REFER.EPJC.E COPY 

Do Not Remove from the Librar,. 

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Serv;:~ 

FWSIOBS-82111.2 

February 1983 700 Cajun Dome BOLI le\;a rd 

Lafayette, Louisiana 70506 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and 

Environmental Requirements (Gulf of Mexico) 

GULF MENHADEN 

Waterways Experiment Station 

Fish and Wildlife Service Coastal ~n~ineerin~ Research Center 

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 
FWS/OBS-82111.2 

TR EL-82-4 

February 1983 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and 

Environmental Requirements (Gul f of Mexico) 

GULF MENHADEN 

Dennis R. Lassuy 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Slidell, LA 70458 

Project Manager 

Larry Shanks 

Project Officer 

Norman Benson 

National Coastal Ecosys terns Team 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Sl i dell , LA 70458 

This study was conducted 

in cooperation with 

U. S. Ar~~iy Corps of Engineers 

Waterways Experiment Station and 

Coastal Engineering Research Center 

Performed for 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

Division of Biological Services 

Fish and Wild1 ife Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Washington, DC 20240 
PREFACE 

This szries of prof iles about coastal aquatic snecies of commercial , sport, and/or ecoloqical siqni ficance is being ;ioititl\l Ievel oped and funded hy 

thc 1J.S. Amy C~rps of Engineers and the U.S. Fish and llildlife Service. It 

is desiqneil t3 provide coastal rianagers, engineers, and fie1 d hi~l oqi 5ts wi th 

an irltroduction to the subject species and a synopsis of the infor~ation 

necessary to re1 ate expected chanqes (associated wi th coastal rjevel opnent) in 

the nhysicochemical characteristics of estuaries to changes in thcsc selected 

biological populations. Each profile includes brief sections on taxonomy and 

identification fol lowed by a narrative of 1 i fe hi story, environ~lental requirements, ecoloqical role, and (where applicable) the fishery of the sabject 

species. A three-ring binder is used for this series to fac-il itat+e additions 

as new profiles are prepared. 

Suggestions or qi~estions regarrling this report should he directed to: 

Information Transfer Specialist 

National Coastal Ecosys terns Tear7 

IJ.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

IIASA-Sl idel 1 Comprl ter Conpl ex 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Slidell, LA 70458 

U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station 

Attention: bJESES 

Post Office Box 531 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 

U.S. 9rm.y Coastal Frlgi fleering Resoarch Center 

Ki ngrnan F,u i 1 rl i ng 

Fort Be1 voir, VA 22060 

This series stio~lld be referenced as f3lloirs: 

1J.S. Fish an3 Wil dl i fe Service. 1383. Ypecies nrofiles: 1 ifc histories arld 

envirorlrlental requircrnents. U.S. Fish and Wil d l i f e Service, Division 

of Biological Services, FWS/OBS-82/11. U. S. Anmy Corps of Engineers, TQ 

EL- 92-4. 

This profile shoul rl he ci tell as fol lows : 

iassu.~, D. R. 1383. Species prof ilcs : 1 i fe iii starics doc! enviro~~iental 

req11 i rer~er~ts (Gul f ~f Mexico) -- Gul f menhaden. 1J.S. Fish an.1 

Mil dl if? Service, Division of Biological Services, FWS/OBS-82/11.2. lJ.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 10 nr,. 
Figure 1. Gulf menhaden. 

GULF MENHADEN 

Scientific name . . Brevoortia patronus 

Goode 

Preferred common name. . Gulf menhaden 

(Figure 1) 

Other common names . . . Pogy, sardine, 

large-scale menhaden 

Class . . . . . . . . . . 0s teichthyes 

Order . . . . . . . . . . Cl upei formes 

Family . . . . . . . . . . . Cl upeidae 

Geographic range: Nearshore marine and 

estuarine waters from Cape Sable, 

Florida, to Veracruz, Mexico, with 

centers of abundance off Louisiana 

and Mississippi (Figure 2). 

36-50; Gr. 40-150. Scales large, in 

irregular rows ; opercular striae long 

and distinct; predorsal scales enlarged 

as in other menhaden. 

Color in life: Body silvery, 

greenish on back, with dark humeral 

spot and usually a series of smaller 

spots behind humeral one; caudal fin 

with dark margin; other fins often 

ye1 lowish. Suttkus (1956) described 

the morphological changes during the 

transformation from larvae to juveniles 

in Gulf menhaden. 

1 Largely extracted from Walls (1975) 

and Hoese and Moore (1977). See these 

references for explanations of abbreviations and measurements. 

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES 

Gulf menhaden support the 1 argest 

single fishery (by weight) in the 

United States, and their young are prey 

to many other species of sport or commercial importance. The maintenance of 

large parcels of surrounding marsh and 

of i nfl owi ng freshwater tributary systems is considered necessary to the 

maintenance of an environment capable 

of supporting menhaden populations in 

estuaries. 

LIFE HISTORY 

Spawni ng 

The actual spawning event in Gulf 

menhaden has not been observed. Statements regarding the site and time of 

spawning are therefore based upon the 

capture of eggs, larvae, or spent 

adults. Spawning is reported to occur 

in open Gulf of Mexico waters from 2 to 

128 m (6 to 420 ft) deep (Roi thmayr and 

Waller 1963; Etzold and Christmas 1979) 

up to 96 km (60 mi), but is apparently 

concentrated in waters of less than 

18 m or 60 ft(Christmas and Waller 

1975). Spawning has been reported from 

October through March (Turner 1969; 

Fore 1970), but is suspected to occur, 

at least in some years, from September 

through May (Etzold and Christmas 

1979). Gulf menhaden may spawn up to 

four or five times during a single 

spawning season, each time releasing 

only that fraction of the developing 

ova which has matured (Combs 1969). 

Separate spawning peaks in late October 

and March have been suggested (Baldauf 

1954; Tagatz and Wilkens 1973), but 

definitive data are lacking. 

Eggs and Fecundity 

Eggs of the Gulf menhaden are 

spherical and float near the surface. 

P.1 though data on hatchirrg in the Gulf 

menhaden were not found, the eggs of 

Atlantic menhaden (B. tyrannus) are reported to hatch wifiin 2 days (at 15°C 

or 5g°F), wit.h yo1 k sac absorption completed within 5 days (Reintjes and 

Pacheco 1966). Fecundi ty-at-age data 

for the Gulf menhaden are given in 

Table 1. Lewis and Roithmayr (1981) 

gave the following equations for the 

estimation of fecundity : 

In F = 9.971 + 0.366 (A) 

In F = -9.872 + 3.878 (In L) 

F = 12,064.3 + 374.9 (W) 

where: F = fecundity 

A = age (yr) 

L = fork length (mm) 

W = wet weight (9) 

Table 1. Fecundi ty-at-age for Gulf menhaden. 

Age-cl ass E&C~ L&R~ 

a~tzold and Christmas (1979). 

b~ewis and Roi thmayr (1981). CBased on a single specimen. 
Larvae and Postl arvae 

Larvae may spend 3 to 5 weeks in 

offshore waters before moving through 

the passes into the estuaries at 9 to 

25 mm SL~ (Reintjes 1970; Etzold and 

Christmas 1979). The reported timing 

of this movement extends from September 

(Dunham 1972) through May (Fore and 

Baxter 1972) with a peak from December 

through March (Suttkus 1956; Etzold and 

Christmas 1979). It is uncertain to 

what extent the movement into the estuaries is an active or passive process. 

Christmas (1981) stated that larval 

menhaden "require favorable currents to 

make their way into the estuary." Fore 

and Baxter (1972) believed that larval 

movement was related to water movement, 

but clearly suggested an active role. 

They stated that larvae avoid being 

swept out of the estuary in tidal currents by moving to slower current areas 

near shore either by swimming, finding 

favorable currents or both. No indication was given in their study of the 

current velocities which 1 arvae were 

capable of withstanding. However, 

Wilkens and Lewis (1971) stated in 

their study of the At1 antic menhaden 

that 10- to 30-mm TL larvae "seemed 

able to maintain their position at 

velocities less than 10 cm/sec. Above 

this velocity they were carried by the 

current." Lewis and Mann (1971) presented some general comments on the effects of estuarine current patterns on 

the distribution, abundance, and condition of Atlantic menhaden larvae. No 

similar assessment for the Gulf nenhaden or of the effects of current patterns on year-class strength for either 

species was found in the literature. 

Postl arvae have been reported in 

the estuaries from November through 

June (Holcomb 1970) where they then 

disperse to shall ow (0 to 2 m or 0 to 

6.6 ft), quiet, low salinity areas near 

shore (Fore and Baxter 1972). In the 

estuary, transforma tion from post1 arval 

2 25.4 mm = 1 inch. 

to juvenile morphology occurs as the 

menhaden reach 30 to 33 mm TL (Tagatz 

and Wil kens 1973). 

Juveniles 

After transformation, juveniles 

remain in these low salinity, nearshore 

areas where they travel about in dense 

schools, often near the surface. This 

schooling behavior is retained throughout 1 ife. The morphol ogical changes 

associated with transformation are a1 so 

accompanied by a change in feeding 

behavior from selective, particulatefeeding carnivory to fil ter-feedi ng 

omnivory (see Ecological Role section). T 

The reported duration of the Gulf 

menhaden's juvenile stage and their 

stay in the estuary is variable. Combs 

(1969) stated that menhaden in the 0 

age-cl ass "are incapable of completing 

gametogenesis prior to the onset of the 

ensuing spawning season . . . [and] do 

not participate in the annual migration 

to the spawning grounds in the offshore 

waters. " Lewis and Roi thmayr (1981) 

found no maturing ova in fish of less 

than 100 mrn FL (fork length) and suggested that spawning first occurred at 

the end of the second year as age I 

fish. They did, however, report that 

young-of-the-year migrate from the estuaries to offshore waters. Etzold and 

Christmas (1979) stated that "menhaden 

migrate to offshore Gulf waters when 

they are about one year old (100 mm FL) 

to spawn," while Kroger and Pristas 

(1974) suspected that "many juveniles 

did not enter the fisheries as 1-year 

old fish . . . [but] may have remained 

in the estuary. " Apparently, the largest of the young-of-the-year (0 ageclass), which were probably spawned 

early in the previous spawning season, 

may develop mature gonads and emigrate 

to the gulf to spawn along with all 

older year-classes. It remains unclear 

to what extent other members of the 0 
age-class make this migration or remain 

within the estuary. 

!ligration and Adults 

Emigration of adults and maturing 

juveniles from estuarine to open gulf 

waters has been reported to occur over 

a wide time span from midsummer 

through winter. Gul f menhaden were 

reported to have begun emigratiny from 

Tampa Bay, Florida, in June or July 

(Springer and Woodburn 1960, cited by 

Gunter and Christmas 1960), from Lake 

Pontchartrain, Louisiana, in August 

(Suttkus 1956), and fror.1 Pensacola Bay, 

Florida, by Seotember (Tagatz and Wilkens 1973). Peak gulfward migration 

apparently occurs from October through 

January. Movement back into inshore 

waters by surviving members of all age 

groups foll owi ng an overwi nteri ng and/ 

or spawning season in open gulf waters 

occurs early the foll owing spring, 

i .e., March to April (Christmas 1981; 

Lewis and Roithmayr 1981). The redistribution of returning fish is thought 

to be "by random movement, probably in 

search of high food concentrations" 

(Christmas 1981), with the net result 

being a movement back into the foodrich waters of the estuaries. As Gulf 

menhaden 1 ive to age-I11 (rarely IV), 

this cycle may he repeated some two to 

four times by an individual fish. The 

described pattern of inshore-offshore 

migration is the "nor;nalU pattern, hut 

juveniles and adults have hoth Peen 

taken in inshore areas in all months 

(Swing1 e 1?71; Christmas and blaller 

1973). 

GROWTH CHARACTER1 ST ICS 

A synopis of age-length and ageweight data from ports throughout the 

Gulf of Mexico (Nicholson 1978) is 

presented in Tahle 2. The following 

equation for the 1 ength-weight re1 ationship was rlerived frorn data presented in F.1icholson's Table 7: 

where: W = round (1 ive) weight (g) 

L = fork length (cm) 

Springer and Woodburn (1960) compared growth information from Louisiana 

and Florida. They stated that in both 

areas there was "a sudden burst of 

growth after !4ay," but that the growth 

rate in Florida seemed somewhat. 

slower. Combs (1969) detailed the 

development of ovaries, and Suttkus 

(1956) described the sequence of morphol ogical changes at transformation 

in Gulf menhaden. 

Table 2. Fork length (mm) and round (live) weight (Q) by age of 

Gulf menhaden in samples of the catch from ports throughout the 

Gul f of Mexico, 1964-73 (Michol son 1378). 

Length Weight 

Age Range Flean Ranqe Mean 
THE FISHERY 

The purse seine fishery for Gulf 

menhaden dates back to the turn of the 

century, but only developed into a 

major industry after 'rlorld Liar 11. The 

fishery for this single species today 

provides over one-quarter of the Mation's commercial fishery landings by 

weight.3 In 1979 this fishery ranked 

first in tonnage landed (779,390 mtlive wt) and seventh in value 

($73,426,000, exvessel price) among 

commercial ly fished species in the 

United States (National Marine Fisheries Service [NMFS] 1981). Fishneal and 

oil produced from ~nenhaden are in high 

deliand for poul try feed, cosmetics, and 

margarine (Ni chol son 1978). Young menhaden are sometimes used for bait by 

Flississippi fishermen. 

The Gulf menhaden is a short-lived 

species, with age I and I1 fish constituting the majority of the commercial 

catch (Table 3). Fish as old as Age IV 

are also occasionally taken (Lewis and 

Roithmayr 1931). An overlap in predation upon the young menhaden by both 

3 1979 estimate. 

man arid several species of sport fish 

(see Ecological Role section), 1 ed 

Gowenlach (1965) to comment that there 

"is considerable speculation that mcnhaden are being overfished to the 

detriment of the sport fishery." Since 

this statement was rnade in 1365, the 

comerci a1 rrenhaden catch has increased 

considerably while, for at least two 

menhaden predators, the s~otted seatrout (Yerriner 1980) and red drum 

(F1atlock 1080), no clear evidence of a 

decreasing sport catch has been shown. 

No ztudies, however, of trends in abundance of the entire predator assemblage 

were found. As the menhaden fishery is 

a very "clean" fishery, there i s l i t t l e 

direct destructiori of other species as - 

discarded by-catch (Etzol d and Christmas 1979). 

Fisheries activities extend primarily from 1.6 to 4.8 kr! ( 1 t o 3 mi) 

offshore from Florida to eastern Texas 

(Lewis and Roithnayr 1981) and are 

therefore subject to State rather than 

Federal regulation. The season runs 

from mid-April to October when the fish 

are inshore and sexually inactive. 

E t z o l d and Christmas (1979) zoncl uded 

that Gulf menhaden from Florida to the 

Yucatan constituted a single, widespread stock. However, the results of 

tagging studies by Kroger and Pristas 

Table 3. Mean percent contribution, in numbers and weight, by age to the 

com~iercial Gulf menhaden fishery from 1964-1973 (adapted from Nichol son 1978). 

Age 

Percent of total catch 

Weight Numbers 
(1974) indicated more of a localization 

of populations with 1 i ttle movement between fishing grounds east and west of 

the Mi ssi ssi ppi River Del ta. Kroger 

and Pristas concluded that recruitment 

of age I menhaden "is dependent on the 

number of juveniles produced in estuaries in and adjacent to each fishing 

area." While this association of 

separate stocks with nearby estuarine 

systems now seems to be accepted 

(Christmas 1981), the re1 ative importance of particular coastal sections as 

nursery areas is uncertain (e.g., see 

the varying opinions of Hol comb [I9701 

and Christmas and Waller [I9751 regarding the upper Texas coast). 

Present management of the Gulf 

menhaden fishery depends on the use of 

historic catch and effort data. Perhaps as a result of this management approach, few reports have been publ i shed 

on other types of modeling parameters. 

The only publ i shed estimates of i nstantaneous total (Z), natural (M), and 

fishing (F) mortality found in the literature were those of Ahrenholz (1981). 

His estimates of Z, Fl, and F for Gulf 

menhaden tagged as adults were 2.22, 

1.05, and 1.17, respectively. A Z value 

of 2.22 corresponds to an actual mortal ity rate of 89%. Analysis of the 

data presented by Etzol d and Christmas 

(1979) on the age structure of spawning 

females yields an estimated Z of 3.05, 

1 or an annual mortality of 35% (age II111). Analysis of similar data presented by Lewis and Roithmayr (1981) 

yields a Z value of 1.3, or an annual 

mortality of 73% (age I-IV). 

Chapoton (1971), based on a 

Schaeffer-type analysis of catch and 

effort data from 1946 to 1970, estimated a maximum sustainable yield 

(MSY) for Gulf menhaden of 430,000 mt. 

Schaaf (1975) incorporated additional 

data from tlie 1971 and 1972 seasons 

and re-estimated MSY as 478,000 mt 

with an 80% upper confidence limit of 

520,000 mt. He warned, however, of the 

room for error in the use of catcheffort model s (especial ly without sufficient data on the descending portion 

of the Schaeffer-type curve, as is 

still the case in the Gulf menhaden 

fishery) and of the need to continuously update the model. With the 

exceptions of 1973 and 1977, in all 

years since 1972 the catch has exceeded 

even the upper confidence limit of 

520,000 mt. Schaaf listed what he perceived at that time to be the greatest 

needs of the fishery for proper management as: 

1. Valid information on the age 

structure of the population 

from which we can deduce mortal i ty rates. 

2. An assessment of our measure 

of effort [vessel-ton week] 

to determine if it is proportional to apparent mortal i ty 

and directly influences population abundance. 

3. Valid techniques to quantify 

the strength of i ncomi ng year 

classes upon which quotas can 

he modified. 

Recent doubt has heen expressed as 

to the validity of the vessel-ton week 

as an effective measure of effort (W.R. 

Nichol son, NMFS, Beaufort, F4.C. ; pers. 

comm. 1981). In regard to the third 

point, Nelson et a1 . (1977) and Schaaf 

(1979) have since illustrated the importance of specific identification of 

spawning site and information on current patterns in determining survival 

from ego to recruitment at age I in the 

At1 antic menhaden fishery. Studies 

similar to Nelson et al. (1977) have 

apparently not been done in the gulf. 

ECOLOGICAL ROLE 

Gulf menhaden have two distinct 

feeding stages in their lifetime. Up 
to 30 to 33 mm TL, larvae have a slender body, large mouth and eyes, and 

relatively short gill rakers, and feed 

as selective carnivores on individual 

zooplankters. After transformation 

into juveniles and as adults, the body 

is deeper, gill rakers "elongate and 

branch to form a basket-like seive, I' 

and they feed as omnivorous filterers 

of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and 

organic detritus (Reintjes and Pacheco 

1966). Darnel 1 (1958) reported that 

the guts of adults collected from Lake 

Pontchartrain, Louisiana, contained 93% 

"ground orsanic material and silt." 

Juveniles in this same study were 

reported to have consumed 82% phytoplankton with the rest a mix of zooplankton, detritus , and plant fragments. He concluded that they had been 

straining plankton near the surface of 

the lake during an Anabaena bloom. 

This is consistent with the observation 

of Gunter (1938), who reported "large 

schools feeding near the surface in 

Caminada Bay, Louisiana where they 

whef-led, turned and swerved from side 

to side in perfect unison, all the 

while with mouths agape and lower jaws 

thrust forward. " A1 though several 

species with simi lar feeding habits 

have been suggested to be important 

competitors, particularly the bay 

anchovy (Tagatz and Wi 1 kens 1973), no 

experimental evidence of competition 

was found in the literature. In fact, 

mention by Tasatz and Wilkens (1973) of 

high abundance of both species at the 

same time may be interpreted as evidence to the contrary. 

Heavy predation, particularly upon 

young Gulf menhaden, has been reported 

for severkl commercially and recreational ly important fishes including 

mackerel, bluefish, sharks, white and 

spotted seatrout, longnose gars, and 

red drum (Simmons and Breuer 1964; 

Reintjes 1970; Etzold and Christmas 

1979). They are also preyed upon by 

shorebirds and have been reported to 

constitute as much as 90% to 97% of 

the diet of the brown pelican (Arthur 

1931, cited by Gunter and Christmas 

1960; Palmer 1962). No quantitative 

information on the effects of such 

predation on menhaden population dynanics was found. 

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREVENTS 

Temperature and Salinity 

Gulf menhaden have been taken in 

waters from 5" to 34.g°C (41' to 95OF) 

(Christmas and Waller 1973). Definitive data on thermal optima within this 

range, upper, and particularly on lower 

lethal limits are lacking. Avoidance 

of water temperatures above 30°C (86°F) 

has been reported (Hoss et al. 1971; 

Gallaway and Strawn 1974). Gunter and 

Christmas (1960) reported that fisheries activities for Gulf menhaden in 

Mississippi Sound began in the spring 

as water temperatures reached 23°C 

(73°F) and slowed in the fall at approximately this same temperature. 

While Gulf menhaden have been 

reported to occur in waters from fresh 

to Iiypersaline (0 to 67 ppt, Etzold and 

Christmas 1979), there may be somewhat 

narrower salinity ranges with which 

various 1 ife stages are associated 

(Christmas 1981). General ly, gravid 

adults, ferti 1 ized eggs, and early 

larvae were associated with the higher 

salinity gulf and open bay waters. 

Pos tl arvae and juveni 1 es appeared to 

tolerate a wide range, but were most 

often associated with nearshore, low 

salinity areas. Non-gravid or developing adults were associated with midrange salinities of the estuary. Tagatz 

and Wilkens (1973) reported that juveniles entered freshwater, but never 

penetrated far (1.6 km or 1 mi) beyond 

the interface with low sal ini ty estuarine water. Simmons (1957) reported 

that juveniles commonly occurred in 

waters fro~n 20 to 60 ppt, but also 

noted mass mortalities of Gulf menhaden 

at salinities over GO ppt. 
Perhaps the most complete compi1 ation of combined temperature and 

salinity data for Gulf menhaden is that 

of Christmas and Waller (1973) for 

Mississippi Sound. While their matrix 

covered a wide range of temperatures 

and sal ini ties within those discussed 

above, it was apparent that consistently high catches were restricted to 

waters over 20°C (68'F), particularly 

25" to 34.9"C (77' to 95'F), between 

salinities of 5 to 25 ppt. The highest 

mean catch was recorded at the 5 to 9.9 

ppt X 30' to 34.9'C (86" to 95'F) cell 

of the matrix with a mean fish size of 

57 mmTL. Collection techniques in 

this study may have favored the taking 

of your~g-of-the-year juveniles. It is 

possible then that the lower salinities 

often associated with post1 arval and 

very young Gulf menhaden were underrepresented. 

As no published accounts of control 1 ed experimental testing of Gulf 

menhaden response to temperature and/or 

sal ini ty (or any other environmental 

parameters) at any life stage were 

found, it is difficult to define causal 

mechanisms for the above-mentioned 

re1 ationships. They should therefore 

not be regarded as statements of 

''optima1' or "preferences," but simply 

as statements of frequently observed 

associations. For example, Copeland 

and Bechtel (1974) found that "swarms 

of young penetrate to upper 1 imits [of 

the estuary], where inflowing detritus 

is abundant in low sal inity waters. " 

They concluded that a wide salinity 

tolerance is exhibited when other requirements were met and suggested that 

the common association of young menhaden with high temperature, low salinity 

waters may be more related to position 

in the estuary. Research in this area 

is sorely needed. 

often captured over soft bottoms. 

Christmas (1981) incorporated substrate 

type as a parameter in his model of 

habitat sui tabil i ty for Gulf menhaden 

with the highest value assigned to mud 

(vs. mud-sand or sand) substrates. He 

stated that "substrate is included in 

the estimate of food value hecause the 

estuarine and nearshore marine habitats 

are shallow; thus currents and wave 

action will resuspend nutrients and 

organic detritus which have been incorporated into the sediments .. . . [It was 

a1 so] assumed that muddy substrates, 

because of their more dense [prey] 

populations and absorptive chemical 

properties, have a higher food value 

than sandy substrates." 

Another feature of the Gulf menhaden habitat not mentioned in previous 

sections is the importance of the surrounding marsh system. Results of a 

study by Copeland and Rechtel (1974) 

indicated that menhaden were not frequently found within marsh areas. 

However, they fully recognized the importance of these areas by stating, "In 

order to maintain an environment capable of supporting menhaden populations 

in estuaries, the tributaries, fringes 

and tertiary bays must be protected 

from destruction [and]. . . streamflow, 

which brings the freshwater required 

for low salinity maintenance and necessary foodstuffs for the small menhaden, 

will have to he maintained. " 

Di ssol ved Oxygen 

Gul f menhaden are frequently among 

the species hardest hit by low dissolved oxygen (DO) "fish kills" in 

estuarine waters (Christmas 1973; 

Etzold and Christmas 1979). Postlarvae and juveniles in restricted 

bays and backwaters are particularly 

susceptible to such kills as their 

Substrate and System Features 

A1 though Gulf menhaden inhabit the 

water column and no direct use of the , I 

substrate is apparent, they are most -~mphasi s added. 
mobility and capacity to avoid low DO 

are 1 imited. Christmas (1981) suggested a minimum DO level of 3 ppm 

a1 though the empirical basis for this 

number was not given. 

Other Environmental Factors 

Available information on depth and 

water movement has largely been incorporated into above discussions. Data 

presented by Roi thmayr and Wal ler 

(1963) on seasonal change in depth 

distribution of Gulf menhaden generally 

reflect the annual inshore-offshore 

migration pattern. Fish were taken 

from surface to bottom in 2 to 15 m 

(6 to 48 ft) from June through September; up to 27 m (90 ft) in October and 

November; from 7 to 33 m (24 to 108 

ft), but occasionally to 68 m (288 ft) 

from December through February; and 

back to 2 to 26 m (6 to 84 ft), occasionally to 33 m (108 ft), from March 

through May. 

No empirical information on the 

relationship of Gulf menhaden to turbidity was found. Tissue levels of 

aldrin and dieldrin in juvenile Gulf 

menhaden before and after treatment of 

nearby agricultural areas are presented 

by Ginn and Fisher (1974). Stout 

et al. (1981) reviewed the available 

information on chlorinated hydrocarbon 

levels in the products of menhaden 

fisheries. Levels have been decreasing 

with increasing restriction on their 

use and are now generally below U.S. 

Food and Drug Administration tolerance 

levels. 
L ITEKATURE CITED 

Ahrenhol z, D.W. 1961. Recruitment and 

exploitation of Gulf menhaden, 

Grevoortia patronus. Fish. Rull., 

U.S. 79(2):325-333: 

Arthur, S.C. 1931. The birds of Louisiana. La. Conserv. Dep. Bull. 20. 

Saldauf, R.J. 1954. Survey and study 

of surface and subsurface conditions in and around Beaumont, 

Texas. Biological survey of the 

Neches River in the region of 

Beaumont, Texas. Texas A&?l Res. 

Found. [nimeo] . 

Chapoton, R.B. 1971. The future of 

the Gulf nenhaden, the United 

States' largest fishery. Proc. 

Gulf Caribb. Fish. Inst. 24:134- 

143. 

Chapoton, R.B. 1974. Biological considerations and the Gulf of Rexico 

menhaden fishery. Proc. Gulf 

Caribb. Fish. Inst. 26:15-23. 

Christmas, J .Y. 1973. Area description. Pages 1-72 hJ.Y. Christmas, ed. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory and study, 

Mississippi . Gul f Coast Research 

Laboratory, Ocean Springs, ili ss. 

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hi story narrative and hahi tat 

suitability index model for the 

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Team, Sl idell, La. (Draft ms.). 

Published as: Christmas, J.Y., 

et al. 1982. Habitat slrit3bility 

index model s : Gul f men haden. 

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Christmas, J.Y., 3nd R.S. Waller. 1973. 

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and study, F,lississippi. Gulf 

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Christmas, J.Y., and R.S. Waller. 1975. 

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hi st01 ogy and organ01 ogy of the -. . . 

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~exas7--Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 101 

(4): 729-732. 

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DOCUMENTATION 

PAGE 1 FWS/OBS-82/11.2* - 

4. Title and Subtitle 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and 

(Gulf of Mexico) -- Gulf Menhaden 

7. Authods) 

Dennis R. Lassuy - 

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Division of Biological Services 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Slidell, LA 70458 

1 3. Recipient's Accession No. 

--- I -- 

8. Performing Organization Rept. No. 

______I_ 

11. Contract(C) or Grant(G) No. 

(C) 

(GI 

5. Report Date 

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address 13. Type of Report & Period Covered 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team U.S. Army Corps of Engineer 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Statio 

U.S. Department of the Interior P.O. Box 631 -- 

Was hi ng ton, DC 20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180 

Environmental Requirements - February 1983 

15. Supplemantary Notes 

*U.S. Army Corps of Engineers report No. TR EL-82-4. 

16. Abstract (Limit: 200 words) 

Species prof i 1 es are 1 i terature summaries of the taxonomy, morphology, range, 1 i fe 

history, and environmental requirements of coastal aquatic species. They are prepared 

to assist in environmental impact assessment. The gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus, 

supports the largest fishery (by weight) in the United States; 779,390 mt were landed 

in 1979. Larval, juvenile, and adult menhaden are important prey for many fishes and 

birds. The species lives in estuaries and in the Gulf of Mexico to a maximum depth of 

about 70 m. Spawning takes place in the Gulf of Mexico from September to May and larvae 

are carried into estuaries within 3-5 weeks after hatching. Larvae inhabit the shallow 

marshy parts of estuaries and feed on microzooplankton. Larvae metamorphose into 

juveniles which are omnivorous filter feeders. As they grow, juveniles move from 

shallow parts of estuaries to deeper areas. Juveniles and adults migrate to the Gulf 

of Mexico as temperatures drop in the fall. Adults become sexually mapre aiter two 

growing seasons. The, have been collected in a temperature range of 5 -34.9 C and a 

salinity range of 0-67 ppt. Larvae and juveniles tolerate lower salinities than adults. 

17. Document Analysis a. Descripton 

Estuaries Growth 

Fishes Feeding 

b. IdcntlfianlOpen.Ended Terms 

Gul f menhaden Life hi story 

Brevoortia pa tronus Spawning 

Salinity requirements Habitat requirements 

Temperature requirements 

Uncl ass1 f i ~d . . l 

ee ANSI-239.18) See Instructions on Reverse OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-7: 

(Formerly NTlS35) 

c. COSATI FieldlGmup 

De~artment of Commerce 

IS Availability Statement 

Unl imi ted 

19. Security Class (This Report) 

Unclassified 

20. Security Class nhis Page) 

21. No. of Pages 

13 22. Price 
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