US Environmental Protection Agency 

Investigation of Costs for 

Strategies to Reduce 

Greenhouse Gas 

Emissions for Heavy-Duty 

On-Road Vehicles 

 Final Report 

 

July 20, 2010 

 Prepared for 

 

Amy Kopin

Environmental Protection Agency 

2000 Traverwood Dr. 

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105 

 Prepared by 

 

Louis Browning, Seth Hartley, Larry O’Rourke,

Jennifer Brickett, Ryan Thompson, Lisa McNally 

ICF International 

620 Folsom Street, Suite 200 

San Francisco, CA 94107 

415.677.7100 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 
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ICF International i US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

Table of Contents 

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1

1.1. Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope............................................................ 1

1.2. Division of Tasks ........................................................................................................ 2

1.3. Report Organization ................................................................................................... 2

2. Description of Technologies ............................................................................................. 3

2.1. Baseline Vehicles and Technologies .......................................................................... 3

Class 7 and 8 Tractors ........................................................................................................................................ 3

Trailers ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks ........................................................................................................... 16

Class 7 and 8 buses .......................................................................................................................................... 20

2.2. Summary of Technologies and Strategies ................................................................ 22

2.3. Aerodynamic improvements ..................................................................................... 25

Aerodynamic Hoods .......................................................................................................................................... 25

Aerodynamic Mirrors ......................................................................................................................................... 27

AeroConesTM........................................................................................................................................................ 27

AirtabsTM ................................................................................................................................................................ 28

Boat Tails .............................................................................................................................................................. 28

Aerodynamic Bumpers ..................................................................................................................................... 29

Tractor Gap Fairing ............................................................................................................................................ 29

Roof Fairings ........................................................................................................................................................ 30

Tractor Side Fairings ......................................................................................................................................... 30

Trailer Side Skirts ............................................................................................................................................... 31

Trailer Gap Fairings ........................................................................................................................................... 31

2.4. Rolling resistance improvements ............................................................................. 32

Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI) .......................................................................................................................... 32

Low-Rolling Resistance Tires ......................................................................................................................... 33

Single Wide (Wide-Base) Tires ...................................................................................................................... 35

2.5. Operational improvements ....................................................................................... 36

Advanced Driver Training ................................................................................................................................ 36

Speed Limiter ....................................................................................................................................................... 37

2.6. Idling reduction technologies .................................................................................... 38

Anti-idle System (a.k.a., Automatic Engine Stop System) .................................................................... 38

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems ......................................................................................................... 38

Thermal Storage Systems ............................................................................................................................... 39

Engine Recovery Systems (ERS) ................................................................................................................. 40

Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) ......................................................................................................................... 41

Direct Fired Heaters ........................................................................................................................................... 42

Fuel Cell APU ...................................................................................................................................................... 44

Truck Stop Electrification ................................................................................................................................. 45

2.7. Engine improvements .............................................................................................. 47

Integrated Starter/Alternator ........................................................................................................................... 47

Turbo Compounding .......................................................................................................................................... 48

Variable Geometry Turbocharger .................................................................................................................. 49

Variable Valve Actuation .................................................................................................................................. 50

2.8. Transmission and Drivetrain improvements ............................................................. 51

Early Torque Convertor Lock-up ................................................................................................................... 51

Hybrid Powertrain ............................................................................................................................................... 51

Low-Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train Lubricants ........................................................................... 53

Rankine Bottoming Cycle ................................................................................................................................. 54

2.9. Weight reduction technologies ................................................................................. 55

Aluminum Air Tanks ........................................................................................................................................... 55
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Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs ..................................................................................................................... 56

Aluminum Wheels .............................................................................................................................................. 56

Lightweight Brake Drums ................................................................................................................................. 57

Lightweight Cab Components ........................................................................................................................ 59

Lightweight Suspension Systems ................................................................................................................. 60

Reduced Number of Batteries ........................................................................................................................ 60

Aluminum Structural Components for Trailers .......................................................................................... 61

2.10. Electrification ........................................................................................................... 61

Electrification of Accessory Loads ................................................................................................................ 61

2.11. Air conditioning and transport refrigerated unit (TRU) improvements ....................... 62

Alternative Refrigerants .................................................................................................................................... 62

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials ............................................................................................ 63

Low Power Draw A/C ........................................................................................................................................ 65

Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems ....................................... 67

Use of Cryogenic CO2 Unit .............................................................................................................................. 68

Use of Leakage Reducing Components ..................................................................................................... 70

3. Cost Tables ........................................................................................................................71

List of Figures 

Figure 2-1: Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab .......................................................................................................... 4

Figure 2-2: Dry Freight Van (Wabash National) ............................................................................................................. 5

Figure 2-3: Aluminum Combination Flatbed (Wabash national) ..................................................................................... 6

Figure 2-4: Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck ...................................................................................................................... 7

Figure 2-5: Reefer (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company) ........................................................................................... 8

Figure 2-6: Dry Van (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company) ......................................................................................... 9

Figure 2-7: Flatbed (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company) ........................................................................................ 10

Figure 2-8: Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing) ................................................................................ 11

Figure 2-9: Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing) ......................................................................... 11

Figure 2-10: Steel Tub Body Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing) .................................................................... 12

Figure 2-11: Grain Hopper (Timpte) ............................................................................................................................. 12

Figure 2-12: Chemical Transport Tanker (Polar Tank) ................................................................................................. 13

Figure 2-13: Petroleum Tanker (Polar Tank) ................................................................................................................ 13

Figure 2-14: Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar Tank) .......................................................................................................... 14

Figure 2-15: Lowboy, 2-Axle (Trail King Industries) ..................................................................................................... 14

Figure 2-16: Lowboy, 3-Axle (Trail King Industries) ..................................................................................................... 15

Figure 2-17: Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail King Industries) .............................................................................................. 15

Figure 2-18: Class 6 Box Truck .................................................................................................................................... 18

Figure 2-19: Class 6 Dump Truck ................................................................................................................................ 18

Figure 2-20: Class 4 Work Truck.................................................................................................................................. 19

Figure 2-21: Class 8 Refuse Truck ............................................................................................................................... 20

Figure 2-22: Class 7 School Bus ................................................................................................................................. 21

Figure 2-23: Class 8 Transit Bus .................................................................................................................................. 22

Figure 2-24: Automatic Start/Stop System ................................................................................................................... 38

Figure 2-25: Thermal Storage Unit ............................................................................................................................... 40

Figure 2-26: Engine Recovery System ......................................................................................................................... 41

Figure 2-27: APUs ........................................................................................................................................................ 42

Figure 2-28: Direct Fired Heater................................................................................................................................... 43

Figure 2-29. Turbo Compounding Turbine ................................................................................................................... 48

Figure 2-31: Lightweight Brake Drum Components ..................................................................................................... 58

Figure 2-31: Solar Energy Reflection Improvement through Application of SolarCool Coatings Paint ......................... 64

Figure 2-33: Evaporative A/C Unit ................................................................................................................................ 66

Figure 2-34: Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C ................................................................................................................. 66

Figure 2-34: Transport Refrigeration Units ................................................................................................................... 67

Figure 2-35: ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit .......................................................................................................... 69
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EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

List of Tables 

Table 2-1: Baseline Tractors and Prices ........................................................................................................................ 3

Table 2-2: Trailer Types and Manufacturers .................................................................................................................. 4

Table 2-3: Baseline Trailer Prices ................................................................................................................................ 16

Table 2-4: Baseline Vocational Truck and Bus Prices .................................................................................................. 16

Table 2-5: Baseline Bus Prices .................................................................................................................................... 20

Table 2-6: Strategies Investigated in this Report.......................................................................................................... 22

Table 2-7: Low Rolling Resistance Tire Types ............................................................................................................. 34

Table 2-8: Hybrid system component sizes ................................................................................................................. 52

Table 2-9: Hybrid Vehicle Incentives ............................................................................................................................ 53

Table 3-2: Class 7 and 8 Trailer Technology Cost/Price Summary .............................................................................. 90

Table 3-3: Class 3 through 8 Vocational Truck Technology Cost/Price Summary ....................................................... 98

Table 3-4: Class 7 and 8 Bus Technology Cost/Price Summary ................................................................................ 104
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ICF International 1 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

1. Introduction 

1.1. Purpose, Regulatory Background, and Scope 

Regulation of greenhouse gases is underway. EPA issued an Advanced Notice of Proposed 

Rulemaking (ANPRM) for Greenhouse Gas Emissions in July 2008 in response to the U.S. 

Supreme Court’s decision on Massachusetts v. EPA1

. The EPA issued the Proposed 

Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Findings for Greenhouse Gases under the Clean Air 

Act in April 2009. The standards shall give appropriate consideration to the cost, energy, and 

safety factors associated with the application of the technologies. The new GHG reporting rule 

(40 CFR Parts 86, 87, 89 et al. Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases; Final Rule2

), from 

October 2009 requires that sources including fossil fuel suppliers and industrial gas suppliers, 

direct greenhouse gas emitters and manufacturers of heavy-duty and off-road vehicles and 

engines with emissions above certain threshold levels monitor and report their emissions. On 

April 1, 2010, EPA and NHTSA announced the National Program to Cut Greenhouse Gas 

Emissions and Improve Fuel Economy for Cars and Trucks, establishing a national program 

consisting of new standards for model year 2012 through 2016 light-duty vehicles, including the 

first-ever national GHG emissions standards under the Clean Air Act and CAFE standards 

under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. In addition, President Obama directed EPA and 

NHTSA to take the next steps to reduce GHG emissions and fuel consumption by developing 

the first-ever GHG and fuel consumption regulations for heavy-duty engines and vehicles in an 

announcement made on May 21, 2010. 

The heavy-duty truck sector includes Class 2b through Class 8 trucks that can have a gross 

vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of more than 8,500 lbs. This sector is powered primarily by diesel 

engines, but gasoline powered vehicles are also used. Heavy-duty trucks were responsible for 

18 percent of the U.S. Transportation GHG emissions in 2006 and the CO2 emissions are 

expected to grow nearly 30 percent by 2030. Reductions can be achieved through engine, 

vehicle, and operational improvements, with vehicle improvements expected to make up the 

bulk of the achievable reductions. 

The purpose of this analysis is to estimate the cost impacts of technologies that can be used to 

reduce GHG emissions on heavy-duty trucks and engines. The cost estimates have been 

determined for a number of different truck classes and a variety of technologies and operating 

strategies to which they apply. The improvements are organized into one of the following nine 

categories: 

 Aerodynamic improvements, 

 Rolling resistance improvements, 

 Operational improvements, 

 Idling reduction technologies, 

 

1 http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/06pdf/05-1120.pdf

2 http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/downloads09/GHG-MRR-Full%20Version.pdf
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

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ICF International 2 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

 Engine improvements, 

 Transmission and drivetrain improvements, 

 Weight reduction, 

 Electrification, and 

 Air conditioning improvements and improvements in transport refrigerated unit 

(TRU) technology. 

The vehicles analyzed include Class 7 and 8 tractors, trailers, class 3-8 work trucks, and class 

6-8 buses. This report presents the results of this research. 

1.2. Division of Tasks 

Analysis was done in a series of tasks, each encompassing specific types of vehicles. In each 

case, baseline vehicles were defined along with appropriate technologies. For the purposes of 

this report, the tasks are defined as and include: 

 Task 2: Class 7 and 8 regional tractors and Class 8 long-haul tractors 

 Task 3: Trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 regional and long-haul tractors 

 Task 5: Class 3 through 8 vocational trucks 

 Task 6: Class 7 and 8 buses 

Throughout this report, analysis may refer to categories by task or by vehicle class. 

1.3. Report Organization 

The remainder of this report is organized along the following structure. Section 2 summarizes 

the baseline vehicles in the current fleet and presents an overview of the nine categories of 

technologies that can provide reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Section 3 presents a 

summary of costs associated with each technology. Tables showing the cost analyses are 

presented by task, with each technology category broken out within these tasks. 
ICF International 3 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

2. Description of Technologies 

2.1. Baseline Vehicles and Technologies 

Class 7 and 8 Tractors 

One sleeper and one day cab model were selected as baseline vehicles for the Class 7 and 8 

tractor application. Error! Reference source not found. shows these vehicles, their 

specifications, and associated prices. 

Table 2-1: Baseline Tractors and Prices 

Baseline Tractor 

Category Baseline Tractor Type Vehicle Specifications New Price 

Day Cab 2010 FREIGHTLINER – CL12064ST-COLUMBIA 120 Engine Make Mercedes $89,500 

Engine Type MBE4000 

Horsepower 450 

Transmission 10 Speed 

Check for Over Drive Yes 

Engine Brake Yes 

Suspension Air Ride 

Gear Ratio 3.73 

Tires 11R22.5 

Wheels All Steel 

Wheelbase 179" 

Number of Rear Axles Tandem 

Front Axle Lbs 12,000 

Rear Axle Lbs 40,000 

Sleeper Cab 2010 FREIGHTLINER CL12064ST-COLUMBIA 120 Sleeper Size 70" $113,000 

Sleeper Mid Roof XT Sleeper 

Engine Make Detroit Diesel 

Engine Type 14.0 

Horsepower 455 

Transmission 10 Speed 

Check for Over Drive Yes 

Engine Brake Yes 

Suspension Air Ride 

Gear Ratio 3.42 

Tires 22.5LP 

Wheels All Aluminum 

Source: http://www.truckpaper.com 

Source: http://www.truckpaper.com 
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It is noteworthy that many improvements, especially aerodynamic improvements, may already 

be incorporated in these vehicles. Thus it could be advantageous to assess a more traditional 

style cab, such as the Peterbilt 379 sleeper cab. However, this vehicle was discontinued in 2007 

and cannot serve as a current technology baseline. 

Figure 2-1: Peterbilt 379 Traditional Sleeper Cab 

Source: http://www.truckpaper.com

Trailers 

There are numerous types of trailers hauled by Class 7 and 8 tractors. Baseline retail prices and 

weight ranges were indentified for the trailer types listed in Table 2-2, based on leading 

manufacturers. The following discusses these manufacturers and the corresponding trailer 

types. 

Table 2-2: Trailer Types and Manufacturers 

Chief Manufacturer Trailer Types Baseline Trailer Category Details 

Great Dane van box N/A 

Wabash National van box Dry van 

Wabash National (formerly Transcraft) flatbed specialized 48' aluminum combination 

flatbed 

Wabash National (formerly Transcraft) flatbed drop deck specialized 48' flatbed drop deck 

Hyundai container chassis box N/A 

Utility Trailer Manufacturing reefer box reefer; dry van; 48' flatbed 

East Manufacturing dump specialized 3 types of dump trailers 

Timpte grain specialized 2 price ranges for grain 

hoppers 

Polar Tank Trailers tanker specialized 4 types of tankers 

Trail King Industries /Landall lowbed specialized 2 lowboys; 1 48' step deck 

flatbed 
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Great Dane 

Price and weight range data for the Great Dane manufacturer of box trailers were not available 

Wabash National 

Retail price data and weight data were identified for a dry freight van, flatbed, and flatbed drop 

deck trailers: 

Dry Freight Van 

Wabash offers three types of dry freight van 2-axle trailers: DuraPlate®; FrieghtProTM; and 

DuraPlate HP, the latter being the most expensive. The average curb weight is approximately 

14,000 pounds. The DuraPlate dry van trailer's standard features include: 

 The ultra-wide design of the DuraPlate trailer provides an interior width of 101-1/2" 

(scuff-to-scuff) 

 The DuraPlate composite sidewall panel is constructed of a high-density polyethylene 

plastic core bonded between two high-strength steel skins. 

 Steel interior to resist tears, punctures and related damage. 

 Postless sidewall design. 

 High-strength, corrugated steel scuff is fastened to the DuraPlate sidewall every 8". 

Figure 2-2: Dry Freight Van (Wabash National) 

Source: http://www.wabashnational.com/Images/popups/DuraPlatePop.jpg

Aluminum Combination Flatbed (48-foot) 

The combination flatbed 2-axle trailer is available in extreme, heavy, and standard. Basic 

features, including approximate weight of each are listed below. 

Extreme Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" widths; additional 

lightweight features are available. Basic features include: 

 Tandem axles with various axle spacings 
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 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

 Aluminum side rails 

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

 GVWR 80,000 lbs. 

 Approx. 10,760 lbs. w/standard options 

Heavy Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" width. Basic features include:

 Tandem, various axle spacings 

 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

 Aluminum side rails 

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

 GVWR 80,000 lbs. 

 Approx. 9,960 lbs. w/standard options 

Standard Duty: Available in 42', 45', 48' and 53' lengths; 96" or 102" widths. Basic features 

include:

 Tandem, various axle spacings 

 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

 Aluminum side rails 

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

 GVWR 73,000 lbs. 

 Approx. 9,760 lbs. w/standard options 

Figure 2-3: Aluminum Combination Flatbed (Wabash national) 
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Source: http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/Eagle.jpg

Flatbed Drop Deck (48-foot) 

The D-Eagle flatbed drop deck 2-axle trailer is available in 45', 48' and 53' lengths with 102” 

width. The approximate weight is 10,120 pounds with the following standard options: 

 Tandem, various axle spacings 

 Aluminum floor, front and rear plate 

 Includes 5" aluminum floor sills 

 80,000 lbs. over lower deck 

Figure 2-4: Aluminum Flatbed Drop Deck 

Source: http://www.transcraft.com/Transcraft/images/products/D-Eagle.jpg

Transcraft (Wabash) 

Transcraft is now a Wabash company. See above for descriptive information about Wabash 

trailers. 

Hyundai 

Cost data were not available for Hyundai’s container chassis. 

Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company 

Reefer 

The curb weight of Utility’s 2-axle reefer trailer is approximately 14,200 pounds. The 3000R 

series reefer trailer is available with the following standard features: 

 Patented Barrier Rear Doors 

 Utility-Designed Door Hardware 

 5/16" Thick Dock Board Guide Plates 

 Integrated Heavy-Duty 10" High Wearband 

 Landing Leg Support and Bracing 

 Foam-In-Place Insulation Air Ride Suspension 

 5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System 
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 Thermal Barriers 

 Tensioned Roof Skin 

 LED Lights 

Figure 2-5: Reefer (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company) 

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/reefers/3000R.asp

Dry Van 

Utility’s 4000D series dry van 2-axle trailer is a traditional plywood lined dry van. The 

approximate weight is 13,500 pounds. Standard features include: 

 12" Galvanized Steel Wearband 

 Stainless Steel Rear Door Frame 

 Integrated Threshold Plate Assembly 

 Air Ride Suspension 

 Weather Tight Floor System 

 Reliable Support Leg Bracing 

 Heavy-Duty King Pin Assembly 

 High-Strength Front Wall 

 Unique Roof Design 

 5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System 

 Bendix® TAB-6 ABS System 

 Modular Electrical System 
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Figure 2-6: Dry Van (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company) 

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/dryvans/4000d_x_composite.asp

Flatbed (48-foot) 

The 4000ATM series 2-axle aluminum (also available in a steel 4000S series) flatbed trailer 

(commercial length is 48-feet) is approximately 9,800 pounds in curb weight. The standard 

features for this trailer include: 

 Hendrickson Narrow Hanger AANT 23k Spread Air Ride Suspension 

 80,000 PSI High Tensile Steel, Hat-Shaped Main Beam Top Flange 

 6,500 lbs. Working Load Limit Rated Pipe Spools 

 Aluminum Front Rail 

 100% Plug-in Connectors 

 Durable Outrigger Attachments 

 Higher Quality Paint Process for Lower Life Cycle Costs 

 Integral Cinch Track 

 Front Stainless Steel Corners 

 5-Year Stemco® Platinum Performance Wheel End System 

 Durable Suspension Design 

 Plasma-Cut One-Piece Main Beam Webs 

 Microencapsulated Adhesive on All Screws 

 Side Rails are Mechanically Fastened 

 Contoured Beam at Rear for Proper Axle Loading 

 Rear Corners Designed for High Impact Loads 
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Figure 2-7: Flatbed (Utility Trailer Manufacturing Company) 

Source: http://www.utilitytrailer.com/flatbeds/4000A.asp

East Manufacturing 

Specialized dump trailers comprise about 3 to 4 percent of the market. The following three 2-

axle, “lightweight” dump trailers range in weight between 10,000-17,000 pounds.3 Dump trailers 

are available in a range of axles, up to 8-axles. 

Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer 

The aluminum frame dump trailer is available in 2-axle, 3-axle and four-axle configurations. This 

trailer comes in two additional models: The East QuadTM and East Michigan series. The East 

Quad provides up to 25-tons of legal payload to accommodate especially heavy loads like 

asphalt and construction material. The East Quad has a maneuverable turning radius that’s up 

to 16 feet tighter than a traditional straight truck, with about the same dumping height. East 

Quads are available from 24 to 28 feet long. The East Michigan Series offers a wide variety of 

frame dump trailers with multi-axle configurations that meet the requirements of hauling in 

Michigan. Both GenesisTM and traditional sheet and post body styles are available for triple-ten 

(gravel train), super-train, break-up double, twelve wheelers and up to 8-axle semi-trailer 

configurations. Steel bodied dump trailers are also available. 

 

3

 Personal communication, Charlie Wells, Manager of Dump Trailer Product Line, East manufacturing, on 2/25/10. 
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Figure 2-8: Aluminum Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing) 

 

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_dump.html

Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer 

Frameless dump trailers are designed for the ideal balance between low weight for more 

payload, and heavy-duty strength for durability. 

Figure 2-9: Aluminum Frameless Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing) 

 

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framelessal.html

Frame Dump Trailer (Steel Tub Body) 

The body of the East steel trailer is made from AR450 grade steel to handle construction and 

demolition work. 
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Figure 2-10: Steel Tub Body Frame Dump Trailer (East Manufacturing) 

Source: http://www.eastmfg.com/tralrs_framesteel.html

Timpte 

Grain Hopper 

The standard 2-axle hopper trailer is available in 38-, 40-, and 42-feet lengths with an average 

curb weight of approximately 9,000 pounds. Typical application includes transportation of 

agricultural and industrial bulk commodities. Axles typically have a 22,500 pound beam 

capacity. Typical baseline tires are eight 11R24.5 Bridgestone R195F radials. 

Figure 2-11: Grain Hopper (Timpte) 

Source: http://www.timpte.com/newtrailers.html

Polar Tank Trailers 

Typical applications include transport of chemical and petroleum products, fertilizer, asphalt, 

and food items (tanks are stainless steel, sterilized and insulated). 

Chemical Transport Tanker 

The 2010 POLAR Chemical Transport has a carrying capacity of 8,500 gallons for the transport 

of petro chemical solvents. The tanker is made of aluminum, with a curb weight of 9,010 

pounds. Standard installed tires can be Yokohama RY587 - 11R 22.5 and wheel size is 8.25 x 

22.5 with aluminum hub.4 A chemical transport trailer that is insulated and made of stainless 

steel has a curb weight of about 13,000 pounds. 

 

4

 “Polar Tank Trailer Inventory Display Page,” Polar Service Centers website. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261. 
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Figure 2-12: Chemical Transport Tanker (Polar Tank)

Source: http://www.polartank.com/display.php?content=display_trailer&file=261

Petroleum Transport Tanker 

The 2010 POLAR petroleum transport 2-axle tanker has a carrying capacity of 9,500 gallons 

and a curb weight of 10,000 pounds. The multi-compartment aluminum is used for transporting 

petroleum from refinery to gas stations. 

Figure 2-13: Petroleum Tanker (Polar Tank) 

Source: http://www.senecatank.com/91680001.JPG

Sanitary Food Tanker 

The two-axle sanitary food tanker is made of stainless steel and is insulated. The curb weight is 

approximately 10,500. 
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Figure 2-14: Sanitary Food Tanker (Polar Tank) 

Source: http://www.trucker.com/TrailerDetail.aspx?SID=1983886

Trail King Industries 

Lowboy (TK70HDG) 

This two-axle lowboy (hydraulic self-lifting detachable gooseneck) trailer has a 26-foot deck with 

a 17,000-pound curb weight. This series is used for construction applications (e.g., hauling 

construction equipment). The trailer uses 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 255/70R x 22.5 16PR 

radial tires. 

Figure 2-15: Lowboy, 2-Axle (Trail King Industries)

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=3

Lowboy (TK110HDG) 

The three-axle lowboy (hydraulic self-lifting detachable gooseneck) trailer has ability to lift above 

or below transport positions for commercial applications. The trailer has a 26-foot deck, steel 

wheels, oak decking, is 102 feet wide with a 22,000-pound curb weight. 
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Figure 2-16: Lowboy, 3-Axle (Trail King Industries)

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=27

Flatbed / Step Deck (TK70ACS) 

The two-axle flatbed (step deck) TK70ACS model has a curb weight of 9,900 pounds with 

standard 8.25 x 22.5 disc wheels and 11R x 22.5 16PR radial tires for commercial applications. 

The flatbed trailer is 48 feet long and 102 feet wide. 

Figure 2-17: Flatbed / Step Deck (Trail King Industries) 

Source: http://www.trailking.com/trailers/?trailer_id=1

Table 2-3 lists typical retail prices for each of the generic trailer types. The prices listed here 

may fluctuate depending upon on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of 

an actual sale. 
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Description of Technologies 

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Table 2-3: Baseline Trailer Prices 

Baseline 

Trailer 

Category 

Trailer Types 

Curb 

Weight 

(lbs) 

New Price 

Box Van 13,850 $25,000 

Specialized Flatbed 10,600 $29,500 

Box Container chassis N/A N/A 

Box Reefer 14,200 $52,000-100,000 

Specialized Dump $50,000 

Specialized Grain 9,000 $31,750 

Specialized Flatbed drop deck 10,900 $32,000 

Specialized Tanker 10,628 $61,625 

Specialized Lowbed 17,725 $49,500 

Class 3 through 8 Vocational Trucks 

Task 5 addresses class 3 through 8 vocational trucks. These vehicles include service trucks, 

refuse trucks, delivery trucks and other vocational trucks. Four types of trucks were selected for 

further exploration: a class 3-6 box truck, a class 3-6 dump truck, a class 4 utility truck, and a 

class 8 refuse truck. The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of truck. 

Baseline costs were collected for each of these types of trucks as well as for a selected type of 

each category. Approximate values are shown in Table 2-4. Retail prices listed here may 

fluctuate depending on the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual 

sale. 

Table 2-4: Baseline Vocational Truck and Bus Prices

Category Typical Vehicle Price 

Class 3-6 box truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. 

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. 

Approximately $12,000 for a 24 foot box body. 

Class 3-6 dump truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. 

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. 

For a 16 foot dump body, add about $10-$16K (depending on 

steel vs aluminum). 

Class 4 work truck International CityStar CF500 $40,000 for a new 16,000 lb CF500 excluding body. 

Body with standard lift gate costs about $7,500. 

(Note this truck ceased production 6 months ago, although a 

new version is expected soon) 
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Category Typical Vehicle Price 

Class 3-6 box truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. 

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. 

Approximately $12,000 for a 24 foot box body. 

Class 3-6 dump truck Kenworth T270 $72,000 for truck with automatic transmission. 

$67-68,000 for truck with manual transmission. 

For a 16 foot dump body, add about $10-$16K (depending on 

steel vs aluminum). 

Class 4 work truck International CityStar CF500 $40,000 for a new 16,000 lb CF500 excluding body. 

Body with standard lift gate costs about $7,500. 

(Note this truck ceased production 6 months ago, although a 

new version is expected soon) 

Class 8 refuse truck Volvo VHD Series (e.g. 

VHD64B200) 

Volvo VHD 65BT200 truck retails for about $120,000 

excluding the body. 

Bodies retail for about $70-$90,000 for standard rear packers, 

depending on size and equipment 

$198,000 is a typical price for a new Volvo class 8 refuse 

truck, both cab and chassis, with a 25 yard rear loader refuse 

box, excluding FET. 

Class 3-6 Box Truck 

A class 3-6 box truck is a medium-duty truck with a box body that has a gross vehicle weight 

range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6 box truck was selected for further investigation. 

A Kenworth 270 was identified as a sample class 6 box truck. The Kenworth T270 is a two-axle 

truck rated at 26,000 GVWR. The chassis is shared with the Kenworth class 6 dump truck. A 24 

foot box body for the class 6 truck adds about $12,000 to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” 

wheels are on the front axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle. For this medium-duty 

chassis truck, there is not a singlewide tire application available from the manufacturer.5 The 

standard options for this truck also include a PACCAR PX-8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel 

tanks. 6 Optional equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing features includes a CARB 

emission reduction drivetrain feature, aluminum wheels, aluminum fuel tanks, aerodynamic 

bumper, and aerodynamic mirrors. 7

 

 

5

 Conversations with Kenworth Truck Dealer: Sales Department, Truck Enterprises, Inc, Harrisonburg, VA. 

6

 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure, http://www.kenworth.com/brochures/T270T370.pdf. 

7

 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure. 
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Figure 2-18: Class 6 Box Truck 

Source: Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure, http://www.kenworth.com/newspics/T270.jpg

Class 3-6 Dump Truck 

A class 3-6 dump truck is a medium-duty truck with a dump body that has a gross vehicle 

weight range from 10,001 to 26,000 pounds. A class 6 dump truck was selected for further 

investigation. A Kenworth 270 was identified as a sample class 6 dump truck. The Kenworth 

T270 is a two-axle truck rated at 26,000 GVWR. The chassis is the same as that of the class 6 

box truck. The only difference is the body. A 16 foot dump body for the class 6 truck would cost 

about $10,000 - $16,000 in addition to the price of the truck. Two 22.5” wheels are on the front 

axle and four 22.5” wheels are on the rear axle. For this medium-duty chassis truck, there is not 

a singlewide tire application available from the manufacturer.8 The standard options for this 

truck also include a PACCAR PX-8 engine, steel frames and steel fuel tanks. Optional 

equipment pertinent to GHG emissions reducing features includes a CARB emission reduction 

drivetrain feature, aluminum wheels, aluminum fuel tanks, aerodynamic bumper, and 

aerodynamic mirrors. 9 

Figure 2-19: Class 6 Dump Truck 

Source: https://www.truckhunt.com/resources/images/user/trucks/45ee7c68-a822-4f2e-bfea-245b209af584_medium.jpg

 

8

 Conversations with Kenworth Truck Dealer. 

9

 Kenworth T270 Truck Brochure. 
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Class 4 Work Truck 

A class 4 work truck is a medium-duty truck, with a utility body and often features a lift gate or 

bucket that has a gross vehicle weight range from 14,001 to 16,000 pounds. An International 

CityStarTM CF500 was identified as a sample class 4 work truck rated at 16,000 GVWR. Note 

that this truck is no longer in production as of approximately January 2010 but a comparable 

version is expected to be released within the year. A body with a lift gate is standard for a utility 

truck, and would add about $7,500 to the truck price.10 11 The two axle truck has two wheels on 

the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle. 12 13 For this medium-duty chassis truck, there is 

not a singlewide tire application available from the manufacturer. 14 The standard features for 

this truck include a high strength, low alloy steel frame, an International VT 275 engine and 

19.5” wheels.15

Figure 2-20: Class 4 Work Truck 

Source: Image of International City Star CF500 

http://www.usedtrucksforsalebyowner.net/image_gd/imagegd_big_inside.php?74257776.jpg

Class 8 Refuse Truck 

A class 8 refuse truck is a heavy-duty truck with a refuse body used for trash, waste or garbage 

hauling. The GVWR of the truck is between 33,001-60,000 pounds. A standard refuse truck 

body is usually a rear loader body, but price will vary according to the features.16 A rear loader 

25-32 yard body costs about $70,000-$90,000 in addition to the truck price depending on the 

 

10 Conversation with International Dealer: Sales Department, International Truck Sales, Richmond, VA. 

11 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure, http://www.navistar.com/Trucks/Trucks/Series/CityStar/CityStar500_600. 

12 Conversation with International Dealer: Sales Department. 

13 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure. 

14 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure. 

15 International City Star CF500 Truck Brochure. 

16 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer: Sales Department, Colonial Truck Sales. 
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Description of Technologies 

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size of the equipment and its features (e.g. an overhead attachment).17 A Volvo VHD 65BT200 

was identified as a sample class 8 refuse truck. The VHD 65BT200 is a three axle truck that has 

two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on each of the rear axles.18 For this heavy-duty 

chassis truck, singlewide tires are included as an option, but are not recommended for use 

because of difficulties entering and exiting landfills.19 

Figure 2-21: Class 8 Refuse Truck 

Source: http://www.impextrucks.co.uk/img/refuse_collection_wehicle.jpg

Class 7 and 8 buses 

Task 6 addresses class 7 and 8 buses. These vehicles include school, commercial and transit 

buses. Two types of buses were selected for further exploration: a class 7 school bus and a 

class 8a transit bus. The descriptions below offer specific information on each type of bus. Table 

2-5 shows baseline vehicle price estimates. Retail prices listed here may fluctuate depending on 

the quantity, timing, and/or other factors during the course of an actual sale. 

Table 2-5: Baseline Bus Prices 

Category Typical Vehicle Price 

Class 7 school bus International CE Series 

Type C bus, 31,000 lbs, 

2010 Emission Standards, 

77 passengers. 

Bluebird All American Rear 

Engine School Bus, Type D, 

33,000 lbs, 84 passengers. 

$78-80,000 for 2010 Virginia Emissions 2010 Standard Bus - 

conventional (type C). 

$95,000 for a new 2011 Bluebird All American Rear Engine 

School Bus (type D). 

Class 8 transit bus International RE Series Bus $99-$100,000 for 2010 Virginia Standards (up to 37,000 

pounds). 

 

17 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer. 

18 Volvo VHD Truck Brochure, http://www.volvotrucks.com/trucks/na/enus/products/vhd_series/vhd/pages/overview.aspx 

19 Conversation with Volvo VHD Truck Dealer. 
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Class 7 School Bus 

A class 7 school bus has a GVWR of between 26,001-33,000 pounds. An International CE 

Series school bus was identified as a sample class 7 school bus. This conventional two axle bus 

has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axles. Singlewide tires are not 

allowed as options for school buses in many states due to safety concerns.20 The International 

CE is a 77 passenger bus with a GVWR of 31,000 pounds. Standard options include an 

International MaxForce® 7 or MaxForce® DT engine, full power hydraulic brakes and electric 

entrance door. Optional features include factory-installed air conditioner. 21 

Figure 2-22: Class 7 School Bus 

Source: http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/uploadedImages/News/Chicago/Images/Business/Bus.jpg

Class 8 Transit Bus 

A class 8a transit bus has a GVWR of between 33,001-60,000 pounds. An International RE 

Series Commercial bus was identified as a sample class 8 transit bus. This rear-engine two axle 

bus has two wheels on the front axle and four wheels on the rear axle. The International RE is a 

52 passenger bus with a GVWR of 37,000 pounds. 22 Standard options include an International 

MaxForce® DT engine, a roof-mounted HVAC system and air brakes. Optional features include 

aluminum wheels. 23 

 

20 Conversation with International School Bus Dealer: Sales Department, Kingmor Supply. 

21 International CE Series School Bus Brochure, 

http://www.icbus.com/ICCorp/BusDownloads/School%20Route/CE%20School%20Sell%20Sheet.pdf.. 

22 Conversations with IC Bus, LLC Sales Department. 

23 International Re Series Commercial Bus Brochure, 

http://www.icbus.com/ICBus/Buses/Commercial/Overview/Commercial+RE+Series/.. 
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Figure 2-23: Class 8 Transit Bus 

Source: http://www.interstatetransportation.com/buses/3/6/

2.2. Summary of Technologies and Strategies 

The technologies investigated in this report are summarized in Table 2-6. Broadly, they are 

categorized into aerodynamic improvements, rolling resistance improvements, operational 

improvements, idling reduction technologies, engine improvements, transmission and drivetrain 

improvements, weight reduction, electrification, air conditioning improvements, and 

improvements in transport refrigerated unit (TRU) technology. 

Table 2-6: Strategies Investigated in this Report 

Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated 

Aerodynamic Improvements 

Aerodynamic Hoods 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Aerodynamic Mirrors 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Aerocones Trailers 

Air Tabs Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Boat Tails and Air Tabs Trailers 

Bumper 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Gap Fairings Trailers 

Roof Fairings 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Side Fairings Class 7-8 Tractors 

Side Skirts 

Trailers 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Tractor Gap Fairing Class 7-8 Tractors 
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Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated 

Rolling Resistance Improvements 

Automatic Tire Inflation 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Trailers 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Low Rolling Resistance Tires 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Trailers 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Single Wide Tires 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Trailers 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Operational Improvements 

Advanced Driver Training Class 7-8 Tractors 

Speed Limiters Class 7-8 Tractors 

Idle Reductions 

Anti-idle System (i.e., automatic engine stop system) 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems Class 7-8 Tractors 

Thermal Storage Systems Class 7-8 Tractors 

Engine Recovery Systems Class 7-8 Tractors 

Auxiliary Power Units 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Direct fired heaters 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Fuel Cell APUs Class 7-8 Tractors 

Truck Stop Electrification Class 7-8 Tractors 

Engine Improvements 

Electronic Fans Class 7-8 Tractors 

Integrated Starter/Alternator 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Low Friction Engine Lube 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Turbo compounding Class 7-8 Tractors 
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Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Variable Geometry Turbo 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Variable Valve Actuation 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Transmission and Drivetrain Improvements 

Early Torque Converter Lockup 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Hybrid Powertrain 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Low-Friction Drivetrain Lube 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Rankine Bottoming Cycle 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Weight Reduction 

Aluminum Air Tanks Class 7-8 Tractors 

Aluminum Axle Hubs Class 7-8 Tractors 

Aluminum Wheelset 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Light Weight Brake Drums 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Lightweight Cab Components 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Lightweight Suspension System Class 7-8 Tractors 

Reduced Number of Batteries Class 7-8 Tractors 

Tare Weight Reduction via Al structural components Trailers 

Tare Weight Reduction via Al wheels Trailers 
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Improvement Vehicle Class Investigated 

Electrification 

Accessory Electrification (Power Steering, Water Pumps, Fans, etc.) Class 7-8 Tractors 

Air Conditioning 

Low Power Draw A/C 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Use of Alternative Refrigerants 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Use of highly reflective structural materials 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Use of Leakage-Reducing Components 

Class 7-8 Tractors 

Class 3-8 Vocational Trucks 

Class 6-8 Buses 

Reefer Improvements 

Alternative Refrigerants Trailers 

Low power draw A/C Trailers 

Advanced Electrical TRU Trailers 

Use of cryogenic CO2 units Trailers 

Use of highly reflective structural materials Trailers 

Use of leakage-reducing components Trailers 

The remainder of Section 2 provides an overview for each of these technologies. It is important 

to note that the combinations of class, vehicle application, and technologies researched here do 

not reflect every available combination, as it would be impractical to try and identify every 

combination here. Fleet owners and operators are left to decide which technology works best 

for their application. Also, some strategies that appear in the list for Class 7-8 Tractors were 

found to not be applicable in practice. Those were not investigated further. 

An overview of the findings of the research for each technology investigated is summarized in 

Section 3. 

2.3. Aerodynamic improvements 

Aerodynamic Hoods 

Technology Definition 

Truck manufacturers offer aerodynamic models that include a streamlined front profile and 

sloped hood. A more aerodynamic hood and cab design can significantly improve the 

aerodynamics of the vehicle and reduce drag. Aerodynamic hoods are usually one component 

in an overall aerodynamic design that includes the bumper, mirrors, headlights and other cab 
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features. Significant research, including wind tunnel testing, is usually required to design an 

aerodynamic cab and associated hood design. 

Availability 

Most aerodynamic hoods are manufactured by outside suppliers. Aerodynamic hoods are 

made of molded composites with inexpensive molded compounds. Numerous suppliers are 

available who can produce custom hoods designed to manufacturer specifications. Some 

manufacturers also make some of their own hoods. 

Vehicle Application 

Aerodynamic hoods can be installed on single-unit trucks and truck tractors. They can be used 

on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes. An aerodynamic hood is customized to a 

specific truck cab design to achieve superior aerodynamic performance. 

Aerodynamic hoods may not be appropriate for some vocational trucks. The purpose for which 

a vehicle is designed also affects the extent to which it can incorporate certain aerodynamic 

features. For instance, the radiator in a vocational truck is larger than that on a standard 

highway truck because of the work required from the vehicle. Having a larger radiator makes it 

more difficult to design an aerodynamic hood with a low sloping profile for a vocational truck. A 

vocational truck needs more ground clearance and has larger axles, all affecting the 

aerodynamic features. The vocational truck environment involves more dust and thus requires 

greater filtration of intake air. Many vocational vehicles with the larger dual 15 inch canisters on 

their sides are meeting the engine’s need for greater air filtration, although this may not be 

aerodynamic. 

The material that tends to be used in vocational products (with non aerodynamic hoods) is more 

durable and has a higher manufacturing cost. The vocational truck environment tends to cause 

more damage to truck hoods resulting in more vocational hoods designed such that 

components can be replaced instead of forcing replacement of the entire hood. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

In general, there would not be a significant difference in piece cost between the shape of an 

aerodynamic hood and a non-aerodynamic hood. A manufacturer could choose to make the 

shell of the hood in different designs for minimal cost. Most of the cost for a new aerodynamic 

design is associated with developing and testing the new design. Once this R&D is conducted, 

there is little difference in manufacturing cost between producing a new hood shape as 

compared to the old less aerodynamic hood shape. 

One cost element that would be different from a standard non-aerodynamic hood would be the 

styled headlamp that would be required for an aerodynamic design. This can require a multimillion dollar investment program for a truck manufacturer. Engineering testing and tooling 

costs are large for styled headlamps. It may be difficult to use off-the-shelf components to 

create such a styled headlight. Due to the numerous components required for stylized 

headlights, there is typically a long lead time for this element of approximately 30 – 48 months. 
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Aerodynamic Mirrors 

Technology Definition 

An aerodynamic mirror typically has a curved housing and a minimal number of arms. The 

arms have an aero shape with curved upper and lower surfaces. An aerodynamic mirror might 

also have a curved back. Mirrors are typically designed and optimized to improve the flow of air 

as it moves off of the vehicle and in free stream around the vehicle. Each cab design has a 

unique air flow profile which can require different aerodynamic mirrors for optimal effect. 

Availability 

The design of the aerodynamic mirror shell is dictated by the truck manufacturer and is typically 

manufactured by a supplier. Truck-Lite® is a major manufacturer of a number of different 

mirrors, including the aerodynamic mirror for Freightliner’s Cascadia® model. There are 

numerous suppliers who are available to manufacture custom mirror designs for truck makers. 

Vehicle Application 

Aerodynamic mirrors can be installed on single-unit trucks and truck tractors. They can be used 

on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes. An aerodynamic mirror is usually customized 

to the specific cab and hood design to achieve the best results. 

Vocational truck mirrors are not typically optimized for the cab. Construction sites and other 

vocational truck environments tend to cause mirror damage, requiring mirrors to be replaced. 

Truck fleets thus find it is desirable to use a standard mirror component that can be replaced 

easily. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

An aerodynamic mirror typically has four way mirror control and the arm structure is more 

robust. Because of the minimal number of arms, the strength and cost of the arms tends to be 

greater. An aero mirror will typically include boots or special breakaway features. Another 

difference is that on a standard mirror only the mirror glass rotates while the arms remained in a 

fixed position, while on an aero mirror the whole assembly turns. These factors tend to increase 

cost. 

AeroConesTM 

Technology Definition 

An AeroConeTM is used to reduce aerodynamic drag between the tractor and trailer. It can also 

be used to reduce drag on the front of the cargo compartment of straight trucks. By alleviating 

crosswinds, an AeroCone improves vehicle stability, road safety and reduces fuel consumption. 

Availability 

Trailer aerodynamic devices are offered by a few companies today, for example the AeroCone 

is available from ATD Dynamics, and the Nose Cone® is currently marketed by the FitzGerald 

Corporation of California. 
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Vehicle Application 

The AeroCone can be installed on standard dry van trailers or standard van straight trucks. 

Refrigerated tanks block installation on a reefer truck. Aerodynamic tractor models generally 

have tractor fairings, which reduce the benefit of the AeroCone. 

AirtabsTM 

Technology Definition 

AirtabsTM are patented vortex generators that can be installed on a truck to reduce drag. The 

Airtab is an aerodynamic surface, consisting of a small wishbone shaped ridge that creates a 

vortex. Air tabs are installed at the back of tractors, trailers or straight trucks to improve the 

aerodynamics on the vehicle. Each Airtab creates two tight swirls of air or vortices that combine 

to reduce the suction and drag at the rear of vehicles traveling at speeds above approximately 

35 mph. 

Vehicle Application 

Airtabs enhance aerodynamic performance equally well on cube vans, straight trucks, 

expeditors, buses, utility trailers, faired "bob tail" tractors, flat beds and tankers. The results may 

vary somewhat with vehicle type. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The length of the vehicle does not affect price. Taller vehicles, such as moving trucks, would 

have a somewhat higher installation cost. 

Boat Tails 

Technology Definition 

A boat tail, sometimes called a trailer tail, is a tapering protrusion mounted on the rear of a truck 

or trailer to reduce aerodynamic drag. There are a number of different boat tail designs. 

Availability 

There are a variety of different manufacturers that make boat tails. These include Aerodynamic 

Trailer Systems, AeroVolution, ATS, Transtex and Solus. 

Vehicle Application 

Boat tails can be installed on standard dry van trailers or refrigerated vans. Some boat tail 

products are only applicable to swing door trailers because the mounting brackets require a 

swing door plane. 
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Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Trailer tails should last the life of the vehicle or 5 to 10 years. Some may require minor repairs 

because of impacts.24

Aerodynamic Bumpers 

Technology Definition 

An aerodynamic bumper typically replaces traditional chrome bumpers found on tractors with a 

lighter weight material and a design that is integrated with the hood and fenders. Aerodynamic 

bumpers are typically injection molded and improve the total drag of the tractor; consideration 

must be given to not restricting airflow to the engine when designing the bumper. 

Availability 

There are a number of truck bumper suppliers and manufacturers. Hendrickson is one of the 

largest bumper manufacturers, and they make a number of different aerodynamic bumpers for 

different truck tractor models. Aerodynamic bumpers are usually designed by truck OEM’s and 

sourced out to a supplier 

Vehicle Application 

Aerodynamic bumpers can be installed on sleeper cabs, day cabs, and on all cab sizes. 

Tractor Gap Fairing 

Technology Definition 

A tractor gap fairing, also known as a cab extender or gap seal, reduces the gap between the 

tractor and the trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag and improving the fuel economy of the 

vehicle. 

Availability 

Makers of tractor gap fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites although 

there are numerous suppliers. Truck manufacturers sometimes contract with a range of 

different suppliers for custom gap seals that are included as standard components on 

aerodynamic truck models. 

Vehicle Application 

Tractor gap fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day cab, and on all cab sizes. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The cost of the gap fairing will vary depending on the height of the tractor. For instance, a taller 

sleeper cab will require a taller gap fairing, with the cost difference being related to the 

additional material that is required. 

 

24 Phone conversation with truck aerodynamics manufacturer representative. 
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Roof Fairings 

Technology Definition 

A roof fairing extends over the cab of a tractor and has enclosed sides. Roof fairings are 

designed to improve the flow of air over and around a tractor-trailer, reducing aerodynamic drag 

and increasing fuel efficiency. 

Some roof fairing designs are collapsible to allow for the fairing to be taken down when the 

tractor is operated without an attached trailer. 

Availability 

Major suppliers of roof fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites. Roof 

fairings can be purchased as a retrofit, but truck manufacturers also contract with a number of 

different suppliers to manufacture roof fairings for aerodynamic models where the roof fairing 

comes as a standard integrated component. 

Vehicle Application 

Roof fairings can be installed on sleeper cabs or day cabs, and on most cab sizes, although 

they would not be needed on a high-roof sleeper cab, since the tall roof functions as a fairing. 

Aerodynamic truck models may come with roof fairings as standard equipment. In addition, roof 

fairings would not be purchased for a tractor hauling a flatbed trailer, since this would have a 

negative impact on the aerodynamics of this vehicle configuration. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

In some cases, a company that orders roof fairings for a new vehicle may have brackets 

installed on the vehicle at the factory, but have the fairings shipped separately and installed by 

the dealer. The extra height of fairings can cause problems with clearances during transit in 

some cases. 

Tractor Side Fairings 

Technology Definition 

Tractor side fairings, also known as cab fairings, extend downward from the base of the cab 

between the wheels of the tractor, covering the open space and streamlining the fuel tank(s). 

Most cab side fairings have steps to reach the cab molded directly into the fairing. In some 

cases, the fairing may consist of a single component that is a wheel to wheel fairing. In other 

cases, the side fairing consists of two components, a partial side fairing and a fuel tank fairing. 

Tractor side fairings can be used on both day cabs and sleeper cabs. 

Availability 

Makers of side fairings include Airodyne Industries and Laydon Composites, although there are 

numerous suppliers. Truck manufacturers often contract with suppliers for custom fairings that 

are included as standard components of aerodynamic truck models. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 31 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

Vehicle Application 

Tractor side fairings can be installed on either a sleeper cab or a day cab, and on all cab sizes. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The cost of the side fairing will vary depending on the size of the truck tractor. For instance, a 

truck with a longer wheelbase, such as sleeper cab, will require a longer and typically more 

expensive fairing than a day cab. 

Trailer Side Skirts 

Technology Definition 

Trailer side skirts, or trailer fairings, extend down from the bottom of the trailer to cover part of 

the open space between the tractor and the rear wheels. These fairings improve airflow around 

the trailer and reduce drag. 

Availability 

Trailer side skirts are widely available from a number of different companies, including: ATD 

Dynamics, Freight Wing, Solus, Carrier Transicold, Fleet Engineers, Laydon Composites, Ridge 

Corp., GreenWing, Silver Eagle, Transtex and Utility Trailer. 

Vehicle Application 

Trailer side skirts can be installed on dry van and refrigerated trailers, and are being testing on 

flatbed applications. Side skirts can also be installed on tanker trucks, but they have achieved 

limited penetration in this market. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Side fairings are more expensive on trailers with a higher deck. Side fairings for tanker trucks 

can be slightly more expensive, primarily due to additional costs for mounting. 

Trailer Gap Fairings 

Technology Definition 

A trailer gap fairing performs the same function as a tractor gap fairing, the difference being a 

trailer gap fairing is installed on a trailer while the tractor gap fairing is installed on the tractor. 

Trailer gap fairings, also known as gap reducers, are usually rounded additions to the sides 

and/or top of the front of the trailer that reduce the gap between the tractor and trailer. 

Availability 

Trailer gap fairings are available from a number of different suppliers. Firms that produce 

SmartWay verified gap reducers include Carrier Transicold, FreightWing, Laydon Composites 

and Nosecone. 

Vehicle Application 

Trailer gap fairings can be installed on standard dry van and refrigerated trailers. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 32 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

2.4. Rolling resistance improvements 

Automatic Tire Inflation (ATI) 

Technology Definition 

With properly inflated tires, tire rolling resistance is decreased and fuel use is reduced 

compared to under-inflation. Automatic tire inflation systems (ATI) monitor and continually adjust 

the level of pressurized air in tires, maintaining proper tire inflation automatically, even while the

truck is moving. The Meritor Tire Inflation System by Pressure Systems International uses the 

vehicle’s air-brake compressor to supply air to all of the tires. Air from the existing trailer air 

supply is routed to a control box, then into each axle. The axles act as conduits to distribute air 

through rotary union assemblies at the spindle ends, which then distribute air to each tire as 

needed.25 Another system uses self-contained compressors mounted on each hub that are 

powered by the rolling motion of the wheels. Once an ATI system is installed, it should not 

require any special attention from the driver.26

Availability 

Leading brands for automatic tire inflation systems include Pressure Systems International 

(Meritor Tire Inflation System; Meritor Tire Inflation System with ThermALERTTM) and 

Hendrickson (TIREMAAX® Electronic Controller; TIREMAAX® Constant Pressure). 

Vehicle Application 

The application and price information discussed below is based on research acquired from 

Pressure Systems International (PSI) Meritor tire inflation systems.27

 Class 8 Long-Haul Trailers. For long haul trucking, PSI’s inflation system is only 

available for the trailer, (and dollies and chassis) only. [For a two-axle trailer, the cost 

is approximately $750 if system is installed at manufacturing level. For labor, add 

another $200 if system is added to an existing trailer as a retrofit truck. (The cost is 

around $550 to be added to a single axle trailer or dollies.) In either case a return on 

investment, with all things considered, is reported to be less than one year and 

typically about 8 months.]. 

 Vocational Trucks (e.g., service trucks, refuse trucks, delivery trucks, etc.). 

Service trucks that have air brake systems can be fitted with external ATI. 

 Urban/Transit Buses. Buses of all types can also be fitted with external ATI typically 

for the steer tires, drive tires, and a tag (non-drive) axle tires. These types of systems 

would not require the governing of engines or the deflation feature. [Therefore, these 

systems for six wheel end positions would cost approximately $1000 to $1,250 price 

 

25 “Literature,” Pressure Systems International website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.psi-atis.com/literature.htm. 

26 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies – Automatic Tire Inflation Systems,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. 

Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/tireinflate.pdf. 

27 Interviews with Frank Sonzala, Executive VP of Sales and Marketing, Pressure Systems International, 2010. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 33 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

range. Monitoring systems would run $650 to $900 per vehicle if that type of system 

is used.] 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Prices vary depending on the number of axles. For a two axle trailer, one kit will handle all 8 

tires on a tandem dual axle system or all 4 tires on wide-base single tire system, the addition of 

the ThermALERT option would increase the cost. [See “Vehicle Application” section above.] 

The wear part of PSI’s ATI is the “Through-T” component. The price of a replacement ThroughT is in the range of $25 if purchased from a parts sales house; it does not require special tools 

to install and can be installed in approximately 15 minutes. The Through-T is the rotary 

connection that delivers stationary air from the spindle end of axle to rotating tires through the 

hoses. The Through-T component’s lifespan has been tested to be up to 1 million miles, but in 

reality, the component typically gets about 500K-750K miles of wear life.28

Low-Rolling Resistance Tires 

Technology Definition 

Tire rolling resistance refers to a frictional effect associated with the contact of the tread of the 

tire with the road surface, and the flexing of the tread. Reduction of rolling resistance can be 

accomplished through the use of new materials, such as the combination of silica and synthetic 

elastomer. 

Given that many trucks have a large number of tires in contact with the road (e.g., 18 wheels), 

rolling resistance can have a significant effect on efficiency. Thus, tire rolling resistance is an 

important component of the total engine power demand on a truck. Rolling resistance can be 

reduced by avoiding under-inflation of existing tires (to reduce unnecessary flexing), substituting 

one wide-tire for a pair of dual tires (leading to a net reduction in total tread area, sidewall 

flexing, or both), use of alternative tire materials to reduce rolling resistance. To the extent that 

rolling resistance can be reduced, total engine power demand is also reduced. This, in turn, 

leads to reductions in fuel use and exhaust CO2 emission from the truck.29

 

Tire manufacturers seek to reduce the rolling resistance in order to improve fuel economy.30

There are 2 recognized categories of Low Rolling Resistance Tires: Single Wide-base (see 

below for further discussion about this technology) and Low Rolling Resistance Dual Tires.31 A 

 

28 Interviews with Frank Sonzala, Executive VP of Sales and Marketing, Pressure Systems International, 2010. 

29 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007. 

30 California Energy Commission. “Tires and Fuel Efficiency.” June 2006. http://www.energy.ca.gov/2006publications/CEC-600-

2006-003/CEC-600-2006-003-FS.PDF

31 “Low Rolling Resistance Tires,” SmartWay Finance Center Technology website. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/technology.cfm?productTypeID=4&productTypeCategoryID=9. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 34 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

well designed wide-base single tire has lower rolling resistance than traditional dual tires. 

Manufacturers also offer low rolling resistance versions of dual tires.32

Availability 

Leading brands for low-rolling resistance tires (common steer, drive, and trailer models) are 

shown in Table 2-7. 

Table 2-7: Low Rolling Resistance Tire Types 

Brand Street Drive Trailer 

Bridgestone 

R287A, R280, R250F, 

R260F, R287 

M720, Greatec R195, Greatec Trailer, 

Greatec R125, R197, S197 

BF Goodrich ST244 DR 444 TR144 

Continental 

HSL-2 (replaces HSL), HSR1 

ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO Plus 

HDL ECO Plus, HDL2 DL 

ECO Plus, HDR1 ECO Plus, 

HSR1 ECO Plus, HSR2 ECO 

Plus 

HTL ECO Plus, HTL1 

Double Coin N/A FD405 FT105 

Dunlop Tire SP384 FM SP456 FM SP193 FM 

Firestone FS590 PLUS, FS507 FD662 FT455 PLUS 

General S371, S581 D660, S371, S581 ST250 

Goodyear 

G395 LHS Fuel Max, G399 

Fuel Max, G662 Fuel Max 

G305 LHD Fuel Max, G392 

SSD, G305 Fuel Max AT 

G316 LHT Fuel Max, G316 

Fuel Max DuraSeal 

Michelin 

 XZA3, XZA2, XZA1+, XZE, 

XZE2, XZA2 Energy, 

XDA2+ Energy, XDA Energy, 

XDA3, X-One XDA, X-One 

XDN2, XOne XDA Energy, 

XDE2+, XDN2, XDE M/S 

XTA Energy, XT1, X-One 

XTA, X-ONE XTE, XTE 

Toyo Tires M137, M154 M657 M127 

Yokohama RY617, 103ZR, 101ZL 703ZL, TY517mc2 RY587mc2, RY587 

Hankook AL07+, AL11 Z35a, DL11 TL01 

Vehicle Application 

Class 8 combination Line-Haul Tractor-Trailers, including day cabs and mid- and full-size 

sleeper cabs. 

 

32 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel 

Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final200910.pdf. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 35 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

Single Wide (Wide-Base) Tires 

Technology Definition 

Single-wide tires are used by a number of carriers and private fleets on combination vehicles to 

reduce rolling resistance. The benefits of reducing rolling resistance are more substantial on 

combination vehicles, and single-wide tires are not currently available for single-unit trucks. 33 A 

single wide-base tire with an aluminum rim is lighter than two standard tires and wheels.34

Combination trucks usually have two sets of dual tires at each end of an axle. Dual tires are 

heavy and also produce high rolling resistance. Single wide-base tires, which are commercially 

available products, can replace these dual tires in most applications. Wide-base tires that have 

a combined lower weight (e.g., there are only two sidewalls for one tire, versus four sidewalls for 

two tires) and produce lower rolling resistance reduce energy use. This best practice is suitable 

for combination trucks that have van trailers, which are the majority of the total truck fleet. By 

using single instead of dual tires, there is a need for increased attention to tire inflation pressure

for safety reasons.35

Single-wide tires have mainly been confined to niche markets and installed on combination 

vehicles. For vehicles that weigh-out, they can have the added benefit of reducing the truck’s 

tare weight and increasing the payload that can be carried. Tare weight reduction is important in 

making the business case for investing in these tires and their wheels.36

Availability 

Leading brands for Single Wide Tires include Michelin, Goodyear, and Bridgestone. These are 

available from a variety of tire manufacturers and retailers. Retailers may specialize by vehicle 

application or type. Michelin makes the X-One® single wide tire for trucks. Goodyear makes a 

wide based tire called the Super Single. Bridgestone also makes a wide based tire. 

Vehicle Application 

Class 8 combination Line-Haul Tractor-Trailers, including day cabs and mid- and full-size 

sleeper cabs. 

Traditional dual tires are replaced with one single wide tire and aluminum wheel, and can be 

applied to all tractor and trailer tire positions except for the steer tires.37 The new generation of 

wide-base tires has a section width of up to 17.5 inches, for a typical tandem axle combination 

 

33 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009. 

34 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Single Wide-Based Tires,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed June 

10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/tech/supersingles.pdf. 

35 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007. 

36 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009. 

37 US EPA and Community Development Transportation Lending Service, SmartWay Clean Diesel Financing loan application 

form. http://www.ctaa.org/webmodules/webarticles/articlefiles/SmartWay_Brochure_and_Application.pdf. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 36 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

truck these tires comply with pavement weight laws in all 50 states. For some non-tandem axle 

combination trucks, wide-base tires may not comply with "inch-width" laws in certain states.38

Note that single-wide tires are not currently manufactured for single-unit trucks or buses. 

2.5. Operational improvements 

Advanced Driver Training 

Technology Definition 

Courses on fuel efficiency teach fleet managers and drivers fuel saving techniques such as: 

 using cruise control; 

 coasting; 

 block-shifting; 

 braking and accelerating smoothly and gradually; 

 progressive shifting; 

 limiting unnecessary truck idling; 

 starting out in a gear that does not require use of the throttle when releasing the clutch; 

 limiting unnecessary shifting; 

 driving at the lowest engine speed possible; and 

 reducing parasitic energy losses by limiting the use of accessories.39 

 There are numerous training options: 

 Subscription with lessons: in this type of training, a company may pay a monthly 

subscription fee to another company, such as Instructional Technologies, that offers 

many types of electronic training courses, including fuel efficiency courses.40 

 High-Level Training without a Subscription: a trucking company may also develop an 

internal training program where a trainer meets individually with drivers to teach fuel 

efficiency techniques and to monitor driver performance.41

 

 Classroom Lessons: A trucking company may require its drivers to take a course 

through a vocational school or for-profit training organization that teaches drivers fuelsaving techniques. 

 

38 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Single Wide-Based Tires.” 

http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/supersingles.pdf 

39 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies Drivers Training.” http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/drivertraining.pdf. 

40 Conversation with Jim Voorhees, Instructional Technologies. 

41 Environmental Awareness and Outreach Measures to Reduce GHG Emissions From the Trucking Sector, L-P Tardif & 

Associates Inc., August, 1999. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 37 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

Availability 

Training can be provided by employers, vocational schools, and for-profit training organizations. 

Vehicle Application 

Driver training courses are most often utilized by trucking fleets with Class 8 vehicles. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Estimates vary based on the type of training, number of hours of driver time required and wage 

rates. 

Speed Limiter 

Technology Definition 

A maximum vehicle speed can be pre-programmed into the engine’s electronic control unit.42

The American Trucking Association estimates that approximately 77 percent of its members 

have speed limiters set at 68 mph or lower.43 Programming is most often done by the engine 

manufacturer. 

Availability 

Most engines are capable of being programmed for a maximum speed.44

Vehicle Application 

A speed limit can be pre-programmed for Class 8 tractor trailer trucks, and is most likely 

applicable to other vehicle classes as well. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Although the programming is most often done by the engine manufacturer, costs may arise to 

truck owners if the speed needs to be adjusted after the vehicle is purchased. The maximum 

speed can be adjusted at a dealer and involves connecting to the engine’s electronic control unit 

to a computer using proprietary software and reprogramming the engine software.45 

 

42 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

43 “Truckers Back a National 65-mph Speed Limit,” U.S. News and World Report, March 26, 2008. 

44 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association. 

45 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 38 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

2.6. Idling reduction technologies 

Anti-idle System (a.k.a., Automatic Engine Stop System) 

Technology Definition 

Truck engines can be pre-programmed to shut off after a certain amount of time spent idling. 

46,47 The idling time can be specified when ordering a truck.48

 

Availability 

All new Class 8 truck engines can be pre-programmed.

49,50 For example, this system is part of 

the Cummins 2007 engine.51 However, the use rate for this technology is small.

52

Vehicle Application 

An automatic engine stop system can be pre-programmed for Class 8 tractor trailer trucks. 

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems 

Technology Definition 

Automatic engine start/stop systems are used to start and stop the truck engine automatically to 

maintain oil temperature, a specified cab temperature, and/or to maintain battery voltage. 

Drivers typically activate the system while resting and program a desired temperature range; the 

engine will start and shut off automatically in order to operate the heating or air conditioning 

systems and maintain the desired temperature range.53 

Figure 2-24: Automatic Start/Stop System 

Source: http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis525/term/f00/ian/Optimized%20Idle.htm 

 

46 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association. 

47 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

48 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

49 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association. 

50 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

51 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

52 Conversation with Tim Blubaugh, Engine Manufacturers Association. 

53 ICF International, Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel Efficiency, Prepared for EPA, 2002 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 39 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

Availability 

Detroit Diesel currently offers an automatic engine start/stop system.54 Cummins previously 

offered the ICON Idle Control System, however, they are currently working to develop a new 

system. 55,56 As part of this development phase, they are developing an engine that further 

minimizes bearing wear due to frequent start/stops of the engine.57 

Vehicle Application 

This technology is most often used on Class 8 sleeper cabs.58 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

There are additional costs for programming the engine computer that are incurred from the use 

of technology. Volume discounts are available for purchases of 10 units or more.59 Installation 

costs will vary depending on the complexity of the installation.60 

Thermal Storage Systems 

Technology Definition 

Thermal storage units provide cooling to the bunk of a truck’s cab without using any fuel or 

creating any emissions.61 It serves as an alternative to diesel fueled APUs. The unit charges 

while you drive and is considered fully charged in approximately 4 to 6 hours and then can 

provide up to 10 hours of cooling off of one charge while the engine is off.62,63 While driving, a 

thermal storage core made of patented graphite/water matrix is frozen to 12 degrees Fahrenheit 

by an electric refrigeration compressor driven by the truck’s standard electrical system. Once 

the truck is parked and the engine is off, a high-efficiency pump circulates coolant through the 

storage core to a heat exchanger in the air handling system. Four fans then blow cool air 

through the heat-exchanger directly into the bunk. The cold storage unit mounts to the truck’s 

rail frame and the in-cab air handler delivers chilled air to the bunk.64 Note that a Hybrid Blue 

Cool Truck thermal storage system is now available; it operates similarly to the Blue Cool Truck 

thermal storage unit but also includes shore power functionality. 

 

54 Conversation with John Beavers, Western Branch Diesel. 

55 ICF International, Industry Options for Improving Ground Freight Fuel Efficiency, Prepared for EPA, 2002.. 

56 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

57 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 

58 Detroit Diesel. 

59 Conversation with John Beavers, Western Branch Diesel. 

60 Detroit Diesel. 

61 Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Brochure, http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html. 

62Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

63 www.webastoshowroom.com/bluecooltruck/.../Webasto_BlueCool_Hybrid_Fact_Sheet_Final.doc

64 Webasto Blue Cool Truck Product Brochure, http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_aircon.html. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 40 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

Availability 

Webasto manufactures the Blue Cool Truck thermal storage unit. No other manufacturers have 

been identified. 

Vehicle Application 

Thermal storage units, such as the Blue Cool Truck, are designed for use by heavy duty trucks, 

not for medium duty trucks.65

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

There are no expected operations/maintenance costs for thermal storage units, such as the 

Blue Cool Truck. Since there are very few moving parts, once installed, there should be no 

expected operations/maintenance costs for 3-5 years.

66 Note that the Blue Cool Truck Hybrid 

System costs approximately $2,000 more than the standard Blue Cool Truck unit and includes 

shore power functionality. 

Figure 2-25: Thermal Storage Unit 

Source: Blue Cool Truck Image, 

http://www.smartwayfinancecenter.com/images/vendorImages/vendor_307244/product_26/C5_Truck_Prod_Circle_300rg

b.jpg

Engine Recovery Systems (ERS) 

Technology Definition 

An engine recovery system keeps a cab warm while at rest without burning fuel by enabling an 

existing vehicle heater to operate with the engine off. The coolant in a warm engine contains 

considerable amounts of stored heat energy. An ERS recovers this energy to keep the vehicle 

interior warm without the need to idle the engine. By continuing the circulation of the hot coolant 

through the cab heater with the engine off, the system recovers this heat for useful purposes, it 

 

65 Conversation with Josh Lucas, Webasto, May 19, 2010 

66 Conversation with Josh Lucas, Webasto, May 19, 2010. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 41 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

is estimated that the Authotherm® ERS will keep a Class 7 or 8 truck warm for 3-4 hours.67 The 

system functions automatically and shuts off when the coolant temperature drops to 95 degrees 

Fahrenheit. 68

Availability 

Autotherm® Systems manufactures an engine recovery system – Autotherm T-2500. 

Vehicle Application 

Engine recovery systems can be used for medium and heavy duty trucks. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

There are no maintenance costs for the unit beyond installation.69 

Figure 2-26: Engine Recovery System 

Source: http://www.autothermusa.com/company.html

Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) 

Technology Definition 

APUs are generally mounted externally on the truck cab. An APU typically consists of a small 

combustion engine and generator combination that can provide power to the truck when the 

main engine is shut off. Electricity from an APU can be used to power heating, air conditioning, 

and other electrical accessories for the cab and sleeper.70 Non-traditional electric battery-

 

67 http://autothermusa.com/wordpress/no-engin-idle-facts/ 

68 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf

69 Conversation with Autotherm Sales Department, May 5, 2010 

70 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies – Idle Reduction.” http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/carrierstrategy-docs/apu.pdf . 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 42 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

operated APUs are also available. Fuel cell APUs are currently in the research phase, but are 

expected to be offered by 2012.71 

Figure 2-27: APUs 

 

Source: Cascade Sierra Solutions. “Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions.” 2008 Fall Edition. 

Availability 

Examples of companies that offer APU systems include: Pony Pack®, Inc., RigMaster, and 

Thermo King. Glacier Bay Inc., Thermo King, Idle Free® and others offer an electric batteryoperated APU; Delphi is developing a fuel cell APU. Some APUs may be sold directly from the 

APU manufacturer, but most APUs are sold through retailers. 

Vehicle Application 

Industry interviews indicate that APUs are most often installed on Class 8 sleeper cabs, but may 

be installed on day cabs. APUs are not generally installed on Class 5 box trucks or buses. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Non-traditional electric battery-driven systems are available and slightly cheaper than dieselpowered APUs. Costs associated with APUs include: capital and installation, and may include 

warranty costs. Large volume discounts are common. 

Direct Fired Heaters 

Technology Definition 

Direct fired heaters serve as climate control systems that do not rely upon either the large truck 

engine or small diesel engine powered units to supply energy for heating, which reduces fuel 

consumption and GHG emissions.72

 

A direct fired heater is sometimes referred to as a fuel operated heater, a bunk heater or an air 

heater. There are several categories of heaters, including preheated engine coolant heaters and 

in-cab air heaters. A preheated engine coolant heater is used to warm the cab before the engine 

 

71 “Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road in 2012,” SAE International. May 12, 2010. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222

72 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Description of Technologies 

ICF International 43 US Environmental Protection Agency 

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 July 20, 2010 

is started to eliminate cold starts and provide engine pre-heat. An in-cab air heater provides 

immediate heat and offers capacity to heat a cab overnight while the driver sleeps.73 The 

preheated engine coolant heater is often less expensive than the in-cab air heater, but offers 

less capacity. Some manufacturers offer combination units which combine the pre-heating and 

in-cab heating functions. 

Figure 2-28: Direct Fired Heater 

Source: How an Air Heater Works, Espar, http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html

The primary focus for this report is in-cab air heaters. A direct fired air heater uses a small 

combustion flame to supply heat through a heat exchanger. When the heater is turned on 

(without the engine on), a burner motor starts and a blower unit draws combustion air into a 

heat exchanger. Simultaneously, fuel is drawn from the truck’s fuel tank – generating a fuel-air 

mixture that ignites. A flame is formed and hot combustion gases are circulated through the heat 

exchanger. A hot air fan draws in room or fresh air and the heat of the combustion gases is 

then transferred by the heat exchanger to the hot air. Warm air then flows through the cab. 74

Availability 

There are many models of direct fire heaters. Some manufacturers include Espar Heater 

Systems, and Webasto Thermosystems. Each company manufactures units suitable for class 3-

8 vehicles including long-haul trucks and school buses. Some manufacturers also offer 

combination units that include functionality for pre-engine heating and in-cab heating. For 

instance, Webasto’s Tandem 717 combines the engine pre-heating function of the TSL 17 with 

 

73 Webasto Product Brochure: Engine pre-heating, in-cab heating and bunk cooling. 

http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html. 

74 How an Air Heater Works, Espar, http://www.espar.com/html/products/technology_air.html. 
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the in-cab heater Air Top 2000 ST.75 These combination units are more expensive than single 

units. 

Vehicle Application 

Most direct fire heaters are applicable to class 3-8 vehicles. Some units, such as a direct fire 

combination unit with an engine pre-heater, are targeted more for full-size sleeper cabs due to 

their capacity. Nonetheless, the single-unit direct fire heaters are appropriate for use in any 

vehicle type for class 3-8. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Notable discounts, taxes, fees or applicable cost factors are not available. 

Fuel Cell APU 

Technology Definition 

It is expected that the first vehicle to be equipped with a fuel cell in production, although not for 

main propulsion power, is likely to be a Class 8 tractor-trailer truck. A number of companies 

including: Delphi, Protonex, Boeing, and others are working to develop a fuel cell APU. Delphi 

is working on a solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC) that operates on multiple types of fuel.76 Mounted 

behind the fairings, the SOFC will start up and power lighting and other accessories as well as 

heat provide for sleeper cab warmth in winter and electricity for sleeper cab air-conditioning in 

warm weather. The truck's diesel engine will not need to run for those purposes. 

The Delphi SOFC, which produces nearly zero emissions, has a fuel consumption of 0.13 gal/hr 

at no load and about 0.2 gal/hr in typical operation. That's at least 15% lower than the small 

two-cylinder diesels that normally power the APUs and is about 80% lower than an idling truck 

engine. The Delphi SOFC uses an electrolyte that is called yttria-stabilized zirconia, a 

zirconium-oxide-based ceramic. The material, which is stable at room temperature, is hard and 

chemically inert, and it also is used in dental crowns. According to Delphi, the SOFC has an 

operating efficiency of 30% on diesel fuel and 40% on natural gas and lends itself to mass 

production, and because it contains no precious metals and is cost-effective.77

Availability

Delphi indicated that the SOFC would be available in the 2012 timeframe. However, Cummins 

has estimated that this technology may not be available until 2014. 

Vehicle Application 

Class 8 sleeper cabs. 

 

75 Webasto Product Brochure: Engine pre-heating, in-cab heating and bunk cooling. 

http://www.webasto.us/am/en/am_trucks_heaters.html.. 

76 http://fuelcellsworks.com/news/2010/05/13/delphi-field-testing-solid-oxide-fuel-cell-apu-with-a-heavy-duty-truck-manufacturerand-the-technology-is-scheduled-to-be-in-production-in-2012/ 

77 Automotive Engineering Online, Delphi truck fuel-cell APU to hit road in 2012, May 12, 2010. 

http://www.sae.org/mags/AEI/8222. 
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Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Delphi said it would compete against "midrange" APUs—i.e., in the $8000-$9000 installed price 

range (some diesel APUs are as much as 50% higher).77

Truck Stop Electrification 

Technology Definition 

Truck stop electrification (TSE) provides power to vehicles while they are docked at service 

bays to avoid overnight idling. TSE systems are either "off-board" (a.k.a., Advanced Truckstop 

Electrification, ATE) or "truck-board" (which may also be referred to as, TSE). ATE is an 

external system that connects to the truck cab via a window or other access point, and consists 

of an HVAC subsystem mounted off-board the tractor which may also provide 120-Volt AC 

outlets and an entertainment package (internet, telephone, cable television). The systems 

commonly referred to as TSE are typically a combination of truck-board and facility power 

systems – a.k.a. shore-power. Shore-power provides access to 120- or 240-Volt power from a 

land-based source and separates the electrical supply from the accessory system installed in 

the tractor. Commercial shore-power facilities may also include credit card readers, cable 

television, and communication interface.

An example of a traditional off-board (a.k.a. ATE) system was that of IdleAireTM, deployed at 

several facilities throughout the U.S (see “Availability” section below). It included heating, 

cooling, AC electrical outlets, touch screen monitor with Internet access, and phone and cable 

television connections. The HVAC system was mounted atop an overhead truss assembly, 

where the wiring and ductwork originated and reached the truck via a drop down, protective, 

flexible shield which supports the integrated computer service console. The service console was 

connected to the tractor through the passenger-side window by a mounting template, which 

retailed at the facility for $10. The service cost was $1.25 per hour for registered fleets and 

$1.50 per hour to others for basic services, payable via an automatic card reader. There was no 

required on-board componentry for the IdleAireTM off-board system, although internet service 

could be made available via user-supplied equipment and use of the telephone service requires 

the user’s phone. 78

No standard truck-board equipment set exists for shore-power, although OEM tractor 

installations may be developed. One test system includes a Smart Energy Management System 

(EMS), a Cab Comfort (Dometic) HVAC system, wiring kits and receptacles, and an 

inverter/charger and may operate on 120 Volt/20A up to 240 Volt/50A. The electrical connection 

hardware is on-board the truck and a stationary pedestal at the truck stop houses electrical 

power connections. An exterior-grade wire harness connects the two subsystems. Prices for the 

on-board system depend on the truck configuration.79 

 

78 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification As A Long-Haul Tractor Idling Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM. 

79 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification As A Long-Haul Tractor Idling Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM. 
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Shorepower TechnologiesTM (formerly Shurepower) now provides shore-power facilities via a 

basic installation kit (extension cord, exterior receptacle, interior wiring kit, GFCI, portable 

heater/fan) for $199.80 Use of their system retails for $1 for activation and $1/hour for usage. 

EnviroDockTM provides ATE that includes one 120V/15amp duplex outlet, two 6” ducts for 

supply and return air, switches to adjust temperature, fan speed and to switch between on/off, 

heat or a/c, and optional Cat 5 internet connection.

81 Use of the system retails for $2/hr (or 

$1/hour if $50 worth of fuel is purchased). A $20 refundable deposit is required for the required 

insert. CabAireTM also provides ATE via a fitted window unit that supplies UV filtered air, heat, 

A/C, power, internet, cable, and intercom communications. Some also include block heater 

power. Use of the system is currently free, but requires purchase of a required insert which 

retails between $11-25 depending on the truck. 

Availability 

The IdleAireTM Corporation filed for bankruptcy protection on May 12, 200882 and, after failing to 

find a buyer, closed on January 29, 2010.83 News reports do state, however, that some facilities 

are expected to be operational in July, 2010.84 The facilities IdleAireTM was operating appear to 

be shut down. However, other companies are operating some stations. These currently seem to 

be limited to EnviroDock in NY, Shorepower Technologies in CA, OR, WA, and NC, CabAire in 

CT and NC. The DOE lists TSE sites that are available.85

Envirodock offers a range of systems depending on the limitations of the truck stop architecture, 

and have installations of both ATE and shore-power (TSE) types. They have reported little use 

of the TSE-only system, which they attribute to truckers being resistant to modifying their (very 

expensive investment in their) cab. Envirodock reports having two beta sites in New York and 

will open one in Tennessee, as well as noting a driving concern for any truck stop electrification 

program is that there is little enforcement of anti-idling laws nationwide since it is unclear who 

has jurisdiction.86 CabAireTM has received $1.1M in federal funding to install 100 truck 

electrification spaces at two truck stops in Alabama ($11k/space).87

Vehicle Application 

TSE applies to principally to overnight idling vehicles, i.e. Class 8 sleeper cabs. 

 

80 http://www.shorepower.com/

81 http://www.envirodock.com/index.php

82 http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2008/may/14/idleaire-turns-off-its-engines/

83 http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2010/jan/28/idleaire-fails-find-buyer-closing-friday/

84 http://www.etrucker.com/apps/news/article.asp?id=85394. However, as of July 20, 2010, no active locations are reported on 

their website. 

85 http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/locator/tse/

86 Ed Maxwell, EnviroDock, 5/10/2010. 

87 http://www.controlmod.com/pdfs/pr_releases/AlabamaPressRelease.doc 
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Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Avoided operating and maintenance costs from truck idling service are directly proportional to 

the hours an engine idles. LP Tardif & Associates Inc. found that an additional $0.92 is spent on 

service, maintenance, and repairs for every hour the truck spends idling. 88

Most of the cost to operate truck stop electrification is in the electric infrastructure, including 

needed transformers. Total estimates of infrastructure installation costs for a full ATE system 

are $7500-8000 per system, including electric, islands, mounting, lighting, etc. The cost of 

shore-power type systems is less. The cost depends on many factors, including input power 

rating, A/C BTU rating, heat kWh rating, etc. These costs must be passed on to the user 

ultimately, if the systems are to be profitable. Most truck stop electrification deployments do not 

provide power for TRUs, which require much greater load and A-rating and thus are more 

expensive. 89

2.7. Engine improvements 

Integrated Starter/Alternator 

Technology Definition 

The integrated starter/alternator system provides additional electric motor boost for extra power. 

It is a concept that is referred to as a mild hybrid. The integrated starter/alternator is mounted 

between the engine flywheel and the transmission and provides engine start/stop capabilities. 

In addition, the larger battery pack provides some limited duration auxiliary power capability if 

coupled with electrified accessories. Regenerative braking provides additional power to the 

battery. The battery is sized modestly to minimize cost and weight increases.90

The integrated starter/alternator replaces the existing starter and alternator supplying those 

functions in addition to being able to provide regenerative braking, automatic engine shut-off at 

idle, instant restart and limited launch assist. 

Availability

Some manufacturers are considering these systems as a less costly alternative to a full hybrid 

electric system. 

Vehicle Application 

All vocational trucks 

 

88 Perrot et al., Truck Stop Electrification as a Long-Haul Tractor Idling Alternative, TRB 2004 Annual Meeting CD-ROM. 

89 Ed Maxwell, EnviroDock, 5/10/2010. 

90 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel 

Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final200910.pdf. 
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Turbo Compounding 

Technology Definition 

Turbo compounding adds a power turbine downstream of the conventional turbocharger. By 

capturing waste heat from the exhaust stream, the power turbine generates additional work 

which can be fed back to the engine crankshaft using a sophisticated transmission (mechanical 

systems) or by generating electricity (electrical systems). The power turbine, shown in Figure 

2-29, has a gear or generator connected to the shaft instead of a compressor. In addition, the 

conventional turbocharger turbine is down-sided to provide more power to the power turbine. 

This smaller turbocharger provides better transient response and higher boost pressure at lower 

speeds as well. Optimal matching of the turbocharger and power turbine is required.91

Figure 2-29. Turbo Compounding Turbine 

Source: Cummins Turbo Technologies91

Power turbines are available in two types, namely radial and axial. The radial turbine is best 

suited to variable speed applications. The axial power turbine is more efficient with single 

engine speed applications. However, the axial turbine is more compact but it is not as well 

suited to truck applications that operate at variable engine speeds. Using a turbo compounding 

system increases the engine overall thermal efficiency from 42% to 46%. 

Availability

Several manufacturers are making turbo compounding units including Holset for Cummins, DDC 

and Volvo Powertrain. 

Vehicle Application 

All Trucks 

 

91 “Turbocompound System,” Turbo Technologies website. Cummins. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.holset.co.uk/mainsite/files/2_5_1_3-turbocompound%20system.php. 
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Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Mechanical turbo compounding systems would include port liners, variable valve actuation and 

a high-efficiency power turbine. Electrical systems would include the mechanical turbo 

compounding components plus a 40 kW motor/generator, power electronics and balance of 

plant modifications. Electric auxiliaries can be added with electric turbo compounding. 

Cummins estimates mechanical turbo compounding to be approximately $2,000 for a 

mechanical system and approximately $6,500 for an electric system which does not include 

electrifying the auxiliary loads. 92 The prices quoted are intended to be representative of enduser prices. 

Variable Geometry Turbocharger 

Technology Definition 

Variable geometry turbochargers (VGTs) have been developed in an effort to match 

turbocharger performance to engine operation over a wider speed-load range. VGTs also allow 

for quicker transient response by restricting the turbine nozzle during accelerations. Their ability 

to provide additional air to the engine over a wider range of operating conditions also allows for 

emissions reductions. 

VGTs allow modification of the aspect ratio depending upon loads and speeds. The aspect ratio 

is the ratio of the area of the cone to radius from the center hub as shown in Figure 2-30. 

Optimal aspect ratios at low speed are considerably different from those at high speeds. By 

varying the aspect ratio, the turbocharger is more efficient at all conditions. 

Figure 2-30: Turbocharger Aspect Ratio

Source: http://www.myturbodiesel.com/1000q/turbocharging.htm#A/R ratio

Being able to vary the aspect ratio is very important as aspect ratio that is too small will cause 

the turbo to choke the engine leading to lower engine power output. Also by being able to alter 

 

92 Conversation with Brian Mormino. Cummins. 
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the aspect ratio as the engine accelerates, the turbo response can be increased. It can also be 

used to introduce EGR to lower emissions. 

Availability

Most heavy duty engine manufacturers are using VGTs on their engines to meet 2010 emission 

standards. 

Vehicle Application 

All Trucks 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Price is incremental to a fixed geometry turbocharger. 

Variable Valve Actuation 

Technology Definition 

Variable valve actuation (VVA) allows valves to open and close through use of mechanical, 

electro-hydraulic or electronic solenoids (camless). Being able to control valve timing, valve lift 

and the amount of time the valve is open can greatly improve engine performance during 

transient conditions. Generally valves are controlled by a cam which fixes valve timing and lift. 

This usually reduces engine performance at some loads and speeds and leads to less optimal 

drivability, fuel economy and emissions. 

VVA’s benefits are less for diesel engines than for gasoline engines because of the narrower 

range of operating speeds. VVA does allow better emission control by controlling exhaust 

temperatures for aftertreatment devices. It also allows the turbocharger to operate more 

efficiently at a variety of engine operating modes. Turbo compounding can also benefit from 

VVA because it can control the amount of energy in the exhaust stream. 

Availability

Eaton is developing both camless and mechanical systems. 

Vehicle Application 

All Trucks 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Price depends strongly on engine configuration (e.g., number of cylinders), whether applied to 

intake and/or exhaust valves, and whether the system is cam operated or camless. 
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2.8. Transmission and Drivetrain improvements 

Early Torque Convertor Lock-up 

Technology Definition 

Torque convertors act as a clutch for automatic or automated manual transmissions. They also 

multiply torque, absorb torsional vibration of the engine and drivetrain. The torque convertor sits 

between the engine and transmission and is filled with automatic transmission fluid. It uses an 

impeller/turbine system to transmit torque from the engine to the transmission. If the impeller 

(connected to the engine) is going at a higher speed than the turbine (connected to the 

transmission), the torque is multiplied from the engine to the transmission. When the impeller is 

moving at the same speed as the turbine, there is no torque multiplication but there is a 4 to 5 

percent loss in energy. To prevent this, torque convertors contain a lock-up clutch that 

mechanically connects the impellor and turbine. 

Generally this lock-up event occurs around 37 mph. This is actuated by the transmission 

controller. By reprogramming the controller, earlier lock-up can occur which can provide 

additional fuel economy benefits at lower speeds. 

Availability

Allison Transmissions builds most of the heavy-duty vehicle transmissions. 

Vehicle Application 

All long-haul trucks with automated manual transmissions. This concept is less viable on 

vocational trucks due to the lower and transient nature of their duty cycle. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Allison93 mentions that in most cases early torque convertor lock-up is just a software change 

and won’t require any additional labor on new trucks. In some cases the springs in the clutch 

would need to be changed to minimize noise, vibration and harshness. In new trucks, even this 

would result in little or no cost increase. 

Hybrid Powertrain 

Technology Definition 

These systems are similar in concept to the full hybrids used in light-duty applications. Hybrids 

come in both a parallel-hybrid and a series-hybrid design. 

In a series-hybrid, the electric generator is driven by a small engine which is used to charge the 

batteries. The batteries are used to power an electric motor or motors that drive the vehicle. In 

a series-hybrid, the engine does not provide power to the wheel but is only used to charge the 

batteries. As such, the engine can operate at a more efficient condition. However, because 

 

93 Conversation with Bob Leopold of Allison Transmission, May 6, 2010. 
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mechanical energy needs to be converted to electrical energy and back again, this can lead to 

losses. Generally series systems are not used on higher speed applications but have been 

used on some transit buses. 

Parallel-hybrid systems employ a small electric motor coupled to the engine crankshaft. In a 

parallel-hybrid, both the engine and motor can drive the wheels. These systems are more 

efficient in higher speed applications. There have been a number of demonstrations of this 

technology on heavy duty vehicles. 

Availability

Parallel-hybrid systems are currently available in transit bus, motor coach, and Class 3-6 box 

and bucket trucks, and in the fleet demonstration stage for refuse haulers. There have been a 

few demonstrations of Class 8 tractor trailers using a parallel architecture. 

Vehicle Application 

All vocational trucks and short haul Class 8 trucks. This concept has limited value in line haul 

trucking applications. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Components include a motor/generator, battery pack, power electronics, a modified clutch 

assembly, electrification of auxiliary loads and balance of plant. Table 2-8 shows 

motor/generator and battery pack and convertor sizes for various truck types. 

Table 2-8: Hybrid system component sizes 

Components Class 4 

Utility Truck 

Class 6 

Box Truck 

Class 8 Refuse 

Truck 

Class 8 Transit 

Bus 

Class 8 Short 

Haul Truck 

Motor/Generator 30kW 30 kW 100 kW & 30 kW 100 kW & 30 kW 50 kW 

DC to DC Convertor 5 kW 5 kW 8 kW 8 kW 5 kW 

Battery 4 kWh 4 kWh 8 kWh 8 kWh 4 kWh 

As manufacturers indicated that costs of hybrid systems were considered proprietary, ICF 

estimated prices for the 6 truck types based upon component costs with associated mark-ups. 

End-user costs were as follows: 

 Class 4 Utility Truck -- $33,000 

 Class 6 Box Truck -- $37,000 

 Class 8 Refuse Truck -- $69,000 

 Class 8 Transit Bus -- $60,000 

 Class 8 Short Haul Truck -- $25,000 

The Class 8 short haul truck assumes that the R&D costs could be spread over a larger sales 

volume than the other categories. These costs match fairly well with the incentives that ARB is 
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offering under AB 118 funding for the Air Quality Improvement Program94. Generally the 

incentive amounts comprise 50 percent of the incremental costs. Incentive amounts are shown 

in Table 2-9. 

Table 2-9: Hybrid Vehicle Incentives 

Vehicle Class Base Vehicle Incentive 

Class 4 - 6 (14,000 – 26,000 lbs GVWR) $20,000 

Class 7 (26,001 – 33,000 lbs GVWR) $25,000 

Class 8 (33,001 – 38,000 lbs GVWR) $30,000 

Class 8 (> 38,000 lbs GVWR) $35,000 

Low-Friction Engine Lube and Drive Train Lubricants

Technology Definition 

Conventional mineral oil lubricants may have too high viscosity to effectively slip between and 

lubricate the moving parts, particularly new truck components that are designed with close 

tolerances and tight fits. Conventional lubricants may also be heavy, making it harder for 

pumps, gears and shafts to move. These effects create energy and friction losses that waste 

fuel.95 Alternatively, low-friction lubricants reduce friction and wear of critical vehicle systems 

including the engine, transmission and drive train. Without lubricants, moving parts inside these 

systems would grind together causing heat, stress, and excessive wear. 

Friction losses in the drive train (transmission and differential) and engine can be reduced by 

using low-viscosity lubricants. Most manufacturers of lubricants produce “fuel economy” options 

that have lower viscosity than standard lubricants. However, use of low viscosity lubricants can 

result in higher drive train or engine wear, which increases maintenance costs. In selecting 

lubricants, most fleet managers believe they currently have struck the proper balance between 

fuel savings and maintenance costs.96

Low-viscosity lubricants are less resistant to flow than conventional lubricants, and may contain 

additives designed to withstand the extreme pressure that could occur as the lubricant flows 

between tight fitting parts. Low viscosity lubricants may be made from synthetic or mineral oil 

blends with extreme pressure additives. 

 

94 ARB, AB 118: Air Quality Improvement Program (AQIP), FY 2010-11 Funding Plan Discussion Document, April 2010. 

http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/aqip/meetings/fy%202010-11/aqip_fy10-11_fp_discussion_doc_040810.pdf. 

95 US EPA, “A Glance at Clean Freight Strategies –Low-Viscosity Lubricants,” SmartWay Transport Partnership. Accessed June 

10, 2010. http://www.epa.gov/smartway/documents/lowviscositylubes.pdf. 

96 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009. 
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Transmission (Drive Train) Lubricants 

Lubricants can reduce gear contact friction in transmissions, but they also reduce fuel efficiency 

because of their viscosity. 97 Low-viscosity transmission fluid is made from synthetic or mineral 

oil blends and is reported to decrease transmission friction and also reduce fuel consumption.98 

Engine Lubricants 

Some energy losses in an engine are due to mechanical friction. Reduction in internal engine 

friction can be achieved using improved lubricants. Low-viscosity engine lubricants are made 

from synthetic or mineral oil blends for the purpose of reducing internal engine friction. Lowviscosity engine lubricants can reduce energy use. Low-viscosity engine fluid typically costs 

more than conventional lubricants.99 These strategies have wide applicability to all types of truck 

classes and operations.100

Availability 

Available types of low-friction lubricants (engine and transmission) include Valvoline, Chevron 

Delo®, and Mobile1. 

Vehicle Application 

• Vocational truck engine, transmission and drive train (Class 3-8) 

• Transit bus engine, engine, transmission and drive train (Class 6, 7) 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Additional cost savings may be possible due to reduced engine wear and maintenance, and by 

providing a longer period between engine overhauls.101

Rankine Bottoming Cycle 

Technology Definition 

A Rankine bottoming cycle system converts otherwise wasted thermal energy from the engine 

to provide additional work. The heat is used to heat a working fluid that can be used to drive a 

turbine. Waste heat is captured from: 

 the exhaust after any aftertreatment, 

 the EGR cooler, 

 

97 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007. 

98 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009. 

99 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007. 

100 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009. 

101 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf. 
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 the engine coolant, and 

 the charge air cooler.102

The turbine is used to drive a generator to create electricity which can then be used by and 

electric motor connected to the engine crankshaft. 

While bottoming cycles provide good energy for continuous high speed operation, their transient 

response is poor. This can be mitigated by combining the system with a hybrid electric drive 

system. In this case the electricity provided by the Rankine bottoming cycle can be used to 

supplement engine power when at higher continuous speeds and store power at other 

conditions. 

Availability

Discussions with manufacturers suggest that they envision the bottoming cycle as a promising 

technology that could come into the market in the 2015 timeframe. However, this technology is 

still in the early stages of development, and there are significant capital cost and packaging 

issues to be resolved. 

Vehicle Application 

All Trucks 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The Rankine bottoming cycle system would include a turbine, generator and flywheel producing 

30 kW, an air cooled condenser, an EGR boiler, a stack boiler, controls and power electronics, 

energy storage and modifications to the balance of plant. Cummins estimates such a system 

would cost the end user approximately $7,000.103

2.9. Weight reduction technologies 

Aluminum Air Tanks 

Technology Definition 

Air tanks made out of aluminum rather than steel are one method to reduce overall truck weight. 

The reduced weight savings improves fuel economy. Standard steel tanks range in size from 1⁄4 

gallon to 20 gallons. Prices are difficult to estimate since there is not an industry-wide fixed 

number of air tanks per truck. Air tanks are used for a variety of functions, ranging from tire 

 

102 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel 

Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final200910.pdf. 

103 Conversation with Brian Mormino, Cummins. 
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inflation, air brakes, air horns and air-powered seats.104 Class 8 trucks may have two to four air 

tanks depending on the functionality of the air in the truck.105

Availability 

Conversations with industry representatives indicate that steel air tanks are currently the 

standard and that the use of aluminum for air tanks is fairly rare, particularly for class 8 trucks. 

Vehicle Application 

Air tanks are used in all classes of 3-8 vehicles depending on the functionality of the air for the 

vehicle. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Note that aluminum usually costs about 50 – 100% more than steel.106

Aluminum Axles and Axle Hubs 

Technology Definition 

Attempts to replace traditional axles and axle hubs with lightweight versions composed chiefly of 

aluminum, although other materials have been considered, such as carbon fiber. 

Availability 

To date, industry opinion is that this technology will not make it into production due to heat and 

integrity issues. Although some research has been done on axle tubes, center carrier areas, 

cover plates, etc., this is still in the research and development phase and difficult to provide cost 

estimates for. 

Vehicle Application 

Not currently applicable to any vehicles. 

Aluminum Wheels 

Technology Definition 

Forged and cast aluminum wheels are lighter than traditional steel wheels. Aluminum wheels 

provide enhanced performance advantages over standard steel wheels, including weight 

savings, and lower maintenance and operating costs. The mounting system for aluminum 

wheels can be ball seat or hub piloted. Alcoa offers a full set of options for heavy duty trucks 

and buses including 22.5”, 24.5”, and 14" wide-base wheels, that when partnered with the right 

tire, can increase fuel and tire efficiency as well as save weight. For example, the all-purpose 

commercial wheel (i.e., 24.5” LvL ONETM) weighs 56 pounds compared to a typical 86 pound 

 

104 Conversation with Michigan Truck Supplies Sales Department, March 5, 2010. 

105 Note that aluminum fuel tanks are more frequently offered as optional equipment than aluminum air tanks. 

106 As estimated by Franklin Josey, Volvo, February 9, 2010 
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steel wheel.107 For a standard dry flatbed trailer, a 2 axle – 8 wheel configuration with 22.5 by 

8.25 inch wheels, replacing steel wheels with aluminum would reduce the trailer’s weight by 176 

pounds.108

Wheel manufacturers are offering aluminum wheels in 22.5x14-in. sizes to help bring additional 

weight and fuel savings to fleets. Alcoa offers a wide base wheel engineered to work with low 

profile long-haul tires on drive and trailer axles. In the wide base tire system, one wide wheel 

and tire replaces a set of dual wheels and tires.

109 Wide base wheel and tire assemblies save 

fuel, in part, because they include only half as many flexing sidewalls as a set of dual tires. 

Accuride DupleX-One wide-base 22.5x14-in. aluminum wheels, the company notes, reduce fuel 

expense or increase payload capacity when used in place of traditional dual wheel sets on 

tandem-axle tractors and trailers. Developed in conjunction with Michelin, the forged aluminum 

wheels can save 120 lbs. per axle.110

Availability 

Aluminum wheels are widely available for use on trailers and are frequently a manufacturer 

optional feature of trailers. Manufacturers of aluminum wheels include Alcoa and Accuride. 

Vehicle Application 

Aluminum wheels are available for heavy duty trucks (Class 6-8) and Class 8 buses for drive, 

steer, and trailer axles for dual (22.5 and 24.5 x8.2) and single wide tires (22.5x14-in.)111

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Additional benefits of aluminum wide-base (single-wide) tires and wheels include reduced 

maintenance costs. Maintenance costs can be lower because there are only four wheel 

positions per tandem compared to eight. In addition, without an inner tire/wheel, inflation and 

visual inspection becomes much easier and more effective. Super wide aluminum wheels also 

tend to help keep brake packages running cooler and, therefore, lasting longer.112

Lightweight Brake Drums 

Technology Definition 

Lightweight brake drums offer an opportunity to reduce truck weight and thereby reduce fuel 

consumption. A lightweight brake drum is considered an effective weight-savings option for 

 

107 Alcoa 24.5” LvL One. http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/brochures/docs/Alcoa_LvL_One24.pdf. 

108 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales Contact, March 2, 2010. 

109 “New Alcoa 22.4x14 wide base wheel fits low profile longhaul needs,” Fleet Equipment, November 1, 2001. 

http://www.allbusiness.com/transportation-warehousing/828191-1.html. 

110 Skydel, Seth. “Fuel efficiency: aluminum wheels, side base singles.” Fleet Equipments, April 1, 2009.

http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices/12319270-1.html. 

111 Heavy Duty Truck/Trailer. Alcoa Wheels website. Accessed June 10, 2010. 

http://www.alcoa.com/alcoawheels/north_america/en/hdtt/index.asp. 

112 ICF International, “Opportunities to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Trucking,” Prepared for Environmental Defense 

Fund, December 2009. 
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trucks. These brake drums can save nearly 25 pounds per drum compared to standard steel 

brake drums, and replace standard or heavy duty full steel cast drums.113 Lightweight brake 

drums, like the CentriFuse® drums are made of an iron alloy core but have a steel outer shell.114

The lightweight drums are often combined with aluminum wheels and aluminum hubs for 

additional weight savings. 

Figure 2-31: Lightweight Brake Drum Components 

Source: CentriFuse® Product Brochure http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf

Availability 

Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle Systems. Inc. manufactures the CentriFuse® Brake Drum. 

Several types of brake drum are available including CentriFuse Lite, CentriFuse Wide Break, 

and CentriFuse Plus. 

Vehicle Application 

Lightweight brake drums can be used on any type of medium or heavy duty truck and are 

frequently used for vehicles seeking lighter components. Usually there are two brake drums per 

axle of a vehicle.115

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

CentriFuse lightweight brake drums are reported as lasting four times longer than conventional 

steel drums – therefore extending lifecycle and reducing maintenance costs.116 Drums are alloy 

 

113 CentriFuse Product Brochure, http://ppimw.archercom.com/assets/centrifuse_brake_drums_brochure.pdf. 

114 Conversations with Product Development Specialist, Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle System, July 16, 2010. 

115 Conversations with Product Development Specialist, Motor Wheel Commercial Vehicle Systems, March 19, 2010. 
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with a steel shell which offers an added element of safety against breakage, thereby improving 

cost-effectiveness. 

Lightweight Cab Components 

Technology Definition 

Like other lightweight options, replacing cab structural and surface materials with lighter weight 

alternatives will reduce vehicle weight and increase efficiency, assuming the vehicles are 

operating full in terms of volume, but not at their full weight rating or what is known as “cubed 

out.” In the case of operating with the reverse scenario, or “weighed out” any gain from the use 

of lighter weight components would be offset by increased load. 

Industry has indicated that some progress has been made on lightweight technologies. Plastic 

cab components are typically sheet molded composites (SMC) and are common in cab 

components where structural strength is not of the utmost importance, such as hoods, air 

deflectors, and sleeping cabin roofs. The majority of remaining cab components will be made of 

steel or steel with some portion of aluminum. Lightweight prototype vehicles have been 

developed for some vehicle classes. For example, the use of high strength stainless steel for a 

Class 8 bus body and chassis has been shown to result in a mass savings of about 50% (300% 

increase in fuel economy) with a cost savings of about 30%.117 This has only made it through a 

prototype phase and had various commercial setbacks. 

Indications are that industry perceives aluminum frame cabs to be less durable and add 

significantly to the truck purchase price. However, most manufacturers offer lightweight versions 

of many other technologies. Price differentials are generally driven by material cost and volume, 

with aluminum roughly 50-100% more expensive than equivalent steel components, although 

tooling and fixed costs are roughly the same. SMC components are generally comparable in 

price to steel, depending on thickness. Price differential estimates are difficult to obtain since 

lightweight components are often offered only as packages that could include tanks, wheels, 

and other elements. 

Availability 

Found with some frequency in existing vehicles, although industry is generally leery of their use. 

Vehicle Application 

All vehicles 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Generally lightweight components are only available as packages. Lifetime, operations, and 

maintenance costs should be comparable to steel. 

 

116 Precision Partners Press Release, March 16, 2009. http://www.precisionpartnersinc.com/corporate/breakingnews/announces-its-new-long-life-severe-service-brake-drums-centrifuse-plus/. 

117 Emmons, Bruce. System Optimization of an Ultralight Electric Transit Bus. Autokinetics, Inc. April 20, 2006. 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/hvso_2006/23_emmons.pdf. 
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Lightweight Suspension Systems 

Technology Definition 

Cab weight reduction and increased efficiency could come from the use of lighter components, 

including replacement of suspension materials. Currently these materials are made of steel, 

especially the springs, due to its generally superior performance over other materials. 

Industry has said that lightweight suspensions could come from the use of aluminum in certain 

components, however it was generally felt that critical suspension components are expected to 

remain mostly steel. For example, brackets, stayrods, and port controls could be made from 

aluminum, while carbon and composite materials have been researched, but are not anticipated 

for near-term use in heavy duty vehicles due to cost and performance concerns. Further 

research and development for advanced materials are needed. 118

Availability 

This technology is not currently available, except at an R&D level. It is not anticipated in the 

near term. 

Reduced Number of Batteries 

Technology Definition 

A possible approach to reduce cab weight and thus engine load could be to reduce the number 

of batteries installed per truck. 

Availability 

Industry has indicated that reducing the number of batteries installed in a truck is not currently a 

viable option. The number of batteries required (three is standard for Class 8 tractors) is driven 

by the need for cold-cranking amps. While other truck classes with smaller engines could use 

fewer than three batteries, they are typically designed with the smallest number necessary. 

As an alternative, advanced battery technology could offer either lightweight alternatives or 

potentially greater strength, which could lead to fewer batteries required. However, industry 

believes this is in the distant future for heavy duty trucks, and would likely not offer much weight 

reduction anyway.119

Vehicle Application 

Not currently applicable to any vehicles. 

 

118 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007. 

119 Franklin Josey, Volvo, 2/9/2010. 
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Aluminum Structural Components for Trailers 

Technology Definition 

Aluminum structural components can significantly reduce weight on trailers for heavy duty 

trucks, and therefore reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For the purposes of this research, 

aluminum components apply to trailer types including dry vans, reefers and tankers. Many steel 

or plywood structural components for trailers can be replaced with aluminum to reduce weight in 

a variety of applications. Aluminum roof posts (rather than steel) often reduce weight by 75 

pounds. Aluminum floor joists (rather than steel) can reduce weight by 300 pounds. Aluminum 

floors (rather than wood floors) can reduce weight by 385 pounds. Aluminum cross members 

(rather than steel) can reduce weight by 155 pounds. Aluminum side posts (rather than steel) 

may reduce weight by 275 pounds. Finally, aluminum roof bows (rather than steel) can reduce 

weight by about 100 pounds.120

Availability 

Aluminum components are widely available for use on trailers and are frequently a manufacturer 

optional feature of trailers. 

Vehicle Application 

Manufacturers offer aluminum component upgrades for trailers for class 8 heavy duty trucks. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Aluminum costs about 50 to 100% more than steel, and can sometimes cost more to assemble 

than steel depending on the various fasteners required. Note that some manufacturers are 

beginning to use plastics for structural components, for which the material costs are comparable 

to steel121, but this is not widespread.122

2.10. Electrification 

Electrification of Accessory Loads 

Technology Definition 

Generally most accessory loads such as the power steering pump, the water pump, the air 

conditioning compressor, engine fan, and the air compressor are driven mechanically by belts 

connected to the engine crankshaft. If a large source of electrical energy is available, such as 

with hybrid systems or electric turbo compounding, these accessory loads can be electrically 

driven reducing the direct load on the engine. The engine cooling fan can also be converted to 

 

120 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales. 

121 Franklin Josey, Volvo, 2/9/2010 

122 Conversation with Utility Trailers Sales. 
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electric drive although for line haul applications, the efficiency savings are small because the fan 

on times are low.123

Availability

Not much research has been done on electrifying heavy-duty truck components. However, there 

will likely be growing interest in electrified accessories, such as power steering, due to the 

emergence of hybrid-systems that offer “engine-off” or zero-emissions vehicle mode of 

operations.124

 

Vehicle Application 

All trucks using either hybrid technology or electric turbo compounding. 

2.11. Air conditioning and transport refrigerated unit (TRU) improvements 

Alternative Refrigerants 

Technology Definition 

Refrigerants leak, directly emitting GHGs. Moving to refrigerants with a lower global warming 

potential (GWP) is one method to reduce the GHG impact of heavy duty vehicles. 

Several gases have emerged as contenders with a lower GWP than the current widely used 

refrigerant, HFC-134a, (GWP of 1,300) including CO2 (GWP = 1), HFC-152a (GWP = 120), and 

Propane (GWP = 20). Each of these gases would require a refrigeration system modified to 

some extent from the current 134a systems and present their own challenges related to safety, 

flammability, toxicity, and other health and environmental concerns. 

Globally, motor vehicle air conditioning manufacturers have appeared to settle on a single future 

refrigerant, HFO-1234yf.125 HFO-1234yf is “acceptable for use in mobile air conditioning from a 

toxicity perspective”, has low ignition potential, GWP of 4 with lifetime of days, no ozone 

depleting potential (ODP), low smog-forming potential, and low ecosystem impact.126 It also 

requires minimal changes to current system architecture, however, the refrigerant itself is 

expensive. Currently, research prices are $500 per kg, with final in-production price estimated to 

be about $50 per lb127 as compared to R134a which retails today for approximately $7 per lb 

(with volume discounts as much as $1.20/lb)128

 

123 NESCCAF, ICCT, Southwest Research Institute, TIAX, LLC. Reducing Heavy-Duty Long Haul Combination Truck Fuel 

Consumption and CO2 Emissions, October 2009. http://www.nescaum.org/documents/heavy-duty-truck-ghg_report_final200910.pdf. 

124 Email exchange with Brad Hicks, ArvinMeritor, March 26, 2010. 

125 Peter Coll, SAE. Posted at: http://www.refrigeration-engineer.com/forums/showthread.php?t=23669

126 Industry Evaluation of low global warming potential refrigerant HFO-1234yf, SAE CRP1234, 11/10/2009. 

127 “Consensus Building on Refrigerant Type”, in September 2008 issue of Automotive Engineering International (an SAE 

magazine). p.30. 

128 E.g., http://www.koolit.net/prod_list.php?sci=9, 5/25/2010 
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Availability 

CO2, Propane, and HFC-152a are readily available but less likely to be implemented than HFO1234yf. HFO-1234yf is currently unavailable commercially. 

Vehicle Application 

All mobile vehicle air conditioning systems, including Class 8 tractors, TRUs, Class 3-8 work 

trucks, and light-duty vehicles. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Current prices are much higher than the baseline HFC-134a, although expected to come down 

once in production. Minimal hardware redesign is expected to be necessary, unless it is decided 

that systems should move to a dual loop design. Assuming the architecture is maintained as a 

single loop, prices may reasonably be scaled by the vehicle charge size.129 

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials 

Technology Definition 

 There are several techniques to reflect solar energy from trailers, including: 

• Replacing a standard aluminum roof with a translucent, white fiberglass roof; 

• Covering trailer sides with reflective tape strips; and 

• Painting trailer roofs with white reflective paint. 

These techniques can be applied to refrigerated trailers to reduce the amount of fuel used to 

regulate the temperature in the trailer. Some of these techniques may also be applied to school 

buses to reduce the amount of fuel used to air condition the bus. 

Although white fiberglass roofs reflect solar energy, they are mostly used for their translucency 

benefits. One disadvantage of using this roof is that it punctures easier than a standard 

aluminum roof.130

Conspicuity reflective tape may be laid in strips on trailer sides. For example, UPS covers half of 

each truck side with this tape to increase reflectivity.131

White reflective paint, such as SolarCool, an acrylic elastomeric coating with sealed ceramic 

micro-bubbles may be applied to trailer tops to reflect solar radiation.132 

 

129 Numerous conversations, including Gary Hansen, RedDotCorp.com, 5/26/2010. 

130 Conversation with John, Dan’s Truck Refrigeration. 

131 Conservation with John, UPS. 

132 SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlon of Solar Cool Coatings. 
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Figure 2-32: Solar Energy Reflection Improvement through Application of SolarCool Coatings Paint 

Source: SolarCool Coatings Brochure provided by Pat Scanlon of Solar Cool Coatings

Availability 

There appear to be a few companies that manufacture translucent, white fiberglass roofs. Crane 

Composites is one of the main manufacturers of these roofs. There are several companies that 

produce reflective tape.133 There are several companies that manufacturer reflective, white 

paint. 

Vehicle Application 

These reflective strategies can be applied to Class 8 trailers. Research indicates that these 

strategies can also be applied to Class 5 box trucks and Class 7 buses. However, installation of 

a translucent, white fiberglass roofs is not a widespread strategy for buses.134

 

 

133 “Truck Reflective Tape,” Thomasnet website. Accessed June 10, 2010. http://www.thomasnet.com/products/truck-reflectivetape-87831160-1.html. 

134 Conversation with Bill Beckwith, Crane Composites. 
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Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Operation and maintenance is an additional cost for these strategies. For example, punctures to 

fiberglass roofs need to be sealed, reflective tape strips replaced every few years, and reflective 

paint recoated every few years. 

Reefer Improvements 

Low Power Draw A/C 

Technology Definition 

Low power draw air conditioning (A/C) units operate without dependence on a diesel engine 

powered unit. Eliminating the need to operate based on a diesel powered engine unit reduces 

the need for idling in order to cool the cab. Low power draw systems usually either use waterbased evaporation or self-contained air conditioners. Water based cooling is ideal for mild 

temperatures.135 For more extensive cooling needs, a self-contained air conditioner is ideal.136

Water-based coolers use evaporation to reduce the temperature of the air by an average of 10 

to 15 degrees.137 A small amount of electrical current is needed to operate a blower fan to 

circulate the cooled air.138 One disadvantage of the evaporative cooler is that it can only make 

small changes in temperature and therefore is not always suitable for very hot climates.139 For 

hot climates or extended cooling during rest periods, there are self-contained units which are 

operated by dedicated batteries.140,141

Availability 

Many companies manufacture low power draw A/C systems, including CoolMoves, DC Power 

Solutions and Dometic Environmental Corporation. 

 

135 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves 

136 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves 

137 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf. 

138 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf. 

139 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves 

140 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

https://secure.cascadesierrasolutions.org/downloads/documents/CSS-Guide-Fall08-Web.pdf. 

141 Conversations with Sales Staff at Cool Moves 
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Figure 2-33: Evaporative A/C Unit 

Source: Cool Moves Minicool Product Brochure, http://coolmoves.ca/products/mini-cool/dinamic/

Figure 2-34: Rooftop Low Power Draw A/C 

Source: Cool Moves Bycool Product Brochure, http://coolmoves.ca/products/bycool/revolution/

Vehicle Application 

Many evaporative coolers and self-contained cooling systems can be mounted on multiple types 

of trucks. Some can be mounted on rooftops for flat-cab or body roof trucks, others mounted 

within the cab body of the truck. Some units are geared more toward sleeper cabs and others 

for daytime cooling. Note that the evaporative coolers work best in dry climates. 142

For a class 7 school bus or a class 8 transit bus, it would be recommended to use a rooftop 

cooling system or an evaporative unit, ultimately depending on the climate the vehicle operates 

in. For medium duty trucks like the class 6 box truck, it would be recommended to use an 

evaporative unit. 

 

142 Guide to Saving Fuel and Reducing Emissions, Cascade Sierra Solutions Report, 2008 Fall Edition 

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Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) Systems 

Technology Definition 

A transport refrigeration unit (TRU) is a refrigeration system designed to refrigerate 

temperature-sensitive products that are transported in insulated vans, trucks, or rail cars. 

Traditional, mechanical TRUs are powered by a diesel engine, the most common engine size 

being 35 hp. Conventional diesel-powered TRUs may be purchased with an electric standby 

(E/S) option, which allows the TRU engine to be shut off when a compatible power supply is 

available at a facility so TRU diesel engine emissions are eliminated.143

 

Figure 2-35: Transport Refrigeration Units 

Source: Photo provided by David Kiefer of Transicold.

A more advanced alternative to the conventional diesel-powered TRU is a hybrid electric TRU. 

In this system, a diesel engine drives a generator that, in turn, powers an electric semi-hermetic 

refrigeration compressor and electrically driven fans, all controlled by an advanced 

microprocessor.144 The benefits of a hybrid-electric TRU include: greater fuel-efficiency to 

reduce carbon emissions, less leakage potential, and significantly less maintenance 

requirements versus a conventional belt-driver system.145 

Because a hybrid electric TRU uses electrical energy, it requires less coolant than a 

conventional diesel-powered TRU. Because it uses less coolant, it requires fewer valves, which 

are susceptible to leakage. For example, Transicold’s Vector® hybrid unit uses a semi-hermetic 

 

143 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use 

Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, 

October 28, 2003, p VI-11. 

144 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use 

Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, 

October 28, 2003, p VI-11. 

145 Conversation with David Kiefer, Transicold. 
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compressor, uses a third less refrigerant and half the braze joints as a conventional dieselpowered TRU. The unit also has an electric standby option for stationary units.146

 

Solar power TRUs are currently unavailable, but have been tested in the UK. Solar TRUs 

consume no fuel, do not suffer the same mechanical failures, and have longer operating lives.147

 

Availability 

Carrier Transicold offers a hybrid electric TRU. 

Vehicle Application 

The hybrid TRU discussed above may be used on Class 8 trailers.148 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

A hybrid electric TRU is more expensive than a conventional TRU without E/S, and has less 

operating and maintenance costs over a conventional TRU with the E/S add-on option.149

 

Adding the power infrastructure at facilities with TRUs that use E/S is very expensive. Costs for 

power outlets in parking areas increase significantly due to trenching costs.150 

Use of Cryogenic CO2 Unit 

Technology Definition 

Cryogenic CO2 refrigeration units heat and cool using liquid CO2 that is routed through an 

evaporator coil that cools air blown over the coil.151 For example, the ThermoKing cryogenic 

system moves liquid CO2 from the refillable vehicle tank through a sealed evaporator coil inside 

the cargo space, thus cooling the coil. Temperature controlled air is circulated over the coil and 

through the cargo space. Having extracted all the useful energy, it exhausts to the atmosphere. 

On trailer applications, heat for defrosting the evaporator coil and temperature control is 

generated by a diesel heater when required.152 Infrastructure for these units include: a fuel 

holding tank at the distribution facility and a pumping station to pressure the fuel and pump it 

into the TRU.153 

 

146 Conversation with David Kiefer. 

147 DTI, “The Commercialisation of Solar Powered Transport Refrigeration.” 2001. http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file16833.pdf. 

148 Conversation with David Kiefer. 

149 Conversation with David Kiefer. 

150 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use 

Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, 

October 28, 2003, p VI-11. 

151 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use 

Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, 

October 28, 2003, p VI-11. 

152 Thermo King CryoTech Brochure. 

153 Conversation with Tom Kampf, ThermoKing. 
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Figure 2-36: ThermoKing's Cryogenic CO2 Unit 

Source: Thermo King CryoTech Brochure

Availability 

ThermoKing manufactures a cryogenic CO2 unit, but it is currently only available in the 

European Union. However, these units are being demonstrated in the United States.154 

Vehicle Application 

These units can be installed on Class 8 trailers. They would most likely be installed on trucks 

that are operated for local deliveries.155

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

The capital cost of a cryogenic unit is slightly higher than a standard TRU. However, the facility 

infrastructure costs for the fuel adds to the capital cost. Fuel costs vary depending on the nature 

of the operation. As of 2003, operating costs for liquid CO2 are typically double the diesel fueloperating costs and increase with distance from the source.156 Maintenance costs are lower 

since the systems have fewer moving parts.157 Over the lifetime of the unit, the largest 

 

154 Conversation with Herman Viegas, ThermoKing. 

155 Conversation with Herman Viegas, ThermoKing. 

156 Revised Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-Use 

Diesel-Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets, and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, CARB, 

October 28, 2003, p VI-11. 

157 ThermoKing CryoTech Brochure. 
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maintenance cost is the refurbishing of the liquid cryogen storage tank, which is replaced 

roughly once every 5-7 years.158 Volume discounts for these units are minimal.159

 

Use of Leakage Reducing Components 

Technology Definition 

In general, components to minimize leakages are already incorporated into most modern air 

conditioning and transport refrigeration units (TRUs, reefer) systems. A/C system loads in 

tractors and work trucks are parasitic loads on the engine that only burden the engine when 

operated, thus reducing fuel efficiency and increasing tailpipe GHG emissions (indirect effect). 

However, modern refrigerants are also potent greenhouse gases, and leakage of them from the 

systems lead to direct emissions of GHGs.160

 

In mobile vehicle air conditioning (MVAC) systems, leakage can be reduced through the use of 

enhanced hose components, such as veneer/barrier hoses or ultra-low permeation hoses, 

improved fittings and connections (multiple o-rings, seal washers, and seal washers with orings, and metal gaskets), and/or multiple-lip seals for the compressor shaft seal. 161

For TRUs, however, one area for potential leakage in a conventional diesel-powered TRU is the 

shaft seal between the compressor and the engine. This leakage potential is removed with a 

hybrid electric TRU which uses an electric transmission and a semi-hermetic, electrically 

powered compressor instead of a leakage-susceptible shaft. This system also uses a third less 

refrigerant than conventional TRUs, further reducing leakage potential.162 This system is 

discussed under the section “Use of Advanced Electrical Transport Refrigeration Unit (TRU) 

Systems”. 

Availability 

Leakage reducing components for MVAC systems are readily available and largely already 

employed by the industry. 

Vehicle Application 

This technology is used in all tractors and work trucks, as well as trailers. 

Notable Cost-Related Factors 

Operations and maintenance savings are incurred with the use of leakage reducing components 

given the longer lifetimes of refrigerant charges. 

 

158 Conversation with Sam Dutta, ThermoKing. 

159 Conversation with Tom Kampf. 

160 Draft Regulatory Impact Analysis, Proposed Rulemaking to Establish Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission 

Standards and Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards, EPA-420-D-09-003, September 2009. 

161 NC State, “Best Practices Guidebook for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in Freight Transportation,” Prepared for U.S. DOT, 

October 4, 2007. 

162 Conversation with David Kiefer. 
ICF International 71 US E

EPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 3. Cost Tables Error! Reference source not found. through Table 3-4 show the estimated cost for each technology, organizedescription of each of these technologies is given in Section 2. In each table the following column appear: 

 Category – the nine technology categories listed previously  Technology – the technology considered  Incremental To – if the technology is incremental to another technology, the baseline technology is li Technology Types – subcategories of the technology  [Vehicle] Type Applied To – Tractor, Trailer, Bus, or Vocational vehicle the technology may be imple Manufacturer Cost – if the price/cost value is manufacturer cost, it is listed in this column  Retail Price – if the price/cost value is retail price, it is listed in this column  Type of Price/Cost – a summary of the price/cost value  O&M Costs – any operations and maintenance costs determined from the research  Discount Information – any information on discounts available from the research  Notes – any notes on values or methodologies used in the calculations 

Cost information was gathered through telephone interviews with manufacturers and vendors. This was also co

found in the literature. All values were combined to hide any proprietary or sensitive information gathered. 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 72 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Table 3-1: Class 7 and 8 Tractor Technology Cost/Price Summary 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Aerodynamic Improvements 

Roof Fairing No Fairing Roof Fairing 

Day Cab $1,100 Retail 

Midsize Sleeper $1,400 Retail Fullsize Sleeper n/a n/a 

Side Fairing No Fairing 

Fuel Tank Fairing 

Day Cab $1,500 Retail 

Midsize Sleeper $1,500 Retail Fullsize Sleeper $1,500 Retail 

Partial Side Fairing 

Day Cab $366 Retail 

Midsize Sleeper $530 Retail Fullsize Sleeper $700 Retail 

Wheel to Wheel Full Side Fairing 

Day Cab $1,700 Retail 

Midsize Sleeper $2,100 Retail Fullsize Sleeper $2,200 Retail 

Full Aero Mirror Baseline 

Mirror 

 Aero Mirror, pair All $660 

Incremental, per Truck All $428 Incremental Retail 

Partial Aero Mirror 

Baseline Mirror 

Semi-Aero Wing-Shaped “Moto” Mirror All $450 Incremental, per Truck All $218 Incremental Retail 

Baseline Mirror Standard Mirror, pair All $232 Retail 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 73 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Tractor Gap Fairing No Fairing Side Extender 

Day Cab $320 Retail 

Midsize Sleeper $360 Retail Fullsize Sleeper $400 Retail 

Aerodynamic Hood Baseline Hood 

 Day Cab n/a 

Midsize Sleeper n/a Fullsize Sleeper n/a 

Bumper Classic Bumper 

Aero Bumper 

Day Cab $960 Incremental Retail 

Midsize Sleeper $960 Incremental Retail Fullsize Sleeper $960 Incremental Retail 

Classic Bumper 

Day Cab $390 Incremental Retail 

Midsize Sleeper $390 Incremental Retail Fullsize Sleeper $390 Incremental Retail 

Rolling Resistance Improvements Single Wide Tires Baseline Dualie Drive Tires on Steel Wheels 

Single Wide Drive Tire All $1,000 Wide-Base Al Wheel All $650 Additional components 

All n/a 

Number/Drive Axle 2 Drive Axles 2 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 74 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Changes/year 0.300 Total (Capital) $6,600 Total per year (O&M) $1,977 Incremental, per Truck $(228) Incremental Retail Incremental, per (Single-Wide) Wheel 

$(57) Incremental 

Retail 

O&M per Truck 

per Year $(199) 

O&M per (Single Wide) Tire per Year 

$(50) 

Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire 

All

$404 

Baseline (Dualie) Al Wheel 

All

$450 

Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 2 Changes/year 0.319 Total (Capital) $6,828 Total per year (O&M) $2,176 

Low Rolling Resistance Tires 

Baseline Tire (no wheel change) 

LRRT (drive) $424 

Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 2 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 75 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Changes/year 0.296 LRRT (steer) $449 Number/Steer Axle 2 Steer Axles 1 Changes/year 0.252 Total (Capital) $4,286 Total per year (O&M) $1,231 Capital per truck $246 Incremental Retail Capital per tire $25 Incremental Retail O&M per truck 

per year $(18) 

O&M per tire per year $ (2) Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire $404 Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 2 Changes/year 0.319 Baseline Steer Tire $406 Number/Steer Axle 2 Steer Axles 1 Changes/year 0.271 Total (Capital) $4,040 Total per year (O&M) $ 1,24

Automatic Tire Inflation 

No ATI System 

External, tractor system (package) 

All

$1,500 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 76 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Install labor (hrs, included) 8 Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit) $19 components only $1,351 Retail 

Operational Improvements 

Programmable speed limiter 

No Speed Limiter 

Incremental Cost of System All $- 

Time to Program the Engine (minutes) 

5 

Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit) $19 Total $2 Labor 

Advanced Driver Training No Training 

Subscription with Lessons (per driver) 

All

$50 

Price per course $15 Number courses on fuel economy 1 Duration (hours/course) 4 Driver Salary/hr $18.62 Per Driver Per Year $139 Retail High-Level Training without a All 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 77 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

SubscriptionDuration (hours/course) 10 Driver Salary/hr $18.62 Trainer Salary/hr $31 Training Materials $19 Per Driver Per Year $515 Retail Literature Only All Price per course $125.00 Number courses 1 Duration (hours/course) 8 Driver Salary/hr $18.62 Per Driver Per Year $274 Retail 

Idle Reductions Auxiliary Power Units No APU Most Day Cabs n/a 

Traditional APU Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers $7,700 Retail 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 78 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Truck overnight idling (hours/year) 1800 APU Fuel Consumption (gal/hour) 

0.25 

Engine Fuel Consumption (gal/hour) 

0.8 

Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3 Incremental O&M 

per truck per year $ (2,970

Direct Fired Heaters No DFH Simple Bunk Heater/DFH All $1,400 Retail Engine Recovery Systems 

No EFS 

Simple All $585 Retail 

Deluxe $710 Retail 

Thermal Storage Systems 

No TSS Full TSS system All $4,500 Retail 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 79 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Truck Stop Electrification 

Engine Idling Advanced 

Truckstop Electrification (ATE) 

Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers 

Mounting Template $18 Per Site Install Cost $11,000 Use Rate ($/hour) $1.00 Truck overnight idling (hours/year) 1800 Install Cost $0 Capital Per Truck $18 Retail 

Annual O&M per 

truck $1,800 Incremental O&M 

per truck per year $ (2,520

Baseline Engine Fuel Consumption (gal/hour) 

0.8 

Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3 

Annual Cost per 

Truck $4,320 Shore Power Truckstop Electrification (TSE) 

Midsize and Fullsize Sleepers 

Per Truck Install Cost $199 Per Site Install Cost $2,100 Use Rate ($/hour) $1.00 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 80 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Truck overnight idling (hours/year) 1800 Capital Per Truck $199 Retail 

Annual O&M per 

truck $1,800 Incremental O&M 

per truck per year $ (2,520

Baseline idling Engine Fuel Consumption (gal/hour) 

0.8 

Fuel Cost ($/gal) $3 

Annual Cost per 

Truck $4,320 

Idle Reductions 

Anti-Idle System No System 

Automatic Engine Shut-Down All 

technology $- activation $55 Mandated AESD Cost $- 

Automatic Engine Start/Stop Systems 

No System Optimized Idle All 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 81 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

activation/ programming $400 kit $900 Total $1,300 Retail 

Fuel Cell APUs $7,550 Retail 

 Engine Improvements 

Low Friction Engine Lube 

Standard Engine Lubes 

Lube Costs All 

Oil changes/year 3.15 Incremental cost/oil change $ 268Engine Modifications $- Retail 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 82 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Incremental Total 

per Truck per Year $ 845

Integrated Starter/ Alternator 

Baseline Starter and Alternator 

All

10 kW integrated starter/alt system $7,600 Incremental Total per Truck $7,200 Incremental Retail Baseline Starter $200 Baseline Alternator $200 Total $400 

Mechanical Turbo compounding 

No TBC 

Mechanical TBC All 

Port Liners $400 Variable Valve Actuation $300 High efficiency power turbine $1,275 Total $1,975 Incremental Total 

per Truck $1,040 Incremental Retail 

Baseline VGT $935 

Electrical Turbo compounding No TBC 

Electric TBC All 

Mechanical Turbocompounding components 

 $1,975 

40 kW motor/generator $1,200 Power Electronics $1,200 Electric accessories $1,000 Balance of Plant $2,163 Total $7,538 Incremental Total 

per Truck $6,603 Incremental Retail 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 83 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

 Baseline VGT $935 

Electronic Fans All n/a Variable Valve Actuation no VVA 

VVA System All 

Number Cylinders 6 Price per cylinder $50 Total $300 Retail 

Engine Improvements 

Variable Geometry Turbo (VGT) 

Baseline Fixed (FGT) 

VGT system All $935 

Incremental to FGT $435 Incremental Retail Baseline FGT $500 

Rankine Bottoming Cycle 

No Rankine System 

Turbine, generator and flywheel (30 kW system) 

All $2,000 

Air cooled condenser $500 EGR boiler $400 Stack boiler $1,000 Balance of Plant $1,440 Controls & Power Electronics $1,300 Energy storage $150 

Total $6,790 Retail 

 Transmission and Drivetrain 

Improvements 

Hybrid Powertrain 

Conventional Powertrain 

Hybrid System All 

50 kW Motor/Generator $3,000 4 kW Battery Pack $6,400 Power Electronics $3,000 Balance of Plant $6,600 Modified Clutch Assembly $4,000 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 84 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Electrification of Accessories $2,000 Total $25,000 Retail 

 Low Friction Drivetrain Lube 

Conventional Transmission Lubes 

Low Friction Lube All 

Changes/year 0.7875 Cost/change $ 33Drivetrain Modifications (none required) $- Incremental Total 

per Truck per Year $ 140.9

Baseline (Conventional Lube) Cost/change $160 

Early Torque Converter Lockup 

No ETCLU All $0 Retail 

Weight Reduction Aluminum Wheels Conventional Steel Wheels 

Upgrade Dualies to Aluminum All Al Standard Width Wheel $450 Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire $404 Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 2 Baseline Steer Tire $406 Number/Steer Axle 2 Steer Axles 1 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 85 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Total $8,540 

per truck $3,120 Incremental Retail per wheel $312 Incremental Retail 

Upgrade to Aluminum SWTs Al Wide-Base Wheel $650 Single Wide Drive Tire $1,031 Number/Drive Axle 2 Drive Axles 2 Baseline Steer Tire $406 Number/Steer Axle 0 Steer Axles 1 Total $6,724 

per truck $1,304 Incremental Retail per wheel $326 Incremental Retail 

Baseline Steel Standard Width Wheel $138 Baseline (Dualie) Drive Tire $404 Number/Drive Axle 4 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 86 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Drive Axles 2 Baseline Steer Tire $406 Number/Steer Axle 2 Steer Axles 1 Total $5,420 

Aluminum Axle Hubs n/a n/a n/a Light Weight Brake Drums 

Baseline FullCast Brake Drums 

Centrifuse Drums All 

Drum $120 Number/Axle 2 Axles 3 Total $720 Total Capital per Truck $270 Incremental Retail Total Capital per 

Axle $90 Incremental Retail 

Changes/year 0.10 Total per year (O&M) 27.00 Total O&M per Truck $ (3) Baseline Drum $75 Total $450 Changes/year 0.40 Total per year(O&M) $30.00 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 87 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

 Aluminum Air Tanks 

Steel Air Tanks 

Aluminum air tank, 3x 4-Gal configuration 

All 

4-Gal Al Air Tank $147 Number of Tanks 3 Total $441 Baseline steel air tanks 4-Gal Al Air Tank $61 Total $183 Incremental per truck $258 Incremental Retail Incremental per tank $86 Incremental Retail Aluminum air tank, 2x 20-Gal configuration 

All 

20-Gal Al Air Tank $301 Number of Tanks 2 Total $602 Baseline steel air tanks 20-Gal Al Air Tank $125 Total $250 Incremental per truck $352 Incremental Retail Incremental per tank $176 Incremental Retail Aluminum air tank, 4x 5-Gal configuration 

All 

5-Gal Al Air Tank $158 Number of Tanks 4 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 88 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Total $631 Baseline steel air tanks 5-Gal Al Air Tank $66 Total $262 Incremental per truck $369 Incremental Retail Incremental per tank $92 Incremental Retail 

Reduced 

Number of Batteries 

n/a n/a n/a n/a 

Lightweight 

Suspension Systems 

n/a n/a n/a n/a 

Electrification 

Electric Water pumps All n/a n/a  Electric Power Steering 

Incremental per truck All $1,500 Incremental Retail n/a 

 Evaporative Unit All $2,000 Retail 

Air Conditioning Low Power Draw A/C Standard APU or Battery Driven MVAC All $4,105 Retail 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 89 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types 

Tractor Type 

Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Costs 

Complex BatteryDriven MVAC Sleeper Cabs $7,750 Retail 

Use of Leakage Reducing Components All $30 Manufacturer Cost CO2 as 

refrigerant

All $70 Manufacturer Cost 

Use of Alternative Refrigerants 

HFC-152A All $50 Manufacturer Cost 

Propane as refrigerant All $50 Manufacturer Cost HFO-1234yf hardware changes Class 8, Day Cab $10 incremental refrigerant costs $158 Total $168 Incremental Retail Price hardware changes Class 8, Sleeper Cab $10 incremental refrigerant costs $198 Total $208 Incremental Retail Price 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 90 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Table 3-2: Class 7 and 8 Trailer Technology Cost/Price Summary 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Discount 

Information 

Aerodynamic Improvements 

Trailer Side Skirts 

No trailer fairings 

Side fairing/Side skirt 

Van, Reefer, Flatbed $1,900 

low volume, 13%; high volume, 28% 

Tanker $2,100 high volume, 20% 

Gap Fairings No gap fairings Aluminum Gap Fairing Van, Reefer $850 No data available Trailer Aerocone No AeroCone AeroCone Van $1,264 high volume, 20% Boat Tails No Boat Tail Trailer Tail 

Van $2,800 25-30% 

Reefer $3,100 25-30% 

Air Tabs No Air Tabs Air Tab Van, Reefer $240 

low volume, 15% high volume, 25% 

Rolling Resistance 

Improvements Single Wide Tires Baseline Dualie Trailer Tires on Steel Wheels, 2- Axle Trailer 

Upgrade to SWTs on Al Wheels, 2-Axle Trailer 

All 

Single Wide Tire $794 Wide-Base Al Wheel $650 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 91 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Discount 

Information 

Additional components n/a Number/Axle 2 Axles 2 Changes/year Total (Capital) $5,777 Total per year (O&M) Incremental, Capital per Trailer $(135) No data available Incremental, Capital per (Single -Wide) Wheel 

$(34) 

O&M per Trailer 

per Year 

O&M per (Single Wide) Tire per Year Baseline, 2-Axle Trailer Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire $289 Baseline (Dualie) Al Wheel $450 Number/Axle 4 Axles 2 Changes/year Total (Capital) $5,912 No data available Total per year (O&M) 

Baseline Dualie Trailer Tires on Steel Wheels, 3-Axle Trailer 

Upgrade to SWTs on Al Wheels, 3-Axle Trailer 

All 

Single Wide Tire $794 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 92 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Discount 

Information 

Wide-Base Al Wheel $650 Additional components n/a Number/Axle 2 Axles 3 Changes/year Total (Capital) $8,665 Total per year (O&M) Incremental, Capital per Trailer $(203) Incremental, Capital per (Single-Wide) Wheel 

$(34) No data available 

O&M per Trailer 

per Year 

O&M per (Single Wide) Tire per Year Baseline, 3-Axle Trailer Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire $289 Baseline (Dualie) Al Wheel $450 Number/Axle 4 Axles 3 Changes/year Total (Capital) $8,868 No data available Total per year (O&M) 

Low Rolling Resistance Tires 

Baseline Trailer Tire (no wheel 

LRRT All 

LRR Trailer Tire $367 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 93 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Discount 

Information 

change), 2- Axle Trailer Number/Axle 4 

Axles 2 Changes/year Total (Capital) $2,935 No data available Total per year (O&M) Incremental, Capital per Trailer $623 Incremental, Capital per Tire $78 No data available O&M per Trailer 

per Year 

O&M per Tire per Year Baseline Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire $289 Number/Axle 4 Axles 2 Changes/year Total (Capital) $2,312 No data available Total per year (O&M) 

Baseline Trailer Tire (no wheel change), 3-Axle Trailer 

LRRT All 

LRRT $367 Number/Axle 4 Axles 3 Changes/year Total (Capital) $4,403 Total per year (O&M) Incremental, $935 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 94 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Discount 

Information 

Capital per TrailerIncremental, Capital per Tire $78 No data available O&M per Trailer 

per Year 

O&M per Tire per Year Baseline Baseline (Dualie) Trailer Tire $289 Number/Axle 4 Axles 3 Changes/year Total (Capital) $3,468 No data available Total per year (O&M) 

Automatic Tire Inflation 

No ATI System 

Internal, trailer system 

2-axle or 3-axle 

Package $750 No data available Install labor (hrs, included) 4 Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit) $19 components only $676 No data available Internal, trailer system 1-axle or dolly Package $550 No data available Install labor (hrs, included) 4 Labor costs (per hr; for retrofit) $19 components only $476 No data available 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 95 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Discount 

Information 

Weight Reduction 

Tare weight reduction via Al structural components 

Baseline Steel components 

Roof Posts / Bows Dry Van 

Incremental, per Trailer $120 No data available Side posts Incremental, per Trailer $525 No data available Cross members / floor joists Incremental, per Trailer $400 No data available Floor Incremental, per Trailer $1,500 No data available 

Tare weight reduction via Al wheels 

Baseline Steel (dualie) wheels, 2-Axle Trailer All 

 Number/Axle 4  Axles 2 

Incremental, per Trailer $1,500 No data available Incremental, per Wheel $188 

Baseline Steel (dualie) wheels, 3- Axle Trailer  Number/Axle 4  Axles 3 

Incremental, per Trailer $2,250 No data available Incremental, per Wheel $188 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 96 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Discount 

Information 

Air Conditioning 

Use of Leakage Reducing Components 

 Reefer $30 No data available 

Use of Advanced Electrical TRU Systems 

Standard, Diesel TRU 

Hybrid, vector TRU Reefer 

Incremental Total $4,000 No data available Annual Operating Costs Incremental O&M 

per Year 

Electric Standby (E/S) Option TRU option $2,300 Facility upgrade per terminal $1,250 Per terminal, additional for transformer 

$6,000 

per hour use rate TRU overnight usage (hours/year) 

 

Incremental Total 

per Trailer $2,300 No data available Annual O&M per 

Trailer Incremental O&M 

per Year 

Solar TRU Total n/a N/A Fuel Cell TRU Total n/a N/A Baseline Fuel consumption (gal/hr) Fuel Cost ($/gal) 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 97 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Discount 

Information 

Annual Cost per 

Truck 

No data available 

Use of Cryogenic CO2 Units 

Unit cost Reefer

per trailer $30,000 Marginal volume, 5% 

Annual O&M per 

Trailer Incremental O&M 

per Year 

Infrastructure costs 

per facility $150,000 No data available 

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials 

Baseline Al Roof 

Composite Reflective Roof Van, Reefer Roof $800 Incremental, per Trailer $0 No data available Number of small holes per year Hole patch cost O&M Cost Coated Roof Van, Reefer Roof $700 Incremental, per Trailer ($100) No data available Adding Reflective Tape Van, Reefer 100 ft roll $100 spacing (strips/ft) 1 trailer width (ft) 8.5 trailer length (ft) 53 trailer height (ft) 13.5 Incremental Total, 

per 53' trailer $1,882 No data available 

Baseline Roof Van, Reefer $800 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 98 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Trailer Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Discount 

Information 

Use of Alternative Refrigerants 

CO2 as refrigerant Reefer $70 No data available 

HFC-152A Reefer $50 No data available Propane as refrigerant Reefer $50 No data available HFO-1234yf Reefer hardware changes $10 incremental refrigerant costs $551 Total $561 Incremental Retail Price No data available 

Table 3-3: Class 3 through 8 Vocational Truck Technology Cost/Price Summary 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Cost

Low Rolling Resistance Low Rolling Resistance Tires None 

LRRT Class 6 Box Truck 

LRRT (drive) $379 Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 1 Changes/year 0.28LRRT (steer) $329 Number/Steer Axle 2 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 99 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Cost

Steer Axles 1 Changes/year 0.28Total (Capital) $2,174 Retail Price Total per year (O&M) $623 

Engine Improvements 

Mechanical Turbo compounding 

No TBC Mechanical TBC Class 6 Box Truck N/A N/A N/A 

Electric Turbo compounding No TBC Electric TBC Class 6 Box Truck N/A N/A N/A Variable Valve Actuation no VVA 

VVA Class 6 Box Truck 

Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake only Number Cylinders 6 Total $455 Retail Price Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake and exhaust Number Cylinders 6 Total $910 Retail Price Mechanical, cam-operated VVA, intake only Total $700 Manufacturer Cost Fully variable, camless VVA Total $2,350 Manufacturer Cost 

Variable Geometry Turbo (VGT) 

Baseline Fixed (FGT) VGT system Class 6 Box Truck 

Incremental to FGT $675 Incremental Retail 

Transmission 

and Drivetrain 

ImprovementsHybrid Powertrain Conventional Powertrain Hybrid System – Class 4 Utility Truck Hardware Cost to Manufacturer
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 100 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Cost

 30 kW Motor/Generator $900  4 kW Battery Pack $3,200  Power Electronics $900  Balance of Plant $2,500  Modified Clutch Assembly $1,500  Electrification of Accessories $850 Total Hardware Cost $9,850  Labor @ $28/hr $2,800  Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,120  Markup @ 29% $3,993  Warranty Markup at 5% $493 Total Component Cost $18,256 Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer R&D Costs $10,000,000  Tooling Costs $3,000,000  Units/yr. 500  Years to recover 5 Fixed cost/unit $7,159 Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $25,415 Manufacturer Cost  Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $7,370 Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $32,785 Retail Price 

Hybrid System – Class 6 Box Truck

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer 30 kW Motor/Generator $900  4 kW Battery Pack $3,200  Power Electronics $900 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 101 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Cost

 Balance of Plant $3,000  Modified Clutch Assembly $2,000  Electrification of Accessories $1,000 Total Hardware Cost $11,000  Labor @ $28/hr $3,780  Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,512  Markup @ 29% $4,725  Warranty Markup at 5% $550 Total Component Cost $21,567 Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer R&D Costs $10,000,000  Tooling Costs $3,000,000  Units/yr. 500  Years to recover 5 Fixed cost/unit $7,420 Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $28,987 Manufacturer Cost  Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $8,406 Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $37,393 Retail Price 

Hybrid System -- Class 8 Refuse 

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer 30 kW Motor/Generator $900  100 kW Motor/Generator $3,000  8 kW Battery Pack $6,400  Power Electronics $3,900  Balance of Plant $8,500  Modified Clutch Assembly $2,500 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 102 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Cost

 Electrification of Accessories $1,750 Total Hardware Cost $26,950  Labor @ $28/hr $5,600  Labor Overhead @ 40% $2,240  Markup @ 29% $10,089  Warranty Markup at 5% $1,348 Total Component Cost $46,227 Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer R&D Costs $10,000,000  Tooling Costs $3,000,000  Units/yr. 500  Years to recover 5 Fixed cost/unit $7,159 Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $53,386 Manufacturer Cost  Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $15,482 Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $68,867 Retail Price 

Air Conditioning 

Low Power Draw A/C Evaporative Unit Class 6 Box Truck $2,000 Retail Price Use of Leakage Reducing Components Class 6 Box Truck $25 Incremental Manufacturer Cost Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials 

Baseline Al Roof 

 Class 6 Box Truck (24') 

Composite Reflective Roof Roof $460 Incremental, per Trailer $84 Incremental Retail PricNumber of small holes per year 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 103 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Cost

Hole patch cost $O&M Cost $Coated Roof Incremental Roof $422 Incremental Retail PricCab $250 Incremental Retail PricAdding Reflective Tape 100 ft roll $100 spacing (strips/ft) 1 trailer width (ft) 8.5 trailer length (ft) 24 trailer height (ft) 13.5 Incremental Total, per 24' trailer $852 Incremental Retail PricBaseline Roof $376 

Use of Alternative Refrigerants 

CO2 as refrigerant Class 6 Box Truck $70 Manufacturer Cost 

HFC-152A Class 6 Box Truck $50 Manufacturer Cost Propane as refrigerant Class 6 Box Truck $50 Manufacturer Cost HFO-1234yf 

Class 6 Box Truck, Day Cab 

hardware changes $10 incremental refrigerant costs $124 Total $134 Incremental Retail Pric
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 104 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Truck Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&M 

Cost

Class 6 Box Truck, Crew Cabhardware changes $10 incremental refrigerant costs $140 Total $150 Incremental Retail Pric

Table 3-4: Class 7 and 8 Bus Technology Cost/Price Summary 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&

Cos

Rolling Resistance Improvements Low Rolling Resistance Tires None 

LRRT Class 8 Transit Bus 

LRRT (drive) $333 Number/Drive Axle 4 Drive Axles 1 Changes/year 0.16LRRT (steer) $333 Number/Steer Axle 2 Steer Axles 1 Changes/year 0.16Total (Capital) $1,998 Retail Price Total per year (O&M) $33

Engine 

Improve

ments Mechanical Turbo compounding No TBC Mechanical TBC Class 8 Transit Bus N/A N/A N/A 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 105 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&

Cos

Electric Turbo compounding No TBC Electric TBC Class 8 Transit Bus N/A N/A N/A Variable Valve Actuation no VVA 

 Class 8 Transit Bus 

Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake only Number Cylinders 6 Total $585 Retail Price Cam-operated, partial motion, electric valve, intake and exhaust Number Cylinders 6 

Engine Improvements

Variable Valve Actuation No VVA 

Total $1,170 Retail Price 

Mechanical, cam-operated VVA, intake only Total $700 Manufacturer Cost Fully variable, camless VVA Total $2,350 Manufacturer Cost 

Variable Geometry Turbo (VGT) 

Baseline Fixed (FGT) 

VGT system Class 8 Transit Bus 

Incremental to FGT $935 Incremental Retail 

Drivetrain Improvements 

Hybrid Powertrain Conventional Powertrain Class 8 Transit Bus 

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer

 30 kW Motor/Generator $900  100 kW Motor/Generator $3,000  8 kW Battery Pack $6,400  Power Electronics $3,900  Balance of Plant $8,500  Modified Clutch Assembly $2,000  Electrification of Accessories $1,250 Total Hardware Cost $25,950 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 106 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&

Cos

 Labor @ $28/hr $4,480  Labor Overhead @ 40% $1,792  Markup @ 29% $9,344  Warranty Markup at 5% $1,298 Total Component Cost $42,864  Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer R&D Costs $10,000,000  Tooling Costs $3,500,000 

Drivetrain Improvements

 Units/yr. 1000  Years to recover 5 Fixed cost/unit $3,710 Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer $46,574 Manufacturer Cost 

Truck Manufacturer Markup @ 29% $13,506 

Total Cost to Truck Purchaser $60,080 Retail Price 

Air Conditioning 

Low Power Draw A/C Roof-mounted Evaporative Unit Class 8 Transit Bus $6,000 Retail Price 

Roof-mounted A/C System Class 8 Transit Bus $6,650 Retail Price 

Use of Leakage Reducing Components Class 8 Transit Bus $30 Incremental Manufacturer Cost Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials 

Baseline Al Roof 

 Class 8 Transit Bus (43’ 52-passenger) 

Composite Reflective Roof Roof $645 Fasteners, etc. $100 Total $745 Retail Price Number of small holes per year 2 Hole patch cost $10
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Cost Tables 

ICF International 107 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&

Cos

O&M Cost $20Coated Roof Incremental Roof $620 Incremental Retail PrAdding Reflective Tape 100 ft roll $100 spacing (strips/ft) 1 

Air Conditioning

Use of Highly Reflective Structural Materials 

Baseline Al Roof 

bus width (ft) 8.5 

bus length (ft) 43 bus height (ft) 9.5 Incremental Total, per 24' trailer $1,183 Incremental Retail Pr

Alternative Refrigerants 

CO2 as refrigerant Class 8 Transit Bus $70 Manufacturer Cost 

HFC-152A Class 8 Transit Bus $50 Manufacturer Cost Propane as refrigerant Class 8 Transit Bus $50 Manufacturer Cost HFO-1234yf Class 8 Transit Bus  hardware changes $10 

incremental refrigerant costs $683 
Investigation of Costs for Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles 

Bibliography 

ICF International 108 US EEPA Contract EP-C-06-094 -- WA 3-05 

Category Technology 

Incremental 

To Technology Types Bus Type Applied To 

Manufacturer 

Cost Retail Price 

Type of 

Price/Cost 

O&

Cos

Total $ 693 Incremental Retail Pr

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