U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2006–5151

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin,

Lake Clark National Park and Preserve,

Alaska, 2003–2004

Prepared in cooperation with the

National Park Service
Cover Photograph. Aerial photograph of Crescent Lake, August 18, 2004. Photograph taken by Timothy P. Brabets, U.S. Geological Survey.
Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, 

Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, 

Alaska, 2003-2004

By Timothy P. Brabets and Robert T. Ourso

Prepared in Cooperation with the National Park Service

Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5151

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

Dirk Kempthorne, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

P. Patrick Leahy, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2006

For Additional Information:

U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, Chief Water Resources Office, 4230 University Dr., Anchorage, AK 

99508-4664

For more information on the USGS--the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, 

natural hazards, and the environment:

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov

Telephone: 1-888-ASK-USGS

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Brabets, T.P., Ourso, R.T., 2006, Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, 

Alaska, 2003-2004; U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5151
iii

Contents

Abstact.............................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................2

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................4

Previous Studies ...................................................................................................................................4

Description of Study Area ............................................................................................................................4

Methods of Data Collection and Analysis .................................................................................................8

Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................9

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin................................................................................................9

Streamflow, Suspended Sediment, and Turbidity ...........................................................................9

Water Temperature ............................................................................................................................11

Specific Conductance........................................................................................................................12

pH ..................................................................................................................................................12

Dissolved Oxygen................................................................................................................................12

Alkalinity...............................................................................................................................................13

Major Ions, Dissolved Solids, Iron, and Manganese....................................................................13

Nutrients and Organic Carbon..........................................................................................................20

Trace Elements in Streambed Sediments.......................................................................................20

Biology of the Crescent River Basin........................................................................................................26

Zooplankton .........................................................................................................................................26

Algae ..................................................................................................................................................26

Possible Effects of Logging on Water Quality.........................................................................................37

Summary........................................................................................................................................................38

References....................................................................................................................................................38

Figures

1. Location of the Crescent River and Lake Clark National Park and Preserve.............................1

2. Crescent River Basin showing sampling sites and native inholdings ..........................................2

3. Aerial photographs showing logged areas of the Crescent River Basin, looking southeast

 to Cook Inlet..........................................................................................................................4

4. Aerial photographs of the Crescent River Basin: A. Outlet of Crescent Lake and B. North

 Fork Crescent River (left) and Lake Fork Crescent River (right)...................................5

5. Bathymetric map of Crescent Lake showing sampling sites 4, 5, and 6 ......................................7

6. Discharge hydrographs of Lake Fork Crescent River and Johnson River, May 21 to

 October 2003.........................................................................................................................9

7. Water temperature and turbidity profiles of Crescent Lake, site 4.............................................11

8. Water temperature and turbidity profiles of Crescent Lake, site 5.............................................12

9. Water temperature and turbidity profiles of Crescent Lake, site 6.............................................13

10. Continuous water temperature at Lake Fork Crescent River, July 3-September 3, 2003

 and 2004...............................................................................................................................16

11. Trilinear diagram of water samples collected from the Crescent River Basin .......................19
iv

Tables

1. Fish counts at Crescent River, 1979-2004 ..........................................................................................3

2. Water-quality sites, Crescent River Basin ........................................................................................8

3. Physical field parameters and suspended sediment measured at surface sites in the

 Crescent River Basin.........................................................................................................10

4. Physical field parameters for Crescent Lake, site 4, 2004 ............................................................14

5. Physical field parameters for Crescent Lake, site 5, 2004 ............................................................15

6. Physical field parameters for Crescent Lake, site 6, 2004 ............................................................17

7. Concentrations of major ions and trace elements iron and manganese in water samples

 collected in the Crescent River Basin............................................................................18

8. Concentrations of nutrients and dissolved organic carbon in water samples collected

 in the Crescent River Basin..............................................................................................21

9. Trace-element concentrations and percent organic carbon measured in streambed

 sediments............................................................................................................................22

10. Comparison of concentrations of trace elements measured in streambed sediments 

from the USGS National Water-Quality Assessment program and range of 

concentrations from three surface water sites in the Crescent River Basin, four 

sites in the Kijik River Basin, and eight sites in the Johnson River Basin................23

11. Comparison of streambed sediment quality guidelines to concentrations measured in

 streambed sediments in the Crescent River Basin for selected trace elements ...24

12. Concentrations of priority pollutant trace elements in streambed sediments finer

 than 0.063 mm for sites located in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve ............25

13. Macrozooplankton data for Crescent Lake...................................................................................26

14. Seasonal means of length and biomass of zooplankton from Crescent Lake.........................26

15. Algal taxa present for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected

 July-September 2004, at two stream sites in the Crescent River Basin and four

 stream sites in the Kijik River Basin ...............................................................................27

16. Algal autecology characteristics and category values used to describe community

 structure at sample sites..................................................................................................32

17. Algal taxa autecology for taxa found at the two sites sampled within the Crescent River Basin, 

July 2004...............................................................................................................................33

18. Percentage calculations of algal autecology categories for the Crescent, Kijik, and

 Little Kijik Rivers.................................................................................................................36

19. Ramp-Crick similarity matrix for algal presence or absence data for Crescent,

 Kijik, and Little Kijik Rivers................................................................................................37
v

Conversion Factors, Datums, and Acronyms

SI to Inch/Pound 

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Area

acre 0.4047 hectare (ha)

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2)

Flow rate

foot per second (ft/s) 0.3048 meter per second (m/s)

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

Volume

cubic foot (ft3) 0.0283 cubic meter (m3)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

 °F= (1.8×°C) +32.

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1929 

(NAVD 29).

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27).

Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

Acronyms used in this report:

ADCP Acoustic Doppler Current Profiles

AFD&G Alaska Department of Fish & Game

ANILCA Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act

CCME Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment

CIRI Cook Inlet Regional Incorporated

DOC Dissolved Organic Carbon

ISQG Interim Freshwater Sediment Quality Guideline

LACL Lake Clark National Park and Preserve

LWD Large Woody Debris

NAWQA National Water-Quality Assessment Program

NPS National Park Service

NWQL National Water-Quality Laboratory

PEC Probable Effect Concentration

PEL Probable Effect Level

PPT Parts per Thousand

QMH Qualitative Multi-Habitat

TEC Threshold Effect Concentration

USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

YSI Yellow Springs Instruments
This page is intentionally left blank
Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark 

National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004

By Timothy P. Brabets and Robert T. Ourso

Abstract

The U.S. Geological Survey and the National Park 

Service conducted a water-quality investigation of the Crescent River Basin in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve 

from May 2003 through September 2004. The Crescent River 

Basin was studied because it has a productive sockeye salmon 

run that is important to the Cook Inlet commercial fishing 

industry. Water-quality, biology, and limnology characteristics 

were assessed. Glacier-fed streams that flow into Crescent 

Lake transport suspended sediment that is trapped by the lake. 

Suspended sediment concentrations from the Lake Fork Crescent River (the outlet stream of Crescent Lake) were less than 

10 milligrams per liter, indicating a high trapping efficiency of 

Crescent Lake. The North Fork Crescent River transports suspended sediment throughout its course and provides most of 

the suspended sediment to the main stem of the Crescent River 

downstream from the confluence of the Lake Fork Crescent 

River. Three locations on Crescent Lake were profiled during 

the summer of 2004. Turbidity profiles indicate sediment 

plumes within the water column at various times during the 

summer. Turbidity values are higher in June, reflecting the 

glacier-fed runoff into the lake. Lower values of turbidity in 

August and September indicate a decrease of suspended sediment entering Crescent Lake. The water type throughout the 

Crescent River Basin is calcium bicarbonate. Concentrations 

of nutrients, major ions, and dissolved organic carbon are low. 

Alkalinity concentrations are generally less than 20 milligrams 

per liter, indicating a low buffering capacity of these waters. 

Streambed sediments collected from three surface sites analyzed for trace elements indicated that copper concentrations 

0 100 MILES

0 100 KILOMENTERS

50

50

62o

58o

60o

154o 158o 156o 152o

Lake Clark

Iliamna

Lake

Bristol Bay

Cook Inlet

Lake Clark 

National Park 

and Preserve

Kvichak River

Location

ALASKA

Lake Clark

Watershed

Anchorage

Figure 1. Location of the Crescent 

River and Lake Clark National Park 

and Preserve.
Lakes

Glaciers

Native Patent

0 5 10 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

Crescent Lake

Monitoring Site

North Fork Crescent River

Lake Fork Crescent

Crescent River near mouth

B

C

A

Mt. Redoubt

Figure 2. Crescent River Basin showing 

sampling sites and native inholdings.

at all sites were above proposed guidelines. However, copper 

concentrations are due to the local geology, not anthropogenic 

factors.

Zooplankton samples from Crescent Lake indicated the 

main taxa are Cyclops sp., a Copepod, and within that taxa 

were a relatively small number of ovigerous (egg-bearing)

individuals. Cyclops sp. are one of the primary food sources 

for rearing sockeye salmon juveniles and were most prevalent 

in the July sampling. Qualitative-Multi-Habitat algae samples 

were collected from two surface-water sites. A total of 59 taxa 

were found and were comprised of 4 phyla: Rhodophyta (red 

algae), Cyanophyta (blue-green algae), Chlorophyta (green 

algae), and Chrysophyta (diatoms). Twenty-two algal taxa 

were collected from the upper site, North Fork Crescent River, 

whereas twice as many taxa were collected from the downstream site, Crescent River near the mouth.

Introduction

The Crescent River watershed is approximately 

250 square miles (mi2) and is located on the west side of Cook 

Inlet in south-central Alaska in Lake Clark National Park 

and Preserve (fig. 1). There are two distinct tributaries to the 

main stem of the Crescent River (fig. 2). Lake Fork Crescent 

River drains Crescent Lake, a large approximately 6-mile long 

proglacial lake that is fed by snowmelt, glacier melt, and 

precipitation from the surrounding Chigmit Mountains. The 

North Fork Crescent River contains a few small lakes and is 

fed primarily from glacier melt, snowmelt, and precipitation.

 The Crescent River system contains all five species of 

Pacific salmon with sockeye salmon the primary one. A strong 

sockeye salmon run is important to the Cook Inlet commercial salmon industry. Sport fishermen also target the fish, and 

local rural residents use the rivers as a traditional subsistence 

fishery. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) 

has maintained a sonar fish counter on the river since 1979. 

Sockeye counts have ranged from about 20,000 salmon to 

about 130,000 salmon during this period (table 1). Most of the 

salmon travel up the Lake Fork Crescent River into Crescent 

Lake and spawn along its shores and tributaries.

The entire Crescent River watershed lies within Lake 

Clark National Park and Preserve (LACL). Public lands 

include Crescent Lake, the headwaters above the lake, and 

the upper portion of the North Fork Crescent River. Cook 

Inlet Region Incorporated (CIRI) and three Native village 

corporations own large tracts of inholdings in the watershed 

along the North Fork Crescent River and between Crescent 

Lake and Cook Inlet (fig. 2). Timber rights to approximately 

42,000 acres of the lower Crescent River watershed were sold 

to a logging company in 1997. The timber company built a 

primary access road, airstrip, and log transfer facility, including a 550-foot (ft) causeway extending into Tuxedni Bay, in 

1998-99. Secondary roads were built to harvest timber on the 

west side of the river; about 700 acres were harvested during 2000-2001 (fig. 3). Logging stopped in 2002 (Anchorage 

Daily News, January 11, 2004).
Table 1. Fish counts at Crescent River, 1979-2004.

[Data from Alaska Department of Fish and Game]

Salmon Species

Year Chinook Coho Chum Pink Sockeye

Oncorhynchus

tshawytscha 

Oncorhynchus 

kisutch

Oncorhynchus keta Oncorhynchus

gorbuscha

Oncorhynchus nerka

1979 122 0 95 3685 86654

1980 0 0 0 0 90863

1981 199 0 0 376 41213

1982 0 0 0 111 58957

1983 0 0 0 221 92122

1984 0 538 4880 0 118345

1985 0 850 505 984 128628

1986 0 0 0 0 20385

1987 552 552 7258 2044 120219

1988 549 245 3362 85 57716

1989 151 0 4392 354 71064

1990 21 73 7677 219 52238

1991 0 83 6080 322 44578

1992 171 303 6892 738 58241

1993 1619 0 1872 1976 37556

1994 7771 73 2939 657 30355

1995 4691 554 4583 1938 52311

1996 3487 52 2821 250 28729

1997 3092 0 1559 12428 70768

1998 1143 261 2439 1376 62257

1999 19325 0 1449 19748 66519

2000 2827 0 432 390 56599

2001 236 0 3022 5239 78082

2002 403 0 1129 345 62833

2003 1132 81 5739 2512 122457

2004 640 52 1134 1198 103201

Average 1851 143 2702 2200 69727

Total 48131 3717 70259 57196 1812890

The effects of logging on the water quality of streams are 

well documented in the literature. To briefly summarize, logging can result in the following impacts (Hartman and others, 

1996).

Immediate: Stream temperature is increased due to 

increased sunlight; concentrations of nutrients and dissolved 

ions in streams change due to soil disturbance; fine sediment 

in streams is increased when slope soils, road cuts, and road 

ditches are exposed to erosion, and decreased stream detritus 

when riparian vegetation is removed. 

Midterm (5 -10 years): Sediment production is increased 

due to hillslope failures and erosion when streambank integrity 

is lost. Streambed stability and channel diversity are reduced 

when more sediment enters streams, and composition of 

spawning gravel is changed when sediments are transported 

from upstream channels. 

Long term: Structural and habitat features are changed 

due to the loss of large woody debris (LWD) in streams. For 

example, clear-cutting to the stream margin on the flood plain 

can cause destabilization of LWD, erosion of stream banks, 

entrainment of sediment, widening of the channel, and deposiIntroduction 3
Figure 3. Aerial photographs showing logged areas of 

the Crescent River Basin, looking southeast to Cook Inlet. 

(Photographs taken by Penny Knuckles, National Park Service, 

2002.)

tion of sediment in the lower reaches (Hartman and others, 

1996). Channel diversity (e.g. pool volumes) and sediment 

storage are directly related to the LWD volume.

The National Park Service (NPS) has a responsibility to maintain the sockeye salmon habitat and protect the 

pristine quality of lakes and rivers within the LACL. These 

were the primary purposes mentioned in LACL’s enabling 

legislation (Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act 

(ANILCA), 1980). If logging resumed at the planned scale, 

the harvest operations could pose an imminent threat to the 

water quality and fish habitat of the Crescent River watershed. Knowing the key water-quality effects from logging 

and identifying critical habitat areas in the Crescent River 

watershed would allow the NPS and state agencies to work 

with Native and village corporations to maintain the water 

quality and aquatic habitat of the Crescent River watershed. 

This information would also allow the NPS to develop land 

purchase priorities for LACA’s Land Protection Plan, which 

is currently under development.

Purpose and Scope

Because the Crescent River is an important sockeye 

salmon river and logging may resume in the future, the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the NPS, 

conducted a study of the watershed in the summer months 

of 2003 and 2004. The purpose of this project was (1) to 

characterize the present water quality and aquatic habitat of 

the Crescent River watershed and (2) to identify the possible 

effects to water quality and aquatic habitat from any future 

logging in the watershed. This report presents the findings of 

that study.

Previous Studies

Previous water quality and biology studies in the Crescent River Basin have primarily been done by the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) (Koenings and others, 1985). The ADF&G has focused on assessing the fishery 

conditions of Crescent Lake since the early 1980s. The commercial fisheries division of ADF&G began monitoring the 

adult fish returns in 1979 to determine (1) magnitude of the 

escapement, (2) migrational timing, (3) stock composition of 

the sockeye harvest in the commercial fishery, and (4) age, 

length, sex, and scale characteristics. 

Description of Study Area

Located on the west side of Cook Inlet, altitudes in the 

Crescent River Basin range from sea level to the summit 

of the Mt. Redoubt volcano at 10,197 ft (fig. 2). Precipitation averages about 70 inches over the entire basin, with 

approximately half of that falling as snow. Soils consist 
A

B

Figure 4. Aerial photographs of the Crescent River Basin: A. Outlet of Crescent Lake and B. North Fork Crescent 

River (left) and Lake Fork Crescent River (right). (Photographs taken by Timothy P. Brabets, U.S. Geological Survey, 

August 11, 2004.)

Description of Study Area 
C

D

Figure 4 C. Confluence of North Fork Crescent River and Lake Fork Crescent River, and D. Crescent River near 

mouth. (Photographs taken by Timothy P. Brabets, U.S. Geological Survey, August 11, 2004.)—Continued

 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
mostly of inceptisols with the lower part of the basin near the 

mouth primarily entisols. The physiographic characteristics 

of the basin are primarily those of moderately high, rugged 

mountains. Bedrock consists of sedimentary and metamorphic 

rocks. Land cover is primarily alpine tundra and bare soil 

(44 percent), spruce forest (31 percent), and permanent ice and 

snow (18 percent).

Lake Fork Crescent River drains an area of 125 mi2

(fig. 2, table 2). Notable features in this watershed are glaciers, 

which comprise about 16 percent of the basin and Crescent 

Lake (fig.4A). Crescent Lake is approximately 6 mi long 

and slightly more than 1 mi wide. The average depth of the 

lake is about 75 ft, and the deepest part is about 100 ft (fig. 

5). The lake is oligotrophic; its open-water period lasts about 

5 months-from June through October. Thermally, Crescent 

Lake is a dimictic lake—it circulates twice a year—in the 

spring and the fall. It is directly stratified during summer and 

inversely stratified during winter. Surface temperatures characteristically reach 10 to 12°C during the open-water period. 

Annual water-residence time or flushing rate is estimated to 

be 0.7 to 0.8 years. Most of the inflow comes from overland 

runoff and snowmelt. Inflow from definable streams consists 

of meltwater from glaciers on the southwest side of the basin, 

at mid-lake. The other major tributary is at the upper end of 

the lake. Because Crescent Lake is glacier-fed, the lake and its 

outflow have the characteristic turquoise color (fig. 4A). However, Crescent Lake does trap much of the suspended sediment 

that enters the lake.

The North Fork Crescent River drains an area of about 

75 mi2. Approximately 23 percent of the basin consists of 

glaciers. The North Fork channel is relatively steep, and during open water is characterized by the typical turbid color of 

glacier-fed streams (fig. 4B). The confluence of the North 

Fork and Lake Fork Crescent Rivers forms the mainstem of 

the Crescent River (fig. 4C). In this section, the streambed 

channel becomes braided, and the channels constantly scour 

and shift (fig. 4D).

4

5

6

4

N

0

0 1 MILE

1 KILOMETER

CRESCENT LAKE

Volume: 13.4 x 109ft3

Area: 6.4 mi2

Mean depth: 75 ft

Maximum depth: 100 ft

Bottom contours in feet (20 ft intervals)

100

100

80

80

60

80

60

40

20

EXPLANATION

Direction of 

surface water flow

Sampling sites

Outlet

(Lake Fork

Crescent River)

Figure . Bathymetric map of Crescent Lake showing sampling sites 4, 5, and 6. (Modified from Koenings and others, 1985).

Description of Study Area 
Table 2. Water-quality sites, Crescent River Basin.

Map 

Number

(figure 2)

Latitude/longitude or 

USGS station number Station Name - Surface Water Sites Area(mi2)

Glaciers

(mi2)

Lakes

(mi2)

1 15294630 North Fork Crescent River near Tuxedni Bay 34.2 9.3 0.2

2 15294640 Lake Fork Crescent River near Tuxedni Bay 125.0 20.5 6.2

3 15294650 Crescent River near mouth near Tuxedni Bay 249.0 37.6 6.4

Station Name - Lake Sites

4 60°23’01” 152°58’52” Crescent Lake 4.6 miles above outlet near Tuxedni Bay

5 60°22’12” 152°56’13” Crescent Lake 2.8 miles above outlet near Tuxedni Bay

6 60°21’37” 152°53’35” Crescent Lake 1.2 miles above outlet near Tuxedni Bay

Methods of Data Collection and 

Analysis

To adequately characterize the water quality of the Crescent River Basin, data were collected from both stream sites 

and lake sites. The six sites in the Crescent River Basin that 

were selected for sampling included three surface-water sites 

and three lake sites (fig. 2, table 2). The three surface-water 

sites were on the North Fork Crescent River, Lake Fork Crescent River, and the main stem of the Crescent River (fig. 2). 

The three lake sites were on Crescent Lake—in the upper part, 

the middle part, and the lower part. Various types of waterquantity, water-quality, and biological data were collected 

from these sites throughout the runoff periods of 2003 and 

2004 to gain a better understanding of the water quality of the 

Crescent River Basin.

Water samples were collected at all sites during the 

open-water period (May through October) in 2003 and 

2004. The samples collected from streams were analyzed 

for pH, specific conductance, water temperature, and dissolved-oxygen concentration in the field. Major ions and 

dissolved solids, nutrients, organic carbon, and suspended 

sediment were analyzed by the USGS National Water-Quality Laboratory (NWQL). The field-collection and processing 

equipment used was made from Teflon or glass to prevent 

sample contamination and to minimize analyte losses through 

adsorp­tion. All sampling equipment was cleaned prior to use 

with a nonphosphate laboratory detergent, rinsed with deionized water, and finally with stream water just prior to sample 

collection. Depth-integrated water samples were collected 

across the stream by using the equal-width-incre­ment method 

(http://water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/) and processed in 

the field using methods and equip­ment described by Shelton 

(1994). Water samples were collected from Crescent Lake 

using a 6.2 liter acrylic Van Dorn sampler. Samples to be 

analyzed for dissolved con­stituents were filtered through 

0.45 micrometer (μm) capsule filters. Water samples were 

sent to the NWQL for analysis using standard USGS analytical methods (Fishman and Friedman, 1989; Patton and Truitt, 

1992; Fishman, 1993). A YSI meter was used to measure field 

parameters including water tempera­ture, dissolved-oxygen 

concentration, specific conductance, pH, and turbidity at the 

time of sampling. Dis­charge measurements also were made at 

the time of sampling either by wading (using methods outlined 

by Rantz and others (1982)) or by boat using an acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) manufactured by R. D. Instruments following the guidelines outlined by Oberg and others 

(2005).

Streambed sediments were sampled at the three surface-water sites and analyzed for trace elements one time in 

2004. Sediments were collected from several depositional 

areas at each site using Teflon tubes or Teflon coated spoons 

and composited in glass bowls (Shelton and Capel, 1994). 

Because the concentration of trace elements on streambed 

materials is strongly affected by the particle-size distribution 

of the sample, only the portion of the sample that was finer 

than 63 μm was analyzed. Stream water was used for sieving the trace-element sam­ple through a 63 μm mesh. Water 

included in the trace-element sample was decanted after very 

fine-grained sediments had settled (about 24 hours). Arbogast 

(1990) describes laboratory procedures fol­lowed for processing streambed samples for trace-element analysis. Trace elements in streambed sediments were analyzed following a total 

digestion procedure.

Water stage was measured on a continuous basis in 2003 

at the North Fork Crescent River, Lake Fork Crescent River, 

and Crescent River sites. Good stage record was obtained at 

the Lake Fork Crescent River site; stage record at the North 

Fork Crescent River and mainstem Crescent River sites was 

considered poor, however, due to constantly shifting channels. The USGS gaging station operated on the Johnson River, 

about 20 miles southwest of the Crescent River (fig. 1), was 

used for comparative purposes because its size and basin 

characteristics are similar to those of the North Fork Crescent 

River.

Quantitative zooplankton samples were collected from 

the three sites in Crescent Lake in June, July, August, and September 2004. Samples were collected using a 1.6 ft diameter 

conical plankton tow net with a mesh size of 153 μm and a 

sample vial of 100 milliters. Tow times were kept consistent 

at 3 ft per second. The ADF&G analyzed the samples for 

 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
taxa presence, abundance, and density at their laboratory in 

Soldotna, Alaska. 

Algae samples were collected at the North Fork Crescent 

River and at the Crescent River near the mouth according to 

protocols outlined by Cuffney and others (1993) and Porter 

and others (1993). An assessment of the algal com­munity 

was done to identify the species of algae present at stream 

reaches. Algae samples were collected using a method known 

as Qualitative Multi-Habitat (QMH). The QMH sample is collected from the variety of habitats present in the stream reach. 

Analysis of the algae samples was done by the Philadelphia 

Academy of Natural Science in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

After data collection and compilation was complete, 

concentrations of the various water-quality constituents were 

evaluated in relation to established water-quality criteria. 

Trace-element concentrations in streambed sediments were 

compared with those collected by the USGS, National WaterQuality Assessment (NAWQA) program and with guidelines 

established by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the 

Environment (1999). The algae and trace element data also 

were compared with the algae and trace element data collected 

from four sites in the Kijik River Basin, located in the western 

part of LACL. Trace element data collected from sites in the 

Johnson River Basin was also used in the data analysis.

Acknowledgments

John Edmundson of the ADF&G, Soldotna, Alaska, 

analyzed the zooplankton samples from Crescent Lake at no 

cost to the project. David Westerman, also of the ADF&G, 

provided boat usage at the Crescent River sonar counter.

Water Quality of the Crescent River 

Basin

Water-quality data collected in the Crescent River Basin 

in 2003 and 2004 included field parameters (streamflow, 

specific conductance, pH, water temperature, dissolved-oxygen concentration, and turbidity), concentrations of suspended 

sediment, major inorganic ions, and nutrients. More specific 

data included water samples analyzed for dissolved organic 

carbon (DOC), chlorophyll-a, and the streambed sediments for 

trace elements. Biological data included samples of benthic 

algae from streams and samples of zooplankton from Crescent 

Lake. These data established a hydrologic data base of the 

Crescent River Basin and also provide insights as to whether 

the concentrations or values of certain constituents might be 

harmful to sockeye salmon.

Streamflow, Suspended Sediment, and Turbidity

In the Crescent River Basin, streamflow characteristics 

differ between the North Fork Crescent River and the Lake 

Fork Crescent River. For example, flow of the Lake Fork 

Crescent River reflects the affects of Crescent Lake. During 

the runoff season, the lake fills from rainfall, snowmelt, and 

ice melt. Once filled, Crescent Lake begins to empty, with the 

highest discharges occurring in July. Water levels at the Lake 

Fork Crescent River gradually rise and fall. Assuming the flow 

characteristics of the Johnson River are similar to those of the 

North Fork Crescent River, differences in the flow characteristics between the North Fork Crescent River and the Lake Fork 

Crescent River are notable (fig. 6). In the North Fork Crescent 

River (table 3), most runoff occurs from June through September. Following an intense rainfall however, there is a rapid rise 

and fall of water stage.

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

May June July August September October

10

100

1,000

10,000 Lake Fork Crescent River

USGS Station 15294640

Johnson River

USGS Station 15294700

2003

Figure . Discharge hydrographs of Lake Fork 

Crescent River and Johnson River, May 21 to 

October 2003.

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin 
Table 3. Physical field parameters and suspended sediment measured at surface sites in the Crescent River Basin.

[all values in milligrams per liter, mg/L, unless otherwise noted; °C, degrees Celsius; μs/cm at 25° Celsius, microsiemens per centimeter at 25° Celsius; <, 

less than; ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft3/s/mi2, cubic feet per second per square mile; NTU, Nephelometric Turbidity Unit; E, estimated; --, constituent not 

measured]

Date Time

Discharge

(ft3/s)

Unit

Discharge

(ft3/s/mi2)

Dissolved

Oxygen

pH

(units)

Specific

Conductance

(μs/cm at

2° Celsius)

Water

Temperature

(°C)

Turbidity

(NTU)

Suspended

Sediment

North Fork Crescent River (site 1)

5/16/2003 1330 89 2.6 9.3 7.0 55 8.0 4.1 20

7/2/2003 1630 E721 21.1 12.5 6.9 23 6.5 32.0 142

8/1/2003 1310 537 15.7 12.1 6.7 28 7.0 4.8 83

10/23/2003 1230 145 4.2 -- 7.1 57 -- <2.0 11

8/11/2004 1350 501 14.6 12.8 6.0 25 8.2 54.0 318

9/8/2004 1350 E186 5.4 12.1 5.8 51 2.7 26.0 71

Lake Fork Crescent River (site 2)

5/16/2003 1115 462 3.7 12.2 7.3 31 4.0 2.3 7.0

7/19/2003 1045 2730 21.8 10.8 6.7 26 10.0 7.1 10

8/14/2003 1025 2610 20.9 11.7 6.6 23 9.2 11.0 14

10/23/2003 1545 741 5.9 -- 7.1 25 5.0 20.0 10

7/2/2003 1245 2140 17.1 13 6.3 31 9.6 16.0 13

7/29/2003 1130 2860 22.9 12.3 6.0 28 9.1 16.0 12

8/18/2003 1200 1380 11 9.8 6.2 25 13.2 13.0 11

9/13/2003 1225 560 4.5 10.8 6.0 24 9.5 -- 8.0

Crescent River near mouth (site 3)

5/16/2003 1615 742 3.0 13.6 8.0 58 7.9 3.7 10

7/2/2003 1120 E5250 21.1 10.9 7.1 34 10.0 20 277

8/1/2003 1730 3350 13.4 11.1 7.3 35 12.5 10 254

10/24/2003 1515 E1257 5.0 -- 7.3 50 5.0 13 154

8/11/2004 1520 E3280 13.2 12.8 6.7 34 12.8 54 308

9/8/2004 1300 E1350 5.4 10.2 6.3 39 8.1 20 71

Recorded discharge at the Lake Fork Crescent River 

for the 2003 and 2004 runoff seasons ranged from about 

500 cubic feet per second (ft3/s) to about 4,000 ft3/s with the 

exception of October 2003. A large flood occurred in the 

Crescent River Basin in October 2003 (fig. 6). Peak discharges 

of record were recorded at two USGS streamgaging stations 

on the west side of Cook Inlet near the vicinity of the Crescent River: Johnson River (USGS station 15294700) and the 

Iliamna River (USGS station 15300300). On the basis of water 

stage recorded at the Lake Fork Crescent River and a rating 

extension, the peak discharge at the Lake Fork Crescent River 

was estimated to be approximately 8,090 ft3/s.

Measured discharges ranged from 89 ft3/s to 721 ft3/s at 

North Fork Crescent River, from 462 ft3/s to 2,680 ft3/s at Lake 

Fork Crescent River, and from 742 ft3/s to 5,250 ft3/s at the 

mainstem of the Crescent River. Unit runoff ranged from a low 

of 2.6 ft3/s/mi2 at North Fork Crescent River to a high of about 

22.9 ft3/s/mi2 at Lake Fork Crescent River. During a given flow 

condition, unit runoff was approximately equal at all three 

sites (table 3).

Sediment in rivers is transported in suspension and 

as bedload. Suspended sediment generally consists of fine 

particles such as clay, silt, and fine sand that are transported in 

the stream while being held in suspension by the turbulence of 

flowing water. Bedload consists of coarse sediment particles 

such as coarse sands, gravels, and sometimes boulders that are 

transported along or near the streambed. 

Measured values of suspended sediment in the Crescent 

River Basin varied at the three sites (table 3). The lowest 

concentrations of suspended sediment were measured at the 

Lake Fork Crescent River and ranged from 7 to 14 milligrams 

per liter (mg/L). Concentrations were low at this site because 

most of the suspended sediment is trapped by Crescent Lake. 

At the North Fork Crescent River site, suspended sediment 

concentrations ranged from 11 to 318 mg/L, typical for a glacier-fed stream. At Crescent River near the mouth, suspended 

10 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
0 5 10 15 20

-10

-5

Water Temperature Turbidity

Water Temperature Turbidity

25

-30

0

DEPTH, IN FEET

0 10 20 30 40 50

June 23, 2004

0 5 10 15 20

Water Temperature

Turbidity

WATER TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

TURBIDITY, IN NEPHELOMETRIC TURBIDITY UNITS

August 18, 2004

-15

-20

-25

-10

-5

-30

0

DEPTH, IN FEET -15

-20

-25

-10

-5

-30

0

DEPTH, IN FEET -15

-20

-25

July 29, 2004

Figure . Water temperature and turbidity profiles of Crescent 

Lake, site 4.

sediment concentrations ranged from 10 to 308 mg/L, reflecting the influence of flows from the North Fork Crescent River. 

Because no logging has taken place immediately upstream 

of this site, the suspended sediment concentrations are more 

likely due to the natural channel characteristics such as steep 

slope and high velocities.

Turbidity, a measure of water clarity, is being used 

increasingly as a surrogate for suspended sediment concentrations (Gray and Glysson, 2003). At the Lake Fork Crescent 

River, turbidity values were all less than or equal to 20 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). At the North Fork Crescent 

River and Crescent River sites, turbidity values were as high as 

54 NTU. Although no accurate statistical equation was found 

between suspended sediment and turbidity, higher suspended 

sediment concentrations usually corresponded to higher turbidity values.

Turbidity profiles were collected from Crescent Lake 

throughout 2004. The purpose for examining turbidity plumes 

is that light regimes that are altered by turbid inflows alter 

juvenile sockeye behavior relative to that observed in clearwater lakes. In Crescent Lake, turbidity profiles indicate 

sediment plumes moving through the lake (figs. 7-9, tables 

4-6). In June, a plume in the upper part of the water column 

was present in the upper end of the lake (site 4). No plume was 

noted in the middle part of the lake (site 5), but a plume was 

noted in the lower part of the lake (site 6) in the lower portion 

of the water column. In July, a distinct sediment plume was 

evident in the upper and middle portions of Crescent Lake, 

though somewhat less evident in the lower portion of the lake. 

In August, there appeared to be two small sediment plumes 

in the upper part of the lake, but no other distinctions in the 

middle and lower portions of the lake. 

Water Temperature

Water temperature is important in both physiochemical 

and biological processes such as oxygen solubility and fish 

metabolism and growth rates. Water temperature data collected 

at the three surface-water sites ranged from 2.7 to 13.2°C 

(table 3). At the Lake Fork Crescent River site, continuous 

records of water temperature showed a gradual warming from 

mid-May (about 4.0°C) to mid-August (about 13°C) and 

then gradual cooling. Although only two summers of data are 

available, the average water temperature for August 2004 was 

about 1.5°C higher than for August 2003 (fig. 10).

Previous work (Koenings and others, 1985) indicated that 

the water temperature of Crescent Lake under the ice during 

the winter period remained at 4°C. In 2004, depth profiles of 

water temperature of the Crescent Lake sites indicated different patterns throughout the summer (figs. 7-9). In June, the 

upper part of the water column is warmer throughout the lake. 

In July, Crescent Lake is fairly well mixed, and in August, the 

top part of Crescent Lake was warmer. In September, the lake 

was isothermal.

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin 11
0 5 10 15 20

-10

-5

Water Temperature

Turbidity

Water Temperature

Turbidity

-30

0

0 10 20 30

June 23, 2004

0 5 10 15 20

Water Temperature Turbidity

WATER TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

TURBIDITY, IN NEPHELOMETRIC TURBIDITY UNITS

August 18, 2004

-15

-20

-25

-10

-5

-30

0

-15

-20

-25

-10

-5

-30

0

-15

-20

-25

July 29, 2004

DEPTH, IN FEET DEPTH, IN FEET DEPTH, IN FEET

Figure . Water temperature and turbidity profiles of Crescent 

Lake, site 5.

Specific Conductance

Specific conductance is a measure of the ability of water 

to conduct an electric current. As the concentration of ions in 

solution increases or decreases, so does the conductance of 

the solution. It is a readily measured property that can be used 

to indicate the dissolved-solids or ion content of the water. 

Frequently a statistical relation can be developed between 

specific conductance and the concentration of ionic components making up the dissolved solids in water. During low 

flow, the specific conductance of a stream or river is generally 

the highest, indicating a greater component of ground-water 

inflow. Ground water has greater potential to dissolve minerals, having spent more time in contact with rocks and soil 

materials than rainwater or snowmelt. Periods of low specific conductance reflect runoff of rain or snowmelt, which 

typically contain small amounts of dissolved ions. Values 

of specific conductance during the study period were fairly 

consistent, with only slight variations among sites. Specific 

conductance at the three surface-water sites ranged from 23 

to 58 microsiemens per centimeter at 25° Celsius (μs/cm at 

25°C). The range of specific conductance values varied only 

slightly at Lake Fork Crescent River (23 to 31 μs/cm at 25°C) 

due to the moderating effects of flow from Crescent Lake. 

The ranges in conductance values were larger at the North 

Fork Crescent River and mainstem Crescent River, the higher 

values being measured during lower flow conditions (table 3). 

At Crescent Lake, depth profiles of specific conductance were 

fairly uniform throughout the water column and ranged from 

20 to 39 μs/cm at 25°C (tables 4-6).

pH

The pH of water, a measure of its hydrogen-ion activity, 

can range from 0 (acidic) to 14 (alkaline) standard units. The 

pH of natural river water typically ranges between 6.5 and 8.0 

standard units (Hem, 1985). During the study period, measured values of pH for all sites ranged from 5.8 to 8.0. Depth 

profiles of pH at the Crescent Lake sites varied slightly with 

depth, ranging from 5.8 to 6.7 (tables 4-6), within the typical 

range for fish growth and survival. 

Dissolved Oxygen

The dissolved-oxygen concentration in a stream is 

controlled by several factors, including water temperature, 

air temperature and atmospheric pressure, hydraulic characteristics of the stream, photosynthetic or respiratory activity 

of stream biota, and the quantity of organic matter present 

(Hem, 1985). Salmon and other species of fish indigenous 

to southcentral Alaska streams require well-oxygenated 

water at every stage in their life history, as do many forms of 

aquatic invertebrates. Young fish tend to be more susceptible 

to oxygen deficiencies than adults. Dissolved-oxygen concentration at all surface-water sites during the study period 

12 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
0 5 10 15 20

-10

-5

Water Temperature

Turbidity

Water Temperature

Turbidity

25 0 5 10 15 20 25

-30

0

WATER TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

TURBIDITY, IN NEPHELOMETRIC TURBIDITY UNITS

WATER TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

TURBIDITY, IN NEPHELOMETRIC TURBIDITY UNITS

June 23, 2004

Water Temperature

Turbidity

WATER TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

TURBIDITY, IN NEPHELOMETRIC TURBIDITY UNITS

August 18, 2004

-15

-20

-25

-10

-5

-30

0

-15

-20

-25

-10

-5

-30

0

-15

-20

-25

July 29, 2004

0 5 10 15 20 25

Water Temperature

WATER TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS

September 13, 2004

-10

-5

-30

0

-15

-20

-25

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

DEPTH, IN FEET DEPTH, IN FEETDEPTH, IN FEET DEPTH, IN FEET

ranged from 9.3 mg/L to 13.6 mg/L (table 3), the range of 

values being nearly identical at all stations. At Crescent Lake, 

depth profiles of dissolved-oxygen concentration indicated a 

minimum concentration of 8.4 mg/L and a maximum concentration of 14.2 mg/L. All measurements of dissolved-oxygen 

levels indicate adequate concentrations to support populations of salmonids. Dissolved oxygen was consistently greater 

than 74 percent of saturation during all dates and at all depths 

sampled. Increases or decreases in oxygen concentration were 

not biologically mediated; instead, these variations merely 

reflected a decrease or increase in water temperature (Koenings and others, 1985).

Alkalinity

Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of the substances 

dissolved in water to neutralize acid. In most natural waters, 

alkalinity is produced mainly by bicarbonate and carbonate 

ions, which are formed when carbon dioxide or carbonate 

rocks dissolve in water (Hem, 1985). Alkalinity concentrations 

for all sites (reported as equivalent concentration of calcium 

carbonate (CaCO3)) were all less than 20 mg/L (table 7). As 

expected, the Lake Fork Crescent River (site 2) had similar 

values of alkalinity to the site on Crescent Lake, ranging from 

8 to 12 mg/L. The range of pH measured at all sites in the 

Crescent River Basin indicates that all of the alkalinity can be 

attributed to dissolved bicarbonate. Alkalinity measurements 

of this magnitude indicate that waters in the Crescent Lake 

Basin have a low buffering capacity. Lower alkalinity levels 

during August and September are dependent on the amount of 

glacial meltwater inflow.

Major Ions, Dissolved Solids, Iron, and 

Manganese

Water samples collected from Crescent Lake (site 5) and 

the three surface-water sites were analyzed for major ions and 

dissolved solids (table 7). Major ions and dissolved solids in 

Figure . Water temperature and turbidity profiles of Crescent Lake, site 6.

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin 13
Table 4. Physical field parameters for Crescent Lake, site 4, 2004.

[mg/L, milligrams per liter; us/cm at 25° Celsius, microsiemens per centimeter at 25° Celsius; NTU, Nephelometric Turbidity Unit]

Date Depth (feet) Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

Percent

Saturation

(percent)

pH (units)

Specific Conductance (μs/cm at 

2° Celsius)

Water Temperature ( ° Celsius) Turbidity (NTU)

6/23/2004 0 10.8 100 6.3 33 11.4 16.9

8 11.1 100 6.3 32 11.4 17.6

16 11.7 100 6.4 32 8.4 22.5

25 12.1 97 6.3 30 5.2 18.0

33 12.2 95 6.2 34 4.7 17.0

41 12.2 94 6.2 36 4.4 15.0

49 12.1 93 6.1 38 4.2 15.5

57 12.0 92 6.0 38 3.9 15.5

66 12.0 91 6.0 39 3.8 16.5

74 12.0 91 5.9 39 3.9 18.0

82 11.8 91 5.9 39 3.8 17.0

90 11.9 90 5.9 39 3.8 17.0

7/29/2004 0 10.2 91 6.3 26 10.4 19.0

8 10.3 89 6.4 26 9.0 31.0

16 10.3 89 6.4 26 8.9 32.0

25 10.4 89 6.3 25 8.7 38.0

33 10.4 89 6.4 25 8.4 38.0

41 10.5 89 6.3 24 8.2 38.0

49 10.6 89 6.2 25 8.0 36.0

57 10.7 89 6.2 26 7.3 36.0

66 10.8 88 6.2 31 6.4 23.0

74 11.0 87 6.2 31 5.8 21.0

82 11.0 86 6.2 33 5.3 19.0

90 11.1 87 6.2 35 4.3 17.0

98 11.3 86 6.1 35 4.3 17.0

8/18/2004 0 8.4 85 6.4 26 16.0 2.0

8 9.0 83 6.5 25 12.0 8.0

16 9.1 81 6.6 24 10.0 9.0

25 9.2 79 6.6 25 8.4 10.0

33 9.3 78 6.7 26 7.7 11.0

41 9.3 77 6.7 27 7.2 13.0

49 9.4 77 6.6 29 6.6 6.0

57 9.5 77 6.7 30 6.2 5.0

66 9.5 76 6.7 31 5.6 6.0

74 9.6 75 6.7 32 5.2 10.0

82 9.6 75 6.7 32 4.9 5.0

90 9.6 74 6.6 33 4.7 5.0

98 9.5 74 6.6 33 4.6 7.0

14 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Table . Physical field parameters for Crescent Lake, site 5, 2004.

[mg/L, milligrams per liter; μs/cm at 25° Celsius, microsiemens per centimeter at 25° Celsius; NTU, Nephelometric Turbidity Unit; constituent not measured]

Date Depth (feet) Dissolved 

Oxygen (mg/L)

Percent 

Saturation 

(percent)

pH (units)

Specific Conductance (μs/cm at 2°

Celsius)

Water Temperature (° Celsius)Turbidity 

(NTU)

6/23/2004 0 11.8 100 6 34 9.6 12.6

8 11.9 100 6 34 8.3 13.8

16 12.0 100 6 34 7.6 14.0

25 12.1 98 6 35 6.3 14.0

33 12.2 97 6 36 5.5 14.0

41 12.3 94 6 35 4.2 17.0

49 12.1 92 6 35 4.1 15.7

57 12.0 92 6 38 4.0 16.2

66 11.9 91 6 38 3.9 17.0

74 11.9 90 6 38 3.8 16.0

82 11.9 90 6 38 3.8 17.0

90 11.9 90 6 38 3.8 17.0

98 11.8 90 6 39 3.7 --

7/29/2004 0 10.4 92 6.3 29 10.0 18.0

8 10.5 91 6.3 29 9.6 20.0

16 10.5 90 6.4 29 9.0 21.0

25 10.5 90 6.3 28 8.9 29.0

33 10.6 91 6.2 28 8.8 30.0

41 10.7 91 6.2 32 8.6 33.0

49 10.7 91 6.1 28 8.1 31.0

57 10.9 90 6.1 31 7.2 18.0

66 11.2 89 6.1 32 6.2 17.0

74 11.3 87 6.2 34 5.2 17.0

82 11.2 86 6.2 35 4.8 16.0

90 11.2 86 6.3 36 4.3 16.0

98 11.2 86 6.4 36 4.3 16.0

0

8/18/2004 0 10.1 100 6.5 28 16.1 2.0

8 11.3 100 6.6 29 11.1 9.0

16 11.5 100 6.6 30 9.5 9.0

25 11.6 99 6.4 30 8.8 7.0

33 11.7 99 6.4 31 8.6 10.0

41 11.8 98 6.3 31 7.3 10.0

49 11.9 98 6.2 31 6.9 9.0

57 11.9 97 6.2 32 6.4 7.0

66 12.0 96 6.2 34 5.6 8.0

74 12.0 95 6.2 35 5.1 6.0

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin 1
Table . Physical field parameters for Crescent Lake, site 5, 2004.—Continued

[mg/L, milligrams per liter; μs/cm at 25° Celsius, microsiemens per centimeter at 25° Celsius; NTU, Nephelometric Turbidity Unit; constituent not measured]

Date Depth (feet) Dissolved 

Oxygen (mg/L)

Percent 

Saturation 

(percent)

pH (units)

Specific Conductance (μs/cm at 2°

Celsius)

Water Temperature (° Celsius)Turbidity 

(NTU)

8/18/2004

Continued

82 12.1 94 6.3 35 4.8 7.0

90 12.1 94 6.3 36 4.6 4.0

98 12.1 94 6.3 36 4.5 6.0

9/13/2004 0 12.9 100 5.9 21 9.8 --

8 12.0 100 5.9 21 9.8 --

16 11.7 100 6 20 9.7 --

25 11.6 100 6.1 20 9.7 --

33 11.4 99 6.1 20 9.5 --

41 11.3 99 6.1 20 9.4 --

49 11.2 97 6.2 20 9.4 --

57 11.2 97 6.3 20 9.0 --

66 11.1 96 6.3 21 8.8 --

74 11.1 95 6.3 21 8.4 --

82 11.1 94 6.7 21 7.6 --

90 11.3 92 6.7 25 5.9 --

2003

16.0

14.0

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

3 10 20 30 10 20 30

2004

WATER TEMPERATURE,

IN DEGREES CELSIUS

JULY AUGUST SEPT

Figure 10. Continuous water temperature at Lake Fork Crescent River, July 3-September 3, 2003 and 2004.

1 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Table . Physical field parameters for Crescent Lake, site 6, 2004.

[μs/cm at 25° Celsius, microsiemens per centimeter at 25° Celsius; mg/L, milligrams per liter; NTU, Nephelometric Turbidity Unit; constituent not measured]

Date Depth

(feet)

Dissolved

Oxygen

(mg/L)

Percent

Saturation

(percent)

pH

(units)

Specific Conductance (μs/cm at

2° Celsius)

Water

Temperature

(° Celsius)

Turbidity

(NTU)

6/23/2004 0 -- -- 5.9 34 9.3 11.8

8 -- -- 5.9 32 5.4 14.4

16 -- -- 5.9 31 5.1 13.6

25 -- -- 5.9 32 4.7 15.4

33 -- -- 5.9 33 4.4 15.3

41 -- -- 5.9 34 4.2 15.0

49 -- -- 5.9 32 4.2 23.0

57 -- -- 5.9 31 4.2 21.0

66 -- -- 5.9 32 4.2 20.0

74 -- -- 5.9 34 4.0 20.0

82 -- -- 5.8 36 4.0 19.0

90 -- -- 5.8 36 3.9 18.0

98 -- -- 5.8 37 3.8 --

7/29/2004 0 12.8 100 6.3 29 10.0 19.0

8 13.0 100 6.3 29 9.8 22.0

16 13.1 100 6.3 29 8.6 22.0

25 13.1 100 6.2 30 8.4 21.0

33 13.2 100 6.2 30 8.0 18.0

41 13.5 100 6.2 31 7.4 19.0

49 13.9 100 6.2 32 6.5 19.0

57 13.9 100 6.2 34 5.1 18.0

66 13.9 100 6.2 35 4.8 18.0

74 14.0 100 6.2 36 4.4 19.0

82 13.9 100 6.3 36 4.0 19.0

90 13.9 100 6.4 36 4.0 20.0

98 14.2 100 6.5 37 4.2 --

8/18/2004 0 10.2 100 6.2 29 17.6 1.0

8 10.9 100 6.4 28 14.0 2.0

16 11.2 100 6.5 29 10.4 6.0

25 11.1 100 6.5 29 9.9 5.0

33 11.3 98 6.5 30 8.9 6.0

41 11.4 97 6.5 30 8.2 7.0

49 11.4 96 6.5 30 7.8 7.0

57 11.5 96 6.5 31 7.6 6.0

66 11.5 95 6.5 32 7.2 6.0

74 11.6 96 6.5 32 7.2 6.0

82 11.6 93 6.5 34 6.3 4.0

90 11.6 91 6.5 35 5.3 4.0

98 11.7 91 6.5 36 4.9 4.0

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin 1
Table . Concentrations of major ions and trace elements iron and manganese in water samples collected in the Crescent River Basin.

[all values in milligrams per liter unless otherwise noted; μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, constitutent not measured]

Date Time Alkalin- ity Bicarbonate Calcium Chloride Dis- Solids solved Fluoride Iron (μg/L) Magne- sium Man- ganese (μg/L) Potas- sium Silica Sodium Sulfate

North Fork Crescent River (site 1)

5/16/2003 1330 19 25 7.4 1.8 47 <0.2 679 0.57 40.0 0.66 10.6 2.2 5.6

7/2/2003 1630 7 8 3.2 0.5 16 <0.2 37 0.22 3.3 0.40 4.9 1.0 2.48/1/2003 1310 8 10 3.8 0.6 22 <0.2 24 0.27 4.4 0.35 5.2 1.0 3.3

10/23/2003 1230 16 20 7.0 1.3 42 <0.2 204 0.51 14.0 0.66 10.7 2.2 6.5

8/11/2004 1350 7 9 2.9 0.5 11 <0.2 40 0.22 5.6 0.25 4.2 0.8 2.7

9/8/2004 1350 12 16 5.1 1.1 35 <0.2 76 0.39 7.8 0.52 7.2 1.5 4.4

Crescent Lake (site 5)

6/23/2004 1635 9.5 13 3.7 0.57 27 <0.2 26 0.20 3.2 0.45 5.3 0.87 2.07/29/2004 1400 7.9 9 2.9 0.32 13 <0.2 16 0.14 2.6 0.43 3.6 0.58 1.58/18/2004 1415 9.2 10 3.2 0.37 22 <0.2 17 0.16 1.1 0.49 3.9 0.61 1.49/13/2004 1415 8.8 10 3.2 0.30 20 <0.2 30 0.16 1.1 0.45 4.0 0.56 1.8

Lake Fork Crescent River (site 2)

5/16/2003 1115 12 16 4.0 0.51 27 <0.2 37 0.21 <2.0 0.47 5.5 0.95 2.37/19/2003 1045 9 12 3.4 0.47 18 <0.2 18 0.18 0.6 0.52 4.4 0.88 1.88/14/2003 1025 10 13 3.3 0.38 22 <0.2 18 0.16 1.1 0.36 3.9 0.67 1.7

10/23/2003 1545 8 10 3.3 0.33 25 <0.2 65 0.19 1.9 0.54 4.6 0.83 1.8

7/2/2004 1245 8 10 3.4 0.47 15 <0.2 19 0.17 3.1 0.41 4.4 0.71 1.9

7/29/2004 1130 8 10 3.2 0.38 26 <0.2 20 0.16 2.4 0.45 3.9 0.70 1.78/18/2004 1200 8 10 3.2 0.54 17 <0.2 24 0.16 -- 0.53 3.7 0.55 1.39/13/2004 1225 8 10 3.3 0.32 17 <0.2 18 0.16 1.4 0.47 4.0 0.60 1.8

Crescent River near mouth (site 3)

5/16/2003 1615 14 18 5.6 2.3 48 <0.2 44 0.70 4.2 0.64 11.7 2.3 5.3

7/2/2003 1120 8 10 4.0 1.0 24 <0.2 23 0.39 2.9 0.47 6.7 1.4 2.98/1/2003 1730 9 11 3.9 1.4 25 <0.2 16 0.42 3.9 0.57 6.3 1.6 3.1

10/24/2003 1515 12 15 5.2 2.0 36 <0.2 10 0.67 6.3 0.66 11.4 2.3 5.4

8/11/2004 1520 9 12 3.6 1.2 24 <0.2 20 0.42 5.8 0.37 6.7 1.4 3.5

9/8/2004 1300 10 13 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

1 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL MILLIEQUIVALENTS PER LITER

Calcium

 100  80  60 

 40 

 20 

 0

 0

 20

 40

 60

 80

 100

Magnesium

 0

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Sodium plus Potassium

Chloride, Fluoride, Nitrite plus Nitrate

 0

 20 

 40  60 

 80 

 100 

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0

Bicarbonate

 100

 80

 60

 40

 20

 0

Sulfate

 0

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Sulfate plus Chloride

 0

 20 

 40 

 60 

 80 

 100 

Calcium plus Magnesium

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0

 100 

 80 

 60 

 40 

 20 

 0

North Fork Crescent River

Crescent River near mouth

Lake Fork Crescent River

Crescent Lake

SAMPLE SITES

rivers consist of inorganic minerals derived primarily from 

soil and rock weathering. Dissolved cations that constitute a 

majority of the dissolved solids content in natural waters are 

calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium; the major anions 

are usually represented by sulfate, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, 

and those making up the alkalinity (Hem, 1985). Streams 

draining basins with rocks and soils containing insoluble minerals contain lower concentrations of dissolved solids. Analysis of water samples from the surface-water sites indicated that 

dissolved-solid concentrations were generally low, ranging 

from 11 to 48 mg/L (table 7). Dissolved-solids concentrations 

at Crescent Lake ranged from 13 to 27 mg/L (table 7). Low 

concentrations of dissolved solids such as these are representative of basins containing thin soils and rocks that are not easily 

dissolved or water that has had only brief contact time with 

more easily dissolved rocks.

Calcium and magnesium are both common alkaline-earth 

metals that are essential elements in plant and animal nutrition. Both elements are major components of the positively 

charged ions in most natural waters (Hem, 1985). Concentrations ranged from 2.9 to 7.4 mg/L for calcium and from 0.14 

to 0.70 mg/L for magnesium. Concentrations of these constituents tended to be highest at the North Fork Crescent River and 

the mainstem Crescent River site. Sodium and potassium are 

both present in most natural waters, but usually in low concentrations in rivers. Sodium concentrations ranged from 0.55 

to 2.3 mg/L at all sites sampled in the Crescent River Basin. 

Concentrations of sodium were all less than 1.0 mg/L at the 

Lake Fork Crescent River and Crescent Lake sites. Potassium 

concentrations ranged from 0.25 mg/L to 0.66 mg/L.

Bicarbonate was the dominant anion at both the surface-water and lake sites. Concentrations ranged from 8 to 25 

mg/L at the surface water-sites and from 9 to 13 mg/L at the 

lake sites. Silica and sulfate, which are dissolved from rocks 

and soils, are the next most abundant anions, with concentrations ranging from 3.6 to 11.7 mg/L for silica and from 1.3 to 

6.5 mg/L for sulfate. Chloride concentrations ranged from 0.3 

to 2.3 mg/L.

Iron is dissolved from many rocks and soils and is an 

essential element in the metabolism of animals and plants. 

Iron in drinking water does not pose a health threat provided 

concentrations are less than 300 μg/L. Concentrations at all 

sites were less than or equal to 204 μg/L (table 7) with the 

exception of one sample at North Fork Crescent River that had 

Figure 11. Trilinear diagram of water samples collected from the Crescent River Basin.

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin 1
a concentration of 679 μg/L. Manganese has chemistry similar 

to that of iron and concentrations should generally be less than 

50 μg/L. All concentrations were less than or equal to 40 μg/L.

Trilinear diagrams were used to plot the major ions in 

milliequevalents per liter. The trilinear diagram permits the 

chemical composition of multiple samples to be represented 

on a single graph, and facilitates classification of the sample 

chemistry. On the basis of analyses of samples collected 

during this study, the water of the Crescent River sites and 

Crescent Lake can be classified as calcium bicarbonate water 

(fig. 11).

Nutrients and Organic Carbon

Nitrogen is an important water-quality constituent largely 

due to its role as a component of the protoplasm in aquatic 

biota, and thus it is an essential nutrient in lakes, streams, and 

rivers. In aquatic ecosystems, nitrogen commonly occurs in 

three ionic forms: ammonium (NH4), nitrite (NO2), and nitrate 

(NO3). In the laboratory, ammonium is analyzed as ammonia 

(NH3); thus nitrogen concentrations are reported as total and 

dissolved ammonia plus organic nitrogen, dissolved ammonia, 

dissolved nitrite plus nitrate, and dissolved nitrite. Nitrate is 

generally more abundant than nitrite in natural waters because 

nitrite readily oxidizes to nitrate in oxygenated water. Total 

ammonia plus organic nitrogen concentrations represent the 

ammonium and organic nitrogen compounds in solution and 

associated with colloidal material. Nitrate and nitrite are 

oxidized forms of inorganic nitrogen that make up most of 

the dissolved nitrogen in well-oxygenated streams such as the 

Crescent River. The dissolved concentrations represent the 

ammonium or nitrite plus nitrate in solution and are associated 

with material capable of passing through a 0.45-μm-pore filter.

All concentrations of the various nitrogen forms were 

low at less than 1 mg/L (table 8). Nitrate and nitrite concentrations were highest in the early spring. Lower concentrations 

were observed in July through September. Due to its toxicity to freshwater aquatic organisms, the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (USEPA) (1976) suggests a limitation of 

0.02 mg/L of ammonia as un-ionized ammonia for waters to 

be suitable for fish propagation. With the exception of one 

sample at the North Fork Crescent River (site 1), concentrations of ammonia (both ionized and unionized) were all below 

this level at all Crescent River and Crescent Lake sites.

Phosphorus is an element vital to all forms of aquatic 

biota because it is involved in the capture and transfer of 

chemical energy, and it is an essential element in nucleic 

acids (Gaudy and Gaudy, 1988). It occurs as organically 

bound phosphorus or as phosphate. Elevated concentrations 

of phosphorus in water are not considered toxic to human or 

aquatic life. Elevated concentrations can, however, stimulate 

the growth of algae in lakes and streams. Phosphorus concentrations are reported as total phosphorus and dissolved 

orthophosphate. Total phosphorus concentrations represent 

the phosphorus in solution, associated with colloidal material, 

and contained in or attached to biotic and inorganic particulate matter. Dissolved concentrations are determined from the 

filtrate that passes through a filter with a nominal pore size of 

0.45 μm. The orthophosphate ion, PO4, is a significant form of 

phosphorus because it is directly available for metabolic use 

by aquatic biota. Concentrations of total phosphorus, dissolved 

phosphorus and orthophosphate were typically low, with 

values near or below minimum reporting levels in nearly all 

Crescent River and Crescent Lake samples (table 8).

Phytoplankton (algae) can assimilate only three of the 

several different nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) compounds available in aquatic ecosystems. The only forms of 

nitrogen that phytoplankton can use for growth are nitrate, 

nitrite, and ammonia (inorganic nitrogen), whereas orthophosphate is the only form of phosphorus that phytoplankton can 

use for growth (Horne and Goldman, 1994). In general, a N:P 

ratio greater than 10 (by weight) indicates that phosphorus is 

the limiting nutrient, whereas a ratio less than 10 indicates that 

nitrogen is limiting (Horne and Goldman, 1994). For Crescent 

Lake N:P ratios ranged from 18 to 39, suggesting that phosphorus is the limiting nutrient.

DOC is commonly a major component of organic matter in aquatic ecosystems and is defined as organic carbon in 

the filtrate (dissolved and colloidal phases) that has passed 

through a 0.45-μm pore-size filter. Generally, DOC is in 

greater abundance than particulate organic carbon, accounting for about 90 percent of the total organic carbon of most 

waters (Aiken and Cotsaris, 1995). For the Crescent River and 

Crescent Lake sites, concentrations of DOC were all less than 

or equal to 1.1 mg/L.

Trace Elements in Streambed Sediments

Streambed sediments at the 3 surface-water sites in the 

Crescent River Basin were collected and analyzed for 39 trace 

elements (table 9). Most of the trace elements do not have an 

aquatic life standard. Thus, to provide a general comparison, 

the concentrations of trace elements in samples from the Crescent River Basin sites were compared to the concentrations of 

the NAWQA program data set, which consists of about 1,000 

samples collected throughout the contiguous United States, 

Alaska, and Hawaii. Of these samples, about 250 samples 

represent reference or forested areas (V. Cory Stephens, U.S. 

Geological Survey, written commun. 2004). The concentrations of the Crescent River Basin data also were compared 

to concentrations of trace elements in streambed sediments 

collected from two other basins in Lake Clark National Park 

and Preserve: the Kijik River Basin and the Johnson River 

Basin. The 300 mi2 Kijik River Basin is in the western part of 

the LACL, and is one of the key salmon spawning streams for 

Lake Clark. The 96 mi2 Johnson River Basin is just south of 

the Crescent River Basin (fig. 1).

Most median concentrations of the trace elements collected in the Crescent River Basin were similar to the median 

concent rations for the NAWQA reference/forested sites, with 

20 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Table . Concentrations of nutrients and dissolved organic carbon in water samples collected in the Crescent River Basin.

[all values in milligrams per liter unless otherwise noted; <, less than; E, estimated; --, constituent not measured]

Date Time

Dissolved

 Ammonia

 Nitrogen (NH4)

Dissolved 

Nitrogen 

(NH4+Org)

Total Nitrogen 

(NH4 + Org)

Dissolved 

Nitrogen 

(NO2+NO3)

Dissolved 

Nitrogen 

(NO2)

 Dissolved 

Phosphorus

Dissolved 

Phosphorus 

Ortho

Total

Phosphorus

N:P 

Ratio

Dissolved 

Organic 

Carbon

North Fork Crescent River (site 1)

5/16/2003 1330 0.022 E0.06 E0.09 0.364 0.003 E0.002 <0.007 0.009 0.5

7/2/2003 1630 <0.015 E0.06 <0.10 0.055 <0.002 E0.003 <0.007 0.085 0.58/1/2003 1310 <0.015 <0.10 E0.05 0.039 <0.002 E0.003 <0.007 0.065 E0.2

10/23/2003 1230 E0.006 E0.06 <0.10 0.230 E0.001 E0.002 <0.006 0.010 0.5

8/11/2004 1350 <0.010 <0.10 <0.10 0.028 <0.002 0.005 E0.004 0.187 E0.2

9/8/2004 1350 E0.005 <0.10 E0.05 0.060 E0.001 0.004 <0.006 0.052 <0.3

Crescent lake (site 5)

6/23/2004 1635 <0.010 <0.010 <0.01 0.221 <0.002 E0.002 <0.006 0.013 39 1.17/29/2004 1400 <0.010 <0.010 E0.05 0.097 E0.001 E0.002 <0.006 0.032 18 E0.28/18/2004 1415 <0.010 <0.010 <0.10 0.114 <0.002 <0.004 <0.006 0.016 39 E0.19/13/2004 1415 <0.010 <0.010 <0.10 0.094 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 E0.010 18 0.4

Lake Fork Crescent River (site 2)

5/16/2003 1115 <0.015 <0.10 <0.10 0.310 <0.002 <0.004 <0.007 <0.004 0.47/19/2003 1045 <0.015 <0.10 0.14 0.145 <0.002 <0.004 <0.007 0.008 0.48/14/2003 1025 E0.008 <0.10 <0.10 0.111 <0.002 <0.004 <0.007 0.014 E0.3

10/23/2003 1545 <0.010 <0.10 E0.06 0.157 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 0.045 0.4

7/2/2004 1245 E0.005 <0.10 E0.05 0.154 <0.002 <0.004 <0.006 0.017 0.3

7/29/2004 1130 E0.007 <0.10 <0.10 0.126 <0.002 <0.004 <0.006 0.017 0.38/18/2004 1200 E0.005 <0.10 <0.10 0.092 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 0.015 --9/13/2004 1225 E0.006 <0.10 <0.10 0.094 E0.001 <0.004 <0.006 E0.009 0.4

Crescent River near mouth (site 3)

5/16/2003 1615 <0.015 <0.10 E0.07 0.385 E.002 0.005 <0.007 0.008 0.6

7/2/2003 1120 <0.015 <0.10 E0.09 0.174 <0.002 E0.003 <0.007 0.127 0.48/1/2003 1730 0.040 0.23 0.26 0.101 <0.002 0.006 <0.007 0.079 1.0

10/24/2003 1515 <0.010 <0.10 <0.10 0.280 E0.001 0.005 E0.003 0.109 0.8

8/11/2004 1520 <0.010 E0.07 E0.06 0.118 E0.001 0.007 E0.004 0.197 E0.3

9/8/2004 1300 E0.006 E0.06 E0.06 0.146 E0.001 0.005 E0.003 0.052 E0.2

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin 21
Table . Trace-element concentrations and percent organic carbon measured in streambed sediments.

Collected from sites located in the Crescent River Basin, September 2004. [values of carbon, aluminum, iron, and titanium in percent; all other values in 

micrograms per gram; <, less than]

Site # Site name Carbon 

(Organic)

Aluminum Antimony Arsenic Barium Berylium Bismuth Cadmium

1 North Fork

Crescent River

1.9 9.1 0.3 4.7 600 0.8 <1 <.1

2 Lake Fork

Crescent River

3 7.5 0.5 9 400 0.5 <1 0.2

3 Crescent River

near mouth

7 8.4 0.3 2.9 430 0.5 <1 0.1

Site # Site name Cerium Chromium Cobalt Copper Europium Gallium Gold Holmium

1 North Fork

Crescent River

23 26 15 44 1 18 <1 <1

2 Lake Fork

Crescent River

30 43 31 110 1 17 <1 1

3 Crescent River

near mouth

22 20 31 72 1 20 <1 <1

Site # Site name Iron Lanthanum Lead Lithium Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium

1 North Fork

Crescent River

4.1 11 6 12 1000 0.02 1.1 14

2 Lake Fork

Crescent River

7.9 13 8 16 1600 0.04 0.9 20

3 Crescent River

near mouth

9.3 10 4 13 1700 <0.02 1.1 14

Site # Site name Nickel Niobium Scandium Selenium Silver Strontium Tantalum Thallium

1 North Fork

Crescent River

12 8 19 <.1 0.7 450 <1 <1

2 Lake Fork

Crescent River

19 8 49 0.2 0.3 180 <1 <1

3 Crescent River

near mouth

14 7 28 <.1 0.2 390 <1 <1

Site # Site name Thorium Tin Titanium Uranium Vanadium Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc

1 North Fork

Crescent River

3 1 0.37 1.2 130 2 19 72

2 Lake Fork

Crescent River

6 2 0.7 2.9 220 4 13 120

3 Crescent River

near mouth

2 1 0.87 1 380 2 19 150

the exception of higher concentrations of copper, scandium, 

and vanadium (table 10). Concentrations of cerium and lead in 

the Crescent River sites were lower than the NAWQA reference sites. Concentrations of most trace elements found in 

the Crescent, Johnson, and Kijik Rivers were similar. Notable 

exceptions were higher concentrations of arsenic, cerium, 

chromium, lanthanum, lithium, neodymium, thorium, and 

uranium found in the Kijik River samples. Concentrations 

of cadmium, lead, and zinc were higher at the Johnson River 

sites. Some of these sites, however, drain highly mineralized 

areas, which may explain these higher concentrations (Brabets 

and Riehle, 2003).

The focus in the literature on criteria for streambed 

sediments has been limited to nine trace elements: arsenic, 

cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, and zinc. The Canadian Council of Ministers of the 

Environment (CCME) (1999) has established guidelines for 

some trace elements in unsieved streambed sediment. These 

guidelines use two assessment values: a lower value, called 

the “interim freshwater sediment quality guideline” (ISQG), 

is the concentration below which adverse effects are expected 

22 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Table 10. Comparison of concentrations of trace elements measured in streambed sediments from the USGS National Water-Quality 

Assessment program and range of concentrations from three surface water sites in the Crescent River Basin, four sites in the Kijik River 

Basin, and eight sites in the Johnson River Basin.

[values for aluminum, iron, and titanium in percent; all other values in micrograms per gram; <, less than; --, no data]

Trace element

NAWQA Reference

Forested Sites

(number of samples varies 

between 241 and 22)

Range in concentration from Kijik River 

sites

Range in concentration from Crescent 

River sites

Range in concentration from Johnson 

River sites

Aluminum 6.5 6.7-7.7 7.5-9.1 8.0-10

Antimony 0.7 1.1-2.0 0.3-0.5 0.4-10

Arsenic 7.0 24-32 2.9-9.0 16-64

Barium 470 680-850 400-600 200-1100

Berylium 2.0 2.0-2.4 0.5-0.8 0.2-1.0

Bismuth -- <1 <1 <1

Cadmium 0.4 0.44-0.97 <0.1-0.2 <0.1-4.6

Cerium 70 66-82 22-30 21-36

Chromium 63 47-110 20-43 14-66

Cobalt 15 8.7-16 15-31 18-44

Copper 26 25-40 44-110 47-92

Europium 1.0 1.2-1.4 1 1.0-2.0

Gallium 16 18-20 17-20 15-20

Gold -- <1 <1 <1

Holmium -- 1.0-1.3 <1-1 1.0-2.0

Iron 3.6 2.9-4.7 4.1-9.3 4.8-13

Lanthanum -- 36-43 10-13 8-15

Lead 24 24-32 4-8 4.0-230

Lithium -- 32-48 12-16 9-20

Manganese 955 720-1600 1000-1700 1200-2000

Mercury 0.07 <0.02-0.03 <0.02-0.04 0.10-0.93

Molybdenum 1 1.6-3.9 0.9-1.1 0.5-4.0

Neodymium -- 37-44 14-20 15-22

Nickel 26 14-32 12-19 4-25

Niobium -- 16-21 7-8 <4.0

Scandium 12 14-20 19-49 29-56

Selenium 0.7 0.11-0.95 <0.1-0.2 0.2-2.6

Silver 0.2 0.29-0.43 0.2-0.7 <0.1-0.8

Strontium 140 230-240 180-450 8.5-200

Tantalium -- 1.1-1.3 <1 <1

Thallium -- <1 <1 <1-1.3

Thorium 12.0 7-12 2-6 <1-2

Tin 2.5 3.1-3.6 1-2 1-2

Titanium 0.37 0.41-0.59 0.37-0.87 0.5-0.8

Uranium 3.9 3.5-10 1-2.9 0.8-1.1

Vanadium 84 75-140 130-380 140-550

Ytterbium -- 2.6-3.3 2-4 3-4

Yttrium -- 28-34 13-19 27-43

Zinc 110 120-170 72-150 85-1800

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin 23
Table 11. Comparison of streambed sediment quality guidelines to concentrations measured in streambed sediments in the Crescent 

River Basin for selected trace elements.

 [Values in micrograms per gram; <, less than; --, no guideline established]

Trace Element

Interim Freshwater Sediment Quality Guideline 

(ISQG)1

Threshold Effect 

Concentration

(TEC)2

Probable 

Effect Level

(PEL)1

Probable Effect Concentration

(PEC)2

Range in Crescent 

River samples

Arsenic 5.9 9.8 17.0 33.0 2.9 - 9

Cadmium 0.6 0.99 3.5 5.0 <.1 - .2

Chromium 37.3 43.4 90 111 20 - 43

Copper 35.7 31.6 197 149 44 - 110

Lead 35.0 35.8 91.3 128 4 - 8

Mercury 0.17 0.18 0.49 1.06 <0.02 – 0.04

Nickel -- 22.7 -- 48.6 12 - 19

Selenium3 -- 2.5 -- 4.0 <.1 – .2

Zinc 123 121 315 459 72 - 150

1

 Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (1999)

2

 MacDonald and others (2000)

3

 Van Derveer and Canton (1997)

to occur rarely; and an upper value, called the “probable 

effect level” (PEL), is the concentration above which adverse 

effects are expected to occur frequently (table 11). Because 

trace-element samples for this study are from sediments finer 

than 0.063 mm, in which concentrations tend to be greatest, 

comparisons with the Canadian guidelines may overestimate 

the effects on aquatic organisms (Deacon and Stephens, 1998). 

However, it was felt that the PEL would be useful for comparative purposes when applied to the finer than 0.063-mm size 

fraction sediment samples analyzed for this study.

MacDonald and others (2000) proposed sediment quality guidelines for eight trace elements, and Van Derveer and 

Canton (1997) proposed guidelines for selenium. These guidelines use the following two concentrations for a given trace 

element: the threshold effect concentration (TEC) and the 

probable effect concentration (PEC) and assume a 1 percent 

organic carbon concentration. The TEC is the concentration 

below which sediment-dwelling organisms are unlikely to be 

adversely affected, and the PEC is the concentration above 

which toxicity is likely. In addition, MacDonald and others 

(2000) developed a Mean PEC Quotient, which is the toxicity of the combined trace- element concentrations. The Mean 

PEC Quotient is computed by summing the concentrations of 

all the trace elements analyzed and dividing by the number of 

elements. MacDonald and others (2000) found that sediments 

with mean PEC quotients less than 0.5 accurately predicted 

the absence of toxicity in 83 percent of the samples they 

examined. Mean PEC quotients greater than 0.5 accurately 

predicted toxicity in 85 percent of the samples.

When compared to the different guidelines, the concentration of chromium at the Lake Fork Crescent River, copper 

at all three stream sites, and zinc at the Crescent River near the 

mouth site exceeded the ISQG guidelines. Concentrations of 

copper at all sites and the concentration of zinc at the Crescent 

River near the mouth exceeded the TEC guidelines. All concentrations were below the PEL and PEC guidelines.

Comparison of the concentrations of the trace elements 

with the percent organic carbon and Mean PEC Quotient 

provides some insights about the bioavailability of these trace 

elements. The concentration of organic carbon in sediment 

is used to indicate the concentration of organic matter. The 

ability of organic matter to concentrate some trace elements in 

stream sediment is well recognized (Gibbs, 1973, Horowitz, 

1991), and this ability varies with the type of organic matter. 

For example, complexation by organic matter, such as humic 

and fulvic acids, has generally been thought to reduce bioavailability (Spacie and Hamelink, 1985, Newman and Jagoe, 

1994). Results of studies by Decho and Luoma (1994) and 

Winner (1985) suggest that organic carbon compounds may 

in some cases enhance uptake of certain trace elements. All 

three streambed sediment samples from the Crescent River 

had values of organic carbon greater than 1 percent (table 12). 

Compared to the percent organic carbon found in samples 

from the Kijik River and the Johnson River, most organic 

carbon values were less than 1 percent in the samples from the 

Crescent River. With the exception of one sample, the mean 

PEC quotient in the Johnson River samples was greater than 

0.50, which would indicate some level of potential toxicity (table 12). As MacDonald and others (2000) noted, sites 

24 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Table 12. Concentrations of priority pollutant trace elements in streambed sediments finer than 0.063 mm for sites located in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve.

[concentrations in micrograms per gram, dry weight, organic carbon in percent; As, arsenic; Cd, cadmium; Cr, chromium; Cu, copper; Pb, lead; Hg, mercury; Ni, nickel; Se, selenium; Zn, zinc; <, less than; values in bold are concentrations that when normalized to one percent organic carbon, exceed Probable Effect Concentration (PEC), or for the mean PEC quotient, indicate toxicity for the sum of trace elements excluding selenium (MacDonald and others, 2000)]

Priority pollutant trace element

Site 

#

Site name Latitude Longitude As Cd Cr Cu Pb Hg Ni Se Zn Organic 

carbon

Mean 

PEC 

Quotient

Crescent River Basin - Lake Clark 

National Park and Preserve

1 North Fork Crescent River 602604 1525400 4.7 0.1 26 44 6 0.02 12 0.1 72 1.9 0.082 Lake Fork Crescent River 602129 1524907 9 0.2 43 110 8 0.04 19 0.2 120 3 0.093 Crescent River near mouth 601436 1523449 2.9 0.1 20 72 4 0.02 14 0.1 150 7 0.03

Kijik River Basin - Lake Clark National 

Park and Preserve

Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake 601708 1542035 29 0.97 110 40 28 0.03 32 0.95 170 2.43 0.19Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake 601828 1541717 26 0.63 47 25 24 0.03 14 0.63 120 3.13 0.09Kijik River above Little Kijik River 601833 1541541 24 0.44 62 26 24 0.02 16 0.11 120 0.42 0.7Kijik River 1.5 miles above mouth 601801 1541436 32 0.73 69 34 32 0.02 20 0.25 150 1.06 0.35

Johnson River Basin--Lake Clark 

National Park and Preserve

North Fork Ore Creek near mouth 

near Johnson Glacier

600658 1525814 34 <.1 41 54 <1 0.53 15 0.2 120 0.16 2.21

East Fork Ore Creek near mouth near 

Johnson Glacier

600713 1525740 64 4.3 14 76 230 0.93 4 2.6 1000 1.00 0.72

Ore Creek near mouth near Johnson 

Glacier

600715 1525728 44 4.6 23 92 180 0.28 8 1.2 1800 0.24 4.60

Kona Creek 3 mi above mouth above 

Lateral Glacier

600826 1525544 19 <.1 38 56 6 0.75 11 0.6 120 0.25 1.27

Kona Creek 2.5 mi above Lateral 

Glacier

600803 1525524 18 0.1 42 57 5 0.16 11 0.6 140 0.26 0.98

Kona Creek 0.8 mi above mouth 

above Lateral Glacier

600636 1525514 16 0.4 48 63 17 0.28 14 0.7 150 0.49 0.62

Unnamed tributary to Kona Creek 

above Lateral Glacier

600635 1525509 18 <.1 77 47 4 0.1 25 0.2 85 1.30 0.23

Johnson River above Lateral Glacier 600541 1525438 16 0.2 66 75 4 0.13 17 0.3 130 0.05 6.02

Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin 2
Table 13. Macrozooplankton data for 

Crescent Lake.

[taxa in number per cubic meter; --, no data]

Site 4

Date Cyclops Ovigerous

Cyclops

6/23/2004 223 0

7/29/2004 2,145 0

Mean 1,184 0

Site 5

Date Cyclops Ovigerous

Cyclops

6/23/2004 1,107 6

7/29/2004 524 --

8/18/2004 679 --

9/13/2004 28 1

Mean 584 4

Site 6

Date Cyclops Ovigerous

Cyclops

6/23/2004 178 0

7/29/2004 1,992 18

Mean 1,085 9

Table 14. Seasonal means of length and biomass of zooplankton 

from Crescent Lake. 

[Values in millimeters for length and milligrams per cubic meter for biomass]

Site 4

Mean

Length

Weighted

Length

Mean

Biomass

Weighted

Biomass

Cyclops 0.76 0.69 2 2

TOTAL 2 2

Site 5

Mean

Length

Weighted

Length

Mean

Biomass

Weighted

Biomass

Cyclops 0.86 0.84 2 1

Ovigerous Cyclops

TOTAL

1.38 1.37 0.03

2.03

0.03

1.03

Site 6

Mean

Length

Weighted

Length

Mean

Biomass

Weighted

Biomass

Cyclops 0.79 0.74 2 2

Ovigerous Cyclops

TOTAL

1.29 1.29 <1

2

<1

2

containing relatively low concentrations of organic carbon 

have higher potential toxicity. When normalized to percent 

organic carbon, no concentrations of trace elements in the 

Crescent River samples exceeded the PEC level.

Biology of the Crescent River Basin

Zooplankton

Zooplankton samples were collected in June and 

July 2004 at Crescent Lake sites 4 and 6 and in June, 

July, August, and September 2004 at site 5. The only 

genus identified was Cyclops, including a relatively small 

number of ovigerous (egg-bearing) Cyclops (table 13). 

Cyclops are one of the primary food sources for rearing 

sockeye salmon juveniles and were most prevalent in the 

July sampling. Sites 4 and 6 were very similar with regard 

to the length and the biomass of Cyclops (table 14). Site 5 

exhibited Cyclops that were generally greater in length, but 

accounted for less in overall biomass.

Algae

Algae QMH samples were collected from Crescent 

River near the mouth (site 3) and the North Fork Crescent 

River (site 1). No quantitative data were collected at either 

of the Crescent River sites, so no quantitative assessments 

of biovolume or standing crop were performed. However, 

59 species of algae were found within the 2 drainages, 

and several generalizations may be drawn from the simple 

presence/absence dataset (tables 15-18). Because of the 

complex response patterns of these metrics they are most 

useful for relative comparisons in larger datasets, although 

values do provide useful baseline measures. To further 

explain some of the observations, algae data that were collected in the Kijik River Basin in 2004 are also discussed 

in this section.

A total of fifty-nine taxa were found at the two Crescent River sites, and were comprised of four phyla (table 

15): Rhodophyta (Red algae), Cyanophyta (blue-green 

algae), Chlorophyta (green algae), and Chrysophta (diatoms). Their general composition were: Rhodophyta (red 

algae), with one new individual yet to be fully described, 

Cyanophyta (blue-green algae) composed of one family 

containing two taxa, Chlorophyta (green algae) composed 

of two families, each with one taxa, and Chrysophyta 

(diatoms) which had the greatest number of taxa and was 

composed of seven families, four of which (Achnanthaceae, Diatomaceae, Naviculaceae, and Nitzschiceae) 

contained the vast majority of remaining taxa. Eight 

species—Cymbella latens, Diatoma tenuis, Encyonema 

silesiacum, Fragilaria capucina, Fragilaria vaucheriae, 

2 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Table 1. Algal taxa present for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected July-September 2004, at two stream sites in the 

Crescent River Basin and four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.

[X, species present. --, species not present]

Taxonomy

North Fork 

Crescent 

River

Crescent 

River near 

mouth

Little Kijik 

River above 

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik 

River below 

Kijik Lake

Kijik River 

above Little 

Kijik

Kijik River 

1. miles 

above mouth

PHYLUM

 Family

 Genus species

RHODOPHYTA (red algae)

 Unknown

 Unknown Rhodophyte Florideophycidae (chantransia)

X -- -- -- -- --

CYANOPHYTA (blue-green algae)

 Borziaceae

 Komvophoron schmidlei -- -- X -- -- --

 Merismopediaceae

 Merismopedia arctica -- -- -- -- X --

 Oscillatoriaceae

 Oscillatoria lutea -- -- X -- X --

 Phormidiaceae

 Phormidium autumnale (CA Agardh) 

Gomont

-- -- X -- X --

 Pseudanabaenaceae

 Geitlerinema splendidum -- -- -- X -- --

 Homoeothrix sp. -- X X -- X --

 Leptolyngbya sp. X -- -- -- -- --

 Pseudanabaena sp. -- -- X -- X X

 Undetermined

 Unknown Cyanophyte coccoid -- -- -- X -- --

CHLOROPHYTA (green algae)

 Chaetophoraceae

 Stigeoclonium lubricum -- -- -- X -- --

 Desmidiaceae

 Staurastrum sp. -- -- X -- -- X

 Hydrodictyaceae

 Pediastrum boryanum -- -- -- X -- --

 Scenedesmaceae

 Scenedesmus ecornis -- -- X -- -- --

 Ulvaceae

 Schizomeris leibleinii -- X -- -- -- --

 Volvocaceae

 Eudorina elegans -- -- X -- -- --

 Zygnemataceae

 Mougeotia sp. -- -- X -- -- X

Biology of the Crescent River Basin 2
Table 1. Algal taxa present for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected July-September 2004, at two stream sites in the 

Crescent River Basin and four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.—Continued

[X, species present. --, species not present]

Taxonomy

North Fork 

Crescent 

River

Crescent 

River near 

mouth

Little Kijik 

River above 

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik 

River below 

Kijik Lake

Kijik River 

above Little 

Kijik

Kijik River 

1. miles 

above mouth

 Spirogyra sp. X -- -- -- -- --

 Zygnema sp. -- -- -- X X --

CHRYSOPHYTA (diatoms)

 Achnanthaceae

 Achnanthes biasolettiana -- X -- -- -- --

 Achnanthes kriegeri -- -- X -- -- X

 Achnanthes lanceolata var. haynaldii -- X -- -- -- --

 Achnanthes minutissima var. jackii -- X X X X X

 Achnanthes nodosa -- X X X -- --

 Achnanthidium altergracillima -- -- -- -- X --

 Achnanthidium kranzii -- -- X -- -- --

 Achnanthidium minutissimum -- X X X -- --

 Cocconeis placentula var. lineata -- -- -- -- -- X

 Eucocconeis flexella -- X X -- X X

 Eucocconeis laevis -- -- X -- -- X

 Planothidium frequentissimum -- -- -- X -- --

 Planothidium lanceolatum -- X X X -- --

 Psammothidium grischunum fo. 

Daonensis

-- -- -- X -- --

 Psammothidium helveticum -- X X X -- --

 Psammothidium lacus-vulcani -- -- -- X -- --

 Psammothidium subatomoides -- -- -- X -- --

 Psammothidium ventralis -- -- X -- -- --

 Rossithidium petersennii -- X X X -- X

 Rossithidium pusillum -- -- -- X -- --

 Diatomaceae

 Diatoma mesodon X -- X -- -- --

 Diatoma tenuis X X X -- X X

 Fragilaria capucina X X -- X X --

 Fragilaria capucina var. mesolepta -- -- -- X -- --

 Fragilaria capucina var. rumpens -- X X X X X

 Fragilaria nanana -- X X -- -- --

 Fragilaria sp. 8 NAWQA EAM -- -- X X -- --

 Fragilaria tenera -- -- X -- -- --

 Fragilaria vaucheriae X X X X X X

 Fragilariforma bicapitata -- -- X -- -- --

 Fragilariforma sp. 1 NAWQA EAM -- -- X -- -- --

 Hannaea arcus X X X -- X X

 Hannaea arcus fo. recta -- X -- -- -- --

2 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Table 1. Algal taxa present for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected July-September 2004, at two stream sites in the 

Crescent River Basin and four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.—Continued

[X, species present. --, species not present]

Taxonomy

North Fork 

Crescent 

River

Crescent 

River near 

mouth

Little Kijik 

River above 

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik 

River below 

Kijik Lake

Kijik River 

above Little 

Kijik

Kijik River 

1. miles 

above mouth

 Meridion circulare X -- X -- -- --

 Meridion circulare var. constrictum -- -- X -- -- --

 Opephora martyi -- -- -- X -- --

 Pseudostaurosira pseudoconstruens -- X -- X -- --

 Pseudostaurosira robusta -- -- -- X -- --

 Pseudostaurosira sp. 2 NAWQA EAM -- -- -- X -- --

 Stauroforma exiguiformis -- -- X -- -- --

 Staurosira construens -- -- -- -- X --

 Staurosira construens var. binodis X -- -- X X --

 Staurosira construens var. venter -- -- -- X -- --

 Staurosira elliptica -- X X X -- --

 Staurosirella lapponica -- -- -- X -- --

 Staurosirella leptostauron var. 

rhomboides

-- -- -- X -- --

 Staurosirella pinnata -- -- X X X X

 Staurosirella sp. 7 NAWQA EAM -- -- -- X -- --

 Synedra amphicephala var. austriaca -- -- -- X X X

 Synedra delicatissima -- -- -- X X X

 Synedra delicatissima var. angustissima

-- -- -- X -- --

 Synedra ulna X -- X -- X X

 Tabellaria fenestrata X -- X -- -- --

 Tabellaria flocculosa X X X X X X

 Eunotiaceae

 Eunotia flexuosa -- -- X -- -- --

 Eunotia minor -- X X -- -- --

 Eunotia paludosa -- -- X -- -- --

 Naviculaceae

 Amphora pediculus -- -- -- X X --

 Amphora sp. 6 NAWQA EAM -- X -- X X --

 Brachysira microcephala -- X X X X X

 Caloneis bacillum -- -- -- X -- --

 Caloneis silicula -- -- X -- -- --

 Cavinula pseudoscutiformis -- -- -- X -- --

 Cymbella arctica X -- -- -- -- --

 Cymbella cistula X -- -- X -- --

 Cymbella delicatula -- -- -- X X --

 Cymbella dorsenotata -- -- -- -- -- X

 Cymbella hilliardii -- -- -- X -- --

Biology of the Crescent River Basin 2
Table 1. Algal taxa present for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected July-September 2004, at two stream sites in the 

Crescent River Basin and four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.—Continued

[X, species present. --, species not present]

Taxonomy

North Fork 

Crescent 

River

Crescent 

River near 

mouth

Little Kijik 

River above 

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik 

River below 

Kijik Lake

Kijik River 

above Little 

Kijik

Kijik River 

1. miles 

above mouth

 Cymbella latens X X X -- -- --

 Cymbella mesiana -- X X -- X --

 Cymbella naviculiformis -- -- X -- -- --

 Cymbella stauroneiformis -- -- X -- -- --

 Diadesmis confervacea -- -- -- -- X --

 Diadesmis contenta -- -- X -- -- --

 Didymosphenia geminata -- X -- -- X --

 Diploneis parma -- -- -- X -- --

 Encyonema minutum -- X X X X X

 Encyonema reichardtii -- -- X -- -- --

 Encyonema silesiacum X X X X X --

 Encyonema triangulum -- -- -- X -- --

 Encyonopsis aff. cesatii EAM -- -- X X X X

 Encyonopsis cesatii -- -- -- X -- --

 Encyonopsis descripta -- -- -- X -- --

 Encyonopsis microcephala -- -- -- X X --

 Encyonopsis sp. 1 NAWQA EAM -- X -- X X --

 Frustulia rhomboides var. viridula X -- -- -- -- --

 Frustulia saxonica -- -- -- X -- --

 Gomphonema angustatum -- X X X -- X

 Gomphonema micropus -- -- X -- -- --

 Gomphonema olivaceoides var. 

hutchinsoniana

-- X -- -- -- --

 Gomphonema olivaceum -- X -- -- X X

 Gomphonema productum X X -- -- -- --

 Gomphonema sarcophagus -- -- X -- -- --

 Gomphonema sp. 3 Idaho SEH X -- -- -- -- --

 Mayamaea atomus -- X -- -- -- --

 Navicula arctotenelloides -- X -- -- -- --

 Navicula cf. kriegerii NAWQA KM -- -- -- -- -- X

 Navicula cryptocephala -- -- X -- -- --

 Navicula cryptotenella -- X -- X -- X

 Navicula hambergii -- X -- -- -- --

 Navicula indifferens -- -- -- X -- --

 Navicula sp. 44 NAWQA EAM -- -- -- X -- --

 Navicula vulpina -- -- -- X -- --

 Reimeria sinuata -- X X -- -- X

 Sellaphora pupula -- -- -- X -- --

 Sellaphora seminulum -- -- -- X -- --

30 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Table 1. Algal taxa present for qualitative-multi-habitat (QMH) samples collected July-September 2004, at two stream sites in the 

Crescent River Basin and four stream sites in the Kijik River Basin.—Continued

[X, species present. --, species not present]

Taxonomy

North Fork 

Crescent 

River

Crescent 

River near 

mouth

Little Kijik 

River above 

Kijik Lake

Little Kijik 

River below 

Kijik Lake

Kijik River 

above Little 

Kijik

Kijik River 

1. miles 

above mouth

 Stauroneis anceps X -- X -- -- --

 Nitzschiaceae

 Denticula kuetzingii -- -- -- X -- --

 Denticula tenuis -- X -- X X X

 Nitzschia angustata -- -- -- X -- --

 Nitzschia dissipata -- X -- -- -- --

 Nitzschia frustulum -- X -- X X --

 Nitzschia linearis -- -- X -- -- --

 Nitzschia modesta X -- -- -- -- --

 Nitzschia palea -- X -- -- -- X

 Nitzschia solita -- -- X -- -- --

 Surirellaceae

 Surirella brebissonii -- X -- -- -- --

 Thalassiosiraceae

 Aulacoseira crenulata -- -- X -- -- --

 Aulacoseira granulata -- -- X -- -- --

 Cyclotella ocellata -- -- -- -- X --

 Cyclotella stelligera -- X -- -- X X

Gomphonema productum, Hannaea arcus, and Tabellaria flocculosa—all diatoms, were common to both sites. Of these species, only Hannaea arcus is considered motile. The occurrence 

of motile species may be interpreted as a sign of a disturbed or 

highly variable environment, which would tend to favor motile 

species that, for example, may escape being covered by fine 

sediments that often occur in disturbed environments. Motile 

species are capable of movement over a surface or through the 

water column. None of these eight species fix nitrogen from 

the atmosphere, and all but one (T. flocculosa) are benthic 

(attached to the bottom) suggesting that the areas where they 

were collected are relatively stable or that these taxa may be 

capable of rapid recolonization after a perturbation. Most also 

tend to prefer neutral to slightly acidic conditions, though D. 

tenuis and F. vaucheriae are more tolerant of slightly basic 

conditions. Salinity values of less than 0.9 parts per thousand 

(ppt) were preferred by all but D. tenuis, which generally prefers slightly higher chloride concentrations, and subsequently, 

salinity values that typically range from 0.9-1.8 ppt (tables 16

and 17) (Stephen Porter, USGS, written commun. 2005).

The North Fork Crescent River (site 1) samples yielded 

22 algal taxa (table 15). Nineteen were diatoms (80 percent), 

with one each of blue-green, green, and red algae. The red 

algae was an unknown taxa that was unique to the North Fork 

Crescent River site, even when considering the four nearby 

Kijik and Little Kijik River sites (likewise sampled for algae 

using the same protocol). Fourteen of the taxa found within 

the Crescent River basin were unique to the upper site. Eightyone percent (table 18) of the unique taxa were non-motile 

(only three lived suspended in the water column), about 76 

percent tended to prefer neutral to slightly basic pH, and about 

90 percent preferred conditions ranging from <0.2 ppt to 

<0.9 ppt salinity. Many taxa found at this site were generally 

more tolerant to organically bound nitrogen, which suggests 

that this reach is also able to support some eutrophic species. 

Many algal taxa have minimum dissolved-oxygen saturation requirements. At the North Fork Crescent River, about 

45 percent of the taxa require nearly 100 percent saturation. 

About 30 percent of the taxa require a minimum of 75 percent 

saturation, and the remaining taxa require at least 50 percent 

saturation. Finally, the trophic condition for the upstream site 

yielded only one taxa (Frustulia rhomboides var. viridula) 

considered to prefer oligotrophic conditions. The mean trophic 

condition for the site, excluding absence values and values 

meaning ubiquity across the ranges (in this case, the value “7” 

denotes a wide range of tolerance and are thus indifferent), 

was between oligo-mesotrophic and mesotrophic and indicated 

slightly higher nutrient enrichment than at the downstream 

site. Roughly 40 percent of the 22 taxa did not have a value 

Biology of the Crescent River Basin 31
Table 1. Algal autecology characteristics and category values used to describe community structure at sample sites.

[<, less than; >, greater than; Stephen Porter, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 2002]

Characteristic Category 

Code Category Name Category Description

Benthic-Sestonic Taxa 1 benthic primarily or exclusively associated with benthic substrates

Benthic-Sestonic Taxa 2 sestonic primarily or exclusively sestonic (planktonic taxa)

Motility 1 motile taxa with capability of movement in the water column or on submerged 

surfaces

Motility 2 non-motile taxa without capability of movement; attached to submerged surfaces

Nitrogen Fixers 1 Nitrogen Fixer taxon is capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen

Nitrogen Fixers 2 Not Nitrogen Fixer taxon not capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen

Nitrogen Uptake Metabolism1 N autotroph - low org N taxa generally intolerant to organically-bound nitrogen; some may be “oligotrophic” or “mesotrophic species

Nitrogen Uptake Metabolism2 N autotroph - high org 

N

taxa tolerant to organically-bound nitrogen; some may be “eutrophic” taxa

Nitrogen Uptake Metabolism3 N heterotroph - high org 

N (facultative)

taxa requiring periodic elevated concentrations of organically-bound nitrogen

Nitrogen Uptake Metabolism4 N heterotroph - high org 

N (obligate)

taxa indicative of elevated concentrations of organically-bound nitrogen

Oxygen Requirement 1 always high nearly 100% DO saturation

Oxygen Requirement 2 fairly high > 75% DO saturation

Oxygen Requirement 3 moderate > 50% DO saturation

Oxygen Requirement 4 low > 30% DO saturation

Oxygen Requirement 5 very low about 10% DO saturation or less

pH 1 acidobiontic <7, optimum < 5.5

pH 2 acidophilous <7, optimum < 7

pH 3 circumneutral around 7

pH 4 alkaliphilous >7, occurring ~ 7

pH 5 alkalibiontic above 7

pH 6 indifferent ~ 7

Salinity 1 fresh < 100 mg/L chloride; < 0.2 ppt salinity

Salinity 2 fresh brackish < 500 mg/L chloride; < 0.9 ppt salinity

Salinity 3 brackish fresh 500 - 1000 mg/L chloride; 0.9 - 1.8 ppt salinity

Salinity 4 brackish 1000 - 5000 mg/L chloride; 1.8 - 9.0 ppt salinity

Trophic Condition 1 oligotrophic

Trophic Condition 2 oligo-meso

Trophic Condition 3 mesotrophic

Trophic Condition 4 meso-eutrophic

Trophic Condition 5 eutrophic

Trophic Condition 6 polytrophic

Trophic Condition 7 eurytrophic wide range of tolerance to nutrient concentrations; indifferent

32 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Table 1. Algal taxa autecology for taxa found at the two sites sampled within the Crescent River Basin, July 2004.

[Taxa are sorted alphabetically. See Table 16 - Algal Autecology Values; taxa id from Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences]

FULLNAME North 

Fork 

Crescent 

River

Crescent 

River 

near 

mouth

Taxon ID Motility Nitrogen 

Fixing

pH SalinityOrganic 

Nitrogen

Oxygen 

Tolerance

TrophicBenthic 

or Sestonic

Achnanthidium minutissimum 

(Kützing) Czarnecki

0 1 1,010 2 2 6 2 2 1 7 1

Achnanthes lanceolata var. 

haynaldii (Schaarschmidt) 

Cleve

0 1 2,017 2 2 4 2 2 3 7 1

Achnanthes nodosa Cleve 0 1 2,032 2 2 1

Achnanthes biasolettiana (Kützing) Grunow

0 1 2,053 2 2 4 2 3 1

Achnanthes minutissima var. 

jackii (Rabhenhost) LangeBertalot et Ruppel

0 1 2,176 2 2 3 2 1

Amphora sp. 6 NAWQA EAM 0 1 7,078

Brachysira microcephala 

(Grunow) Compère

0 1 18,013 2 2 1

Cyclotella stelligera (Cleve et 

Grunow) Van Heurck

0 1 20,010 2 2 6 2 2

Cymbella cistula (Ehrenberg) 

Kirchner

1 0 23,005 2 2 4 2 1 2 5 1

Cymbella mesiana Cholnoky 0 1 23,127 2 2 4 2 1

Cymbella latens Krasske 1 1 23,163 2 2 1

Cymbella arctica (Lagerstedt) 

Schmidt

1 0 23,191 2 2 1

Denticula tenuis Kützing 0 1 25,002 1 2 4 1 1 1 3 1

Diatoma mesodon (Ehrenberg) 

Kützing

1 0 27,002 2 2 3 1 1 1 3 1

Diatoma tenuis Agardh 1 1 27,012 2 2 4 3 2 3 5 1

Eunotia minor (Kützing) 

Grunow

0 1 33,183 2 2 2 1 1

Fragilaria capucina 

Desmazières

1 1 34,006 2 2 3 2 3 1

Fragilaria vaucheriae (Kützing) 

Petersen

1 1 34,030 2 2 4 2 2 3 5 1

Fragilaria nanana Lange-Bertalot

0 1 34,088 2 2 3 1 1 1 2 1

Fragilaria capucina var. 

rumpens (Kützing) LangeBertalot

0 1 34,109 2 2 3 2 2 1

Frustulia rhomboides var. 

viridula (Brébisson) Cleve

1 0 35,006 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1

Gomphonema angustatum (Kützing) Rabenhorst

0 1 37,003 2 2 4 2 1 1 1 1

Gomphonema productum 

(Grunow) Lange-Bertalot et 

Reichardt

1 1 37,055 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 1

Biology of the Crescent River Basin 33
Table 1. Algal taxa autecology for taxa found at the two sites sampled within the Crescent River Basin, July 2004.—Continued

[Taxa are sorted alphabetically. See Table 16 - Algal Autecology Values; taxa id from Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences]

FULLNAME

North 

Fork 

Crescent 

River

Crescent 

River 

near 

mouth

Taxon ID Motility

Nitrogen 

Fixing

pH Salinity

Organic 

Nitrogen

Oxygen 

Tolerance

Trophic

Benthic 

or Sestonic

Gomphonema olivaceum (Lyngbye) Kützing

0 1 37,065 2 2 5 2 2 2 5 1

Gomphonema olivaceoides var. 

hutchinsoniana Patrick

0 1 37,075 2 2 1

Gomphonema sp. 3 Idaho SEH 1 0 37,333

Hannaea arcus (Ehrenberg) 

Patrick

1 1 39,001 1 2 6 1

Hannaea arcus fo. recta Cleve 0 1 39,003

Meridion circulare (Greville) 

Agardh

1 0 45,001 2 2 4 2 2 2 7 2

Navicula hambergii Hustedt 0 1 46,356 1 2 2 1 1

Navicula cryptotenella LangeBertalot ex Krammer et 

Lange-Bertalot

0 1 46,527 1 2 4 2 7 1

Nitzschia dissipata (Kützing) 

Grunow

0 1 48,008 1 2 4 2 2 2 4 1

Nitzschia frustulum (Kützing) 

Grunow

0 1 48,013 2 2 4 3 4 3 5 1

Nitzschia palea (Kützing) Smith 0 1 48,025 2 2 3 2 4 4 6 1

Nitzschia modesta Hustedt 1 0 48,567 1 2 1

Reimeria sinuata (Gregory) 

Kociolek et Stoermer

0 1 55,002 2 2 3 2 2 1 3 1

Stauroneis anceps Ehrenberg 1 0 62,002 1 2 3 2 2 2 4 1

Surirella brebissonii Krammer et 

Lange-Bertalot

0 1 65,068 1 2 4 3 1

Synedra ulna (Nitzsch) Ehrenberg

1 0 66,024 2 2 4 2 2 3 7 1

Tabellaria fenestrata (Lyngbye) 

Kützing

1 0 67,002 2 2 3 1 1 1 2 2

Tabellaria flocculosa (Roth) 

Kützing

1 1 67,004 2 2 2 1 1 1 3 2

Pseudostaurosira pseudoconstruens (Marciniak) Williams 

et Round

0 1 73,002 2 2 1

Didymosphenia geminata (Lyngbye) Schmidt

0 1 81,001 2 2 6 1

Navicula arctotenelloides 

Lange-Bertalot et Metzeltin

0 1 93,188 1 2 1

Encyonema minutum (Hilse) 

Mann

0 1 110,004 2 2 3 2 1

Encyonema silesiacum (Bleisch) 

Mann

1 1 110,005 2 2 3 2 2 3 7 1

Planothidium lanceolatum 0 1 155,003 2 2 4 2 2 3 5 1

34 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Table 1. Algal taxa autecology for taxa found at the two sites sampled within the Crescent River Basin, July 2004.—Continued

[Taxa are sorted alphabetically. See Table 16 - Algal Autecology Values; taxa id from Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences]

FULLNAME

North 

Fork 

Crescent 

River

Crescent 

River 

near 

mouth

Taxon ID Motility

Nitrogen 

Fixing

pH Salinity

Organic 

Nitrogen

Oxygen 

Tolerance

Trophic

Benthic 

or Sestonic

Staurosira construens var. binodis (Ehrenberg) Hamilton

1 0 172,005 2 2 4 2 2 1 4 1

Staurosira elliptica (Schumann) 

Williams et Round

0 1 172,007 2 2 4 2 1 1 4 1

Psammothidium helveticum 

(Hustedt) Bukhtiyarova et 

Round

0 1 186,003 2 2 4 1 2 2 3 1

Eucocconeis flexella (Kützing) 

Cleve

0 1 187,001 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1

Rossithidium petersennii (Hustedt) Round et Bukhtiyarova

0 1 189,004 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1

Encyonopsis sp. 1 NAWQA EAM 0 1 203,015

Mayamaea atomus (Kützing) 

Lange-Bertalot

0 1 211,003 1 2 4 2 4 2 6 1

Schizomeris leibleinii Kützing 0 1 515,000 2 2 1

Spirogyra sp. 1 0 533,000 2 2 1

Homoeothrix spp 0 1 852,003 2 2 1

Leptolyngbya sp. 1 0 863,016 2 2 1

Unknown Rhodophyte Florideophycidae (chantransia)

1 0 1,599,006 2 2 1

associated with each of the autecological attributes discussed 

here.

The Crescent River at the mouth (site 3) provided habitat 

for about double the number of taxa (45) compared to the 

upstream site. Thirty-seven taxa represented algae not found 

at the upstream site. Nearly all of these taxa were diatoms 

(96 percent), except for one blue-green, and one green alga. 

Non-motile taxa made up about 80 percent of the algal community, whereas 20 percent were considered motile and all 

but 2 taxa were associated with benthic substrates (table 18). 

All taxa were categorized as unable to fix nitrogen from the 

atmosphere. The mean of the pH attributes suggested the algae 

preferred just slightly above circumneutral (~7) conditions, 

with four considered non-specific with respect to pH (these 

were not counted in the sum of values in the determination of 

the mean). Algal taxa exhibited a general salinity preference 

of <0.9 ppt, and <500 mg/L chloride. The downstream site

(site 3) algal community’s mean nitrogen uptake metabolism 

value was greater than the upstream site (site 1) community, 

although both sites would generally rank about the same on 

the attribute scale having taxa tolerant to organically bound 

nitrogen (table 18). Fifty percent of the taxa with assigned 

oxygen tolerance values required oxygen saturation to be near 

100 percent. Eighteen percent required greater than 75 percent 

oxygen saturation, about 33 percent required less than 50

percent or less saturation, marking a shift downward in oxygen 

saturation requirements compared to the upper site. The mean 

trophic condition was within a range of oligo-meso- to mesotrophic conditions.

An exploratory comparative analysis of the two Crescent 

River sites and the four Kijik/Little Kijik River sites provides 

some insight into similarities and differences among the Crescent River sites and the Kijik and Little Kijik River basins. A 

cluster analysis based on the Raup-Crick similarity index for 

presence/absence data was used to group the sites according 

to similarities in each site’s algal community (Hammer and 

others, 2001). The downstream Crescent River site was most 

similar to the 2 Kijik River sites (table 19), with respect to 

algal assemblages as the cophenetic correlation coefficient 

was 0.85, signifying that the cluster hierarchy of these sites 

accurately represented the original distances between points. 

These three sites have similar physical habitat characteristics: steep slopes (high streamflow velocity), small rocks as 

the bed substrate, and little or no bank vegetation. The North 

Fork Crescent River, Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake, and 

Little Kijik River below Kijik Lake show little similarity with 

respect to algal communities.

Biology of the Crescent River Basin 3
Table 1. Percentage calculations of algal autecology categories for the Crescent, Kijik, and Little Kijik Rivers.

Autecology Characteristic

(category name - table 1)

North Fork 

Crescent River

Crescent 

River near 

mouth

Little Kijik River 

above Kijik Lake

Little Kijik River 

below Kijik 

Lake

Kijik above 

Little Kijik

Kijik 1. miles 

above mouth

Motile 19 19 4 11 18 11

NonMotile 81 81 96 89 82 89

Nitrogen Fixing 0 0 0 0 0 0

Non-Nitrogen Fixing 100 100 100 100 100 100

pHAcidobiontic 0 0 0 0 0 0

pHAcidophilous 13 9 11 6 6 6

pHCircumneutral 40 32 42 38 44 38

pHAlkaliphilous 40 44 37 50 31 31

pHAlkalibiontic 0 3 0 0 6 6

pHIndifferent 7 12 11 6 13 19

SalinityFresh 29 23 33 25 27 21

SalinityFreshBrackish 64 68 61 69 67 64

SalinityBrackishFresh 7 10 6 6 7 14

SalinityBrackish 0 0 0 0 0 0

OrgNAutoLow 38 33 46 45 50 38

OrgNAutoHigh 62 52 54 45 40 50

OrgNHeteroHighFacultative 0 0 0 0 0 0

OrgNHeteroHighObligate 0 14 0 9 10 13

OxyTolAlwaysHigh 46 50 62 55 60 38

OxyTolFairlyHigh 23 18 8 9 10 13

OxyTolModerate 31 27 31 36 20 50

OxyTolLow 0 5 0 0 10 0

OxyTolVeryLow 0 0 0 0 0 0

Oligotrophic 7 12 21 14 25 10

Oligomesotrophic 14 12 14 7 8 10

Mesotrophic 21 24 21 29 25 30

Mesoeutrophic 14 8 7 7 0 0

Eutrophic 21 20 21 21 25 40

Polytrophic 0 8 0 0 8 0

Eurytrophic 21 16 14 21 8 10

BenthicSpp 86 95 96 95 88 89

SestonicSpp 14 5 4 5 12 11

Counts of values

FamRich 6 9 14 9 8 10

GenRich 16 29 38 31 23 27

SppRich 22 45 62 65 30 38

3 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004
Possible Effects of Logging on Water 

Quality

Only a limited amount of logging has taken place in 

the Crescent River Basin in the area near the mouth of the 

river (fig. 3). Because the logging did not encroach along the 

riverbank and was primarily downstream of the Crescent River 

at the mouth site, no effects from this logging on the water 

quality of the Crescent River were detected in this study. However, based on the water quality and biology data collected in 

this study some general observations on possible effects of 

increased logging in the Crescent River Basin can be made.

The runoff characteristics in the Crescent River Basin 

are dominated by the Lake Fork Crescent River and the North 

Fork Crescent River. Crescent Lake essentially controls the 

runoff characteristics of the Lake Fork Crescent River and 

only natural factors will change these characteristics because 

there are no private lands above the outlet of Crescent Lake. 

Similarly, the runoff characteristics of the North Fork Crescent 

River above the sampling site will only change from natural 

factors because there are no private lands above the North 

Fork sampling site. Below the two sampling sites, setbacks 

of 66 ft on either side of the streambank are required (Alaska 

Department of Natural Resources, 2003). Thus, most likely, 

the present channel would not be altered and flow characteristics will remain essentially unchanged.

Previous studies have shown that logging can increase 

water temperature since the removal of the forest canopy 

exposes the watershed to more sunlight. In the Crescent River 

Basin water temperature is driven more by glacier melt, snowmelt, and the ambient air temperature. Thus, while logging 

would remove some of the forest canopy and thus expose more 

of the watershed to sunlight, most likely there would be no 

significant change in water temperature.

Presently, Crescent Lake traps most of the suspended 

sediment that enters the lake and thus the Lake Fork Crescent 

River has low suspended sediment concentrations. This feature 

is unlikely to change. Suspended sediment characteristics 

at the North Fork Crescent River site are typical of a glacier 

stream. Downstream of the North Fork and Lake Fork Crescent River sites, assuming that setbacks would be in place, 

suspended sediment would not increase from the main river 

channel or tributaries. However, there still will be relatively 

high suspended sediment concentrations downstream of the 

confluence of the North Fork and Lake Fork Crescent Rivers 

due to the channel characteristics (fig. 4).

Both the North Fork Crescent River and the Crescent 

River (site 1) at the mouth (site 3) showed relatively diverse 

aquatic habitat, typical for Alaska streams. The algal taxa 

found at both sites have adapted to the current suspended 

sediment characteristics of the Crescent River. However, if 

logging increased the suspended sediment supply to the Crescent River, these taxa could be covered by the fine sediment, 

and as a result the number of different taxa could decline. For 

example, the effects of logging on macroinvertebrate production have been shown to be detrimental to macroinvertebrate 

populations (Hartman and others, 1996). Densities of taxa 

were lower in clear-cut sections than in leavestrip sections. 

Total macroinvertebrate densities were reduced 41-50 percent 

when compared with densities during the prelogging phase 

and with densities from unlogged control sites. Most likely, 

increased transport of fine sediment reduced stability of the 

channel, and decreased input of leaf litter were responsible for 

this effect.

Concentrations of major ions, nutrients, and dissolved 

organic carbon are relatively low at all the sampling sites. 

Previous studies have shown that logging increases the concentrations of these constituents (Feller and Kimmins, 1984). 

Assuming the concentrations of these constituents do not 

change at the North Fork Crescent and Lake Fork Crescent 

River sites, the flows from these two sites could simply dilute 

any effect from downstream logging.

Table 1. Ramp-Crick similarity matrix for algal presence or absence data for Crescent, Kijik, and Little Kijik Rivers.

Little Kijik River 

above Kijik Lake

Little Kijik 

River blw Kijik 

Lake

Kijik River 

abv Little Kijik 

River

Kijik River 

1. miles abv 

mouth

North Fork 

Crescent River

Crescent River 

near mouth

Little Kijik River above Kijik 

Lake

1 0 0.93 0.17 0.32 0.34

Little Kijik River below Kijik 

Lake

0 1 0.1 0.45 0 0.08

Kijik River above Little Kijik 

River

0.93 0.09 1 1 0.23 0.98

Kijik River 1.5 miles above 

mouth

0.17 0.45 1 1 0.57 0.98

North Fork Crescent River 0.32 0 0.23 0.57 1 0.28

Crescent River near mouth 0.34 0.08 0.98 0.98 0.28 1

Possible Effects of Logging on Water Quality 3
As an example watershed, the Ninilchik River, located 

on the east side of Cook Inlet (fig. 1) is a 130 mi2 watershed 

that has been 70 percent logged. This basin was studied during 

the Cook Inlet Basin NAWQA study from 1998-2001. Results 

of the Cook Inlet Basin NAWQA (Brabets and Whitman, 

2002) indicated no deterioration in water quality of this river. 

Setbacks were required in all logging areas of the Ninilchik 

River Basin, and the use of the setbacks most likely prevented 

degradation of water quality.

Summary

The Crescent River Basin, located on the west side of 

Cook Inlet in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, drains 

an area of about 250 mi2. Because the Crescent River supports a strong sockeye salmon fishery and a concern about the 

potential effects of logging in the basin, the water quality of 

the river and lake system were studied from 2003-2004. Major 

findings of the study include: 

The water type throughout the basin is calcium bicarbonate. Concentrations of nutrients, major ions, and 

dissolved organic carbon were low at all sites. Alkalinity concentrations are generally less than 10 mg/L, 

indicating a low buffering capacity of these waters.

Glacier-fed streams that flow into Crescent Lake transport suspended sediment that is trapped by the lake. 

Suspended sediment concentrations from the Lake 

Fork Crescent River (the outlet stream of Crescent 

Lake) were less than 10 mg/L, indicating a high trapping efficiency of lake. The North Fork Crescent River 

transports suspended sediment throughout its course 

and provides most of the suspended sediment to the 

main stem of the Crescent River downstream from the 

confluence of the Lake Fork Crescent River. Given 

that only a small amount of logging has taken place 

in the Crescent River Basin, these suspended sediment concentrations are more likely due to the channel 

characteristics (steep slope and high velocities) than to 

logging. 

Three locations on Crescent Lake were profiled during 

the summer of 2004. Water temperature profiles indicate surface temperatures were as high as 18oC while 

the bottom of the lake remained near 4oC. Turbidity 

profiles indicate sediment plumes within the water column at various times during the summer. Turbidity values are higher in June, reflecting the glacier-fed runoff 

into the lake. Lower values of turbidity in August and 

September indicate a decrease of suspended sediment 

entering Crescent Lake.

Streambed sediments collected from the Lake Fork 

Crescent River, North Fork Crescent River, and 

Crescent River mainstem were analyzed for trace ele-

•

•

•

•

ments. When compared to the different guidelines, the 

concentration of chromium at the Lake Fork Crescent 

River, copper at all three sites, and zinc at the Crescent 

River near the mouth site exceeded the ISQG. Concentrations of copper at all sites and zinc at the Crescent 

River near the mouth were above the TEC levels. All 

concentrations were below the PEL and PEC standards, and when normalized to percent organic carbon, 

all concentrations were less than the PEL and PEC 

levels.

Zooplankton samples from Crescent Lake indicated the 

presence of the genus Cyclops and a relatively small 

number of ovigerous Cyclops. Cyclops are one of the 

primary food sources for rearing sockeye salmon juveniles and were most prevalent in the July sampling.

QMH algae samples were collected from two stream 

sites. A total of 59 taxa were found and were comprised of 4 phyla: Rhodophyta (red algae), Cyanophyta 

(blue-green algae), Chlorophyta (green algae), and 

Chrysophyta (diatoms). Samples from the upper site, 

North Fork Crescent River, contained 22 algal taxa 

while samples from the downstream site, Crescent 

River near the mouth, contained twice as many taxa.

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40 Water Quality of the Crescent River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2003-2004