# US Environmental Protection Agency



# Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles

Final Report

July 20, 2010

Prepared for
Amy Kopin Environmental Protection Agency
2000 Traverwood Dr. Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105

Prepared by
Louis Browning, Seth Hartley, Larry O’Rourke, Jennifer Brickett, Ryan Thompson, Lisa McNally ICF International 620 Folsom Street, Suite 200 San Francisco, CA 94107
415.677.7100

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05

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# Table of Contents

1. Introduction ......................................

................................................... ............................... 1
1.1. Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope..........

.................................................. 1
1.2. Division of Tasks .................................

................................................... .................... 2 1.3. Report Organization ...............................

................................................... ................. 2

2. Description of Technologies .......................

................................................... ................... 3
2.1. Baseline Vehicles and Technologies ................

................................................... ....... 3
Class 7 and 8 Tractors

.................................................. ................................................... ................................... 3 Trailers

.................................................. ................................................... ................................................... ............. 4 Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks

.................................................. ................................................... ...... 16 Class 7 and 8 buses

.................................................. ................................................... ..................................... 20 

## 2.2. Summary of Technologies and Strategies ............

................................................... . 22 2.3. Aerodynamic improvements ..........................

................................................... ........ 25 Aerodynamic Hoods

.................................................. ................................................... ..................................... 25 Aerodynamic Mirrors

.................................................. ................................................... .................................... 27 AeroConesTM

................................................... ................................................... .................................................. 27 AirtabsTM

.................................................. ................................................... ................................................... ........ 28 Boat Tails

.................................................. ................................................... ................................................... ...... 28 Aerodynamic Bumpers

.................................................. ................................................... ................................ 29 Tractor Gap Fairing

.................................................. ................................................... ....................................... 29 Roof Fairings

.................................................. ................................................... ................................................... 30 Tractor Side Fairings

.................................................. ................................................... .................................... 30 Trailer Side Skirts

.................................................. ................................................... .......................................... 31 Trailer Gap Fairings

.................................................. ................................................... ...................................... 31 

## 2.4. Rolling resistance improvements ...................

................................................... ....... 32 Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI)

.................................................. ................................................... ..................... 32 Low-Rolling Resistance Tires

.................................................. ................................................... .................... 33 Single Wide (Wide-Base) Tires

.................................................. ................................................... ................. 35 

## 2.5. Operational improvements ..........................

................................................... .......... 36 Advanced Driver Training

.................................................. ................................................... ........................... 36 Speed Limiter

.................................................. ................................................... .................................................. 37 

## 2.6. Idling reduction technologies .....................

................................................... ............ 38 Anti-idle System (a.k.a., Automatic Engine Stop Sys tem)

.................................................. .................. 38 Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems

.................................................. ................................................... .... 38 Thermal Storage Systems

.................................................. ................................................... .......................... 39 Engine Recovery Systems (ERS)

.................................................. ................................................... ............ 40 Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)

.................................................. ................................................... .................... 41 Direct Fired Heaters

.................................................. ................................................... ...................................... 42 Fuel Cell APU

.................................................. ................................................... ................................................. 4 4 Truck Stop Electrification

.................................................. ................................................... ............................ 45 

## 2.7. Engine improvements ...............................

................................................... ............ 47 Integrated Starter/Alternator

.................................................. ................................................... ...................... 47 Turbo Compounding

.................................................. ................................................... ..................................... 48 Variable Geometry Turbocharger

.................................................. ................................................... ............. 49 Variable Valve Actuation

.................................................. ................................................... ............................. 50 

## 2.8. Transmission and Drivetrain improvements ..........

................................................... 51 Early Torque Convertor Lock-up

.................................................. ................................................... .............. 51 Hybrid Powertrain

.................................................. ................................................... .......................................... 51 Low-Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train Lubricants

.................................................. ......................... 53 Rankine Bottoming Cycle

.................................................. ................................................... ............................ 54 

## 2.9. Weight reduction technologies .....................

................................................... ......... 55
Aluminum Air Tanks

.................................................. ................................................... ...................................... 55

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### Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs

.................................................. ................................................... ................ 56 Aluminum Wheels

.................................................. ................................................... ......................................... 56 Lightweight Brake Drums

.................................................. ................................................... ............................ 57 Lightweight Cab Components

.................................................. ................................................... ................... 59 Lightweight Suspension Systems

.................................................. ................................................... ............ 60 Reduced Number of Batteries

.................................................. ................................................... ................... 60 Aluminum Structural Components for Trailers

.................................................. ........................................ 61 

## 2.10. Electrification ...................................

................................................... ..................... 61 Electrification of Accessory Loads

.................................................. ................................................... ........... 61 

## 2.11. Air conditioning and transport refrigerated unit (T RU) improvements ....................... 62 Alternative Refrigerants

.................................................. ................................................... ............................... 62 Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials

.................................................. .......................................... 63 Low Power Draw A/C

.................................................. ................................................... ................................... 65 Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems ....................................... 67 Use of Cryogenic CO 2 

### Unit

.................................................. ................................................... ......................... 68 Use of Leakage Reducing Components

.................................................. ................................................... 70



## 3. Cost Tables .......................................

................................................... ..............................71



# List of Figures

Figure 2-1: Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab .

................................................... ................................................... ... 4 Figure 2-2: Dry Freight Van (Wabash National) .....

................................................... ................................................... .. 5 Figure 2-3: Aluminum Combination Flatbed (Wabash na tional) ........................................... .......................................... 6 Figure 2-4: Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck ............

................................................... ................................................... .... 7 Figure 2-5: Reefer (Utility Trailer Manufacturing C ompany) ........................................... ................................................ 8 Figure 2-6: Dry Van (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company) .......................................... ............................................... 9 Figure 2-7: Flatbed (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company) .......................................... .............................................. 10 Figure 2-8: Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer (East Manuf acturing) ......................................... ....................................... 11 Figure 2-9: Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer (East M anufacturing) ..................................... .................................... 11 Figure 2-10: Steel Tub Body Frame Dump Trailer (Ea st Manufacturing) ................................. ................................... 12 Figure 2-11: Grain Hopper (Timpte) ................

................................................... ................................................... ....... 12 Figure 2-12: Chemical Transport Tanker (Polar Tank)

.................................................. ............................................... 13 Figure 2-13: Petroleum Tanker (Polar Tank) ........

................................................... ................................................... .. 13 Figure 2-14: Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar Tank) ....

................................................... ................................................... 14 Figure 2-15: Lowboy, 2-Axle (Trail King Industries)

.................................................. ................................................... 14 Figure 2-16: Lowboy, 3-Axle (Trail King Industries)

.................................................. ................................................... 15 Figure 2-17: Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail King Indust ries) ............................................. ................................................. 1 5 Figure 2-18: Class 6 Box Truck ....................

................................................... ................................................... .......... 18 Figure 2-19: Class 6 Dump Truck ...................

................................................... ................................................... ....... 18 Figure 2-20: Class 4 Work Truck....................

................................................... ................................................... ........ 19 Figure 2-21: Class 8 Refuse Truck .................

................................................... ................................................... ........ 20 Figure 2-22: Class 7 School Bus ..................

................................................... ................................................... ......... 21 Figure 2-23: Class 8 Transit Bus ..................

................................................... ................................................... .......... 22 Figure 2-24: Automatic Start/Stop System ..........

................................................... ................................................... ... 38 Figure 2-25: Thermal Storage Unit .................

................................................... ................................................... ........ 40 Figure 2-26: Engine Recovery System ...............

................................................... ................................................... .... 41 Figure 2-27: APUs .................................

................................................... ................................................... ................. 42 Figure 2-28: Direct Fired Heater...................

................................................... ................................................... .......... 43 Figure 2-29. Turbo Compounding Turbine ............

................................................... ................................................... . 48 Figure 2-31: Lightweight Brake Drum Components ....

................................................... .............................................. 58 Figure 2-31: Solar Energy Reflection Improvement th rough Application of SolarCool Coatings Paint ..... .................... 64 Figure 2-33: Evaporative A/C Unit .................

................................................... ................................................... ......... 66 Figure 2-34: Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C ...........

................................................... ................................................... 66 Figure 2-34: Transport Refrigeration Units ........

................................................... ................................................... ..... 67 Figure 2-35: ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit ......

................................................... ................................................. 6 9

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# List of Tables

Table 2-1: Baseline Tractors and Prices ...........

................................................... ................................................... ....... 3 Table 2-2: Trailer Types and Manufacturers ........

................................................... ................................................... .... 4 Table 2-3: Baseline Trailer Prices ................

................................................... ................................................... .......... 16 Table 2-4: Baseline Vocational Truck and Bus Prices

.................................................. ................................................ 16 Table 2-5: Baseline Bus Prices ....................

................................................... ................................................... .......... 20 Table 2-6: Strategies Investigated in this Report..

................................................... ................................................... .. 22 Table 2-7: Low Rolling Resistance Tire Types ......

................................................... ................................................... . 34 Table 2-8: Hybrid system component sizes ..........

................................................... ................................................... . 52 Table 2-9: Hybrid Vehicle Incentives ..............

................................................... ................................................... ........ 53 Table 3-2: Class 7 and 8 Trailer Technology Cost/Pr ice Summary ....................................... ....................................... 90 Table 3-3: Class 3 through 8 Vocational Truck Techn ology Cost/Price Summary .......................... ............................. 98 Table 3-4: Class 7 and 8 Bus Technology Cost/Price Summary ........................................... ..................................... 104

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# 1. Introduction

1.1. Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope

Regulation of greenhouse gases is underway. EPA iss ued an Advanced Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPRM) for Greenhouse Gas Emissions in July 2008 in response to the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision on Massachusetts v. EPA 1



## . The EPA issued the Proposed Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for G reenhouse Gases under the Clean Air Act in April 2009. The standards shall give approp riate consideration to the cost, energy, and safety factors associated with the application of t he technologies. The new GHG reporting rule (40 CFR Parts 86, 87, 89 et al. Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases; Final Rule 2 

## ), from October 2009 requires that sources including fossil fuel suppliers and industrial gas suppliers, direct greenhouse gas emitters and manufacturers of heavy-duty and off-road vehicles and engines with emissions above certain threshold leve ls monitor and report their emissions. On April 1, 2010, EPA and NHTSA announced the National Program to Cut Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Improve Fuel Economy for Cars and Tru cks, establishing a national program consisting of new standards for model year 2012 thr ough 2016 light-duty vehicles, including the
first-ever national GHG emissions standards under t he Clean Air Act and CAFE standards under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. In ad dition, President Obama directed EPA and NHTSA to take the next steps to reduce GHG emission s and fuel consumption by developing the first-ever GHG and fuel consumption regulations for heavy-duty engines and vehicles in an announcement made on May 21, 2010.

The heavy-duty truck sector includes Class 2b throu gh Class 8 trucks that can have a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of more than 8,500 lbs . This sector is powered primarily by diesel engines, but gasoline powered vehicles are also use d. Heavy-duty trucks were responsible for 18 percent of the U.S. Transportation GHG emissions in 2006 and the CO 2 

## emissions are expected to grow nearly 30 percent by 2030. Reduct ions can be achieved through engine, vehicle, and operational improvements, with vehicle improvements expected to make up the
bulk of the achievable reductions.

The purpose of this analysis is to estimate the cos t impacts of technologies that can be used to reduce GHG emissions on heavy-duty trucks and engin es. The cost estimates have been
determined for a number of different truck classes and a variety of technologies and operating strategies to which they apply. The improvements ar e organized into one of the following nine categories:

 Aerodynamic improvements,

 Rolling resistance improvements,

 Operational improvements,

 Idling reduction technologies,

1 

### http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/06pdf/05-1120. pdf

2 

### http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/download s09/GHG-MRR-Full%20Version.pdfInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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##  Engine improvements,

 Transmission and drivetrain improvements,

 Weight reduction,

 Electrification, and

 Air conditioning improvements and improvements in t ransport refrigerated unit (TRU) technology.

The vehicles analyzed include Class 7 and 8 tractor s, trailers, class 3-8 work trucks, and class 6-8 buses. This report presents the results of this research.



# 1.2. Division of Tasks

Analysis was done in a series of tasks, each encomp assing specific types of vehicles. In each case, baseline vehicles were defined along with app ropriate technologies. For the purposes of this report, the tasks are defined as and include:

 Task 2: Class 7 and 8 regional tractors and Class 8 long-haul tractors

 Task 3: Trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 regional a nd long-haul tractors

 Task 5: Class 3 through 8 vocational trucks

 Task 6: Class 7 and 8 buses

Throughout this report, analysis may refer to categ ories by task or by vehicle class.



# 1.3. Report Organization

The remainder of this report is organized along the following structure. Section 2 summarizes the baseline vehicles in the current fleet and pres ents an overview of the nine categories of technologies that can provide reductions in greenho use gas emissions. Section 3 presents a summary of costs associated with each technology. T ables showing the cost analyses are presented by task, with each technology category br oken out within these tasks.

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# 2. Description of Technologies

2.1. Baseline Vehicles and Technologies

Class 7 and 8 Tractors

One sleeper and one day cab model were selected as baseline vehicles for the Class 7 and 8 tractor application. Error! Reference source not found. shows these vehicles, their specifications, and associated prices.

Table 2-1: Baseline Tractors and Prices

Baseline Tractor Category Baseline Tractor Type Vehicle Specifications New Price

Day Cab 2010 FREIGHTLINER – CL12064ST-COLUMBIA 120 Engine Make Mercedes $89,500
Engine Type MBE4000
Horsepower 450
Transmission 10 Speed

Check for Over Drive Yes
Engine Brake Yes
Suspension Air Ride

Gear Ratio 3.73

Tires 11R22.5

Wheels All Steel

Wheelbase 179"

Number of Rear Axles Tandem

Front Axle Lbs 12,000

Rear Axle Lbs 40,000

Sleeper Cab 2010 FREIGHTLINER CL12064ST-COLUMBIA 12 0 Sleeper Size 70" $113,000

Sleeper Mid Roof XT Sleeper

Engine Make Detroit Diesel
Engine Type 14.0

Horsepower 455
Transmission 10 Speed

Check for Over Drive Yes

Engine Brake Yes
Suspension Air Ride

Gear Ratio 3.42

Tires 22.5LP

Wheels All Aluminum Source: http://www.truckpaper.com

Source: http://www.truckpaper.comInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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## It is noteworthy that many improvements, especially aerodynamic improvements, may already be incorporated in these vehicles. Thus it could be advantageous to assess a more traditional style cab, such as the Peterbilt 379 sleeper cab. H owever, this vehicle was discontinued in 2007 and cannot serve as a current technology baseline.

Figure 2-1: Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab

Source: http://www.truckpaper.com



# Trailers

There are numerous types of trailers hauled by Clas s 7 and 8 tractors. Baseline retail prices and weight ranges were indentified for the trailer type s listed in Table 2-2, based on leading manufacturers. The following discusses these manufa cturers and the corresponding trailer types.

Table 2-2: Trailer Types and Manufacturers

Chief Manufacturer Trailer Types Baseline Trailer Category Details

Great Dane van box N/A

Wabash National van box Dry van

Wabash National (formerly Transcraft) flatbed specialized 48' aluminum combination flatbed

Wabash National (formerly Transcraft) flatbed drop deck specialized 48' flatbed drop deck

Hyundai container chassis box N/A

Utility Trailer Manufacturing reefer box reefer; dr y van; 48' flatbed

East Manufacturing dump specialized 3 types of dump trailers

Timpte grain specialized 2 price ranges for grain hoppers

Polar Tank Trailers tanker specialized 4 types of t ankers

Trail King Industries /Landall lowbed specialized 2 lowboys; 1 48' step deck flatbedInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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## Great Dane

Price and weight range data for the Great Dane manu facturer of box trailers were not available



## Wabash National

Retail price data and weight data were identified f or a dry freight van, flatbed, and flatbed drop

deck trailers:



## Dry Freight Van

Wabash offers three types of dry freight van 2-axle trailers: DuraPlate®; FrieghtProTM; and DuraPlate HP, the latter being the most expensive. The average curb weight is approximately 14,000 pounds. The DuraPlate dry van trailer's stan dard features include:

 The ultra-wide design of the DuraPlate trailer prov ides an interior width of 101-1/2" (scuff-to-scuff)

 The DuraPlate composite sidewall panel is construct ed of a high-density polyethylene plastic core bonded between two high-strength steel skins.

 Steel interior to resist tears, punctures and relat ed damage.

 Postless sidewall design.

 High-strength, corrugated steel scuff is fastened t o the DuraPlate sidewall every 8".

Figure 2-2: Dry Freight Van (Wabash National)

Source: http://www.wabashnational.com/Images/popups/DuraPla tePop.jpg



## Aluminum Combination Flatbed (48-foot)

The combination flatbed 2-axle trailer is available in extreme, heavy, and standard. Basic features, including approximate weight of each are listed below.

Extreme Duty : Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" o r 102" widths; additional lightweight features are available. Basic features include:

 Tandem axles with various axle spacingsInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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##  Aluminum floor, front and rear plate

 Aluminum side rails

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills

 GVWR 80,000 lbs.

 Approx. 10,760 lbs. w/standard options

Heavy Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" width. Basic features include:

 Tandem, various axle spacings

 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate

 Aluminum side rails

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills

 GVWR 80,000 lbs.

 Approx. 9,960 lbs. w/standard options

Standard Duty : Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" o r 102" widths. Basic features

include:

 Tandem, various axle spacings

 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate

 Aluminum side rails

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills

 GVWR 73,000 lbs.

 Approx. 9,760 lbs. w/standard options

Figure 2-3: Aluminum Combination Flatbed (Wabash na tional)Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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### Source: http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/product s/Eagle.jpg



## Flatbed Drop Deck (48-foot)

The D-Eagle flatbed drop deck 2-axle trailer is ava ilable in 45', 48' and 53' lengths with 102” width. The approximate weight is 10,120 pounds with the following standard options:

 Tandem, various axle spacings

 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills

 80,000 lbs. over lower deck

Figure 2-4: Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck

Source: http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/product s/D-Eagle.jpg



## Transcraft (Wabash)

Transcraft is now a Wabash company. See above for d escriptive information about Wabash
trailers.



## Hyundai

Cost data were not available for Hyundai’s containe r chassis.



## Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company

Reefer

The curb weight of Utility’s 2-axle reefer trailer is approximately 14,200 pounds. The 3000R
series reefer trailer is available with the followi ng standard features:

 Patented Barrier Rear Doors

 Utility-Designed Door Hardware

 5/16" Thick Dock Board Guide Plates

 Integrated Heavy-Duty 10" High Wearband

 Landing Leg Support and Bracing

 Foam-In-Place Insulation Air Ride Suspension

 5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End Syste mInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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##  Thermal Barriers

 Tensioned Roof Skin

 LED Lights

Figure 2-5: Reefer (Utility Trailer Manufacturing C ompany)

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/reefers/3000R.asp



## Dry Van

Utility’s 4000D series dry van 2-axle trailer is a traditional plywood lined dry van. The approximate weight is 13,500 pounds. Standard featu res include:

 12" Galvanized Steel Wearband

 Stainless Steel Rear Door Frame

 Integrated Threshold Plate Assembly

 Air Ride Suspension

 Weather Tight Floor System

 Reliable Support Leg Bracing

 Heavy-Duty King Pin Assembly

 High-Strength Front Wall

 Unique Roof Design

 5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End Syste m

 Bendix® TAB-6 ABS System

 Modular Electrical SystemInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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### Figure 2-6: Dry Van (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/dryvans/4000d_x_compo site.asp



## Flatbed (48-foot)

The 4000ATM series 2-axle aluminum (also available i n a steel 4000S series) flatbed trailer (commercial length is 48-feet) is approximately 9,8 00 pounds in curb weight. The standard
features for this trailer include:

 Hendrickson Narrow Hanger AANT 23k Spread Air Ride Suspension

 80,000 PSI High Tensile Steel, Hat-Shaped Main Beam Top Flange

 6,500 lbs. Working Load Limit Rated Pipe Spools

 Aluminum Front Rail

 100% Plug-in Connectors

 Durable Outrigger Attachments

 Higher Quality Paint Process for Lower Life Cycle C osts

 Integral Cinch Track

 Front Stainless Steel Corners

 5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End Syste m

 Durable Suspension Design

 Plasma-Cut One-Piece Main Beam Webs

 Microencapsulated Adhesive on All Screws

 Side Rails are Mechanically Fastened

 Contoured Beam at Rear for Proper Axle Loading

 Rear Corners Designed for High Impact LoadsInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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### Figure 2-7: Flatbed (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company)

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/flatbeds/4000A.asp



## East Manufacturing

Specialized dump trailers comprise about 3 to 4 per cent of the market. The following three 2- axle, “lightweight” dump trailers range in weight b etween 10,000-17,000 pounds. 3 

## Dump trailers are available in a range of axles, up to 8-axles.



## Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer

The aluminum frame dump trailer is available in 2-a xle, 3-axle and four-axle configurations. This
trailer comes in two additional models: The East Qu adTM and East Michigan series. The East Quad provides up to 25-tons of legal payload to acc ommodate especially heavy loads like asphalt and construction material. The East Quad ha s a maneuverable turning radius that’s up to 16 feet tighter than a traditional straight truc k, with about the same dumping height. East Quads are available from 24 to 28 feet long. The Ea st Michigan Series offers a wide variety of frame dump trailers with multi-axle configurations that meet the requirements of hauling in Michigan. Both GenesisTM and traditional sheet and p ost body styles are available for triple-ten (gravel train), super-train, break-up double, twelv e wheelers and up to 8-axle semi-trailer configurations. Steel bodied dump trailers are also available.

3 

### Personal communication, Charlie Wells, Manager of Dump Trailer Product Line, East manufacturing, on 2 /25/10.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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### Figure 2-8: Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer (East Manuf acturing)

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_dump.html



## Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer

Frameless dump trailers are designed for the ideal balance between low weight for more payload, and heavy-duty strength for durability.

Figure 2-9: Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer (East M anufacturing)

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framelessal.html



## Frame Dump Trailer (Steel Tub Body)

The body of the East steel trailer is made from AR4 50 grade steel to handle construction and
demolition work.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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### Figure 2-10: Steel Tub Body Frame Dump Trailer (Ea st Manufacturing)

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framesteel.html



## Timpte

Grain Hopper

The standard 2-axle hopper trailer is available in 38-, 40-, and 42-feet lengths with an average curb weight of approximately 9,000 pounds. Typical application includes transportation of agricultural and industrial bulk commodities. Axles typically have a 22,500 pound beam capacity. Typical baseline tires are eight 11R24.5 Bridgestone R195F radials.

Figure 2-11: Grain Hopper (Timpte)

Source: http://www.timpte.com/newtrailers.html



## Polar Tank Trailers

Typical applications include transport of chemical and petroleum products, fertilizer, asphalt, and food items (tanks are stainless steel, steriliz ed and insulated).



## Chemical Transport Tanker

The 2010 POLAR Chemical Transport has a carrying ca pacity of 8,500 gallons for the transport of petro chemical solvents. The tanker is made of a luminum, with a curb weight of 9,010 pounds. Standard installed tires can be Yokohama RY 587 - 11R 22.5 and wheel size is 8.25 x
22.5 with aluminum hub. 4 

## A chemical transport trailer that is insulated and made of stainless steel has a curb weight of about 13,000 pounds.

4 

### “Polar Tank Trailer Inventory Display Page,” Polar Service Centers website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=displa y_trailer&file=261.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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### Figure 2-12: Chemical Transport Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source: http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=displa y_trailer&file=261



## Petroleum Transport Tanker

The 2010 POLAR petroleum transport 2-axle tanker ha s a carrying capacity of 9,500 gallons and a curb weight of 10,000 pounds. The multi-compa rtment aluminum is used for transporting petroleum from refinery to gas stations.

Figure 2-13: Petroleum Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source: http://www.senecatank.com/91680001.JPG



## Sanitary Food Tanker

The two-axle sanitary food tanker is made of stainl ess steel and is insulated. The curb weight is approximately 10,500.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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### July 20, 2010 

### Figure 2-14: Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source: http://www.trucker.com/TrailerDetail.aspx?SID=19838 86



## Trail King Industries
Lowboy (TK70HDG)

This two-axle lowboy (hydraulic self-lifting detach able gooseneck) trailer has a 26-foot deck with a 17,000-pound curb weight. This series is used for construction applications (e.g., hauling construction equipment). The trailer uses 8.25 x 22 .5 disc wheels and 255/70R x 22.5 16PR

radial tires.

Figure 2-15: Lowboy, 2-Axle (Trail King Industries)

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=3



## Lowboy (TK110HDG)

The three-axle lowboy (hydraulic self-lifting detac hable gooseneck) trailer has ability to lift above or below transport positions for commercial applica tions. The trailer has a 26-foot deck, steel wheels, oak decking, is 102 feet wide with a 22,000 -pound curb weight.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 15 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

### Figure 2-16: Lowboy, 3-Axle (Trail King Industries)

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=27



## Flatbed / Step Deck (TK70ACS)

The two-axle flatbed (step deck) TK70ACS model has a curb weight of 9,900 pounds with
standard 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 11R x 22.5 16P R radial tires for commercial applications. The flatbed trailer is 48 feet long and 102 feet wi de.

Figure 2-17: Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail King Indust ries)

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=1



## Table 2-3 lists typical retail prices for each of t he generic trailer types. The prices listed here may fluctuate depending upon on the quantity, timin g, and/or other factors during the course of
an actual sale.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 16 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

### Table 2-3: Baseline Trailer Prices

Baseline
Trailer Category Trailer Types Curb Weight (lbs) New Price

Box Van 13,850 $25,000

Specialized Flatbed 10,600 $29,500

Box Container chassis N/A N/A

Box Reefer 14,200 $52,000-100,000

Specialized Dump $50,000

Specialized Grain 9,000 $31,750

Specialized Flatbed drop deck 10,900 $32,000

Specialized Tanker 10,628 $61,625

Specialized Lowbed 17,725 $49,500



# Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks

Task 5 addresses class 3 through 8 vocational truck s. These vehicles include service trucks, refuse trucks, delivery trucks and other vocational trucks. Four types of trucks were selected for further exploration: a class 3-6 box truck, a class 3-6 dump truck, a class 4 utility truck, and a class 8 refuse truck. The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of truck.

Baseline costs were collected for each of these typ es of trucks as well as for a selected type of each category. Approximate values are shown in Tabl e 2-4. Retail prices listed here may fluctuate depending on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual
sale.

Table 2-4: Baseline Vocational Truck and Bus Prices

Category Typical Vehicle Price

Class 3-6 box truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truc k with automatic transmission. $67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. Approximately $12,000 for a 24 foot box body.

Class 3-6 dump truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for tr uck with automatic transmission. $67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. For a 16 foot dump body, add about $10-$16K (depend ing on steel vs aluminum).

Class 4 work truck International CityStar CF500 $40,000 for a new 16,000 lb CF500 excluding body. Body with standard lift gate costs about $7,500.
(Note this truck ceased production 6 months ago, al though a new version is expected soon)Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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### July 20, 2010



### Category Typical Vehicle Price

Class 3-6 box truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truc k with automatic transmission. $67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. Approximately $12,000 for a 24 foot box body.

Class 3-6 dump truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for tr uck with automatic transmission. $67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. For a 16 foot dump body, add about $10-$16K (depend ing on steel vs aluminum).

Class 4 work truck International CityStar CF500 $40,000 for a new 16,000 lb CF500 excluding body. Body with standard lift gate costs about $7,500.
(Note this truck ceased production 6 months ago, al though a new version is expected soon)

Class 8 refuse truck Volvo VHD Series (e.g. VHD64B200) Volvo VHD 65BT200 truck retails for about $120,000 excluding the body. Bodies retail for about $70-$90,000 for standard re ar packers, depending on size and equipment $198,000 is a typical price for a new Volvo class 8 refuse truck, both cab and chassis, with a 25 yard rear lo ader refuse box, excluding FET.



## Class 3-6 Box Truck

A class 3-6 box truck is a medium-duty truck with a box body that has a gross vehicle weight range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6 box t ruck was selected for further investigation. A Kenworth 270 was identified as a sample class 6 b ox truck. The Kenworth T270 is a two-axle truck rated at 26,000 GVWR. The chassis is shared w ith the Kenworth class 6 dump truck. A 24 foot box body for the class 6 truck adds about $12, 000 to the price of the truck. Two 22.5”
wheels are on the front axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle. For this medium-duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire appli cation available from the manufacturer. 5 

## The standard options for this truck also include a PACC AR PX-8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel
tanks. 6 

## Optional equipment pertinent to GHG emissions redu cing features includes a CARB emission reduction drivetrain feature, aluminum whe els, aluminum fuel tanks, aerodynamic bumper, and aerodynamic mirrors. 7

5 

### Conversations with Kenworth Truck Dealer: Sales De partment, Truck Enterprises, Inc, Harrisonburg, VA.

6 

### Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure, http://www.kenworth.com/brochures/T270T370.pdf

.

7 

### Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 18 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

### Figure 2-18: Class 6 Box Truck

Source: Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure, http://www.kenworth.com/newspics/T270.jpg



## Class 3-6 Dump Truck

A class 3-6 dump truck is a medium-duty truck with a dump body that has a gross vehicle weight range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6 dump truck was selected for further investigation. A Kenworth 270 was identified as a s ample class 6 dump truck. The Kenworth T270 is a two-axle truck rated at 26,000 GVWR. The chassis is the same as that of the class 6 box truck. The only difference is the body. A 16 fo ot dump body for the class 6 truck would cost about $10,000 - $16,000 in addition to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” wheels are on the front
axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle. Fo r this medium-duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available from the ma nufacturer. 8 

## The standard options for this truck also include a PACCAR PX-8 engine, steel fram es and steel fuel tanks. Optional equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing featu res includes a CARB emission reduction drivetrain feature, aluminum wheels, aluminum fuel tanks, aerodynamic bumper, and aerodynamic mirrors. 9



### Figure 2-19: Class 6 Dump Truck

Source: https://www.truckhunt.com/resources/images/user/tru cks/45ee7c68-a822-4f2e-bfea-245b209af584_medium.jpg

8 

### Conversations with Kenworth Truck Dealer.

9 

### Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 19 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

## Class 4 Work Truck

A class 4 work truck is a medium-duty truck, with a utility body and often features a lift gate or bucket that has a gross vehicle weight range from 1 4,001 to 16,000 pounds. An International CityStarTM CF500 was identified as a sample class 4 work truck rated at 16,000 GVWR. Note that this truck is no longer in production as of ap proximately January 2010 but a comparable version is expected to be released within the year. A body with a lift gate is standard for a utility truck, and would add about $7,500 to the truck pric e. 10 11 

## The two axle truck has two wheels on
the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle. 12 13 

## For this medium-duty chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available from th e manufacturer. 14 

## The standard features for this truck include a high strength, low alloy steel frame, an International VT 275 engine and
19.5” wheels. 15



### Figure 2-20: Class 4 Work Truck

Source: Image of International City Star CF500 http://www.usedtrucksforsalebyowner.net/image_gd/im agegd_big_inside.php?74257776.jpg



## Class 8 Refuse Truck

A class 8 refuse truck is a heavy-duty truck with a refuse body used for trash, waste or garbage hauling. The GVWR of the truck is between 33,001-60 ,000 pounds. A standard refuse truck body is usually a rear loader body, but price will vary according to the features. 16 

## A rear loader 25-32 yard body costs about $70,000-$90,000 in addi tion to the truck price depending on the

10 

### Conversation with International Dealer: Sales Depa rtment, International Truck Sales, Richmond, VA.

11 

### International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure, http ://www.navistar.com/Trucks/Trucks/Series/CityStar/C ityStar500_600.

12 

### Conversation with International Dealer: Sales Depa rtment.

13 

### International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure.

14 

### International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure.

15 

### International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure.

16 

### Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer: Sales De partment, Colonial Truck Sales.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 20 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

## size of the equipment and its features (e.g. an ove rhead attachment). 17 

## A Volvo VHD 65BT200 was identified as a sample class 8 refuse truck. Th e VHD 65BT200 is a three axle truck that has
two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on eac h of the rear axles. 18 

## For this heavy-duty chassis truck, singlewide tires are included as an option, but are not recommended for use because of difficulties entering and exiting landfi lls. 19



### Figure 2-21: Class 8 Refuse Truck

Source: http://www.impextrucks.co.uk/img/refuse_collection_ wehicle.jpg



# Class 7 and 8 buses

Task 6 addresses class 7 and 8 buses. These vehicle s include school, commercial and transit buses. Two types of buses were selected for further exploration: a class 7 school bus and a class 8a transit bus. The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of bus. Table 2-5 shows baseline vehicle price estimates. Retail prices listed here may fluctuate depending on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during t he course of an actual sale.

Table 2-5: Baseline Bus Prices

Category Typical Vehicle Price

Class 7 school bus International CE Series Type C bus, 31,000 lbs, 2010 Emission Standards, 77 passengers.

Bluebird All American Rear Engine School Bus, Type D, 33,000 lbs, 84 passengers. $78-80,000 for 2010 Virginia Emissions 2010 Standar d Bus - conventional (type C).

$95,000 for a new 2011 Bluebird All American Rear E ngine School Bus (type D).

Class 8 transit bus International RE Series Bus $ 99-$100,000 for 2010 Virginia Standards (up to 37,0 00 pounds).

17 

### Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer.

18 

### Volvo VHD Truck Brochure, http://www.volvotrucks.com/trucks/na/enus/products/vhd_series/vhd/pages/overview.aspx

19 

### Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 21 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

## Class 7 School Bus

A class 7 school bus has a GVWR of between 26,001-3 3,000 pounds. An International CE Series school bus was identified as a sample class 7 school bus. This conventional two axle bus
has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axles. Singlewide tires are not allowed as options for school buses in many states due to safety concerns. 20 

## The International CE is a 77 passenger bus with a GVWR of 31,000 poun ds. Standard options include an International MaxForce® 7 or MaxForce® DT engine, f ull power hydraulic brakes and electric

entrance door. Optional features include factory-installed air con ditioner. 21



### Figure 2-22: Class 7 School Bus

Source: http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/uploadedImages/ News/Chicago/Images/Business/Bus.jpg



## Class 8 Transit Bus

A class 8a transit bus has a GVWR of between 33,001 -60,000 pounds. An International RE Series Commercial bus was identified as a sample cl ass 8 transit bus. This rear-engine two axle
bus has two wheels on the front axle and four wheel s on the rear axle. The International RE is a 52 passenger bus with a GVWR of 37,000 pounds. 22 

## Standard options include an International MaxForce® DT engine, a roof-mounted HVAC system and air brakes. Optional features include

aluminum wheels. 23

20 

### Conversation with International School Bus Dealer: Sales Department, Kingmor Supply.

21 

### International CE Series School Bus Brochure, http://www.icbus.com/ICCorp/BusDownloads/School%20R oute/CE%20School%20Sell%20Sheet.pdf

..
22 

### Conversations with IC Bus, LLC Sales Department.

23 

### International Re Series Commercial Bus Brochure, http://www.icbus.com/ICBus/Buses/Commercial/Overvie w/Commercial+RE+Series/

..Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 22 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

### Figure 2-23: Class 8 Transit Bus

Source: http://www.interstatetransportation.com/buses/3/6/



# 2.2. Summary of Technologies and Strategies

The technologies investigated in this report are su mmarized in Table 2-6. Broadly, they are categorized into aerodynamic improvements, rolling resistance improvements, operational improvements, idling reduction technologies, engine improvements, transmission and drivetrain improvements, weight reduction, electrification, ai r conditioning improvements, and improvements in transport refrigerated unit (TRU) t echnology.

Table 2-6: Strategies Investigated in this Report

Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated

Aerodynamic Improvements

Aerodynamic Hoods Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Aerodynamic Mirrors Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Aerocones Trailers

Air Tabs Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Boat Tails and Air Tabs Trailers

Bumper Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks
Gap Fairings Trailers

Roof Fairings Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks
Side Fairings Class 7-8 Tractors

Side Skirts Trailers

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks
Tractor Gap Fairing Class 7-8 TractorsInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 23 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

### Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated

Rolling Resistance Improvements

Automatic Tire Inflation Class 7-8 Tractors

Trailers

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Low Rolling Resistance Tires Class 7-8 Tractors

Trailers

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Single Wide Tires Class 7-8 Tractors

Trailers

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses
Operational Improvements
Advanced Driver Training Class 7-8 Tractors
Speed Limiters Class 7-8 Tractors

Idle Reductions

Anti-idle System (i.e., automatic engine stop syste m) Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses
Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems Class 7-8 Tractors
Thermal Storage Systems Class 7-8 Tractors
Engine Recovery Systems Class 7-8 Tractors

Auxiliary Power Units Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Direct fired heaters Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Fuel Cell APUs Class 7-8 Tractors
Truck Stop Electrification Class 7-8 Tractors
Engine Improvements

Electronic Fans Class 7-8 Tractors

Integrated Starter/Alternator Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Low Friction Engine Lube Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses
Turbo compounding Class 7-8 TractorsInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 24 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

### Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Variable Geometry Turbo Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Variable Valve Actuation Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Transmission and Drivetrain Improvements

Early Torque Converter Lockup Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Hybrid Powertrain Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Low-Friction Drivetrain Lube Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Rankine Bottoming Cycle Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses
Weight Reduction

Aluminum Air Tanks Class 7-8 Tractors

Aluminum Axle Hubs Class 7-8 Tractors

Aluminum Wheelset Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Light Weight Brake Drums Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Lightweight Cab Components Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses
Lightweight Suspension System Class 7-8 Tractors

Reduced Number of Batteries Class 7-8 Tractors
Tare Weight Reduction via Al structural components Trailers
Tare Weight Reduction via Al wheels TrailersInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

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## 25 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

### Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated

Electrification
Accessory Electrification (Power Steering, Water Pu mps, Fans, etc.) Class 7-8 Tractors
Air Conditioning

Low Power Draw A/C Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Use of Alternative Refrigerants Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Use of highly reflective structural materials Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses

Use of Leakage-Reducing Components Class 7-8 Tractors

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks

Class 6-8 Buses
Reefer Improvements
Alternative Refrigerants Trailers
Low power draw A/C Trailers

Advanced Electrical TRU Trailers
Use of cryogenic CO2 units Trailers
Use of highly reflective structural materials Trail ers Use of leakage-reducing components Trailers



## The remainder of Section 2 provides an overview for each of these technologies. It is important to note that the combinations of class, vehicle app lication, and technologies researched here do not reflect every available combination, as it woul d be impractical to try and identify every combination here. Fleet owners and operators are l eft to decide which technology works best for their application. Also, some strategies that appear in the list for Class 7-8 Tractors were found to not be applicable in practice. Those were not investigated further.

An overview of the findings of the research for eac h technology investigated is summarized in
Section 3.



# 2.3. Aerodynamic improvements

Aerodynamic Hoods

Technology Definition

Truck manufacturers offer aerodynamic models that i nclude a streamlined front profile and sloped hood. A more aerodynamic hood and cab desig n can significantly improve the aerodynamics of the vehicle and reduce drag. Aerod ynamic hoods are usually one component in an overall aerodynamic design that includes the bumper, mirrors, headlights and other cabInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 26 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

## features. Significant research, including wind tun nel testing, is usually required to design an aerodynamic cab and associated hood design.



## Availability

Most aerodynamic hoods are manufactured by outside suppliers. Aerodynamic hoods are made of molded composites with inexpensive molded c ompounds. Numerous suppliers are available who can produce custom hoods designed to manufacturer specifications. Some
manufacturers also make some of their own hoods.



## Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic hoods can be installed on single-unit t rucks and truck tractors. They can be used on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes. A n aerodynamic hood is customized to a specific truck cab design to achieve superior aerod ynamic performance.

Aerodynamic hoods may not be appropriate for some v ocational trucks. The purpose for which a vehicle is designed also affects the extent to wh ich it can incorporate certain aerodynamic features. For instance, the radiator in a vocation al truck is larger than that on a standard highway truck because of the work required from the vehicle. Having a larger radiator makes it more difficult to design an aerodynamic hood with a low sloping profile for a vocational truck. A vocational truck needs more ground clearance and ha s larger axles, all affecting the aerodynamic features. The vocational truck environ ment involves more dust and thus requires greater filtration of intake air. Many vocational vehicles with the larger dual 15 inch canisters on their sides are meeting the engine’s need for great er air filtration, although this may not be aerodynamic.

The material that tends to be used in vocational pr oducts (with non aerodynamic hoods) is more durable and has a higher manufacturing cost. The v ocational truck environment tends to cause more damage to truck hoods resulting in more vocati onal hoods designed such that components can be replaced instead of forcing repla cement of the entire hood.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

In general, there would not be a significant differ ence in piece cost between the shape of an aerodynamic hood and a non-aerodynamic hood. A man ufacturer could choose to make the shell of the hood in different designs for minimal cost. Most of the cost for a new aerodynamic design is associated with developing and testing th e new design. Once this R&D is conducted, there is little difference in manufacturing cost be tween producing a new hood shape as compared to the old less aerodynamic hood shape.

One cost element that would be different from a sta ndard non-aerodynamic hood would be the styled headlamp that would be required for an aerod ynamic design. This can require a multimillion dollar investment program for a truck manuf acturer. Engineering testing and tooling costs are large for styled headlamps. It may be di fficult to use off-the-shelf components to create such a styled headlight. Due to the numerou s components required for stylized headlights, there is typically a long lead time for this element of approximately 30 – 48 months.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 27 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

# Aerodynamic Mirrors

Technology Definition

An aerodynamic mirror typically has a curved housin g and a minimal number of arms. The arms have an aero shape with curved upper and lower surfaces. An aerodynamic mirror might also have a curved back. Mirrors are typically des igned and optimized to improve the flow of air
as it moves off of the vehicle and in free stream a round the vehicle. Each cab design has a unique air flow profile which can require different aerodynamic mirrors for optimal effect.



## Availability

The design of the aerodynamic mirror shell is dicta ted by the truck manufacturer and is typically manufactured by a supplier. Truck-Lite® is a major manufacturer of a number of different mirrors, including the aerodynamic mirror for Freig htliner’s Cascadia® model. There are numerous suppliers who are available to manufacture custom mirror designs for truck makers.



## Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic mirrors can be installed on single-unit trucks and truck tractors. They can be used on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes. A n aerodynamic mirror is usually customized to the specific cab and hood design to achieve the best results.

Vocational truck mirrors are not typically optimize d for the cab. Construction sites and other

vocational truck environments tend to cause mirror damage, requiring mirrors to be replaced.
Truck fleets thus find it is desirable to use a sta ndard mirror component that can be replaced easily.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

An aerodynamic mirror typically has four way mirror control and the arm structure is more robust. Because of the minimal number of arms, the strength and cost of the arms tends to be greater. An aero mirror will typically include boo ts or special breakaway features. Another difference is that on a standard mirror only the mi rror glass rotates while the arms remained in a fixed position, while on an aero mirror the whole a ssembly turns. These factors tend to increase

cost.



# AeroConesTM

Technology Definition

An AeroConeTM is used to reduce aerodynamic drag bet ween the tractor and trailer. It can also be used to reduce drag on the front of the cargo co mpartment of straight trucks. By alleviating crosswinds, an AeroCone improves vehicle stability, road safety and reduces fuel consumption.



## Availability

Trailer aerodynamic devices are offered by a few co mpanies today, for example the AeroCone is available from ATD Dynamics, and the Nose Cone® is currently marketed by the FitzGerald Corporation of California.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

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## 28 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

## Vehicle Application

The AeroCone can be installed on standard dry van t railers or standard van straight trucks. Refrigerated tanks block installation on a reefer t ruck. Aerodynamic tractor models generally have tractor fairings, which reduce the benefit of the AeroCone.



# AirtabsTM

Technology Definition

AirtabsTM are patented vortex generators that can be install ed on a truck to reduce drag. The Airtab is an aerodynamic surface, consisting of a s mall wishbone shaped ridge that creates a
vortex. Air tabs are installed at the back of trac tors, trailers or straight trucks to improve the aerodynamics on the vehicle. Each Airtab creates t wo tight swirls of air or vortices that combine to reduce the suction and drag at the rear of vehic les traveling at speeds above approximately 35 mph.



## Vehicle Application

Airtabs enhance aerodynamic performance equally wel l on cube vans, straight trucks, expeditors, buses, utility trailers, faired "bob ta il" tractors, flat beds and tankers. The results ma y vary somewhat with vehicle type.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

The length of the vehicle does not affect price. T aller vehicles, such as moving trucks, would have a somewhat higher installation cost.



# Boat Tails

Technology Definition

A boat tail, sometimes called a trailer tail, is a tapering protrusion mounted on the rear of a truck or trailer to reduce aerodynamic drag. There are a number of different boat tail designs.



## Availability

There are a variety of different manufacturers that make boat tails. These include Aerodynamic Trailer Systems, AeroVolution, ATS, Transtex and So lus.



## Vehicle Application

Boat tails can be installed on standard dry van tra ilers or refrigerated vans. Some boat tail products are only applicable to swing door trailers because the mounting brackets require a swing door plane.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 29 US Environmental Protection Agency

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### July 20, 2010 

## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Trailer tails should last the life of the vehicle o r 5 to 10 years. Some may require minor repairs because of impacts. 24



# Aerodynamic Bumpers

Technology Definition

An aerodynamic bumper typically replaces traditiona l chrome bumpers found on tractors with a lighter weight material and a design that is integr ated with the hood and fenders. Aerodynamic bumpers are typically injection molded and improve the total drag of the tractor; consideration must be given to not restricting airflow to the eng ine when designing the bumper.



## Availability

There are a number of truck bumper suppliers and ma nufacturers. Hendrickson is one of the largest bumper manufacturers, and they make a numbe r of different aerodynamic bumpers for different truck tractor models. Aerodynamic bumpers are usually designed by truck OEM’s and sourced out to a supplier



## Vehicle Application

Aerodynamic bumpers can be installed on sleeper cab s, day cabs, and on all cab sizes.



# Tractor Gap Fairing

Technology Definition

A tractor gap fairing, also known as a cab extender or gap seal, reduces the gap between the tractor and the trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag and improving the fuel economy of the
vehicle.



## Availability

Makers of tractor gap fairings include Airodyne Ind ustries and Laydon Composites although there are numerous suppliers. Truck manufacturers sometimes contract with a range of different suppliers for custom gap seals that are i ncluded as standard components on aerodynamic truck models.



## Vehicle Application

Tractor gap fairings can be installed on either a s leeper cab or a day cab, and on all cab sizes.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

The cost of the gap fairing will vary depending on the height of the tractor. For instance, a taller sleeper cab will require a taller gap fairing, with the cost difference being related to the additional material that is required.

24 

### Phone conversation with truck aerodynamics manufac turer representative.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 30 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

# Roof Fairings

Technology Definition

A roof fairing extends over the cab of a tractor an d has enclosed sides. Roof fairings are designed to improve the flow of air over and around a tractor-trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag and increasing fuel efficiency.

Some roof fairing designs are collapsible to allow for the fairing to be taken down when the tractor is operated without an attached trailer.



## Availability

Major suppliers of roof fairings include Airodyne I ndustries and Laydon Composites. Roof fairings can be purchased as a retrofit, but truck manufacturers also contract with a number of different suppliers to manufacture roof fairings fo r aerodynamic models where the roof fairing comes as a standard integrated component.



## Vehicle Application

Roof fairings can be installed on sleeper cabs or d ay cabs, and on most cab sizes, although they would not be needed on a high-roof sleeper cab , since the tall roof functions as a fairing. Aerodynamic truck models may come with roof fairing s as standard equipment. In addition, roof fairings would not be purchased for a tractor hauli ng a flatbed trailer, since this would have a negative impact on the aerodynamics of this vehicle configuration.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

In some cases, a company that orders roof fairings for a new vehicle may have brackets installed on the vehicle at the factory, but have t he fairings shipped separately and installed by the dealer. The extra height of fairings can cause problems with clearances during transit in

some cases.



# Tractor Side Fairings

Technology Definition

Tractor side fairings, also known as cab fairings, extend downward from the base of the cab between the wheels of the tractor, covering the ope n space and streamlining the fuel tank(s). Most cab side fairings have steps to reach the cab molded directly into the fairing. In some cases, the fairing may consist of a single componen t that is a wheel to wheel fairing. In other cases, the side fairing consists of two components, a partial side fairing and a fuel tank fairing. Tractor side fairings can be used on both day cabs and sleeper cabs.



## Availability

Makers of side fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites, although there are numerous suppliers. Truck manufacturers often cont ract with suppliers for custom fairings that are included as standard components of aerodynamic truck models.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 31 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Vehicle Application

Tractor side fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day cab, and on all cab sizes.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

The cost of the side fairing will vary depending on the size of the truck tractor. For instance, a truck with a longer wheelbase, such as sleeper cab, will require a longer and typically more expensive fairing than a day cab.



# Trailer Side Skirts

Technology Definition

Trailer side skirts, or trailer fairings, extend do wn from the bottom of the trailer to cover part of the open space between the tractor and the rear whe els. These fairings improve airflow around the trailer and reduce drag.



## Availability

Trailer side skirts are widely available from a num ber of different companies, including: ATD Dynamics, Freight Wing, Solus, Carrier Transicold, Fleet Engineers, Laydon Composites, Ridge Corp., GreenWing, Silver Eagle, Transtex and Utilit y Trailer.



## Vehicle Application

Trailer side skirts can be installed on dry van and refrigerated trailers, and are being testing on flatbed applications. Side skirts can also be inst alled on tanker trucks, but they have achieved limited penetration in this market.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Side fairings are more expensive on trailers with a higher deck. Side fairings for tanker trucks can be slightly more expensive, primarily due to ad ditional costs for mounting.



# Trailer Gap Fairings

Technology Definition

A trailer gap fairing performs the same function as a tractor gap fairing, the difference being a trailer gap fairing is installed on a trailer while the tractor gap fairing is installed on the tracto r. Trailer gap fairings, also known as gap reducers, a re usually rounded additions to the sides and/or top of the front of the trailer that reduce the gap between the tractor and trailer.



## Availability

Trailer gap fairings are available from a number of different suppliers. Firms that produce SmartWay verified gap reducers include Carrier Tran sicold, FreightWing, Laydon Composites

and Nosecone.



## Vehicle Application

Trailer gap fairings can be installed on standard d ry van and refrigerated trailers.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 32 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

# 2.4. Rolling resistance improvements

Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI)

Technology Definition

With properly inflated tires, tire rolling resistan ce is decreased and fuel use is reduced compared to under-inflation. Automatic tire inflati on systems (ATI) monitor and continually adjust the level of pressurized air in tires, maintaining proper tire inflation automatically, even while the truck is moving. The Meritor Tire Inflation System by Pressure Systems International uses the vehicle’s air-brake compressor to supply air to all of the tires. Air from the existing trailer air supply is routed to a control box, then into each a xle. The axles act as conduits to distribute air through rotary union assemblies at the spindle ends , which then distribute air to each tire as
needed. 25 

## Another system uses self-contained compressors mo unted on each hub that are powered by the rolling motion of the wheels. Once a n ATI system is installed, it should not require any special attention from the driver. 26



## Availability

Leading brands for automatic tire inflation systems include Pressure Systems International (Meritor Tire Inflation System; Meritor Tire Inflat ion System with ThermALERTTM) and Hendrickson (TIREMAAX® Electronic Controller; TIREM AAX® Constant Pressure).



## Vehicle Application

The application and price information discussed bel ow is based on research acquired from Pressure Systems International (PSI) Meritor tire i nflation systems. 27



##  Class 8 Long-Haul Trailers. For long haul trucking, PSI’s inflation system is o nly available for the trailer, (and dollies and chassis ) only. [For a two-axle trailer, the cost is approximately $750 if system is installed at man ufacturing level. For labor, add another $200 if system is added to an existing trai ler as a retrofit truck. (The cost is around $550 to be added to a single axle trailer or dollies.) In either case a return on investment, with all things considered, is reported to be less than one year and typically about 8 months.]

.

 Vocational Trucks (e.g., service trucks, refuse tru cks, delivery trucks, etc.)

. Service trucks that have air brake systems can be f itted with external ATI.

 Urban/Transit Buses. Buses of all types can also be fitted with externa l ATI typically for the steer tires, drive tires, and a tag (non-dr ive) axle tires. These types of systems would not require the governing of engines or the d eflation feature. [Therefore, these systems for six wheel end positions would cost appr oximately $1000 to $1,250 price

25 

### “Literature,” Pressure Systems International websi te. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.psi-atis.com/literature.htm

.
26 

### US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies – Au tomatic Tire Inflation Systems,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/tireinflate.p df

.
27 

### Interviews with Frank Sonzala, Executive VP of Sal es and Marketing, Pressure Systems International, 2 010.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 33 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010



## range. Monitoring systems would run $650 to $900 pe r vehicle if that type of system is used.]



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Prices vary depending on the number of axles. For a two axle trailer, one kit will handle all 8 tires on a tandem dual axle system or all 4 tires o n wide-base single tire system, the addition of the ThermALERT option would increase the cost. [ See “Vehicle Application” section above.]

The wear part of PSI’s ATI is the “Through-T” compo nent. The price of a replacement ThroughT is in the range of $25 if purchased from a parts sales house; it does not require special tools to install and can be installed in approximately 15 minutes. The Through-T is the rotary connection that delivers stationary air from the sp indle end of axle to rotating tires through the hoses. The Through-T component’s lifespan has been tested to be up to 1 million miles, but in reality, the component typically gets about 500K-75 0K miles of wear life. 28



# Low-Rolling Resistance Tires

Technology Definition

Tire rolling resistance refers to a frictional effe ct associated with the contact of the tread of the tire with the road surface, and the flexing of the tread. Reduction of rolling resistance can be accomplished through the use of new materials, such as the combination of silica and synthetic
elastomer.

Given that many trucks have a large number of tires in contact with the road (e.g., 18 wheels), rolling resistance can have a significant effect on efficiency. Thus, tire rolling resistance is an important component of the total engine power deman d on a truck. Rolling resistance can be reduced by avoiding under-inflation of existing tir es (to reduce unnecessary flexing), substituting one wide-tire for a pair of dual tires (leading to a net reduction in total tread area, sidewall flexing, or both), use of alternative tire material s to reduce rolling resistance. To the extent that rolling resistance can be reduced, total engine pow er demand is also reduced. This, in turn,
leads to reductions in fuel use and exhaust CO 2 

## emission from the truck. 29



## Tire manufacturers seek to reduce the rolling resis tance in order to improve fuel economy. 30 

## There are 2 recognized categories of Low Rolling Re sistance Tires: Single Wide-base (see below for further discussion about this technology) and Low Rolling Resistance Dual Tires. 31 

## A

28 

### Interviews with Frank Sonzala, Executive VP of Sal es and Marketing, Pressure Systems International, 2 010.

29 

### NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepare d for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

30 

### California Energy Commission. “Tires and Fuel Effi ciency.” June 2006. http://www.energy.ca.gov/2006publications/CEC-600- 2006-003/CEC-600-2006-003-FS.PDF

31 

### “Low Rolling Resistance Tires,” SmartWay Finance C enter Technology website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/technology.cfm ?productTypeID=4&productTypeCategoryID=9

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 34 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## well designed wide-base single tire has lower rolli ng resistance than traditional dual tires. Manufacturers also offer low rolling resistance ver sions of dual tires. 32



## Availability

Leading brands for low-rolling resistance tires (co mmon steer, drive, and trailer models) are
shown in Table 2-7.

Table 2-7: Low Rolling Resistance Tire Types

Brand Street Drive Trailer

Bridgestone R287A, R280, R250F,

R260F, R287 M720, Greatec R195, Greatec Trailer, Greatec R125, R197, S197

BF Goodrich ST244 DR 444 TR144

Continental HSL-2 (replaces HSL), HSR1

ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO Plus HDL ECO Plus, HDL2 DL ECO Plus, HDR1 ECO Plus, HSR1 ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO
Plus HTL ECO Plus, HTL1

Double Coin N/A FD405 FT105

Dunlop Tire SP384 FM SP456 FM SP193 FM

Firestone FS590 PLUS, FS507 FD662 FT455 PLUS

General S371, S581 D660, S371, S581 ST250

Goodyear G395 LHS Fuel Max, G399

Fuel Max, G662 Fuel Max G305 LHD Fuel Max, G392 SSD, G305 Fuel Max AT G316 LHT Fuel Max, G316 Fuel Max DuraSeal

Michelin XZA3, XZA2, XZA1+, XZE,

XZE2, XZA2 Energy, XDA2+ Energy, XDA Energy, XDA3, X-One XDA, X-One XDN2, XOne XDA Energy, XDE2+, XDN2, XDE M/S XTA Energy, XT1, X-One XTA, X-ONE XTE, XTE

Toyo Tires M137, M154 M657 M127

Yokohama RY617, 103ZR, 101ZL 703ZL, TY517mc2 RY587mc2, RY58 7

Hankook AL07+, AL11 Z35a, DL11 TL01



## Vehicle Application

Class 8 combination Line-Haul Tractor-Trailers, inc luding day cabs and mid- and full-size sleeper cabs.

32 

### NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Tru ck Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-g hg_report_final200910.pdf

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 35 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

# Single Wide (Wide-Base) Tires

Technology Definition

Single-wide tires are used by a number of carriers and private fleets on combination vehicles to reduce rolling resistance. The benefits of reducing rolling resistance are more substantial on combination vehicles, and single-wide tires are not currently available for single-unit trucks. 33 

## A single wide-base tire with an aluminum rim is light er than two standard tires and wheels. 34



## Combination trucks usually have two sets of dual ti res at each end of an axle. Dual tires are heavy and also produce high rolling resistance. Sin gle wide-base tires, which are commercially available products, can replace these dual tires in most applications. Wide-base tires that have a combined lower weight (e.g., there are only two s idewalls for one tire, versus four sidewalls for two tires) and produce lower rolling resistance red uce energy use. This best practice is suitable for combination trucks that have van trailers, whic h are the majority of the total truck fleet. By using single instead of dual tires, there is a need for increased attention to tire inflation pressure for safety reasons. 35



## Single-wide tires have mainly been confined to nich e markets and installed on combination vehicles. For vehicles that weigh-out, they can hav e the added benefit of reducing the truck’s tare weight and increasing the payload that can be carried. Tare weight reduction is important in making the business case for investing in these tir es and their wheels. 36



## Availability

Leading brands for Single Wide Tires include Michel in, Goodyear, and Bridgestone. These are available from a variety of tire manufacturers and retailers. Retailers may specialize by vehicle application or type. Michelin makes the X-One® sing le wide tire for trucks. Goodyear makes a wide based tire called the Super Single. Bridgesto ne also makes a wide based tire.



## Vehicle Application

Class 8 combination Line-Haul Tractor-Trailers, inc luding day cabs and mid- and full-size sleeper cabs.

Traditional dual tires are replaced with one single wide tire and aluminum wheel, and can be applied to all tractor and trailer tire positions e xcept for the steer tires. 37 

## The new generation of wide-base tires has a section width of up to 17.5 i nches, for a typical tandem axle combination

33 

### ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenh ouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Env ironmental Defense Fund, December 2009.

34 

### US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Sin gle Wide-Based Tires,” SmartWay Transport Partnersh ip. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/tec h/supersingles.pdf

.
35 

### NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepare d for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

36 

### ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenh ouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Env ironmental Defense Fund, December 2009.

37 

### US EPA and Community Development Transportation Le nding Service, SmartWay Clean Diesel Financing loan application form. http://www.ctaa.org/webmodules/webarticles/articlef iles/SmartWay_Brochure_and_Application.pdf

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 36 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## truck these tires comply with pavement weight laws in all 50 states. For some non-tandem axle combination trucks, wide-base tires may not comply with "inch-width" laws in certain states. 38 

## Note that single-wide tires are not currently manuf actured for single-unit trucks or buses.



# 2.5. Operational improvements

Advanced Driver Training

Technology Definition

Courses on fuel efficiency teach fleet managers and drivers fuel saving techniques such as:

 using cruise control;

 coasting;

 block-shifting;

 braking and accelerating smoothly and gradually;

 progressive shifting;

 limiting unnecessary truck idling;

 starting out in a gear that does not require use of the throttle when releasing the clutch;

 limiting unnecessary shifting;

 driving at the lowest engine speed possible; and

 reducing parasitic energy losses by limiting the us e of accessories. 39



## There are numerous training options:

 Subscription with lessons : in this type of training, a company may pay a mon thly subscription fee to another company, such as Instru ctional Technologies, that offers many types of electronic training courses, includin g fuel efficiency courses. 40



##  High-Level Training without a Subscription : a trucking company may also develop an internal training program where a trainer meets ind ividually with drivers to teach fuel efficiency techniques and to monitor driver perform ance. 41



##  Classroom Lessons : A trucking company may require its drivers to tak e a course through a vocational school or for-profit training organization that teaches drivers fuelsaving techniques.

38 

### US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Sin gle Wide-Based Tires.” http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/supersingles. pdf

39 

### US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies Driv ers Training.” http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/drivertrainin g.pdf

.
40 

### Conversation with Jim Voorhees, Instructional Tech nologies.

41 

### Environmental Awareness and Outreach Measures to R educe GHG Emissions From the Trucking Sector, L-P T ardif & Associates Inc., August, 1999.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 37 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Availability

Training can be provided by employers, vocational s chools, and for-profit training organizations.



## Vehicle Application

Driver training courses are most often utilized by trucking fleets with Class 8 vehicles.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Estimates vary based on the type of training, numbe r of hours of driver time required and wage

rates.



# Speed Limiter

Technology Definition

A maximum vehicle speed can be pre-programmed into the engine’s electronic control unit. 42


## The American Trucking Association estimates that ap proximately 77 percent of its members have speed limiters set at 68 mph or lower. 43 

## Programming is most often done by the engine
manufacturer.



## Availability

Most engines are capable of being programmed for a maximum speed. 44



## Vehicle Application

A speed limit can be pre-programmed for Class 8 tra ctor trailer trucks, and is most likely applicable to other vehicle classes as well.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Although the programming is most often done by the engine manufacturer, costs may arise to truck owners if the speed needs to be adjusted afte r the vehicle is purchased. The maximum speed can be adjusted at a dealer and involves conn ecting to the engine’s electronic control unit to a computer using proprietary software and reprog ramming the engine software. 45

42 

### Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

43 

### “Truckers Back a National 65-mph Speed Limit,” U.S. News and World Report , March 26, 2008.

44 

### Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacture rs Association.

45 

### Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacture rs Association.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 38 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

# 2.6. Idling reduction technologies

Anti-idle System (a.k.a., Automatic Engine Stop Sys tem)

Technology Definition

Truck engines can be pre-programmed to shut off aft er a certain amount of time spent idling.

46,47 

## The idling time can be specified when ordering a t ruck. 48



## Availability

All new Class 8 truck engines can be pre-programmed

. 49,50 

## For example, this system is part of the Cummins 2007 engine. 51 

## However, the use rate for this technology is small

. 52



## Vehicle Application

An automatic engine stop system can be pre-programm ed for Class 8 tractor trailer trucks.



# Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems

Technology Definition

Automatic engine start/stop systems are used to sta rt and stop the truck engine automatically to maintain oil temperature, a specified cab temperatu re, and/or to maintain battery voltage. Drivers typically activate the system while resting and program a desired temperature range; the engine will start and shut off automatically in ord er to operate the heating or air conditioning systems and maintain the desired temperature range. 53



### Figure 2-24: Automatic Start/Stop System

Source: http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/ci s525/term/f00/ian/Optimized%20Idle.htm

46 

### Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacture rs Association.

47 

### Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

48 

### Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

49 

### Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacture rs Association.

50 

### Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

51 

### Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

52 

### Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacture rs Association.

53 

### ICF International, Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel Efficiency, Prepared for EPA, 2 002Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 39 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Availability

Detroit Diesel currently offers an automatic engine start/stop system. 54 

## Cummins previously offered the ICON Idle Control System, however, they are currently working to develop a new system. 55,56 

## As part of this development phase, they are develo ping an engine that further minimizes bearing wear due to frequent start/stops of the engine. 57



## Vehicle Application

This technology is most often used on Class 8 sleep er cabs. 58



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

There are additional costs for programming the engi ne computer that are incurred from the use of technology. Volume discounts are available for p urchases of 10 units or more. 59 

## Installation costs will vary depending on the complexity of the installation. 60



# Thermal Storage Systems

Technology Definition

Thermal storage units provide cooling to the bunk o f a truck’s cab without using any fuel or creating any emissions. 61 

## It serves as an alternative to diesel fueled APUs. The unit charges while you drive and is considered fully charged in approximately 4 to 6 hours and then can provide up to 10 hours of cooling off of one charge while the engine is off. 62,63 

## While driving, a thermal storage core made of patented graphite/wate r matrix is frozen to 12 degrees Fahrenheit by an electric refrigeration compressor driven by t he truck’s standard electrical system. Once the truck is parked and the engine is off, a high-e fficiency pump circulates coolant through the storage core to a heat exchanger in the air handlin g system. Four fans then blow cool air through the heat-exchanger directly into the bunk. The cold storage unit mounts to the truck’s
rail frame and the in-cab air handler delivers chil led air to the bunk. 64 

## Note that a Hybrid Blue Cool Truck thermal storage system is now available; it operates similarly to the Blue Cool Truck thermal storage unit but also includes shore power functionality.

54 

### Conversation with John Beavers, Western Branch Die sel.

55 

### ICF International, Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel Efficiency, Prepared for EPA, 2 002..

56 

### Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

57 

### Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.

58 

### Detroit Diesel.

59 

### Conversation with John Beavers, Western Branch Die sel.

60 

### Detroit Diesel.

61 

### Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Brochure, http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html

.
62 

### Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads /documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

63 

### www. webasto showroom.com/ bluecool truck/.../ Webasto

_ BlueCool _Hybrid_Fact_Sheet_Final.doc

64 

### Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Brochure, http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 40 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Availability

Webasto manufactures the Blue Cool Truck thermal st orage unit. No other manufacturers have
been identified.



## Vehicle Application

Thermal storage units, such as the Blue Cool Truck, are designed for use by heavy duty trucks, not for medium duty trucks. 65



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

There are no expected operations/maintenance costs for thermal storage units, such as the Blue Cool Truck. Since there are very few moving pa rts, once installed, there should be no expected operations/maintenance costs for 3-5 years

. 66 

## Note that the Blue Cool Truck Hybrid System costs approximately $2,000 more than the sta ndard Blue Cool Truck unit and includes shore power functionality.

Figure 2-25: Thermal Storage Unit

Source: Blue Cool Truck Image, http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/images/vendorI mages/vendor_307244/product_26/C5_Truck_Prod_Circle _300rg b.jpg



# Engine Recovery Systems (ERS)

Technology Definition

An engine recovery system keeps a cab warm while at rest without burning fuel by enabling an existing vehicle heater to operate with the engine off. The coolant in a warm engine contains considerable amounts of stored heat energy. An ERS recovers this energy to keep the vehicle interior warm without the need to idle the engine. By continuing the circulation of the hot coolant through the cab heater with the engine off, the sys tem recovers this heat for useful purposes, it

65 

### Conversation with Josh Lucas, Webasto, May 19, 201 0

66 

### Conversation with Josh Lucas, Webasto, May 19, 201 0.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 41 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## is estimated that the Authotherm® ERS will keep a C lass 7 or 8 truck warm for 3-4 hours. 67 

## The system functions automatically and shuts off when t he coolant temperature drops to 95 degrees
Fahrenheit. 68



## Availability

Autotherm® Systems manufactures an engine recovery system – Autotherm T-2500.



## Vehicle Application

Engine recovery systems can be used for medium and heavy duty trucks.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

There are no maintenance costs for the unit beyond installation. 69



### Figure 2-26: Engine Recovery System

Source: http://www.autothermusa.com/company.html



# Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)

Technology Definition

APUs are generally mounted externally on the truck cab. An APU typically consists of a small combustion engine and generator combination that ca n provide power to the truck when the main engine is shut off. Electricity from an APU ca n be used to power heating, air conditioning,
and other electrical accessories for the cab and sl eeper. 70 

## Non-traditional electric battery-

67 

### http://autothermusa.com/wordpress/no-engin-idle-fa cts/

68 

### Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads /documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

69 

### Conversation with Autotherm Sales Department, May 5, 2010

70 

### US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies – Id le Reduction.” http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/car rierstrategy-docs/apu.pdf

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 42 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## operated APUs are also available. Fuel cell APUs ar e currently in the research phase, but are expected to be offered by 2012. 71



### Figure 2-27: APUs

Source: Cascade Sierra Solutions. “Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions.” 2008 Fall Edition.



## Availability

Examples of companies that offer APU systems includ e: Pony Pack®, Inc., RigMaster, and Thermo King. Glacier Bay Inc., Thermo King, Idle Fr ee® and others offer an electric batteryoperated APU; Delphi is developing a fuel cell APU. Some APUs may be sold directly from the APU manufacturer, but most APUs are sold through re tailers.



## Vehicle Application

Industry interviews indicate that APUs are most oft en installed on Class 8 sleeper cabs, but may be installed on day cabs. APUs are not generally in stalled on Class 5 box trucks or buses.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Non-traditional electric battery-driven systems are available and slightly cheaper than dieselpowered APUs. Costs associated with APUs include: c apital and installation, and may include warranty costs. Large volume discounts are common.



# Direct Fired Heaters

Technology Definition

Direct fired heaters serve as climate control syste ms that do not rely upon either the large truck engine or small diesel engine powered units to supp ly energy for heating, which reduces fuel consumption and GHG emissions. 72



## A direct fired heater is sometimes referred to as a fuel operated heater, a bunk heater or an air heater. There are several categories of heaters, in cluding preheated engine coolant heaters and in-cab air heaters. A preheated engine coolant heat er is used to warm the cab before the engine

71 

### “Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road in 2012,” SAE International. May 12, 2010. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222

72 

### Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads /documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdfInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 43 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## is started to eliminate cold starts and provide eng ine pre-heat. An in-cab air heater provides immediate heat and offers capacity to heat a cab ov ernight while the driver sleeps. 73 

## The preheated engine coolant heater is often less expen sive than the in-cab air heater, but offers less capacity. Some manufacturers offer combination units which combine the pre-heating and in-cab heating functions.

Figure 2-28: Direct Fired Heater

Source: How an Air Heater Works, Espar, http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.h tml



## The primary focus for this report is in-cab air hea ters. A direct fired air heater uses a small combustion flame to supply heat through a heat exch anger. When the heater is turned on (without the engine on), a burner motor starts and a blower unit draws combustion air into a heat exchanger. Simultaneously, fuel is drawn from the truck’s fue l tank – generating a fuel-air mixture that ignites. A flame is formed and hot com bustion gases are circulated through the heat exchanger. A hot air fan draws in room or fresh air and the h eat of the combustion gases is then transferred by the heat exchanger to the hot a ir. Warm air then flows through the cab. 74



## Availability

There are many models of direct fire heaters. Some manufacturers include Espar Heater Systems, and Webasto Thermosystems. Each company ma nufactures units suitable for class 3- 8 vehicles including long-haul trucks and school bu ses. Some manufacturers also offer combination units that include functionality for pr e-engine heating and in-cab heating. For instance, Webasto’s Tandem 717 combines the engine pre-heating function of the TSL 17 with

73 

### Webasto Product Brochure: Engine pre-heating, in-c ab heating and bunk cooling. http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html

.

74 

### How an Air Heater Works, Espar, http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.h tml

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 44 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## the in-cab heater Air Top 2000 ST. 75 

## These combination units are more expensive than si ngle
units.



## Vehicle Application

Most direct fire heaters are applicable to class 3- 8 vehicles. Some units, such as a direct fire combination unit with an engine pre-heater, are tar geted more for full-size sleeper cabs due to their capacity. Nonetheless, the single-unit direct fire heaters are appropriate for use in any vehicle type for class 3-8.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Notable discounts, taxes, fees or applicable cost f actors are not available.



# Fuel Cell APU

Technology Definition

It is expected that the first vehicle to be equippe d with a fuel cell in production, although not for main propulsion power, is likely to be a Class 8 tr actor-trailer truck. A number of companies including: Delphi, Protonex, Boeing, and others are working to develop a fuel cell APU. Delphi is working on a solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC) that o perates on multiple types of fuel. 76 

## Mounted behind the fairings, the SOFC will start up and pow er lighting and other accessories as well as heat provide for sleeper cab warmth in winter and e lectricity for sleeper cab air-conditioning in warm weather. The truck's diesel engine will not ne ed to run for those purposes.

The Delphi SOFC, which produces nearly zero emissio ns, has a fuel consumption of 0.13 gal/hr at no load and about 0.2 gal/hr in typical operatio n. That's at least 15% lower than the small two-cylinder diesels that normally power the APUs a nd is about 80% lower than an idling truck engine. The Delphi SOFC uses an electrolyte that is called yttria-stabilized zirconia, a zirconium-oxide-based ceramic. The material, which is stable at room temperature, is hard and chemically inert, and it also is used in dental cro wns. According to Delphi, the SOFC has an operating efficiency of 30% on diesel fuel and 40% on natural gas and lends itself to mass production, and because it contains no precious met als and is cost-effective. 77



## Availability

Delphi indicated that the SOFC would be available i n the 2012 timeframe. However, Cummins has estimated that this technology may not be avail able until 2014.



## Vehicle Application

Class 8 sleeper cabs.

75 

### Webasto Product Brochure: Engine pre-heating, in-c ab heating and bunk cooling. http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html

..
76 

### http://fuelcellsworks.com/news/2010/05/13/delphi-f ield-testing-solid-oxide-fuel-cell-apu-with-a-heavy -duty-truck-manufacturerand-the-technology-is-scheduled-to-be-in-production -in-2012/

77 

### Automotive Engineering Online, Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road in 2012, May 12, 2010. http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 45 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Delphi said it would compete against "midrange" APU s— i.e. , in the $8000-$9000 installed price range (some diesel APUs are as much as 50% higher). 77



# Truck Stop Electrification

Technology Definition

Truck stop electrification (TSE) provides power to vehicles while they are docked at service bays to avoid overnight idling. TSE systems are eit her "off-board" (a.k.a., Advanced Truckstop Electrification, ATE) or "truck-board" (which may a lso be referred to as, TSE). ATE is an external system that connects to the truck cab via a window or other access point, and consists of an HVAC subsystem mounted off-board the tractor which may also provide 120-Volt AC outlets and an entertainment package (internet, tel ephone, cable television). The systems commonly referred to as TSE are typically a combina tion of truck-board and facility power systems – a.k.a. shore-power. Shore-power provides access to 120- or 240-Volt power from a land-based source and separates the electrical supp ly from the accessory system installed in the tractor. Commercial shore-power facilities may also include credit card readers, cable television, and communication interface.

An example of a traditional off-board (a.k.a. ATE) system was that of IdleAireTM, deployed at several facilities throughout the U.S (see “Availab ility” section below). It included heating, cooling, AC electrical outlets, touch screen monito r with Internet access, and phone and cable television connections. The HVAC system was mounted atop an overhead truss assembly, where the wiring and ductwork originated and reache d the truck via a drop down, protective, flexible shield which supports the integrated compu ter service console. The service console was connected to the tractor through the passenger-side window by a mounting template, which retailed at the facility for $10. The service cost was $1.25 per hour for registered fleets and $1.50 per hour to others for basic services, payabl e via an automatic card reader. There was no required on-board componentry for the IdleAireTM off -board system, although internet service could be made available via user-supplied equipment and use of the telephone service requires the user’s phone. 78



## No standard truck-board equipment set exists for sh ore-power, although OEM tractor installations may be developed. One test system inc ludes a Smart Energy Management System (EMS), a Cab Comfort (Dometic) HVAC system, wiring kits and receptacles, and an inverter/charger and may operate on 120 Volt/20A up to 240 Volt/50A. The electrical connection hardware is on-board the truck and a stationary ped estal at the truck stop houses electrical power connections. An exterior-grade wire harness c onnects the two subsystems. Prices for the on-board system depend on the truck configuration. 79

78 

### Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification As A Lon g-Haul Tractor Idling Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM.

79 

### Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification As A Lon g-Haul Tractor Idling Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 46 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Shorepower TechnologiesTM (formerly Shurepower) now provides shore-power facilities via a basic installation kit (extension cord, exterior re ceptacle, interior wiring kit, GFCI, portable heater/fan) for $199. 80 

## Use of their system retails for $1 for activation and $1/hour for usage. EnviroDockTM provides ATE that includes one 120V/15a mp duplex outlet, two 6” ducts for supply and return air, switches to adjust temperatu re, fan speed and to switch between on/off, heat or a/c, and optional Cat 5 internet connection

. 81 

## Use of the system retails for $2/hr (or $1/hour if $50 worth of fuel is purchased). A $20 r efundable deposit is required for the required insert. CabAireTM also provides ATE via a fitted win dow unit that supplies UV filtered air, heat, A/C, power, internet, cable, and intercom communica tions. Some also include block heater power. Use of the system is currently free, but req uires purchase of a required insert which retails between $11-25 depending on the truck.



## Availability

The IdleAireTM Corporation filed for bankruptcy prot ection on May 12, 2008 82 

## and, after failing to find a buyer, closed on January 29, 2010. 83 

## News reports do state, however, that some faciliti es are expected to be operational in July, 2010. 84 

## The facilities IdleAireTM was operating appear to be shut down. However, other companies are operatin g some stations. These currently seem to be limited to EnviroDock in NY, Shorepower Technolo gies in CA, OR, WA, and NC, CabAire in
CT and NC. The DOE lists TSE sites that are availa ble. 85



## Envirodock offers a range of systems depending on t he limitations of the truck stop architecture, and have installations of both ATE and shore-power (TSE) types. They have reported little use of the TSE-only system, which they attribute to tru ckers being resistant to modifying their (very expensive investment in their) cab. Envirodock repo rts having two beta sites in New York and will open one in Tennessee, as well as noting a dri ving concern for any truck stop electrification program is that there is little enforcement of anti -idling laws nationwide since it is unclear who has jurisdiction. 86 

## CabAireTM has received $1.1M in federal funding to install 100 truck electrification spaces at two truck stops in Alabam a ($11k/space). 87



## Vehicle Application

TSE applies to principally to overnight idling vehi cles, i.e. Class 8 sleeper cabs.

80 

### http://www.shorepower.com/

81 

### http://www.envirodock.com/index.php

82 

### http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2008/may/14/idleaire-t urns-off-its-engines/

83 

### http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2010/jan/28/idleaire-f ails-find-buyer-closing-friday/

84 

### http://www.etrucker.com/apps/news/article.asp?id=85 394 . However, as of July 20, 2010, no active locations are reported on
their website.

85 

### http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/locator/tse/

86 

### Ed Maxwell, EnviroDock, 5/10/2010.

87 

### http://www.controlmod.com/pdfs/pr_releases/Alabama PressRelease.docInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 47 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Avoided operating and maintenance costs from truck idling service are directly proportional to the hours an engine idles. LP Tardif & Associates I nc. found that an additional $0.92 is spent on service, maintenance, and repairs for every hour th e truck spends idling. 88



## Most of the cost to operate truck stop electrificat ion is in the electric infrastructure, including
needed transformers. Total estimates of infrastruc ture installation costs for a full ATE system are $7500-8000 per system, including electric, isla nds, mounting, lighting, etc. The cost of shore-power type systems is less. The cost depends on many factors, including input power rating, A/C BTU rating, heat kWh rating, etc. These costs must be passed on to the user ultimately, if the systems are to be profitable. Mo st truck stop electrification deployments do not provide power for TRUs, which require much greater load and A-rating and thus are more expensive. 89



# 2.7. Engine improvements

Integrated Starter/Alternator

Technology Definition

The integrated starter/alternator system provides a dditional electric motor boost for extra power. It is a concept that is referred to as a mild hybri d. The integrated starter/alternator is mounted between the engine flywheel and the transmission an d provides engine start/stop capabilities. In addition, the larger battery pack provides some limited duration auxiliary power capability if coupled with electrified accessories. Regenerative braking provides additional power to the battery. The battery is sized modestly to minimize cost and weight increases. 90



## The integrated starter/alternator replaces the exis ting starter and alternator supplying those functions in addition to being able to provide rege nerative braking, automatic engine shut-off at idle, instant restart and limited launch assist.



## Availability

Some manufacturers are considering these systems as a less costly alternative to a full hybrid electric system.



## Vehicle Application

All vocational trucks

88 

### Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification as a Long-Haul Tractor I dling Alternative , TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM.

89 

### Ed Maxwell, EnviroDock, 5/10/2010.

90 

### NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Tru ck Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-g hg_report_final200910.pdf

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 48 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

# Turbo Compounding

Technology Definition

Turbo compounding adds a power turbine downstream o f the conventional turbocharger. By capturing waste heat from the exhaust stream, the p ower turbine generates additional work which can be fed back to the engine crankshaft usin g a sophisticated transmission (mechanical systems) or by generating electricity (electrical s ystems). The power turbine, shown in Figure 2-29, has a gear or generator connected to the shaf t instead of a compressor. In addition, the conventional turbocharger turbine is down-sided to provide more power to the power turbine. This smaller turbocharger provides better transient response and higher boost pressure at lower speeds as well. Optimal matching of the turbocharg er and power turbine is required. 91



### Figure 2-29. Turbo Compounding Turbine

Source: Cummins Turbo Technologies 91


## Power turbines are available in two types, namely r adial and axial. The radial turbine is best suited to variable speed applications. The axial p ower turbine is more efficient with single engine speed applications. However, the axial turbi ne is more compact but it is not as well suited to truck applications that operate at variab le engine speeds. Using a turbo compounding system increases the engine overall thermal efficie ncy from 42% to 46%.



## Availability

Several manufacturers are making turbo compounding units including Holset for Cummins, DDC

and Volvo Powertrain.



## Vehicle Application

All Trucks

91 

### “Turbocompound System,” Turbo Technologies website . Cummins. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.holset.co.uk/mainsite/files/2_5_1_3-turb ocompound%20system.php

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 49 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Mechanical turbo compounding systems would include port liners, variable valve actuation and a high-efficiency power turbine. Electrical system s would include the mechanical turbo compounding components plus a 40 kW motor/generator , power electronics and balance of plant modifications. Electric auxiliaries can be a dded with electric turbo compounding. Cummins estimates mechanical turbo compounding to b e approximately $2,000 for a mechanical system and approximately $6,500 for an e lectric system which does not include electrifying the auxiliary loads. 92 

## The prices quoted are intended to be representati ve of enduser prices.



# Variable Geometry Turbocharger

Technology Definition

Variable geometry turbochargers (VGTs) have been de veloped in an effort to match turbocharger performance to engine operation over a wider speed-load range. VGTs also allow for quicker transient response by restricting the t urbine nozzle during accelerations. Their ability to provide additional air to the engine over a wide r range of operating conditions also allows for

emissions reductions.

VGTs allow modification of the aspect ratio dependi ng upon loads and speeds. The aspect ratio
is the ratio of the area of the cone to radius from the center hub as shown in Figure 2-30. Optimal aspect ratios at low speed are considerably different from those at high speeds. By varying the aspect ratio, the turbocharger is more efficient at all conditions.

Figure 2-30: Turbocharger Aspect Ratio

Source: http://www.myturbodiesel.com/1000q/turbocharging.ht m#A/R ratio



## Being able to vary the aspect ratio is very importa nt as aspect ratio that is too small will cause the turbo to choke the engine leading to lower engi ne power output. Also by being able to alter

92 

### Conversation with Brian Mormino. Cummins.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 50 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## the aspect ratio as the engine accelerates, the tur bo response can be increased. It can also be
used to introduce EGR to lower emissions.



## Availability

Most heavy duty engine manufacturers are using VGTs on their engines to meet 2010 emission
standards.



## Vehicle Application

All Trucks



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Price is incremental to a fixed geometry turbocharg er.



# Variable Valve Actuation

Technology Definition

Variable valve actuation (VVA) allows valves to ope n and close through use of mechanical, electro-hydraulic or electronic solenoids (camless) . Being able to control valve timing, valve lift and the amount of time the valve is open can greatl y improve engine performance during transient conditions. Generally valves are control led by a cam which fixes valve timing and lift. This usually reduces engine performance at some loa ds and speeds and leads to less optimal drivability, fuel economy and emissions.

VVA’s benefits are less for diesel engines than for gasoline engines because of the narrower range of operating speeds. VVA does allow better e mission control by controlling exhaust temperatures for aftertreatment devices. It also a llows the turbocharger to operate more efficiently at a variety of engine operating modes. Turbo compounding can also benefit from VVA because it can control the amount of energy in the exhaust stream.



## Availability

Eaton is developing both camless and mechanical sys tems.



## Vehicle Application

All Trucks



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Price depends strongly on engine configuration (e.g ., number of cylinders), whether applied to intake and/or exhaust valves, and whether the syste m is cam operated or camless.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 51 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

# 2.8. Transmission and Drivetrain improvements

Early Torque Convertor Lock-up

Technology Definition

Torque convertors act as a clutch for automatic or automated manual transmissions. They also multiply torque, absorb torsional vibration of the engine and drivetrain. The torque convertor sits between the engine and transmission and is filled w ith automatic transmission fluid. It uses an impeller/turbine system to transmit torque from the engine to the transmission. If the impeller (connected to the engine) is going at a higher spee d than the turbine (connected to the transmission), the torque is multiplied from the en gine to the transmission. When the impeller is moving at the same speed as the turbine, there is n o torque multiplication but there is a 4 to 5 percent loss in energy. To prevent this, torque co nvertors contain a lock-up clutch that mechanically connects the impellor and turbine.

Generally this lock-up event occurs around 37 mph. This is actuated by the transmission controller. By reprogramming the controller, earli er lock-up can occur which can provide additional fuel economy benefits at lower speeds.



## Availability

Allison Transmissions builds most of the heavy-duty vehicle transmissions.



## Vehicle Application

All long-haul trucks with automated manual transmis sions. This concept is less viable on
vocational trucks due to the lower and transient na ture of their duty cycle.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Allison 93 

## mentions that in most cases early torque convertor lock-up is just a software change and won’t require any additional labor on new truck s. In some cases the springs in the clutch would need to be changed to minimize noise, vibrati on and harshness. In new trucks, even this
would result in little or no cost increase.



# Hybrid Powertrain

Technology Definition

These systems are similar in concept to the full hy brids used in light-duty applications. Hybrids come in both a parallel-hybrid and a series-hybrid design.

In a series-hybrid, the electric generator is drive n by a small engine which is used to charge the batteries. The batteries are used to power an elec tric motor or motors that drive the vehicle. In a series-hybrid, the engine does not provide power to the wheel but is only used to charge the batteries. As such, the engine can operate at a mo re efficient condition. However, because

93 

### Conversation with Bob Leopold of Allison Transmiss ion, May 6, 2010.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 52 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## mechanical energy needs to be converted to electric al energy and back again, this can lead to losses. Generally series systems are not used on h igher speed applications but have been
used on some transit buses.

Parallel-hybrid systems employ a small electric mot or coupled to the engine crankshaft. In a parallel-hybrid, both the engine and motor can driv e the wheels. These systems are more efficient in higher speed applications. There have been a number of demonstrations of this technology on heavy duty vehicles.



## Availability

Parallel-hybrid systems are currently available in transit bus, motor coach, and Class 3-6 box and bucket trucks, and in the fleet demonstration s tage for refuse haulers. There have been a
few demonstrations of Class 8 tractor trailers usin g a parallel architecture.



## Vehicle Application

All vocational trucks and short haul Class 8 trucks . This concept has limited value in line haul trucking applications.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Components include a motor/generator, battery pack, power electronics, a modified clutch assembly, electrification of auxiliary loads and ba lance of plant. Table 2-8 shows motor/generator and battery pack and convertor size s for various truck types.

Table 2-8: Hybrid system component sizes

Components Class 4

Utility Truck Class 6

Box Truck Class 8 Refuse

Truck Class 8 Transit

Bus Class 8 Short

Haul Truck

Motor/Generator 30kW 30 kW 100 kW & 30 kW 100 kW & 30 kW 50 kW

DC to DC Convertor 5 kW 5 kW 8 kW 8 kW 5 kW

Battery 4 kWh 4 kWh 8 kWh 8 kWh 4 kWh



## As manufacturers indicated that costs of hybrid sys tems were considered proprietary, ICF estimated prices for the 6 truck types based upon c omponent costs with associated mark-ups.
End-user costs were as follows:

 Class 4 Utility Truck -- $33,000

 Class 6 Box Truck -- $37,000

 Class 8 Refuse Truck -- $69,000

 Class 8 Transit Bus -- $60,000

 Class 8 Short Haul Truck -- $25,000

The Class 8 short haul truck assumes that the R&D c osts could be spread over a larger sales volume than the other categories. These costs matc h fairly well with the incentives that ARB isInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 53 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## offering under AB 118 funding for the Air Quality I mprovement Program 94 

## . Generally the incentive amounts comprise 50 percent of the increm ental costs. Incentive amounts are shown
in Table 2-9.

Table 2-9: Hybrid Vehicle Incentives

Vehicle Class Base Vehicle Incentive

Class 4 - 6 (14,000 – 26,000 lbs GVWR) $20,000

Class 7 (26,001 – 33,000 lbs GVWR) $25,000

Class 8 (33,001 – 38,000 lbs GVWR) $30,000

Class 8 (> 38,000 lbs GVWR) $35,000



# Low-Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train Lubricants

Technology Definition

Conventional mineral oil lubricants may have too hi gh viscosity to effectively slip between and lubricate the moving parts, particularly new truck components that are designed with close tolerances and tight fits. Conventional lubricants may also be heavy, making it harder for pumps, gears and shafts to move. These effects crea te energy and friction losses that waste
fuel. 95 

## Alternatively, low-friction lubricants reduce fric tion and wear of critical vehicle systems including the engine, transmission and drive train. Without lubricants, moving parts inside these systems would grind together causing heat, stress, and excessive wear.

Friction losses in the drive train (transmission an d differential) and engine can be reduced by using low-viscosity lubricants. Most manufacturers of lubricants produce “fuel economy” options that have lower viscosity than standard lubricants. However, use of low viscosity lubricants can result in higher drive train or engine wear, which increases maintenance costs. In selecting lubricants, most fleet managers believe they curren tly have struck the proper balance between fuel savings and maintenance costs. 96



## Low-viscosity lubricants are less resistant to flow than conventional lubricants, and may contain additives designed to withstand the extreme pressur e that could occur as the lubricant flows between tight fitting parts. Low viscosity lubrican ts may be made from synthetic or mineral oil blends with extreme pressure additives.

94 

### ARB, AB 118: Air Quality Improvement Program (AQIP), FY 2010-11 Funding Plan Discussion Document , April 2010. http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/aqip/meetings/fy%20201 0-11/aqip_fy10-11_fp_discussion_doc_040810.pdf

.
95 

### US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Low -Viscosity Lubricants,” SmartWay Transport Partners hip. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/lowviscosityl ubes.pdf

.
96 

### ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenh ouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Env ironmental Defense Fund, December 2009.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 54 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Transmission (Drive Train) Lubricants

Lubricants can reduce gear contact friction in tran smissions, but they also reduce fuel efficiency because of their viscosity. 97 

## Low-viscosity transmission fluid is made from synt hetic or mineral oil blends and is reported to decrease transmission friction and also reduce fuel consumption. 98



## Engine Lubricants

Some energy losses in an engine are due to mechanic al friction. Reduction in internal engine friction can be achieved using improved lubricants. Low-viscosity engine lubricants are made from synthetic or mineral oil blends for the purpos e of reducing internal engine friction. Lowviscosity engine lubricants can reduce energy use. Low-viscosity engine fluid typically costs

more than conventional lubricants. 99 

## These strategies have wide applicability to all ty pes of truck classes and operations. 100



## Availability

Available types of low-friction lubricants (engine and transmission) include Valvoline, Chevron Delo®, and Mobile1.



## Vehicle Application

• Vocational truck engine, transmission and drive tr ain (Class 3-8)

• Transit bus engine, engine, transmission and drive train (Class 6, 7)



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Additional cost savings may be possible due to redu ced engine wear and maintenance, and by providing a longer period between engine overhauls. 101



# Rankine Bottoming Cycle

Technology Definition

A Rankine bottoming cycle system converts otherwise wasted thermal energy from the engine to provide additional work. The heat is used to he at a working fluid that can be used to drive a turbine. Waste heat is captured from:

 the exhaust after any aftertreatment,

 the EGR cooler,

97 

### NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepare d for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

98 

### ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenh ouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Env ironmental Defense Fund, December 2009.

99 

### NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepare d for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

100 

### ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenh ouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Env ironmental Defense Fund, December 2009.

101 

### Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads /documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 55 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

##  the engine coolant, and

 the charge air cooler. 102



## The turbine is used to drive a generator to create electricity which can then be used by and electric motor connected to the engine crankshaft.

While bottoming cycles provide good energy for cont inuous high speed operation, their transient response is poor. This can be mitigated by combini ng the system with a hybrid electric drive system. In this case the electricity provided by t he Rankine bottoming cycle can be used to supplement engine power when at higher continuous s peeds and store power at other
conditions.



## Availability

Discussions with manufacturers suggest that they en vision the bottoming cycle as a promising technology that could come into the market in the 2 015 timeframe. However, this technology is still in the early stages of development, and there are significant capital cost and packaging
issues to be resolved.



## Vehicle Application

All Trucks



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

The Rankine bottoming cycle system would include a turbine, generator and flywheel producing 30 kW, an air cooled condenser, an EGR boiler, a st ack boiler, controls and power electronics, energy storage and modifications to the balance of plant. Cummins estimates such a system would cost the end user approximately $7,000. 103



# 2.9. Weight reduction technologies

Aluminum Air Tanks

Technology Definition

Air tanks made out of aluminum rather than steel ar e one method to reduce overall truck weight. The reduced weight savings improves fuel economy. S tandard steel tanks range in size from 1⁄4 gallon to 20 gallons. Prices are difficult to estimate since there is not an industry-wide fixed number of air tanks per truck. Air tanks are used f or a variety of functions, ranging from tire

102 

### NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Tru ck Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-g hg_report_final200910.pdf

.
103 

### Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 56 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## inflation, air brakes, air horns and air-powered se ats. 104 

## Class 8 trucks may have two to four air tanks depending on the functionality of the air in the truck. 105



## Availability

Conversations with industry representatives indicat e that steel air tanks are currently the
standard and that the use of aluminum for air tanks is fairly rare, particularly for class 8 trucks.



## Vehicle Application

Air tanks are used in all classes of 3-8 vehicles d epending on the functionality of the air for the
vehicle.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Note that aluminum usually costs about 50 – 100% mo re than steel. 106



# Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs

Technology Definition

Attempts to replace traditional axles and axle hubs with lightweight versions composed chiefly of aluminum, although other materials have been consid ered, such as carbon fiber.



## Availability

To date, industry opinion is that this technology w ill not make it into production due to heat and integrity issues. Although some research has been d one on axle tubes, center carrier areas, cover plates, etc., this is still in the research a nd development phase and difficult to provide cost
estimates for.



## Vehicle Application

Not currently applicable to any vehicles.



# Aluminum Wheels

Technology Definition

Forged and cast aluminum wheels are lighter than tr aditional steel wheels. Aluminum wheels provide enhanced performance advantages over standa rd steel wheels, including weight savings, and lower maintenance and operating costs. The mounting system for aluminum wheels can be ball seat or hub piloted. Alcoa offer s a full set of options for heavy duty trucks and buses including 22.5”, 24.5”, and 14" wide-base wheels, that when partnered with the right tire, can increase fuel and tire efficiency as well as save weight. For example, the all-purpose commercial wheel (i.e., 24.5” LvL ONETM) weighs 56 p ounds compared to a typical 86 pound

104 

### Conversation with Michigan Truck Supplies Sales De partment, March 5, 2010.

105 

### Note that aluminum fuel tanks are more frequently offered as optional equipment than aluminum air tan ks.

106 

### As estimated by Franklin Josey, Volvo, February 9, 2010Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 57 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## steel wheel. 107 

## For a standard dry flatbed trailer, a 2 axle – 8 w heel configuration with 22.5 by 8.25 inch wheels, replacing steel wheels with alumi num would reduce the trailer’s weight by 176 pounds. 108



## Wheel manufacturers are offering aluminum wheels in 22.5x14-in. sizes to help bring additional weight and fuel savings to fleets. Alcoa offers a w ide base wheel engineered to work with low profile long-haul tires on drive and trailer axles. In the wide base tire system, one wide wheel and tire replaces a set of dual wheels and tires

. 109 

## Wide base wheel and tire assemblies save fuel, in part, because they include only half as ma ny flexing sidewalls as a set of dual tires. Accuride DupleX-One wide-base 22.5x14-in. aluminum wheels, the company notes, reduce fuel expense or increase payload capacity when used in p lace of traditional dual wheel sets on tandem-axle tractors and trailers. Developed in con junction with Michelin, the forged aluminum wheels can save 120 lbs. per axle. 110



## Availability

Aluminum wheels are widely available for use on tra ilers and are frequently a manufacturer optional feature of trailers. Manufacturers of alum inum wheels include Alcoa and Accuride.



## Vehicle Application

Aluminum wheels are available for heavy duty trucks (Class 6-8) and Class 8 buses for drive, steer, and trailer axles for dual (22.5 and 24.5 x8 .2) and single wide tires (22.5x14-in.) 111



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Additional benefits of aluminum wide-base (single-w ide) tires and wheels include reduced

maintenance costs. Maintenance costs can be lower b ecause there are only four wheel positions per tandem compared to eight. In addition , without an inner tire/wheel, inflation and visual inspection becomes much easier and more effe ctive. Super wide aluminum wheels also tend to help keep brake packages running cooler and , therefore, lasting longer. 112



# Lightweight Brake Drums

Technology Definition

Lightweight brake drums offer an opportunity to red uce truck weight and thereby reduce fuel consumption. A lightweight brake drum is considered an effective weight-savings option for

107 

### Alcoa 24.5” LvL One. http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/b rochures/docs/Alcoa_LvL_One24.pdf

.
108 

### Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales Contact, March 2, 2010.

109 

### “New Alcoa 22.4x14 wide base wheel fits low profil e longhaul needs,” Fleet Equipment, November 1, 200 1. http://www.allbusiness.com/transportation-warehousi ng/828191-1.html

.
110 

### Skydel, Seth. “Fuel efficiency: aluminum wheels, s ide base singles.” Fleet Equipments, April 1, 2009. http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bo dies-offices/12319270-1.html

.

111 

### Heavy Duty Truck/Trailer. Alcoa Wheels website. Ac cessed June 10, 2010. http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/h dtt/index.asp

.

112 

### ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenh ouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Env ironmental Defense Fund, December 2009.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 58 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## trucks. These brake drums can save nearly 25 pounds per drum compared to standard steel brake drums, and replace standard or heavy duty ful l steel cast drums. 113 

## Lightweight brake drums, like the CentriFuse® drums are made of an ir on alloy core but have a steel outer shell. 114 

## The lightweight drums are often combined with alumi num wheels and aluminum hubs for additional weight savings.

Figure 2-31: Lightweight Brake Drum Components

Source: CentriFuse® Product Brochure http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_ drums_brochure.pdf



## Availability

Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle Systems. Inc. manufa ctures the CentriFuse® Brake Drum. Several types of brake drum are available including CentriFuse Lite, CentriFuse Wide Break,
and CentriFuse Plus.



## Vehicle Application

Lightweight brake drums can be used on any type of medium or heavy duty truck and are frequently used for vehicles seeking lighter compon ents. Usually there are two brake drums per
axle of a vehicle. 115



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

CentriFuse lightweight brake drums are reported as lasting four times longer than conventional steel drums – therefore extending lifecycle and red ucing maintenance costs. 116 

## Drums are alloy

113 

### CentriFuse Product Brochure, http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_ drums_brochure.pdf

.

114 

### Conversations with Product Development Specialist, Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle System, July 16, 20 10.

115 

### Conversations with Product Development Specialist, Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle Systems, March 19, 2010.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 59 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## with a steel shell which offers an added element of safety against breakage, thereby improving
cost-effectiveness.



# Lightweight Cab Components

Technology Definition

Like other lightweight options, replacing cab struc tural and surface materials with lighter weight alternatives will reduce vehicle weight and increas e efficiency, assuming the vehicles are operating full in terms of volume, but not at their full weight rating or what is known as “cubed out.” In the case of operating with the reverse sc enario, or “weighed out” any gain from the use of lighter weight components would be offset by inc reased load.

Industry has indicated that some progress has been made on lightweight technologies. Plastic cab components are typically sheet molded composite s (SMC) and are common in cab components where structural strength is not of the utmost importance, such as hoods, air deflectors, and sleeping cabin roofs. The majority of remaining cab components will be made of steel or steel with some portion of aluminum. Ligh tweight prototype vehicles have been developed for some vehicle classes. For example, th e use of high strength stainless steel for a Class 8 bus body and chassis has been shown to resu lt in a mass savings of about 50% (300% increase in fuel economy) with a cost savings of ab out 30%. 117 

## This has only made it through a prototype phase and had various commercial setbacks

.
Indications are that industry perceives aluminum fr ame cabs to be less durable and add significantly to the truck purchase price. However, most manufacturers offer lightweight versions of many other technologies. Price differentials are generally driven by material cost and volume, with aluminum roughly 50-100% more expensive than e quivalent steel components, although tooling and fixed costs are roughly the same. SMC c omponents are generally comparable in price to steel, depending on thickness. Price diffe rential estimates are difficult to obtain since lightweight components are often offered only as pa ckages that could include tanks, wheels,
and other elements.



## Availability

Found with some frequency in existing vehicles, alt hough industry is generally leery of their use.



## Vehicle Application

All vehicles



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Generally lightweight components are only available as packages. Lifetime, operations, and maintenance costs should be comparable to steel.

116 

### Precision Partners Press Release, March 16, 2009. http://www.precisionpartnersinc.com/corporate/break ingnews/announces-its-new-long-life-severe-service-bra ke-drums-centrifuse-plus/

.

117 

### Emmons, Bruce. System Optimization of an Ultraligh t Electric Transit Bus. Autokinetics, Inc. April 20 , 2006. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/h vso_2006/23_emmons.pdf

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 60 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

# Lightweight Suspension Systems

Technology Definition

Cab weight reduction and increased efficiency could come from the use of lighter components, including replacement of suspension materials. Curr ently these materials are made of steel, especially the springs, due to its generally superi or performance over other materials.

Industry has said that lightweight suspensions coul d come from the use of aluminum in certain components, however it was generally felt that crit ical suspension components are expected to remain mostly steel. For example, brackets, stayrod s, and port controls could be made from aluminum, while carbon and composite materials have been researched, but are not anticipated for near-term use in heavy duty vehicles due to cos t and performance concerns. Further research and development for advanced materials are needed. 118



## Availability

This technology is not currently available, except at an R&D level. It is not anticipated in the

near term.



# Reduced Number of Batteries

Technology Definition

A possible approach to reduce cab weight and thus e ngine load could be to reduce the number of batteries installed per truck.



## Availability

Industry has indicated that reducing the number of batteries installed in a truck is not currently a viable option. The number of batteries required (th ree is standard for Class 8 tractors) is driven by the need for cold-cranking amps. While other tru ck classes with smaller engines could use fewer than three batteries, they are typically desi gned with the smallest number necessary.

As an alternative, advanced battery technology coul d offer either lightweight alternatives or potentially greater strength, which could lead to f ewer batteries required. However, industry believes this is in the distant future for heavy du ty trucks, and would likely not offer much weight reduction anyway. 119



## Vehicle Application

Not currently applicable to any vehicles.

118 

### NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepare d for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

119 

### Franklin Josey, Volvo, 2/9/2010.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 61 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

# Aluminum Structural Components for Trailers

Technology Definition

Aluminum structural components can significantly re duce weight on trailers for heavy duty trucks, and therefore reduce greenhouse gas emissio ns. For the purposes of this research, aluminum components apply to trailer types includin g dry vans, reefers and tankers. Many steel or plywood structural components for trailers can b e replaced with aluminum to reduce weight in a variety of applications. Aluminum roof posts (rat her than steel) often reduce weight by 75 pounds. Aluminum floor joists (rather than steel) c an reduce weight by 300 pounds. Aluminum floors (rather than wood floors) can reduce weight by 385 pounds. Aluminum cross members (rather than steel) can reduce weight by 155 pounds . Aluminum side posts (rather than steel) may reduce weight by 275 pounds. Finally, aluminum roof bows (rather than steel) can reduce weight by about 100 pounds. 120



## Availability

Aluminum components are widely available for use on trailers and are frequently a manufacturer optional feature of trailers.



## Vehicle Application

Manufacturers offer aluminum component upgrades for trailers for class 8 heavy duty trucks.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Aluminum costs about 50 to 100% more than steel, an d can sometimes cost more to assemble than steel depending on the various fasteners requi red. Note that some manufacturers are beginning to use plastics for structural components , for which the material costs are comparable
to steel 121 

## , but this is not widespread. 122



# 2.10. Electrification

Electrification of Accessory Loads

Technology Definition

Generally most accessory loads such as the power st eering pump, the water pump, the air conditioning compressor, engine fan, and the air co mpressor are driven mechanically by belts connected to the engine crankshaft. If a large sou rce of electrical energy is available, such as with hybrid systems or electric turbo compounding, these accessory loads can be electrically driven reducing the direct load on the engine. The engine cooling fan can also be converted to

120 

### Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales.

121 

### Franklin Josey, Volvo, 2/9/2010

122 

### Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 62 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## electric drive although for line haul applications, the efficiency savings are small because the fan
on times are low. 123



## Availability

Not much research has been done on electrifying hea vy-duty truck components. However, there will likely be growing interest in electrified acce ssories, such as power steering, due to the emergence of hybrid-systems that offer “engine-off” or zero-emissions vehicle mode of operations. 124



## Vehicle Application

All trucks using either hybrid technology or electr ic turbo compounding.



# 2.11. Air conditioning and transport refrigerated unit (T RU) improvements

Alternative Refrigerants

Technology Definition

Refrigerants leak, directly emitting GHGs. Moving t o refrigerants with a lower global warming potential (GWP) is one method to reduce the GHG imp act of heavy duty vehicles.

Several gases have emerged as contenders with a low er GWP than the current widely used refrigerant, HFC-134a, (GWP of 1,300) including CO 2 

## (GWP = 1), HFC-152a (GWP = 120), and Propane (GWP = 20). Each of these gases would requi re a refrigeration system modified to some extent from the current 134a systems and prese nt their own challenges related to safety, flammability, toxicity, and other health and enviro nmental concerns.

Globally, motor vehicle air conditioning manufactur ers have appeared to settle on a single future refrigerant, HFO-1234yf. 125 

## HFO-1234yf is “acceptable for use in mobile air co nditioning from a toxicity perspective”, has low ignition potential, GWP of 4 with lifetime of days, no ozone depleting potential (ODP), low smog-forming potenti al, and low ecosystem impact. 126 

## It also requires minimal changes to current system architec ture, however, the refrigerant itself is expensive. Currently, research prices are $500 per kg, with final in-production price estimated to be about $50 per lb 127 

## as compared to R134a which retails today for appro ximately $7 per lb (with volume discounts as much as $1.20/lb) 128

123 

### NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Tru ck Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-g hg_report_final200910.pdf

.
124 

### Email exchange with Brad Hicks, ArvinMeritor, Marc h 26, 2010.

125 

### Peter Coll, SAE. Posted at: http://www.refrigeration-engineer.com/forums/showth read.php?t=23669

126 

### Industry Evaluation of low global warming potentia l refrigerant HFO-1234yf, SAE CRP1234, 11/10/2009.

127 

### “Consensus Building on Refrigerant Type”, in Septe mber 2008 issue of Automotive Engineering Internati onal (an SAE magazine). p.30.

128 

### E.g., http://www.koolit.net/prod_list.php?sci=9 , 5/25/2010Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 63 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Availability

CO 2 

## , Propane, and HFC-152a are readily available but l ess likely to be implemented than HFO1234yf. HFO-1234yf is currently unavailable commerc ially.



## Vehicle Application

All mobile vehicle air conditioning systems, includ ing Class 8 tractors, TRUs, Class 3-8 work trucks, and light-duty vehicles.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Current prices are much higher than the baseline HF C-134a, although expected to come down once in production. Minimal hardware redesign is ex pected to be necessary, unless it is decided that systems should move to a dual loop design. Ass uming the architecture is maintained as a single loop, prices may reasonably be scaled by the vehicle charge size. 129



# Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials

Technology Definition

There are several techniques to reflect solar ener gy from trailers, including:

• Replacing a standard aluminum roof with a transluc ent, white fiberglass roof;

• Covering trailer sides with reflective tape strips ; and

• Painting trailer roofs with white reflective paint

.
These techniques can be applied to refrigerated tra ilers to reduce the amount of fuel used to regulate the temperature in the trailer. Some of th ese techniques may also be applied to school
buses to reduce the amount of fuel used to air cond ition the bus.

Although white fiberglass roofs reflect solar energ y, they are mostly used for their translucency benefits. One disadvantage of using this roof is th at it punctures easier than a standard
aluminum roof. 130



## Conspicuity reflective tape may be laid in strips o n trailer sides. For example, UPS covers half of each truck side with this tape to increase reflecti vity. 131



## White reflective paint, such as SolarCool, an acryl ic elastomeric coating with sealed ceramic micro-bubbles may be applied to trailer tops to ref lect solar radiation. 132

129 

### Numerous conversations, including Gary Hansen, Red DotCorp.com, 5/26/2010.

130 

### Conversation with John, Dan’s Truck Refrigeration.

131 

### Conservation with John, UPS.

132 

### SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlo n of Solar Cool Coatings.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 64 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010



### Figure 2-32: Solar Energy Reflection Improvement th rough Application of SolarCool Coatings Paint

Source: SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlon of Solar Cool Coatings



## Availability

There appear to be a few companies that manufacture translucent, white fiberglass roofs. Crane Composites is one of the main manufacturers of thes e roofs. There are several companies that produce reflective tape. 133 

## There are several companies that manufacturer refl ective, white paint.



## Vehicle Application

These reflective strategies can be applied to Class 8 trailers. Research indicates that these strategies can also be applied to Class 5 box truck s and Class 7 buses. However, installation of a translucent, white fiberglass roofs is not a wide spread strategy for buses. 134

133 

### “Truck Reflective Tape,” Thomasnet website. Access ed June 10, 2010. http://www.thomasnet.com/products/truck-reflectivetape-87831160-1.html

.
134 

### Conversation with Bill Beckwith, Crane Composites.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 65 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Operation and maintenance is an additional cost for these strategies. For example, punctures to fiberglass roofs need to be sealed, reflective tape strips replaced every few years, and reflective paint recoated every few years.

Reefer Improvements



# Low Power Draw A/C

Technology Definition

Low power draw air conditioning (A/C) units operate without dependence on a diesel engine powered unit. Eliminating the need to operate based on a diesel powered engine unit reduces the need for idling in order to cool the cab. Low p ower draw systems usually either use waterbased evaporation or self-contained air conditioner s. Water based cooling is ideal for mild temperatures. 135 

## For more extensive cooling needs, a self-contained air conditioner is ideal. 136


## Water-based coolers use evaporation to reduce the t emperature of the air by an average of 10 to 15 degrees. 137 

## A small amount of electrical current is needed to operate a blower fan to
circulate the cooled air. 138 

## One disadvantage of the evaporative cooler is that it can only make small changes in temperature and therefore is not a lways suitable for very hot climates. 139 

## For hot climates or extended cooling during rest period s, there are self-contained units which are operated by dedicated batteries. 140,141



## Availability

Many companies manufacture low power draw A/C syste ms, including CoolMoves, DC Power Solutions and Dometic Environmental Corporation.

135 

### Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves

136 

### Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves

137 

### Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads /documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

.
138 

### Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads /documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

.
139 

### Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves

140 

### Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads /documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

.
141 

### Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool MovesInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 66 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

### Figure 2-33: Evaporative A/C Unit

Source: Cool Moves Minicool Product Brochure, http://coolmoves.ca/products/mini-cool/dinamic/

Figure 2-34: Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C

Source: Cool Moves Bycool Product Brochure, http://coolmoves.ca/products/bycool/revolution/



## Vehicle Application

Many evaporative coolers and self-contained cooling systems can be mounted on multiple types of trucks. Some can be mounted on rooftops for fla t-cab or body roof trucks, others mounted within the cab body of the truck. Some units are ge ared more toward sleeper cabs and others for daytime cooling. Note that the evaporative cool ers work best in dry climates. 142



## For a class 7 school bus or a class 8 transit bus, it would be recommended to use a rooftop cooling system or an evaporative unit, ultimately d epending on the climate the vehicle operates in. For medium duty trucks like the class 6 box tru ck, it would be recommended to use an evaporative unit.

142 

### Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads /documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 67 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

# Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems

Technology Definition

A transport refrigeration unit (TRU) is a refrigera tion system designed to refrigerate temperature-sensitive products that are transported in insulated vans, trucks, or rail cars. Traditional, mechanical TRUs are powered by a diese l engine, the most common engine size being 35 hp. Conventional diesel-powered TRUs may b e purchased with an electric standby (E/S) option, which allows the TRU engine to be shu t off when a compatible power supply is available at a facility so TRU diesel engine emissi ons are eliminated. 143



### Figure 2-35: Transport Refrigeration Units

Source: Photo provided by David Kiefer of Transicold.



## A more advanced alternative to the conventional die sel-powered TRU is a hybrid electric TRU. In this system, a diesel engine drives a generator that, in turn, powers an electric semi-hermetic refrigeration compressor and electrically driven fa ns, all controlled by an advanced microprocessor. 144 

## The benefits of a hybrid-electric TRU include: gre ater fuel-efficiency to reduce carbon emissions, less leakage potential, an d significantly less maintenance requirements versus a conventional belt-driver syst em. 145



## Because a hybrid electric TRU uses electrical energ y, it requires less coolant than a conventional diesel-powered TRU. Because it uses le ss coolant, it requires fewer valves, which are susceptible to leakage. For example, Transicold ’s Vector® hybrid unit uses a semi-hermetic

143 

### Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Me asure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) a nd TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Op erate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

144 

### Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Me asure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) a nd TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Op erate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

145 

### Conversation with David Kiefer, Transicold.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 68 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## compressor, uses a third less refrigerant and half the braze joints as a conventional dieselpowered TRU. The unit also has an electric standby option for stationary units. 146



## Solar power TRUs are currently unavailable, but hav e been tested in the UK. Solar TRUs consume no fuel, do not suffer the same mechanical failures, and have longer operating lives. 147



## Availability

Carrier Transicold offers a hybrid electric TRU.



## Vehicle Application

The hybrid TRU discussed above may be used on Class 8 trailers. 148



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

A hybrid electric TRU is more expensive than a conv entional TRU without E/S, and has less operating and maintenance costs over a conventional TRU with the E/S add-on option. 149



## Adding the power infrastructure at facilities with TRUs that use E/S is very expensive. Costs for power outlets in parking areas increase significant ly due to trenching costs. 150



# Use of Cryogenic CO 2 

# Unit

Technology Definition

Cryogenic CO 2 

## refrigeration units heat and cool using liquid CO 2 

## that is routed through an evaporator coil that cools air blown over the coil. 151 

## For example, the ThermoKing cryogenic system moves liquid CO 2 

## from the refillable vehicle tank through a sealed evaporator coil inside the cargo space, thus cooling the coil. Temperature controlled air is circulated over the coil and through the cargo space. Having extracted all the u seful energy, it exhausts to the atmosphere. On trailer applications, heat for defrosting the ev aporator coil and temperature control is generated by a diesel heater when required. 152 

## Infrastructure for these units include: a fuel holding tank at the distribution facility and a pum ping station to pressure the fuel and pump it
into the TRU. 153

146 

### Conversation with David Kiefer.

147 

### DTI, “The Commercialisation of Solar Powered Trans port Refrigeration.” 2001. http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file16833.pdf

.
148 

### Conversation with David Kiefer.

149 

### Conversation with David Kiefer.

150 

### Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Me asure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) a nd TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Op erate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

151 

### Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Me asure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) a nd TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Op erate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

152 

### Thermo King CryoTech Brochure.

153 

### Conversation with Tom Kampf, ThermoKing.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 69 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

### Figure 2-36: ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit

Source: Thermo King CryoTech Brochure


## Availability

ThermoKing manufactures a cryogenic CO 2 

## unit, but it is currently only available in the European Union. However, these units are being demo nstrated in the United States. 154



## Vehicle Application

These units can be installed on Class 8 trailers. T hey would most likely be installed on trucks that are operated for local deliveries. 155



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

The capital cost of a cryogenic unit is slightly hi gher than a standard TRU. However, the facility infrastructure costs for the fuel adds to the capit al cost. Fuel costs vary depending on the nature of the operation. As of 2003, operating costs for l iquid CO 2 

## are typically double the diesel fueloperating costs and increase with distance from the source. 156 

## Maintenance costs are lower since the systems have fewer moving parts. 157 

## Over the lifetime of the unit, the largest

154 

### Conversation with Herman Viegas, ThermoKing.

155 

### Conversation with Herman Viegas, ThermoKing.

156 

### Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Me asure for In-Use Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) a nd TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Op erate, CARB, October 28, 2003, p VI-11.

157 

### ThermoKing CryoTech Brochure.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Gre enhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicl es 

### Description of Technologies

ICF International 

## 70 US Environmental Protection Agency

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

### July 20, 2010 

## maintenance cost is the refurbishing of the liquid cryogen storage tank, which is replaced roughly once every 5-7 years. 158 

## Volume discounts for these units are minimal. 159



# Use of Leakage Reducing Components

Technology Definition

In general, components to minimize leakages are alr eady incorporated into most modern air conditioning and transport refrigeration units (TRU s, reefer) systems. A/C system loads in tractors and work trucks are parasitic loads on the engine that only burden the engine when operated, thus reducing fuel efficiency and increas ing tailpipe GHG emissions (indirect effect). However, modern refrigerants are also potent greenh ouse gases, and leakage of them from the systems lead to direct emissions of GHGs. 160



## In mobile vehicle air conditioning (MVAC) systems, leakage can be reduced through the use of enhanced hose components, such as veneer/barrier ho ses or ultra-low permeation hoses, improved fittings and connections (multiple o-rings , seal washers, and seal washers with orings, and metal gaskets), and/or multiple-lip seal s for the compressor shaft seal. 161



## For TRUs, however, one area for potential leakage i n a conventional diesel-powered TRU is the shaft seal between the compressor and the engine. T his leakage potential is removed with a hybrid electric TRU which uses an electric transmis sion and a semi-hermetic, electrically powered compressor instead of a leakage-susceptible shaft. This system also uses a third less refrigerant than conventional TRUs, further reducin g leakage potential. 162 

## This system is
discussed under the section “Use of Advanced Electr ical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems”.



## Availability

Leakage reducing components for MVAC systems are re adily available and largely already employed by the industry.



## Vehicle Application

This technology is used in all tractors and work tr ucks, as well as trailers.



## Notable Cost-Related Factors

Operations and maintenance savings are incurred wit h the use of leakage reducing components given the longer lifetimes of refrigerant charges.

158 

### Conversation with Sam Dutta, ThermoKing.

159 

### Conversation with Tom Kampf.

160 

### Draft Regulatory Impact Analysis, Proposed Rulemak ing to Establish Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standa rds, EPA-420-D-09-003, September 2009.

161 

### NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepare d for U.S. DOT, October 4, 2007.

162 

### Conversation with David Kiefer.ICF International71US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 20103.Cost TablesError! Reference source not found.through Table 3-4 show the estimated cost for eachtechnology, organized by the four tasks. Adescription of each of these technologies is givenin Section 2. In each table the following column appear:Category – the nine technology categories listed previouslyTechnology – the technology consideredIncremental To – if the technology is incremental to another technology, the baseline technology is listedTechnology Types – subcategories of the technology[Vehicle] Type Applied To – Tractor, Trailer, Bus,or Vocational vehicle the technology may be implemented onManufacturer Cost – if the price/cost value is manufacturer cost, it is listed in this columnRetail Price – if the price/cost value is retail price, it is listed in this columnType of Price/Cost – a summary of the price/cost valueO&M Costs – any operations and maintenance costs determined from the researchDiscount Information – any information on discountsavailable from the researchNotes – any notes on values or methodologies used in the calculationsCost information was gathered through telephone interviews with manufacturers and vendors. This was also compared to valuesfound in the literature. All values were combinedto hide any proprietary or sensitive information gathered.Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International72US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010Table 3-1: Class 7 and 8 Tractor Technology Cost/Price SummaryCategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformation

Aerodynamic ImprovementsRoof Fairing No Fairing Roof FairingDay Cab $1,100Retail10-15% forlarge ordersMidsize Sleeper $1,400Retail10-15% forlarge ordersFullsize Sleeper n/a n/a10-15% forlarge ordersSide Fairing No FairingFuel Tank FairingDay Cab $1,500RetailNo DataAvailableMidsize Sleeper $1,500RetailNo DataAvailableFullsize Sleeper $1,500RetailNo DataAvailablePartial Side FairingDay Cab $366Retail10-15% forlarge ordersMidsize Sleeper $530Retail10-15% forlarge ordersFullsize Sleeper $700Retail10-15% forlarge ordersWheel to WheelFull Side FairingDay Cab $1,700RetailNo DataAvailableMidsize Sleeper $2,100RetailNo DataAvailableFullsize Sleeper $2,200RetailNo DataAvailableFull Aero MirrorBaselineMirrorAero Mirror, pair All $660No DataAvailableIncremental, per TruckAll$428IncrementalRetailPartial AeroMirrorBaselineMirrorSemi-Aero Wing-Shaped“Moto” MirrorAll $450NoDataAvailableIncremental, per TruckAll$218IncrementalRetailBaseline MirrorStandard Mirror, pair All $232RetailNo DataAvailableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International73US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationTractor GapFairingNo Fairing Side ExtenderDay Cab $320Retail10-15% forlarge ordersMidsize Sleeper $360RetailNo DataAvailableFullsize Sleeper $400RetailNo DataAvailableAerodynamicHoodBaselineHoodDay Cab n/aNo DataAvailableMidsize Sleeper n/aNo DataAvailableFullsize Sleeper n/aNo DataAvailableBumperClassicBumperAero BumperDay Cab $960IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableMidsize Sleeper $960IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableFullsize Sleeper $960IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableClassic BumperDay Cab $390IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableMidsize Sleeper $390IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableFullsize Sleeper $390IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailable

Rolling Resistance ImprovementsSingle WideTiresBaselineDualie DriveTires on SteelWheelsSingle Wide DriveTireAll$1,000No DataAvailableWide-Base AlWheelAll$650AdditionalcomponentsAlln/aNumber/DriveAxle2Drive Axles2Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International74US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationChanges/year0.300Total (Capital)$6,600Total per year(O&M)$1,977Incremental, perTruck$(228)IncrementalRetailIncremental, per(Single-Wide)Wheel$(57)IncrementalRetailO&M per Truckper Year$(199)O&M per (SingleWide) Tire perYear$(50)Baseline (Dualie)Drive TireAll$404Baseline (Dualie)Al WheelAll$450Number/DriveAxle4Drive Axles2Changes/year0.319Total (Capital)$6,828No DataAvailableTotal per year(O&M)$2,176Low RollingResistanceTiresBaseline Tire(no wheelchange)LRRT (drive)$424Number/DriveAxle4Drive Axles2Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International75US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationChanges/year0.296LRRT (steer)$449Number/SteerAxle2Steer Axles1Changes/year0.252Total (Capital)$4,286Total per year(O&M)$1,231Capital per truck$246IncrementalRetailCapital per tire$25IncrementalRetail5-10% forlarge ordersO&M per truckper year$(18)O&M per tire peryear$ (2)Baseline (Dualie)Drive Tire$404Number/DriveAxle4Drive Axles2Changes/year0.319Baseline Steer Tire$406Number/SteerAxle2Steer Axles1Changes/year0.271Total (Capital)$4,040No DataAvailableTotal per year(O&M)$ 1,249Automatic TireInflationNo ATISystemExternal, tractorsystem (package)All$1,500Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International76US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationInstall labor (hrs,included)8Labor costs (perhr; for retrofit)$19components only$1,351RetailNo DataAvailable

Operational ImprovementsProgrammablespeed limiterNo SpeedLimiterIncremental Costof SystemAll$-Time to Programthe Engine(minutes)5Labor costs (perhr; for retrofit)$19Total$2Laborn/aAdvancedDriver TrainingNo TrainingSubscription withLessons (perdriver)All$50Price per course$15Number courseson fuel economy1Duration(hours/course)4Driver Salary/hr $18.62Per Driver PerYear$139RetailNo DataAvailableHigh-LevelTraining without aAllInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International77US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationSubscriptionDuration(hours/course)10Driver Salary/hr $18.62Trainer Salary/hr $31Training Materials $19Per Driver PerYear$515RetailNo DataAvailableLiterature Only AllPrice per course $125.00Number courses 1Duration(hours/course)8Driver Salary/hr $18.62Per Driver PerYear$274RetailNo DataAvailable

Idle ReductionsAuxiliary PowerUnitsNo APUMost Day Cabs n/aTraditional APU Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers $7,700RetailVolumediscounts ofabout 13-19%availableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International78US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationTruck overnightidling (hours/year)1800APU FuelConsumption(gal/hour)0.25Engine FuelConsumption(gal/hour)0.8Fuel Cost ($/gal)$3Incremental O&Mper truck per year$ (2,970)Direct FiredHeatersNo DFHSimple BunkHeater/DFHAll $1,400RetailNo DataAvailableEngineRecoverySystemsNo EFSSimple All $585RetailVolumediscountsavailable, butunquantifiedDeluxe $710RetailVolumediscountsavailable, butunquantifiedThermalStorageSystemsNo TSS Full TSS system All $4,500RetailNo DataAvailableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International79US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationTruck StopElectrificationEngine IdlingAdvancedTruckstopElectrification(ATE)Midsize and Fullsize SleepersMountingTemplate$18Per Site InstallCost$11,000Use Rate ($/hour)$1.00May benegotiableTruck overnightidling (hours/year)1800Install Cost$0Capital Per Truck$18RetailAnnual O&M pertruck$1,800Incremental O&Mper truck per year$ (2,520)n/aBaselineEngine FuelConsumption(gal/hour)0.8Fuel Cost ($/gal)$3Annual Cost perTruck$4,320Shore PowerTruckstopElectrification(TSE)Midsize and Fullsize SleepersPer Truck InstallCost$199Per Site InstallCost$2,100Use Rate ($/hour)$1.00May benegotiableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International80US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationTruck overnightidling (hours/year)1800Capital Per Truck$199RetailAnnual O&M pertruck$1,800Incremental O&Mper truck per year$ (2,520)n/aBaseline idlingEngineFuelConsumption(gal/hour)0.8Fuel Cost ($/gal)$3Annual Cost perTruck$4,320

Idle ReductionsAnti-IdleSystemNo SystemAutomatic EngineShut-DownAlln/atechnology $-activation $55Mandated AESDCost$-AutomaticEngineStart/StopSystemsNo System Optimized Idle AllInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International81US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationactivation/programming$400kit $900Volumediscounts of17%Total$1,300RetailFuel Cell APUs$7,550RetailNo DataAvailable

Engine ImprovementsLow FrictionEngine LubeStandardEngine LubesLube Costs AllOil changes/year3.15Incremental cost/oilchange$ 268.50Engine Modifications $-RetailInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International82US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationIncremental Totalper Truck per Year$ 845.78No DataAvailableIntegratedStarter/AlternatorBaselineStarter andAlternatorAll10 kW integrated starter/alt system $7,600Incremental Total per Truck$7,200IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableBaseline Starter$200Baseline Alternator$200Total$400No DataAvailableMechanicalTurbocompoundingNo TBCMechanical TBC AllPort Liners $400Variable ValveActuation$300High efficiencypower turbine$1,275Total$1,975Incremental Totalper Truck$1,040IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableBaseline VGT $935No DataAvailableElectrical TurbocompoundingNo TBCElectric TBC AllMechanical Turbocompoundingcomponents$1,97540 kWmotor/generator$1,200Power Electronics $1,200Electric accessories $1,000Balance of Plant $2,163Total $7,538Incremental Totalper Truck$6,603IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International83US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationBaseline VGT $935No DataAvailableElectronic FansAlln/an/aVariable ValveActuationno VVAVVA System AllNumber Cylinders 6Price per cylinder $50Total$300RetailNo DataAvailable

Engine ImprovementsVariableGeometryTurbo (VGT)BaselineFixed (FGT)VGT system All $935Incremental to FGT $435IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableBaseline FGT$500No DataAvailableRankineBottomingCycleNo RankineSystemTurbine, generatorand flywheel (30kW system)All$2,000Air cooledcondenser$500EGR boiler$400Stack boiler$1,000Balance of Plant$1,440Controls & PowerElectronics$1,300Energy storage$150Total $6,790RetailNo DataAvailable

Transmission and Drivetrain ImprovementsHybridPowertrainConventionalPowertrainHybrid System All50 kWMotor/Generator$3,0004 kW Battery Pack $6,400Power Electronics $3,000Balance of Plant $6,600Modified ClutchAssembly$4,000Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International84US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationElectrification ofAccessories$2,000Total $25,000RetailNo DataAvailableLow FrictionDrivetrain LubeConventionalTransmissionLubesLow Friction Lube AllChanges/year0.7875Cost/change$ 339No DataAvailableDrivetrainModifications(none required) $-Incremental Totalper Truck per Year$ 140.96Baseline(ConventionalLube)Cost/change$160No DataAvailableEarly TorqueConverterLockupNo ETCLU All $0RetailNo DataAvailable

Weight ReductionAluminumWheelsConventionalSteel WheelsUpgrade Dualies toAluminumAllAl Standard WidthWheel$450Bulkdiscountsavailable butunquantifiedBaseline (Dualie)Drive Tire$404Number/Drive Axle 4Drive Axles 2Baseline Steer Tire $406Number/Steer Axle 2Steer Axles 1Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International85US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationTotal$8,540per truck$3,120IncrementalRetailper wheel$312IncrementalRetailUpgrade toAluminum SWTsAl Wide-BaseWheel$650Bulkdiscountsavailable butunquantifiedSingle Wide DriveTire$1,031Number/Drive Axle 2Drive Axles 2Baseline Steer Tire $406Number/Steer Axle 0Steer Axles 1Total$6,724per truck$1,304IncrementalRetailper wheel$326IncrementalRetailBaselineSteel StandardWidth Wheel$138Bulkdiscountsavailable butunquantifiedBaseline (Dualie)Drive Tire$404Number/Drive Axle 4Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International86US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationDrive Axles 2Baseline Steer Tire $406Number/Steer Axle 2Steer Axles 1Total$5,420Aluminum AxleHubsn/a n/a n/an/aLight WeightBrake DrumsBaseline FullCast BrakeDrumsCentrifuse Drums AllDrum $120No DataAvailableNumber/Axle 2Axles 3Total$720Total Capital perTruck$270IncrementalRetailTotal Capital perAxle$90IncrementalRetailChanges/year0.10Total per year(O&M)27.00Total O&M perTruck$ (3)BaselineDrum $75No DataAvailableTotal$450Changes/year0.40Total per year(O&M)$30.00Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International87US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationAluminum AirTanksSteel AirTanksAluminum air tank,3x 4-GalconfigurationAll4-Gal Al Air Tank $147Number of Tanks 3Total $441Baseline steel airtanks4-Gal Al Air Tank $61Total$183Incremental pertruck$258IncrementalRetailIncremental pertank$86IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableAluminum air tank,2x 20-GalconfigurationAll20-Gal Al Air Tank $301Number of Tanks 2Total $602Baseline steel airtanks20-Gal Al Air Tank $125Total$250Incremental pertruck$352IncrementalRetailIncremental pertank$176IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableAluminum air tank,4x 5-GalconfigurationAll5-Gal Al Air Tank $158Number of Tanks 4Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International88US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationTotal $631Baseline steel airtanks5-Gal Al Air Tank $66Total$262Incremental pertruck$369IncrementalRetailIncremental pertank$92IncrementalRetailNo DataAvailableReducedNumber ofBatteriesn/an/an/an/aNo DataAvailableLightweightSuspensionSystemsn/an/an/an/aNo DataAvailable

ElectrificationElectric WaterpumpsAll n/an/aNo DataAvailableElectric PowerSteeringIncremental pertruckAll$1,500IncrementalRetailn/aNo DataAvailableEvaporativeUnitAll $2,000RetailNo DataAvailable

Air ConditioningLow PowerDraw A/CStandard APU orBattery DrivenMVACAll $4,105RetailBulkdiscountsavailable butunquantifiedInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International89US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTractor TypeApplied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationComplex BatteryDriven MVACSleeper Cabs$7,750 RetailNo DataAvailableUse of Leakage ReducingComponentsAll $30ManufacturerCostNo DataAvailableCO2asrefrigerantAll$70ManufacturerCostNo DataAvailableUse ofAlternativeRefrigerantsHFC-152A All $50ManufacturerCostNo DataAvailablePropane asrefrigerantAll $50ManufacturerCostNo DataAvailableHFO-1234yfhardware changes Class 8, Day Cab $10incrementalrefrigerant costs$158Total$168IncrementalRetail PriceNo DataAvailablehardware changes Class 8, Sleeper Cab $10incrementalrefrigerant costs$198Total$208IncrementalRetail PriceNo DataAvailableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International90US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010Table 3-2: Class 7 and 8 Trailer Technology Cost/Price SummaryCategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTrailer Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceDiscountInformationO&M Costs

Aerodynamic ImprovementsTrailer SideSkirtsNo trailerfairingsSide fairing/SideskirtVan, Reefer, Flatbed $1,900low volume,13%; highvolume, 28%Tanker $2,100high volume,20%Gap FairingsNo gapfairingsAluminum GapFairingVan, Reefer $850No dataavailableTrailerAeroconeNo AeroCone AeroCone Van $1,264high volume,20%Boat Tails No Boat Tail Trailer TailVan $2,80025-30%Reefer $3,10025-30%Air Tabs No Air Tabs Air Tab Van, Reefer $240low volume,15%high volume,25%

Rolling Resistance ImprovementsSingle WideTiresBaselineDualie TrailerTires on SteelWheels, 2-Axle TrailerUpgrade to SWTson Al Wheels, 2-Axle TrailerAllSingle Wide Tire $794Wide-Base AlWheel$650Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International91US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTrailer Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceDiscountInformationO&M CostsAdditionalcomponentsn/aNumber/Axle 2Axles 2Changes/year 0.300Total (Capital)$5,777Total per year(O&M)$1,731Incremental,Capital per Trailer$(135)No dataavailableIncremental,Capital per (Single-Wide) Wheel$(34)O&M per Trailerper Year$(154)O&M per (SingleWide) Tire perYear$(38)Baseline, 2-AxleTrailerBaseline (Dualie)Trailer Tire$289Baseline (Dualie)Al Wheel$450Number/Axle 4Axles 2Changes/year0.319Total (Capital)$5,912No dataavailableTotal per year(O&M)$1,884BaselineDualie TrailerTires on SteelWheels, 3-Axle TrailerUpgrade to SWTson Al Wheels, 3-Axle TrailerAllSingle Wide Tire $794Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International92US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTrailer Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceDiscountInformationO&M CostsWide-Base AlWheel$650Additionalcomponentsn/aNumber/Axle 2Axles 3Changes/year 0.300Total (Capital)$8,665Total per year(O&M)$2,596Incremental,Capital per Trailer$(203)Incremental,Capital per(Single-Wide)Wheel$(34)No dataavailableO&M per Trailerper Year$(230)O&M per (SingleWide) Tire perYear$(38)Baseline, 3-AxleTrailerBaseline (Dualie)Trailer Tire$289Baseline (Dualie)Al Wheel$450Number/Axle 4Axles 3Changes/year 0.319Total (Capital)$8,868No dataavailableTotal per year(O&M)$2,826Low RollingResistanceTiresBaselineTrailer Tire(no wheelLRRT AllLRR Trailer Tire $367Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International93US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTrailer Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceDiscountInformationO&M Costschange), 2-Axle TrailerNumber/Axle 4Axles 2Changes/year 0.296Total (Capital)$2,935No dataavailableTotal per year(O&M)$870Incremental,Capital per Trailer$623Incremental,Capital per Tire$78No dataavailableO&M per Trailerper Year$(737)O&M per Tire perYear$(92)BaselineBaseline (Dualie)Trailer Tire$289Number/Axle 4Axles 2Changes/year 0.319Total (Capital)$2,312No dataavailableTotal per year(O&M)$737BaselineTrailer Tire(no wheelchange), 3-Axle TrailerLRRT AllLRRT $367Number/Axle 4Axles 3Changes/year 0.296Total (Capital)$4,403Total per year(O&M)$1,305Incremental,$935Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International94US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTrailer Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceDiscountInformationO&M CostsCapital per TrailerIncremental,Capital per Tire$78No dataavailableO&M per Trailerper Year$(368)O&M per Tire perYear$(31)BaselineBaseline (Dualie)Trailer Tire$289Number/Axle 4Axles 3Changes/year 0.319Total (Capital)$3,468No dataavailableTotal per year(O&M)$1,105AutomaticTire InflationNo ATISystemInternal, trailersystem2-axle or 3-axlePackage$750No dataavailableInstall labor (hrs,included)4Labor costs (perhr; for retrofit)$19components only$676No dataavailableInternal, trailersystem1-axle or dollyPackage$550No dataavailableInstall labor (hrs,included)4Labor costs (perhr; for retrofit)$19components only$476No dataavailableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International95US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTrailer Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceDiscountInformationO&M Costs

Weight ReductionTare weightreduction viaAl structuralcomponentsBaseline SteelcomponentsRoof Posts / Bows Dry VanIncremental, perTrailer$120No dataavailableSide postsIncremental, perTrailer$525No dataavailableCross members /floor joistsIncremental, perTrailer$400No dataavailableFloorIncremental, perTrailer$1,500No dataavailableTare weightreduction viaAl wheelsBaseline Steel (dualie) wheels, 2-Axle TrailerAllNumber/Axle 4Axles 2Incremental, perTrailer$1,500No dataavailableIncremental, perWheel$188Baseline Steel (dualie) wheels, 3-Axle TrailerNumber/Axle 4Axles 3Incremental, perTrailer$2,250No dataavailableIncremental, perWheel$188Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International96US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTrailer Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceDiscountInformationO&M Costs

Air ConditioningUse ofLeakageReducingComponentsReefer $30No dataavailableUse ofAdvancedElectricalTRU SystemsStandard,Diesel TRUHybrid, vector TRU ReeferIncremental Total $4,000No dataavailableAnnual OperatingCosts$1,404Incremental O&Mper Year$(2,106)Electric Standby(E/S) OptionTRU option$2,300Facility upgradeper terminal$1,250Per terminal,additional fortransformer$6,000per hour use rate $5TRU overnightusage(hours/year)1800Incremental Totalper Trailer$2,300No dataavailableAnnual O&M perTrailer$9,000Incremental O&Mper Year$5,490Solar TRUTotaln/aN/AFuel Cell TRUTotaln/aN/ABaselineFuel consumption(gal/hr)0.65Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International97US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTrailer Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceDiscountInformationO&M CostsAnnual Cost perTruckNo dataavailable$3,510Use ofCryogenicCO2 UnitsUnit costReeferper trailer$30,000Marginalvolume, 5%Annual O&M perTrailer$7,020Incremental O&Mper Year$3,510Infrastructurecostsper facility$150,000No dataavailableUse of HighlyReflectiveStructuralMaterialsBaseline AlRoofCompositeReflective RoofVan, ReeferRoof $800Incremental, perTrailer$0No dataavailableNumber of smallholes per year2Hole patch cost $100O&M Cost $200Coated Roof Van, ReeferRoof $700Incremental, perTrailer($100)No dataavailableAdding ReflectiveTapeVan, Reefer100 ft roll $100spacing (strips/ft) 1trailer width (ft) 8.5trailer length (ft) 53trailer height (ft) 13.5Incremental Total,per 53' trailer$1,882No dataavailableBaseline Roof Van, Reefer $800Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International98US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTrailer Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceDiscountInformationO&M CostsUse ofAlternativeRefrigerantsCO2as refrigerant Reefer $70No dataavailableHFC-152A Reefer $50No dataavailablePropane asrefrigerantReefer $50No dataavailableHFO-1234yf Reeferhardware changes $10incrementalrefrigerant costs$551Total $561IncrementalRetail PriceNo dataavailableTable 3-3: Class 3 through 8 Vocational Truck Technology Cost/Price SummaryCategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTruck Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformation

Low Rolling ResistanceLow RollingResistanceTiresNoneLRRT Class 6 Box TruckLRRT (drive) $379Number/DriveAxle4Drive Axles 1Changes/year 0.287LRRT (steer) $329Number/SteerAxle2Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International99US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTruck Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationSteer Axles 1Changes/year 0.287Total (Capital)$2,174Retail PriceNo dataavailableTotal per year(O&M)$623

Engine ImprovementsMechanicalTurbocompoundingNo TBC Mechanical TBC Class 6 Box TruckN/AN/A N/A N/AElectric TurbocompoundingNo TBC Electric TBC Class 6 Box TruckN/AN/A N/A N/AVariable ValveActuationno VVAVVA Class 6 Box TruckCam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake onlyNumber Cylinders6Total$455Retail PriceNo dataavailableCam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake and exhaustNumber Cylinders6Total$910Retail PriceNo dataavailableMechanical, cam-operated VVA, intake onlyTotal$700Manufacturer CostNo dataavailableFully variable, camless VVATotal$2,350Manufacturer CostNo dataavailableVariableGeometryTurbo (VGT)BaselineFixed (FGT)VGT system Class 6 Box TruckIncremental toFGT$675Incremental RetailNo dataavailable

Transmission and Drivetrain ImprovementsHybridPowertrainConventional PowertrainHybrid System – Class 4 Utility TruckHardware Cost to ManufacturerInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International100US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTruck Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformation30 kW Motor/Generator$9004 kW Battery Pack$3,200Power Electronics$900Balance of Plant$2,500Modified Clutch Assembly$1,500Electrification of Accessories $850Total Hardware Cost$9,850Labor @ $28/hr $2,800Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,120Markup @ 29% $3,993Warranty Markup at 5% $493Total Component Cost$18,256Fixed Cost to Engine ManufacturerR&D Costs $10,000,000Tooling Costs $3,000,000Units/yr.500Years to recover 5Fixed cost/unit $7,159Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer$25,415Manufacturer CostNo dataavailableTruck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $7,370Total Cost to Truck Purchaser$32,785Retail PriceNo dataavailableHybrid System – Class 6 Box TruckHardware Cost to Manufacturer30 kW Motor/Generator $9004 kW Battery Pack $3,200Power Electronics $900Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International101US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTruck Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationBalance of Plant $3,000Modified Clutch Assembly $2,000Electrification of Accessories $1,000Total Hardware Cost$11,000Labor @ $28/hr $3,780Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,512Markup @ 29% $4,725Warranty Markup at 5% $550Total Component Cost$21,567Fixed Cost to Engine ManufacturerR&D Costs $10,000,000Tooling Costs $3,000,000Units/yr.500Years to recover 5Fixed cost/unit $7,420Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer$28,987Manufacturer CostNo dataavailableTruck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $8,406Total Cost to Truck Purchaser$37,393Retail PriceNo dataavailableHybrid System -- Class 8 RefuseHardware Cost toManufacturer30 kW Motor/Generator $900100 kW Motor/Generator $3,0008 kW Battery Pack $6,400Power Electronics $3,900Balance of Plant $8,500Modified Clutch Assembly $2,500Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International102US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTruck Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationElectrification of Accessories $1,750Total Hardware Cost$26,950Labor @ $28/hr $5,600Labor Overhead @ 40% $2,240Markup @ 29% $10,089Warranty Markup at 5% $1,348Total Component Cost$46,227Fixed Cost to Engine ManufacturerR&D Costs $10,000,000Tooling Costs $3,000,000Units/yr.500Years to recover 5Fixed cost/unit $7,159Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer$53,386Manufacturer CostNo dataavailableTruck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $15,482Total Cost to Truck Purchaser$68,867Retail PriceNo dataavailable

Air ConditioningLow Power Draw A/C Evaporative Unit Class 6 Box Truck $2,000Retail PriceNo dataavailableUse of Leakage ReducingComponentsClass 6 Box Truck $25IncrementalManufacturer CostNo dataavailableUse of HighlyReflectiveStructuralMaterialsBaseline AlRoofClass 6 Box Truck (24')Composite Reflective RoofRoof$460Incremental, per Trailer$84Incremental Retail PriceNo dataavailableNumber of small holes per year2Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International103US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTruck Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationHole patch cost$100O&M Cost$200Coated RoofIncrementalRoof$422Incremental Retail PriceNo dataavailableCab$250Incremental Retail PriceAdding Reflective Tape100 ft roll $100spacing (strips/ft) 1trailer width (ft) 8.5trailer length (ft) 24trailer height (ft) 13.5Incremental Total, per 24' trailer$852Incremental Retail PriceNo dataavailableBaseline Roof $376Use ofAlternativeRefrigerantsCO2as refrigerant Class 6 Box Truck $70Manufacturer CostNo dataavailableHFC-152A Class 6 Box Truck $50Manufacturer CostNo dataavailablePropane asrefrigerantClass 6 Box Truck $50Manufacturer CostNo dataavailableHFO-1234yfClass 6 Box Truck, DayCabhardware changes $10incrementalrefrigerant costs$124Total $134Incremental Retail PriceNo dataavailableInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International104US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesTruck Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationClass 6 Box Truck,Crew Cabhardware changes $10incrementalrefrigerant costs$140Total $150Incremental Retail PriceNo dataavailableTable 3-4: Class 7 and 8 Bus Technology Cost/PriceSummaryCategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesBus Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformation

Rolling Resistance ImprovementsLow RollingResistanceTiresNoneLRRT Class 8 Transit BusLRRT (drive) $333Number/Drive Axle 4Drive Axles 1Changes/year 0.167LRRT (steer) $333Number/Steer Axle 2Steer Axles 1Changes/year 0.167Total (Capital)$1,998Retail PriceNo dataavailableTotal per year (O&M)$333

Engine Improve mentsMechanicalTurbocompoundingNo TBC Mechanical TBC Class 8 Transit Bus N/AN/A N/A N/AInvestigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International105US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesBus Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationElectric TurbocompoundingNo TBC Electric TBC Class 8 Transit Bus N/AN/A N/A N/AVariable ValveActuationno VVAClass 8 Transit BusCam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake onlyNumber Cylinders 6Total$585Retail PriceNo dataavailableCam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake and exhaustNumber Cylinders 6

Engine ImprovementsVariable ValveActuationNo VVATotal$1,170Retail PriceNo dataavailableMechanical, cam-operated VVA, intake onlyTotal$700Manufacturer CostNo dataavailableFully variable, camless VVATotal$2,350Manufacturer CostNo dataavailableVariableGeometryTurbo (VGT)Baseline Fixed(FGT)VGT system Class 8 Transit BusIncremental to FGT $935Incremental RetailNo dataavailable

Drivetrain ImprovementsHybridPowertrainConventional Powertrain Class 8 Transit BusHardware Cost to Manufacturer30 kW Motor/Generator $900100 kW Motor/Generator $3,0008 kW Battery Pack $6,400Power Electronics $3,900Balance of Plant $8,500Modified Clutch Assembly $2,000Electrification of Accessories $1,250Total Hardware Cost$25,950Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International106US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesBus Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationLabor @ $28/hr $4,480Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,792Markup @ 29% $9,344Warranty Markup at 5% $1,298Total Component Cost$42,864Fixed Cost to Engine ManufacturerR&D Costs $10,000,000Tooling Costs $3,500,000

Drivetrain ImprovementsUnits/yr. 1000Years to recover 5Fixed cost/unit $3,710Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer$46,574Manufacturer CostNo dataavailableTruck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $13,506Total Cost to Truck Purchaser$60,080Retail PriceNo dataavailable

Air ConditioningLow Power Draw A/CRoof-mountedEvaporative UnitClass 8 Transit Bus $6,000Retail PriceNo dataavailableRoof-mountedA/C SystemClass 8 Transit Bus $6,650Retail PriceNo dataavailableUse of Leakage Reducing Components Class 8 TransitBus $30IncrementalManufacturer CostNo dataavailableUse of HighlyReflectiveStructuralMaterialsBaseline AlRoofClass 8 Transit Bus (43’ 52-passenger)Composite Reflective RoofRoof$645Fasteners, etc.$100Total$745Retail PriceNo dataavailableNumber of small holes per year2Hole patch cost$100Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road VehiclesCost TablesICF International107US Environmental Protection AgencyEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05July 20, 2010CategoryTechnologyIncrementalToTechnology TypesBus Type Applied ToManufacturerCostRetail PriceType ofPrice/CostO&MCostsDiscountInformationO&M Cost$200Coated RoofIncrementalRoof$620Incremental Retail PriceNo dataavailableAdding Reflective Tape100 ft roll$100spacing (strips/ft)1

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