurosirella lapponica (Grunow) Williams et Round -- 1 -- --

 Staurosirella leptostauron var. rhomboides (Grunow) Bukhtiyarova -- 1 -- --

 Staurosirella pinnata (Ehrenberg) Williams et Round 1 1 1 1

 Staurosirella sp. 7 NAWQA EAM -- 1 -- --

 Synedra amphicephala var. austriaca (Grunow) Hustedt -- 1 1 1

 Synedra delicatissima Smith -- 1 1 1

 Synedra delicatissima var. angustissima Grunow -- 1 -- --

 Synedra ulna (Nitzsch) Ehrenberg 1 -- 1 1

 Tabellaria fenestrata (Lyngbye) Kützing 1 -- -- --

 Tabellaria flocculosa (Roth) Kützing 1 1 1 1

 Eunotiaceae

 Eunotia flexuosa Br‚bisson ex Kützing 1 -- -- --

 Eunotia minor (Kützing) Grunow 1 -- -- --

 Eunotia paludosa Grunow 1 -- -- --

 Naviculaceae

 Amphora pediculus (Kützing) Grunow -- 1 1 --

 Amphora sp. 6 NAWQA EAM -- 1 1 --

 Brachysira microcephala (Grunow) CompŠre 1 1 1 1

 Caloneis bacillum (Grunow) Cleve -- 1 -- --

 Caloneis silicula (Ehrenberg) Cleve 1 -- -- --

 Cavinula pseudoscutiformis (Grunow ex Schmidt) Mann et Stickle -- 1 -- --

 Cymbella cistula (Ehrenberg) Kirchner -- 1 -- --

 Cymbella delicatula Kützing -- 1 1 --

 Cymbella dorsenotata Oestrup -- -- -- 1

 Cymbella hilliardii Manguin -- 1 -- --

 Cymbella latens Krasske 1 -- -- --

 Cymbella mesiana Cholnoky 1 -- 1 --

 Cymbella naviculiformis Auerswald ex H‚ribaud 1 -- -- --

 Cymbella stauroneiformis Lagerstedt 1 -- -- --

 Diadesmis confervacea Kützing -- -- 1 --

 Diadesmis contenta (Grunow ex Van Heurck) Mann 1 -- -- --

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 45
Table 1. Algal taxa present in qualitative-multi-habitat samples collected at four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.—Continued

[1, species present; --, species not present]

Taxonomy

Little

Kijik River

above

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik

River below Kijik

Lake

Kijik River

above

Little Kijik

River

Kijik River

2.5 km

above

mouth

 Didymosphenia geminata (Lyngbye) Schmidt -- -- 1 --

 Diploneis parma Cleve -- 1 -- --

 Encyonema minutum (Hilse) Mann 1 1 1 1

 Encyonema reichardtii (Krammer) Mann 1 -- -- --

 Encyonema silesiacum (Bleisch) Mann 1 1 1 --

 Encyonema triangulum (Ehrenberg) Kützing -- 1 -- --

 Encyonopsis aff. cesatii EAM (Rabenhorst) Krammer 1 1 1 1

 Encyonopsis cesatii (Rabenhorst) Krammer -- 1 -- --

 Encyonopsis descripta (Hustedt) Krammer -- 1 -- --

 Encyonopsis microcephala (Grunow) Krammer -- 1 1 --

 Encyonopsis sp. 1 NAWQA EAM -- 1 1 --

 Frustulia saxonica Rabenhorst -- 1 -- --

 Gomphonema angustatum (Kützing) Rabenhorst 1 1 -- 1

 Gomphonema micropus Kützing 1 -- -- --

 Gomphonema olivaceum (Lyngbye) Kützing -- -- 1 1

 Gomphonema sarcophagus Gregory 1 -- -- --

 Navicula cf. kriegerii NAWQA KM Krasske -- -- -- 1

 Navicula cryptocephala Kützing 1 -- -- --

 Navicula cryptotenella Lange-Bertalot ex Krammer et Lange-Bertalot -- 1 -- 1

 Navicula indifferens Hustedt -- 1 -- --

 Navicula sp. 44 NAWQA EAM -- 1 -- --

 Navicula vulpina Kützing -- 1 -- --

 Reimeria sinuata (Gregory) Kociolek et Stoermer 1 -- -- 1

 Sellaphora pupula (Kützing) Meresckowsky -- 1 -- --

 Sellaphora seminulum (Grunow) Mann -- 1 -- --

 Stauroneis anceps Ehrenberg 1 -- -- --

 Nitzschiaceae

 Denticula kuetzingii Grunow -- 1 -- --

 Denticula tenuis Kützing -- 1 1 1

 Nitzschia angustata (Smith) Grunow -- 1 -- --

 Nitzschia frustulum (Kützing) Grunow -- 1 1 --

 Nitzschia linearis (Agardh ex Smith) Smith 1 -- -- --

 Nitzschia palea (Kützing) Smith -- -- -- 1

 Nitzschia solita Hustedt 1 -- -- --

 Thalassiosiraceae

 Aulacoseira crenulata (Ehrenberg) Thwaites 1 -- -- --

 Aulacoseira granulata (Ehrenberg) Simonsen 1 -- -- --

 Cyclotella ocellata Pantocsek -- -- 1 --

 Cyclotella stelligera (Cleve et Grunow) Van Heurck -- -- 1 1

4	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
LINKAGE DISTANCE

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake

Kijik River 2.5 km above mouth

Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake 

Kijik River above Little Kijik River

5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0

Figure	1.	 Dendrogram.from.the.results.of.cluster.analysis.on.the.presence.or.absence.of.algae.found.

at.the.four.Kijik.river.sites.

green algae species (table 19). Two species were unique to the 

Kijik River when compared to the Little Kijik River.

Samples from the 2 Little Kijik River sites yielded 110 

algae species. The 2 sites shared 6 unique species, 96 diatoms, 

7 green algae, and 7 blue-green algae. The diversity of the Little Kijik River algae community may be attributed to the fact 

that both sites are downstream of lakes. The upstream site is 

immediately below a very large, old beaver dam lake (mature 

trees were growing out of the dam). The site below that was 

just downstream of Kijik Lake, known to be a very productive 

sockeye salmon spawning area. The proximity of both sites to 

lakes, and thus additional habitat types and potential sources 

for nutrients, increases the probability of the existence of a 

much larger (more taxa) algal community in the Little Kijik 

River. Nutrient enrichment from marine sources (salmon) 

and local inputs (for example, beaver scat and alder trees) are 

likely to contribute favorably, especially when considering the 

importance of the lakes proximal to the Little Kijik River sites 

as temporary nutrient storage units. The lakes (or impoundments, in the case of the beaver dam pond) have the potential 

to contribute significantly to river basin nutrient budgets when 

compared to river or stream sites without lakes nearby, as in 

the case of the Kijik River sites.

A cluster analysis was performed on the presence/

absence (1 or 0, respectively) of algae found at all four sites in 

order to visualize “relatedness” based on which algal species 

were present (fig. 18). The diagram shows the Kijik River 

sites to be very closely related, as they share 18 of the 50 (36 

percent) species found in the 2 Kijik River sites. The shift in 

the linkage distance for the Little Kijik River sites shows less 

similarity to each other as only 17 of 110 (about 15 percent) 

species are shared. Shorter linkage distance between the two 

Little Kijik River sites when compared to the linkage distance 

between Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake and the two Kijik 

River sites suggests that the Little Kijik sites are more closely 

related to each other.

The algal communities were also used to calculate metrics based on percentages and species-, genus-, and familyrichness (table 20). Because of the complex response patterns 

of these metrics, they are most useful for relative comparisons 

to larger datasets, but the values do provide useful baseline 

measures. In addition, a number of indicators of community 

structure and autecology can be used to further explain waterquality conditions where certain species are found (Stephen 

Porter, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., February 

2005).

The Little Kijik River tended to have a higher percentage 

of nitrogen autotrophs, or those taxa that are generally intolerant to organically bound nitrogen; the reverse was true for the 

Kijik River. The downstream sites on both rivers had taxa that 

required elevated concentrations of organically bound nitrogen 

(that is, facultative nitrogen heterotrophs). None of these taxa 

were present in samples collected at upstream sites. Species 

that prefer low nutrient concentrations were more prevalent 

at the two upstream sites, whereas species preferring higher 

nutrient concentrations dominated the two downstream sites. 

Furthermore, none of the species found at any site was known 

to fix nitrogen from atmospheric sources.

Physical	Habitat,	Benthic	Communities,	and	Lake	Zooplankton	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin	 	 4
Table 20. Metrics of algae data collected at four sites in the Kijik River Basin.

Metric

Little Kijik

above

Kijik Lake

Little

Kijik

below

Kijik

Lake

Kijik River

above

Little Kijik

Kijik

River 2.5

km above

mouth

Little

Kijik

River

Averages

Kijik River

Averages

Difference

Percent

Difference

Motile 13 18 11 12 15 11 4 15

NonMotile 87 82 89 88 85 89 4 2

Nitrogen Fixing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Non-Nitrogen Fixing 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0

pHAcidobiontic 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 100

pHAcidophilous 14 6 5 4 10 5 5 34

pHCircumneutral 39 31 42 25 35 34 1 2

pHAlkaliphilous 41 58 37 50 50 43 6 7

pHAlkalibiontic 0 0 5 4 0 5 5 100

pHIndifferent 5 6 11 17 5 14 9 46

SalinityFresh 36 18 22 18 27 20 7 14

SalinityFreshBrackish 59 79 72 68 69 70 1 1

SalinityBrackishFresh 5 3 6 14 4 10 6 44

SalinityBrackish 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

OrgNAutoLow 51 52 38 38 52 38 14 15

OrgNAutoHigh 49 41 54 50 45 52 7 7

OrgNHeteroHighFacultative 0 4 0 6 2 3 1 26

OrgNHeteroHighObligate 0 4 8 6 2 7 5 58

OxyTolAlwaysHigh 59 56 54 50 58 52 6 5

OxyTolFairlyHigh 22 19 8 13 20 10 10 33

OxyTolModerate 19 22 31 38 21 34 14 25

OxyTolLow 0 4 8 0 2 4 2 35

OxyTolVeryLow 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Oligosaprobic 45 37 33 33 41 33 8 10

BetaMesoSaprobic 40 43 40 39 42 39 2 3

AlphaMesoSaprobic 13 13 13 22 13 18 5 16

AlphaMesoPolySaprobic 3 7 7 6 5 6 2 14

PolySaprobic 0 0 7 0 0 3 3 100

Oligotrophic 20 17 27 11 18 19 1 1

Oligomesotrophic 15 7 7 6 11 6 5 28

Mesotrophic 15 17 13 17 16 15 1 3

Mesoeutrophic 10 23 0 22 17 11 6 20

Eutrophic 18 20 27 28 19 27 8 18

Polytrophic 0 0 7 0 0 3 3 100

Eurytrophic 23 17 20 17 20 18 1 3

Moisture_1 20 24 23 35 22 29 7 14

Moisture_2 31 20 23 12 26 17 8 19

Moisture_3 40 56 54 53 48 53 5 5

Moisture_4 9 0 0 0 4 0 4 100

4	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Table 20. Metrics of algae data collected at four sites in the Kijik River Basin.—Continued

Metric

Little Kijik

above

Kijik Lake

Little

Kijik

below

Kijik

Lake

Kijik River

above

Little Kijik

Kijik

River 2.5

km above

mouth

Little

Kijik

River

Averages

Kijik River

Averages

Difference

Percent

Difference

Moisture_5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

BahlsPollClass1 0 4 6 0 2 3 1 27

BahlsPollClass2 33 46 38 37 40 37 3 4

BahlsPollClass3 67 50 56 63 58 60 1 1

BenthicSpp 86 96 92 91 91 91 0 0

SestonicSpp 14 4 8 9 9 9 0 3

Counts of values

Percent Family Richness 14 9 8 10 12 9 3 12

Percent Genus Richness 38 31 23 27 35 25 10 16

Percent Species Richness 62 65 30 38 64 34 30 30

Many species of diatoms have a preferred range of 

stream pH. Although all sites had diatoms with preference 

for slightly acidic conditions and diatoms with preference for 

slightly alkaline conditions, upstream sites showed a general 

preference for acidic conditions and downstream sites for 

alkaline conditions (table 20). Overall, the greatest percentage 

of diatoms known to exhibit a particular pH preference at all 

sites were the alkaliphilous species. Diatom species that prefer 

neutral pH (circumneutral, pH near 7) conditions were found 

in roughly similar higher percentages at both upstream sites 

and similarly lower percentages at the downstream sites. The 

Little Kijik River had 34 percent more diatom species that preferred acidic (acidophilous, pH<7, optimum < 7) waters when 

compared to the Kijik River sites (table 20). Only the upstream 

Little Kijik River site had species requiring only acidic pH 

conditions (acidobiontic, pH <7, optimum < 5.5). The greatest percentage of diatom species preferring more alkaline 

(alkaliphilous, pH >7, occurring ~ 7) conditions was found 

at the downstream site of the Little Kijik River (58 percent). 

Alkalibiontic species, those preferring only alkaline conditions (pH >7), were found only at the two Kijik River sites, the 

upper site making up 5 percent and the lower site yielding 4 

percent, which corresponds well with the pH values collected 

at the sites. Diatom species indifferent to various pH conditions (pH~ 7) were found in greater percentages at the Kijik 

River sites, with the lower site having the greater percentage 

(16 percent) than the upper site (10 percent).

The salinity of water (measured in ppt, or milligrams 

per liter of chloride) may affect the composition of the algal 

community. By conventional definition, the water sampled at 

all four sites is considered fresh (<500 mg/L chloride), as the 

highest chloride measurement was 0.63 mg/L. However, the 

preferences noted for many of the species used in the autecological categories (fresh, fresh-brackish, brackish-fresh, and 

brackish) were those that typically exhibit preferences for 

higher salinity levels. The upstream sites sampled on both 

rivers had the highest percentage of species that are typically 

known to prefer fresh water. The percentage of fresh water 

species declined downstream, with the greatest decline at the 

Kijik River downstream site. The fresh-brackish category 

comprised the greatest percentage of species, including 79 

percent of the community at the downstream Little Kijik site. 

Given the paucity of data on autecology of algae species of 

far northern climates, the sensitivity of this metric may be too 

coarse and requires further analysis.

Motile taxa are those algae that are capable of movement 

either in the water column or on various types of submerged 

surfaces. The ability of an organism to move, especially in 

depositional environments, can be advantageous as it has a 

better chance of remaining on the surface where light availability is high. Typically, a community with a high proportion 

of motile species may be indicative of high sedimentation 

rates. Sites sampled on the Kijik and Little Kijik Rivers had 

fewer than 20 percent of the community composed of motile 

species. The subtle difference between the Kijik and Little 

Kijik River sites may be attributed to the lower velocities measured in the Little Kijik River.

Summary

The Kijik River Basin, located in Lake Clark National 

Park and Preserve, drains an area of about 777 km2 and supports a strong sockeye salmon fishery. Due to the concern 

about the decline in the number of sockeye salmon, the river 

and lake system were studied from 2004-2005. Major findings 

are:

Summary	 	 4
Water samples from all sites indicate that the water 

type is similar throughout the basin—a calcium 

bicarbonate type—although Little Kijik River above 

Kijik Lake has slightly higher concentrations of sulfate 

and chloride. Concentrations of nutrients, major ions, 

dissolved organic carbon, and chlorophyll-a were 

generally low at all sites. Concentrations of DOC were 

higher in the June samples than at other times of the 

year due to spring runoff carrying more organic material into the surface water bodies. Suspended sediment 

concentrations were also low, indicating that most 

suspended sediment is trapped by Lachbuna and Kijik 

Lakes.

Water temperature data collected at the four stream 

water sites all show diurnal variations throughout the 

summer. Water temperatures were as high as 20°C, 

reflecting the warm summer air temperatures in 2004. 

However, water temperatures of the Little Kijik River 

above Kijik Lake only reached a high of 6.5°C, reflecting the spring-fed nature of this inflow stream to Kijik 

Lake.

Depth profiles of Lachbuna and Kijik Lakes show differences between the two lakes. Secchi-disc transparencies were between 1 and 2 m at the glacier-fed 

Lachbuna Lake whereas at Kijik Lake secchi-disc 

transparencies were between 11 and 15 m. Water temperature profiles indicate complete mixing of Lachbuna Lake whereas stratification occurs in Kijik Lake 

which remains isothermal below 30 m.

Streambed sediments collected from four stream sites 

were analyzed for trace elements. When compared to 

different guidelines, concentrations of arsenic at all 

sites were above the PEL and one concentration was 

above the PEL for chromium. When normalized for the 

percent organic carbon (to account for the bioavailability of these trace elements), concentrations of arsenic 

and chromium in the Kijik River above Little Kijik 

River were above the probable effect concentration.

Benthic macroinvertebrate QMH samples were collected from two sites on the Little Kijik River and 

two sites on the main stem of the Kijik River. A total 

of 69 taxa were found among the 4 sites. The class 

Insecta made up the largest percentage of macroinvertebrates, totaling 70 percent of the families found. The 

insects were comprised of four orders; Diptera (flies 

and midges), Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera 

(stoneflies), and Trichoptera (caddisflies). The Little 

Kijik River basin sites were richer taxonomically; 49 

more taxa than the sites within the Kijik River basin 

which had a total of 36 taxa. The Little Kijik River 

sites differed from the Kijik River sites primarily by 

the number of non-insectan taxa and the number of 

midges. The Little Kijik River sites were inhabited 

•

•

•

•

•

by 9 non-insectans and 22 midges, whereas the Kijik 

River sites had 3 non-insectans and 11 midges. Thirty 

taxa were collected in the Little Kijik River basin that 

were not found in the Kijik basin.

Periphytic algae QMH samples also were collected at 

the four surface sites. One hundred twenty-two algal 

taxa were found among the four sites. The Little Kijik 

River basin was represented by 110 algal taxa, whereas 

the Kijik River basin had only 50 taxa. As with the 

macroinvertebrates, proximity to lakes appears to be 

the most readily apparent factor contributing to the 

greater taxa richness for the Little Kijik basin. Eight 

taxa, all diatoms, were identified in samples from all 

four sites. These eight taxa are all non-motile, suggesting that the areas from which they were collected are 

relatively stable. Diatoms at both sites were, by far, the 

most dominant class of algae, followed by green and 

blue-green algae.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Dan Young and Leon Alsworth 

of Lake Clark National Park and Preserve for their assistance 

in data collection efforts in 2004 and 2005. Thanks also to 

Lake Clark National Park and Preserve in providing housing 

for USGS personnel in 2004. John Edmundson of the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game, Soldotna, Alaska, analyzed the 

zooplankton samples from Kijik and Lachbuna Lakes at no 

cost to the project.

References Cited

Aiken, G.R., and Cotsaris, E., 1995, Soil and Hydrology—

their effect on NOM: American Water Works Association, 

January, p. 26-45.

Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA), 

1980, 16 U.S.C. 3101 et seq. (1988), Dec. 2, 1980, Stat. 

2371, Pub. L. 96-487.

Arbogast, B.F., ed., 1990, Quality assurance manual for the 

Branch of Geochemistry, U.S. Geological Survey: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 90-668, 184 p.

Brabets, T.P., 2002, Water quality of the Tlikakila River and 

five major tributaries to Lake Clark, Lake Clark National 

Park and Preserve, Alaska, 1999-2001: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4127, 29 p.

•

50	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin
Brabets, T.P., and Riehle, J.R., 2003, Geochemistry of the 

Johnson River, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, 

Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 03-4252, 32 p.

Brabets, T.P., March, R.S., and Trabant, D.C., 2004, Glacial 

history and runoff components of the Tlikakila River Basin, 

Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5057, 

24 p.

Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 1999, 

Canadian sediment quality guidelines for the protection of 

aquatic life-Summary tables, in Canadian Environmental 

Quality Guidelines, 1999: Winnipeg, Canadian Council of 

Ministers of the Environment.

Cuffney, T.F., Gurtz, M.E., and Meador, M.R., 1993, Methods 

for collecting benthic invertebrate samples as part of the 

National Water-Quality Assessment Program: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 93-406, 66 p.

Cuffney, T.F., 2003, User’s manual for the National WaterQuality Assessment Program Invertebrate Data Analysis 

System (IDAS) Software: Version 3: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2003-172, 114 p.

Deacon, J.R., and Stephens, V.C., 1998, Trace elements in 

streambed sediment and fish liver at selected sites in the 

Upper Colorado River Basin, Colorado, 1995-96: U.S. 

Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 

98-4124, 19 p.

Decho, A.W., and Luoma, S.N., 1994, Humic and fulvic 

acids—sink or source in the availability of metals to the 

marine bivalves Macoma balthica and Potamocorbula amurensis: Marine Ecology Progress Series, v. 108, p. 133-145.

Edwards, T.K., and Glysson, G.D., 1988, Field methods for 

measurement of fluvial sediment: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 86-531, 118 p.

Fishman, M.J., ed., 1993, Methods of analysis by the U.S. 

Geological Survey National Water-Quality Laboratory; 

Determination of inorganic and organic constituents in 

water and fluvial sediments: U.S. Geological Open-File 

Report 93-125, 217 p.

Fishman, M.J., and Friedman, L.C., eds, 1989, Methods for 

determination of inorganic substances in water and fluvial 

sediments: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of WaterResources Investigations, Book 5, Chap. A1, 545 p.

Fitzpatrick, F.A., Waite, I.R., D’Arconte, P.J., Meador, M.R., 

Maupin, M.A., and Gurtz, M.E., 1998, Revised methods for 

characterizing stream habitat in the National Water-Quality Assessment Program: U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 98-4052, 67 p.

Gaudy, A.F., and Gaudy, E.T., 1988, Elements of bioenvironmental engineering: San Jose, Engineering Press, Inc. 592 p.

Gibbs, R., 1973, Mechanisms of trace metal transport in rivers: 

Science, v. 180, p. 71-73.

Hem, J.D., 1985, Study and interpretation of the chemical 

characteristics of natural water: U.S. Geological Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 2254, 264 p.

Horne, A.J., and Goldman, C.R., 1994, Limnology: New York, 

McGraw-Hill, Inc., 576 p.

Horowitz, A.J., 1991, A primer on sediment-trace element 

chemistry (2nd ed.): Chelsea, MI, Lewis Publishers, 136 p.

Kyle, R.E., and Brabets, T.P., 2001, Water temperature of 

streams in the Cook Inlet Basin, Alaska, and implications of 

climate change: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 01-4109, 24 p.

Lloyd, D.S., Koenings, J.P., and LaPerriere, J.D., 1987, Effects 

of turbidity in fresh waters of Alaska: North American Journal of Fisheries Management, Vol. 7, p. 18-33.

MacDonald, D.D., Ingersoll, C.G., and Berger, T.A., 2000, 

Development and evaluation of consensus-based sediment 

quality guidelines for freshwater ecosystems: Archives 

of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, v. 39, 

p. 20-31.

MacLean, R., Oswood, M.W., Irons, J.G., McDowell, W.H., 

1999, The effect of permafrost on stream biogeochemistry: 

A case study of two streams in the Alaskan (U.S.A.) taiga: 

Biogeochemistry, v. 47, issue 3, p. 239-267.

Moulton, S.R., II, Carter, J.L., Grotheer, S.A., Cuffney, T.F., 

and Short, T.M., 2000, Methods of analysis by the U.S. 

Geological Survey National Water Quality Laboratory; 

Processing, taxonomy, and quality control of benthic macroinvertebrate samples: U.S. Geological Open-File Report 

2000-212, 49 p.

Newman, M.C., and Jagoe, C.H., 1994, Ligands and the 

bioavailability of metals in aquatic environments, in J.L. 

Hamelink, P.F. Landrum, H.L. Bergman, and W.H. Benson, 

eds., Bioavailability-physical, chemical, and biological 

interactions: Boca Raton, FL, Lewis Publishers/CRC Press, 

p. 39-61.

Patton, C.J., and Truitt, E.P., 1992, Methods of analysis by the 

U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Laboratory; 

determination of total phosphorus by a Kjeldahl digestion 

method and an automated colorimetric finish that includes 

dialysis: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 92-146, 

39 p.

References	Cited	 	 51
Porter, S.D., Cuffney, T.F., Gurtz, M.E., and Meador, M.R., 

1993, Methods for collecting algal samples as part of the 

National Water-Quality Assessment Program: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 93-409, 39 p.

R&M Consultants, Inc., 1981, Water quality annual report 

1981, Alaska Power Authority Susitna Hydroelectric Project, task 3-Hydrology: Anchorage, 152 p.

Rantz, S.E., and others, 1982, Measurement and computation 

of streamflow: Volume 1, Measurement of stage and discharge: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2175, 

631 p.

Shelton, L.R., 1994, Field guide for collecting and processing stream-water samples for the National Water-Quality 

Assessment Program: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 94-455, 42 p.

Shelton, L.R., and Capel, P.D., 1994, Guidelines for collecting 

and processing samples of stream bed for analysis of trace 

elements and organic contaminants for the National WaterQuality Assessment Program: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 94-458, 20 p.

Spacie, A., and Hamelink, J.L., 1985, Bioaccumulation, chapter 17 in Fundamentals of aquatic toxicology: New York, 

Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, p. 495-525.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976, Quality criteria 

for water: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 256 p.

Van Derveer, W.D., and Canton, S., 1997, Selenium sediment 

toxicity thresholds and derivation of water quality criteria 

for freshwater biota of western streams: Environmental 

Toxicology and Chemistry, v. 16, p. 1260-1268.

Wilkens, A.X., 2002, The limnology of Lake Clark, Alaska: 

University of Alaska, Fairbainks, Master’s Thesis, 63 p.

Winner, R.W., 1985, Bioaccumulation and toxicity of copper 

as affected by interactions between humic acid and water 

hardness: Water Resources Research, v. 19, no. 4, p. 449-

455. 

52	 	 Water	Quality,	Physical	Habitat,	and	Biology	of	the	Kijik	River	Basin