Biological Report 82(11 .118)

December 1989

Species Profiles: Life Histories and

Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes

and Invertebrates (South Atlantic)

STRIPED BASS

QL

155

.S63

no.82-

Fish and Wildlife Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Coastal Ecology Group

Waterways Experiment Station

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Biological Report 82( 11.118)

TR EL-82-4

December 1989

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements

of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Atlantic)

STRIPED BASS

bY

Jennifer Hill

School of Forest Resources

University of Georgia

Athens, GA 30602

James W. Evans and Michael J. Van Den Avyle

Georgia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit

School of Forest Resources

University of Georgia

Athens, GA 30602

Project Officer

David Moran

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

National Wetlands Research Center

1010 Gause Boulevard

Slidell, LA 70458

Performed for

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Coastal Ecology Group

Waterways Experiment Station

Vicksburg, MS 39180

and

U.S Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service

Research and Development

National Wetlands Research Center

Washington, DC 20240
This series may be referenced as follows:

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983-19_. Species profiles: life histories and environmental

requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11). U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers TR EL-82-4.

This profile may be cited as follows:

Hill, J., J.W. Evans, and M.J. Van Den Avyle. 1989. Species profiles: life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (South Atlantic )--striped bass. U.S.

Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.118). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers TR EL-82-4. 35 pp.
PREFACE

This species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms, principally fish, of sport, commercial,

or ecological importance. The profiles are designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists

with a brief comprehensive sketch of the biological characteristics and environmental requirements of the

species and to describe how populations of the species may be expected to react to environmental changes

caused by coastal development. Each profile has sections on taxonomy, life history, ecological role,

environmental requirements, and economic importance, if applicable. A three-ring binder is used for this

series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared. This project is jointly planned and financed by

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to one of the following addresses.

Information Transfer Specialist

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

National Wetlands Research Center

NASA-Slidell Computer Complex

1010 Gause Boulevard

Slidell, LA 70458

or

U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station

Attention: WESER-C

Post Office Box 63 1

Vicksburg, MS 39180

. . .

111
CONVERSION TABLE

Metric to U.S. Customary

Multiply

millimeters (mm)

centimeters (cm)

meters (m)

meters

kilometers (km)

kilometers

square meters (m2)

square kilometers (km2)

hectares (ha)

liters Q 0.2642

cubic meters (m3)

gallons

35.31 cubic feet

cubic meters 0.0008110 acre-feet

milligrams (mg) 0.00003527 ounces

grams (g) 0.03527 ounces

kilograms (kg) 2.205 pounds

metric tons (t) 2205.0 pounds

metric tons 1.102 short tons

kilocalories @al)

Celsius degrees (” C)

3.968

1.8(“C)+32

U.S. Customary to Metric

25.40

2.54

0.3048

1.829

1.609

1.852

British thermal units

Fahrenheit degrees

inches

inches

feet (ft)

fathoms

statute miles (mi)

nautical miles (nmi)

square feet (ft2)

square miles (mi2)

acres

gallons (gal)

cubic feet (ft3)

acre-feet

ounces (oz)

ounces

pounds (lb)

p unds

short tons (ton)

British thermal units (Btu)

Fahrenheit degrees (” F)

BY

0.03937

0.3937

3.281

0.5468

0.6214

0.5396

To Obtain

inches

inches

feet

fathoms

statute miles

nautical miles

10.76 square feet

0.3861 square miles

2.471 acres

millimeters

centimeters

meters

meters

kilometers

kilometers

0.0929 square meters

2.590 square kilometers

0.4047 hectares

3.785 liters

0.0283 1 cubic meters

1233.0 cubic meters

28350.0

28.35

0.4536

0.00045

0.9072

0.2520

0.5556 (” F - 32)

milligrams

grams

kilograms

metric tons

metric tons

kilocalories

Celsius degrees

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Doug Facey, University of Georgia, Regina1 Harrell, Horn Point Environmental

Laboratory, University of Maryland, Roger Rulifson, East Carolina University, and Robert

Stevens, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, for reviewing the manuscript and Sue Anthony and Tam

Fields, University of Georgia, for editing and typing it.

vi
Figure 1. Striped bass (Setzler et al. 1980).

STRIPED BASS

NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE

Scientific name . . . . . . . . . . Morone saxatilis

Preferred common name . . . . . . .Striped bass

(Figure 1)

Other common names . . . . . . . .&per, rock,

rockfish, greenhead, squidhound, linesider,

roller (Westin and Rogers 1978)

Class. .....................Osteichthyes

Order ...................... Perciformes

Family ................... Percichthyidae

Geographic range: The native range of the

striped bass includes coastal, estuarine, and

riverine habitats along the east coast of

North America from the St. Lawrence River

in Quebec southward to the St. Johns River

in northern Florida (Figure 2), and in the

coastal tributaries of the Gulf of Mexico

from western Florida to Louisiana

(Merriman 1941; Raney 1952; Brown

1965). Striped bass may ascend rivers as far

as 300 km (Farley 1966); in coastal areas,

they are typically found within 6 km of

shore (Raney 1954). Populations along the

Pacific Coast, where the species was

introduced in 1879, occur in certain rivers

from British Columbia southward to

Ensenada, Mexico (Forrester et al. 1972).

Striped bass have been widely introduced to

establish recreational fisheries in many

river and reservoir systems throughout the

United States, especially in Southeastern

States (Rulifson et al. 1982a). The species

has also been introduced into the USSR

(Doroshev 1970), France, and Portugal

(Setzler et al. 1980).
NORTH CAROLINA

GEORGIA

SAVANNAH

b JACKSONVILLE

ATLANTIC OCEAN

I

WLES

0 50 100

‘I

i

0 50 100

2

KILOMETERS

L

Figure 2.Coastal distribution of known striped bass populations in the South Atlantic

Region.

2
MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS

Information describing meristic and

morphometric characteristics of striped bass in

U.S. waters was summarized by Merriman

(1941), Kerby (1972), Smith and Wells (1977),

Hardy (1978), Westin and Rogers (1978),

Setzler et a!. (1980), and Harrell(1984), and in

Canadian waters was summarized by Scott and

Crossman (1966).

The body of the striped bass is elongate and

moderately compressed. The lower jaw

protrudes and extends posteriorly to the

middle of the orbit. Color dorsally ranges

from shades of green to steel blue or almost

black. Laterally, striped bass are silver with 7

or 8 dark, more or less continuous horizontal

stripes, one of which always follows the lateral

line, and only one is below the pectoral fins;

ventrally, the fish are white to silver with

brassy iridescence. They have two dorsal fins,

one spiny and one soft, separated at the base

and about equal in length. Two sharp spines

on the posterior edge of the operculum are

another distinguishing feature. Striped bass

have small teeth in two distinct parallel

patches on the tongue and in bands on the

vomer and palatines (Hardy 1978).

Striped bass have 8-10 (usually 9) first

dorsal fin spines, lo-13 (usually 11-12) second

dorsal fin rays, lo-12 (usually 11) anal fin

rays, and 3 anal spines that increase in length

posteriorly. There are usually 25 vertebrae

(12, 13), although some individuals have only

24. The number of gill rakers on the first arch

ranges from 19 to 29 (Raney and Woolcott

1955; Hardy 1978). Vertebral counts and

numbers of dorsal spines do not appear to vary

among populations of striped bass (Vladykov

and Wallace 1952); however, races have been

separated on the basis of counts of soft rays in

the dorsal, anal, and pectoral fins, and

enumeration of scales along the lateral line

(Vladykov and Wallace 1952; Raney and

Woolcott 1955; Barkuloo 1967). Lewis (1957)

found gill raker counts useful in separating

populations, but Vladykov and Wallace (1952)

did not. Raney and Woolcott (1955) and Lund

(1957) also found differences in body depth

and caudal peduncle depth in different

populations. Strains may also be separated

using mitochondrial DNA analysis (Robert

Chapman, Johns Hopkins University; pers.

comm.)

The striped bass is sympatric with native or

introduced populations of other Morone

species throughout much of the South Atlantic

Region, but the species are easily

distinguished. The white bass (M. chrysops) is

smaller than the striped bass and has a

relatively high-arched back and flat body;

body stripes are generally indistinct (Williams

1975). The white perch (M. americana) can

be distinguished from striped bass by their

ungraduated anal spines, lower and upper jaws

of equal length, and lack of distinct horizontal

lines on the sides (Werner 1980). Osteological

differences are also evident in the three species

(Woolcott 1957; Harrell 1984).

Hatchery-reared hybrids of striped bass and

white bass have been widely stocked in the

South Atlantic region. These hybrids can be

distinguished from pure strains by electrophoretie examination (Avise and Van Den Avyle

1984) or by meristic characterization

(Williams 1975). Bayless (1968) and Kerby et

al. (1971) determined that the number of scale

rows above the lateral line is greater in the

hybrid (range 10-12) than in either parent

species (7-9). The hybrid has two patches of

3
7

.

teeth on the tongue (as in striped bass), as LIFE HISTORY

opposed to one patch in white bass, but the

hybrid is more similar to white bass in ratios Spawning

of fork length and head length to body depth.

Generally, the hybrid has the shape of white Striped bass spawn in fresh water or nearly

bass and the coloration and dentition of striped freshwater portions of Atlantic coastal rivers

bass (Kerby et al. 1971; Williams 1975). from mid-February in Florida (Barkuloo 1970)

to June or July in the St. Lawrence River

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES

(Raney 1952; Bigelow and Schroeder 1953;

Scott and Crossman 1966). Preferred areas are

The striped bass is a wide-ranging and

shallow (0.3-6.1 m) and often turbid,

extending from the tidal zone upstream as far

adaptable species having commercial and as 320 krn (Hardy 1978). The tributaries of

recreational importance. Found in riverine, the Chesapeake Bay constitute the principal

estuarine, and coastal habitats, it has supported spawning areas for striped bass along the

a variety of fisheries and has been the subject Middle Atlantic coast (Merriman 1941; Raney

of many scientific investigations. Striped bass 1957; Kernehan et al. 1981). Other major

use rivers, tidally influenced fresh waters, and areas are the Hudson River (Merriman 1941;

estuaries for spawning and nursery grounds, Raney 1957; Lawler et al. 1974) and the

making them vulnerable to habitat destruction Roanoke River (Trent 1962; Hassler et al.

over a broad geographical area. Such destruc- 1966; Hassler and Hill 1981; Rulifson et al.

tion has particularly affected fish of the 1982a, 1982b, 1986a, 1986b).

Hudson River, Chesapeake Bay, and

Albemarle Sound stocks, which declined

Spawning may be triggered by increased

drastically in abundance in the mid-20th

water temperature; time of peak activity varies

among years (Neal 1967). In the South

century. Atlantic Region, spawning begins as early as

mid-February in Florida and sometimes

Striped bass populations along the South continues through early June (Table 1).

Atlantic coast of the United States are Spawning has been noted over a range of

primarily endemic and river-me and apparently 12-24 “C in the region, but most occurs at

do not undertake the extensive coastal 18-21 “C. In the Savannah River, Dudley et al.

migrations that are typical of stocks in the (1977) and Larson (1985) found that spawning

Middle and North Atlantic. Striped bass began at about 14 “C in March and ended after

require waters having suitable flows, salinities, temperatures exceeded 21 “C in May. During

temperatures, and other aspects of habitat this interval, major spawning peaks occurred

quality, which make the species particularly when river water temperatures increased to

vulnerable to river alterations (Rulifson et al.

about 17 “C.

1982b). Such alterations have eliminated the

native Gulf of Mexico striped bass from most

Spawning sites in the South Atlantic Region

are often in downstream portions of river

of its original range (Wooley et al. 1981). systems, typically in reaches within 60 km of

4
Table 1. Temperature ranges and spawning seasons for striped bass in the South Atlantic

i-_ Region (after Rulifson et al. 1982a).

State and

river system Season

Temperature

(“C) Source

North Carolina

Neuse River Late March to late May

April to mid-May

Roanoke River April 15 to June

peak May lo-20

Northeast Cape

Fear River April to early May

Cape Fear

River

Mid-April to mid-May

South Carolina

Waccamaw - Mid-April

Pee Dee System

Congaree River

Cooper River

Wateree River

Georgia

Ogeechee River

Savannah River

Florida

St. Johns River

April 23 to June 5

April 1 to May 15

April 23 to June 5

March to late May 17-23

Mid-March to late May 17-23

Mid-February - April

13.524;

peak 20-21.5

13.0-21.7

peak 16.7-19.4

14-22; peak 19

peak 18-19

peak 15.6-21.2

lowest 15.5

lowest 19.4;

peak 21.7

___

___

Hawkins 1979

Baker 1968

Shannon and Smith

1968; Shannon

1970;Street 1975

Sholar1977

Sholar 1977;

Fischer 1980

Crochet et al.

1976

May and Fuller

1965

Scruggs 1957

May and Fuller

1965

Smith 1973

Smith 1973;

Dudley et al.

1977; Larson 1985

Barkuloo 1970

5
the coast (Table 2). Some of these sites

include tidally-influenced freshwater areas, as

in the Savannah River, whereas others are

further upstream, as in the Tar-Pan&o

system. Upriver spawning runs occur in some

rivers near the fall line or below dams, in

addition to the more common downriver runs

(Raney and Woolcott 1955; Lund 1957;

Setzler et al. 1980).

Spawning behavior is characterized by brief

peaks of surface activity (Fish and McCoy

1959). A female is often surrounded by

several males (Merriman 1941), and eggs are

broadcast loosely into the water, where

fertilization occurs. Spawning by a given

female is probably completed within a few

hours (Lewis and Bonner 1966).

Egg development in the ovaries of striped

bass occurs slowly throughout the summer and

fall, but is faster as the spawning season

approaches (Setzler et al. 1980). Substantial

variation in the stage of development in eggs

in the ovaries of a given female has led to the

suggestion that eggs that will be spawned over

as many as three consecutive years are present

in a single ovary (DeArmon 1948). Mature

eggs are 1.0-1.5 mm in diameter (Woodhull

1947; Raney 1952; Lewis 1962).

After eggs are spawned, they may remain

viable for about 1 hour before fertilization

(Stevens 1966). Fertilized eggs are spherical,

non-adhesive, semi-buoyant, and nearly transparent; they are characterized by a single large

oil globule, a lightly granulated yolk mass, a

wide perivitelline space, and a clear, tough

chorion (Setzler et al. 1980). Hardening

occurs in l-2 hours at 18 “C (Mansueti 1958);

diameters range from 1.25 to 1.80 mm for

eggs that have not yet water-hardened &

(Pearson 1938; Raney 1952; Mansueti and

Mansueti 1955; Mansueti 1964) and 1.3 to 4.6

mm for eggs that are water-hardened (Albrecht

1964; Murawski 1969). Average wet weight

of water- hardened, fertilized eggs is about 280

mg (Eldridge et al. 1977); dry weight is about

0.3 mg (Westin and Rogers 1978).

Fecundity estimates range from 15,000 eggs

in small fish (Mansueti and Hollis 1963) to

40.5 million eggs in a 14.5-kg fish (Jackson

and Tiller 1952). The number of mature ova

(Y) has been estimated by the formula:

Y = 555,182 + 75,858 (X-7.3),

where X is the female’s weight in pounds

(Lewis and Bonner 1966).

Hatching time varies from about 30 hours at

22 “C to about 80 hours at 11 “C. Polgar et al.

(1976) defined the relation between incubation

time (I, in hours) and temperature (T, in “C) as

I = 131.6 - 4.6 (T).

Because water-hardened eggs are semibuoyant, specific current velocities are

required to suspend eggs in the water column

during incubation. Minimum water velocities

of about 30 cm/set are generally required

(Albrecht 1964), but differences in egg

buoyancy among spawning stocks may reflect

different current requirements. Variability in

the size of the oil globule in the egg (Eldridge

et al. 1977) probably reflects adaptation to

flow regimes in different river systems. For

example, striped bass eggs from the

low-velocity St. Johns River in Florida have a

relatively large oil globule, which makes the

eggs more buoyant than those from many

6
Table 2. Spawning sites of striped bass in the South Atlantic Region.

State and

river system Major spawning sitea Source

North Carolina

Tar-Pamlico

Neuse River

Northeast Cape

Fear River

South Carolina

Waccamaw-Pee

Dee System

Pee Dee River

Black River

Wateree River

Congaree River

Lynches River

Cooper River

Ashley River

Combabee River

Georgia

Savannah River

Ogeechee River

Altamaha River

Florida

St. Johns River

90-238 river km, 75% within

a 60-km reach

N.C. Hwy. 55 to SR 1915 bridge

Downstream from Lands Ferry

Pee Dee River or Intercoastal

Waterway

Upstream from U.S. Hwy. 301 bridge

Upstream from U.S. Hwy. 701 bridge

At or downstream from 5 1 river km

8-85 river km, most near 60

river km

Upstream from Hwy. 41 bridge

Vicinity of the lower end of

Tail Race Canal

Near 55 river km

Between U.S. Hwy. 17 and 17-A

bridges

30-40 river km

47-55 river km

16riverkm

Oklawaha River, Wekiva River,

Black Creek, and Dunn’s Creek

Humphries 1966

Hawkins 1979

Sholar 1977

Crochet et al. 1976

White and Curtis 1969

White and Curtis 1969

May and Fuller 1965

May and Fuller 1965

White and Curtis 1969

Cadieu and Bayless 1968

Curtis 1970a, cited in

Ulrich et al. 1979

Curtis 1970b, cited in

Ulrich et al. 1979

McBay 1968; Smith 1970;

Dudley et al. 1977

McBay 1970

Smith 1970

Barkuloo (1970)

aRiver km denotes the distance (kilometers) upriver from the mouth.

7
other populations (Setzler et al. 1980). Similar

adaptations may occur in stocks that spawn in

tidally influenced areas, where eggs are

buoyed by the ebb and flood of tidal currents.

In the absence of sufficient current velocities,

eggs settle to the bottom and may be

smothered by sediment. Bayless (1968) found

that settled eggs could hatch, provided that the

substrate was relatively coarse. Hatching

success in experimental systems was 36% for

coarse sand, 13% for silt, 3% for silty clay,

and 0% for mud-detritus. Additional

information on flow and substrate

requirements of eggs is presented in the

Environmental Requirements section.

Larvae

The larval development of striped bass is

usually regarded as having three stages. Yolksac larvae are 5-8 mm in total length (TL) and

rely on yolk material as an energy source for 7

to 14 days (Doroshev 1970). Fin fold larvae

(8-12 mm TL) have fully developed mouth

parts; this period lasts about lo-13 days

(Polgar et al. 1975). Post fin fold larvae attain

lengths up to about 30 mm in 20-30 days

(Mihursky et al. 1976; Boynton et al. 1977).

Rogers et al. (1977) found developmental

times of larval striped bass to be as follows:

68 days at 15 “C, 33 days at 18 “C, 24 days at

21 “C, and 23 days at 24 “C. Detailed

descriptions of early developmental stages of

striped bass were published by Pearson (1938),

Bigelow and Schroeder (1953), Albrecht

(1964), Doroshev (1970), Bason (1971),

Eldridge et al. (1977), Rogers et al. (1977),

Hardy (1978), Westin and Rogers (1978), and

Harrell (1984).

Little is known about behavior or microhabitat requirements of larvae in the wild. In

aquaria, 2-day-old yolk-sac larvae remained

sedentary near the surface or bottom

-

(Mansueti 1958). Larvae 4-5 days old swim

horizontally and are positively phototactic

(McGill 1967). In natural waters, yolk-sac

larvae apparently sink between efforts to swim

to the surface (Pearson 1938; Mansueti 1958;

Dickson 1958), and turbulence may be needed

to keep them suspended in some waters

(Barkuloo 1970). Under extreme high flow

conditions, larvae may be flushed from natal

rivers, reducing chances of survival; however,

food availability may limit larval survival even

under conditions of low flow (Rulifson et al.

1986a).

Studies of larval distribution have provided

varied results. Diurnal migrations of larvae

(7- 14 mm TL) into the water column begin in

July on the Hudson River; yolk-sac larvae

occur in open waters, but form schools and

migrate inshore at 13-14 mm TL (Raney 1952;

Texas Instruments Inc. 1974). In the

Chesapeake Bay vicinity, fin fold and larger

larvae were collected in mid-channel areas

near the bottom (Kernehan et al. 1981).

Boynton et al. (1977) found that the density of

yolk-sac larvae varied significantly with time

of day and depth in the Potomac River.

Several studies have demonstrated a

downstream movement of early larval stages

(Texas Instruments, Inc. 1974; Polgar et al.

1975; Mihursky et al. 1976), but it is not

known if this is passive drift or a directed

migration. Other studies have indicated either

little movement from the spawning area or an

upstream migration (Setzler-Hamilton et al.

1981). Mihursky et al. (1976) noted that fin

fold larvae moved downriver, whereas older

larvae were better able to maintain their

position by swimming. The continual

upstream migration of spawning fish,

8
prolonged spawning periods, and different

mortality rates among early life stages may

explain the inconsistencies in reported results

(Polgar et al. 1976).

Juveniles

Most striped bass enter the juvenile stage at

about 30 mm TL; the tins are then fully

formed, and the external morphology of the

young is similar to that of adults. Little is

known about the movements and distribution

of juveniles, especially in rivers of the

Southeastern United States.

Young striped bass are often found in

schools of as many as several thousand fish;

the location of the schools varies considerably

with age of the fish (Westin and Rogers 1978).

Juveniles apparently prefer clean sandy

bottoms but have been found over gravel

beaches, rock bottoms, and soft mud

(Merriman 1937; Raney 1952, 1954; Rathjen

and Miller 1957; Woolcott 1962; Smith 1971).

The nature of juvenile migrations is known

only in broad outline and varies with locality

(Setzler et al. 1980). In Virginia, Markle and

Grant (1970) reported a downstream migration

to higher salinities during the first summer of

life. Juveniles in the Potomac River left

spawning areas at about 70 mm TL (Mihursky

et al. 1976). Young-of-the-year from the

Hudson River began to move offshore in fall

(Carlson and McCann 1969; Texas

Instruments, Inc. 1974), but no fall or winter

movement of tagged young was evident in the

Patuxent River (Ritchie and Koo 1968).

Major nursery areas along the South Atlantic

coast include tidally influenced fresh waters

and estuaries associated with spawning rivers

(Rulifson et al. 1982a).

Adults

Information on rates of maturation is

generally not available for populations in the

South Atlantic Region. Research in Middle

Atlantic waters has indicated that the development of striped bass differs with sex; males

mature at about 300 mm TL (age 2 or 3 years)

and females mature at about 500 mm TL (age

4 or 5 years) (Westin and Rogers 1978).

Populations from Cape Hatteras, North

Carolina, northward to New England typically

are migratory and move north during summer

and south during winter (Vladykov and

Wallace 1938, 1952; Merriman 1941;

Chapoton and Sykes 1961; Clark 1968).

However, the extent of migration varies

between sexes, among different populations,

and among individuals within a population

(Setzler et al. 1980). Most offshore

movements are not associated with spawning

(Merriman 1937,194l).

Striped bass from the southern extreme of

the range are predominantly riverine and nonmigratory (Raney 1952). Populations along

the South Atlantic Region are probably

riverine but distributional patterns are not

well-known (Rulifson et al. 1982a). One

exception is a portion of the Middle Atlantic

migratory stock that overwinters offshore

between Cape Hatteras and Cape Lookout,

North Carolina (Holland and Yelverton 1973).

Migratory and non-migratory stocks of

striped bass occur in the north. Some fish in

the Hudson River stock are non-migratory

(Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Whitworth et

al. 1968; Clark 1968). However, other fish

tagged in the Hudson River were recaptured in

Nova Scotia in 1987 (R. Rulifson, East

Carolina University; pers. comm.); some were

9
caught as far north as Maine in 1986. Fish

tagged in the Bay of Fundy have been

recaptured as far south as North Carolina

(Dadswell et al. 1986).

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS

Growth Rates

Growth of striped bass during the first

summer varies with several environmental

characteristics, including temperature, salinity,

and dissolved oxygen. Compensatory growth

rates decrease the size variance within age

classes as age increases (Tiller 1943;

Nicholson 1964). Growth rates increase along

a north to south gradient as growing seasons

become progressively longer (Seltzer et al.

1980). In Florida, the young grow fastest

during the cooler months (Ware 1971).

Studies by Otwell and Merriner (1975)

showed greater growth at the intermediate

salinity of 12 ppt than at either 4 or 20 ppt.

Growth rates may be affected by population

size in some areas (Shearer et al. 1962;

Coutant 1985). Several studies have indicated

that adult striped bass may be restricted in

summer to areas having relatively low

temperatures (18-25 “C) and dissolved oxygen

levels of at least 2 or 3 mg/L (Coutant 1985;

Cheek et al. 1985; Moss 1985; Matthews et al.

1985). Overcrowding in these areas may lead

to diminished growth.

Striped bass can be aged by counting

growth bands on scales, otoliths, and opercles.

The growth rate of striped bass up to 4 years

of age can be calculated using scales

(Merriman 1941). Descriptions of scales were

given by Scofield (1931), Merriman (1941),

and Tiller (1943). Scales for aging are usually

taken from mid-body, just above the lateral

line (Seltzer et al. 1980). Formulas for

conversion between standard, fork, and total

lengths were given by Mansueti (1961) and

Trent (1962). The size composition of striped

bass in the South Atlantic Region is

summarized in Table 3. Stevens (1958) found

that annual growth rates decreased with

increasing age in the Santee-Cooper system;

however, no trends in annual growth rates

were evident in the Pamlico, Cooper, or Cape

Fear Rivers (Marshall 1976; Curtis 1978;

Fischer 1980).

Length-Weight Relations

Length-weight relations have been

determined for few striped bass populations in

the South Atlantic Region. Trent (1962)

established the following relation for

first-summer growth of striped bass in

Albemarle Sound:

Y = 1.84615 +2.91977X,

where Y is log weight (mg) and X is log total

length (cm). After maturity, the weight of

male striped bass is generally less than that of

females of the same length (Merriman 1941;

Mansueti 1961). Condition factors for striped

bass (> 450 mm standard length) from Florida

ranged from 1.658 to 2.540 (Wigfall and

Barkuloo 1975).

THE FISHERY

Sport and Commercial Trends

Small commercial fisheries for striped bass

have existed along the South Atlantic coast

from the late 1800’s until recently in some

10
‘T, P

1

Table 3. Mean length (fork Zength in mm) at age for striped bass in South Atlantic coastal rivers. Notation for sexes

is F = females, M = males, and C = combined. (Taken from Rulifson et al. 1982a.)

River system, Age group

year, and source Sex I II III Iv v VI VII VIII Ix x XI

Pamlico River

1978 (Hawkins 1979) c -- 367 419 468 544 567 -- 743 -- - - --

Neuse-Trent System

1976, fall (Marshall 1977) C 370 424 465 -- 629 -- 630 _ _ _ _ -- _ _

1977, spring (Marshall 1977) c -- 362 427 456 516 583 558 -- 660 -- --

w 1977, fall (Hawkins 1979) C -- -_ -- _ _ 542 580 __ _ _ _ _ -_ _ _

+ 1978, spring (Hawkins 1979) C -- -- _ _ 485 533 587 625 748 745 895 785

White Oak River

1975 (Sholar 1975) F -_ _ _ 398 __ __ __ 712 __ __ __ __

Cape Fear River

1976 (Sholar 1977)

1976 (Sholar 1977)

M -- 275 346 340 560 564 -- -- -- -- --

F _ _ _ _ __ 471 589 -- 752 _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Cape Fear River

1978-79 (Fischer 1980) C -- _ _ 378 490 590 657 730 850 -- -- --

Cooper Rivera

1977-78 (Curtis 1978) C

aValues are total length in millimeters.

173 284 396 493 561 660 780 -_ _ _ -- --
areas (McIlwain 1980). Following trends

noted along the entire Atlantic coast, catches

have generally declined (Setzler et al. 1980)

and have been only sporadic in the South

Atlantic Region since the early 1900’s. The

formerly large runs of striped bass in the

Savannah, Ogeechee, Altamaha, and St.

Mary’s Rivers were reduced to remnants

during the 1960’s (Whaley et al. 1969, 1970).

Commercial fishermen harvested 5.9 metric

tons (t) in Georgia in 1889. More recent catch

statistics show landings of 0.9 t in South

Carolina in 1968,0.2 t in Georgia in 1978, and

0.2 t in Florida in 1960 (McIlwain 1980).

Only a limited commercial fishery remains

within the region south of Cape Hatteras to

northern Florida; this fishery is limited to

North Carolina along the Tar, Pamlico, Neuse,

Northeast Cape Fear, and Cape Fear Rivers

(Rulifson et al. 1982a). A major commercial

fishery continues in Albemarle Sound, which

has been exempted from the 55% mandatory

harvest reduction by the Atlantic States Marine

Fisheries Commission. Gear used in North

Carolina commercial fishery is restricted only

in length and placement of gill nets.

Striped bass are classified as game fish in

South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and their

sale is prohibited; the sale of striped bass from

inland waters of North Carolina is also

prohibited (Setzler et al. 1980). Other sport

fishing regulations vary among states. There

are no seasonal restrictions, and minimum size

limits range from none in South Carolina to

381 mm (fork length) in Georgia and Florida.

In the coastal waters of North Carolina, there

is no limit on the commercial harvest,

although the season is restricted from

November to March 31; the sport creel limit is

three per day in inland and joint waters, but no

seasonal restrictions are imposed. sport

fishing effort is concentrated in fall and spring

in Georgia, where the catch per unit effort is

highest from October through mid-April,

peaking between November and mid-March

(Ulrich et al. 1979).

Sex and Age Structure

Most major South Atlantic coastal rivers

support a recreational fishery for striped bass.

Recreational fishermen along the Atlantic

coast caught an estimated 33,200 t of striped

bass in 1970 (Deuel 1973); only 86 t were

caught in the South Atlantic Region (Setzler et

al. 1980). In 1985, the estimated recreational

catch was 53,000 fish in the South Atlantic

States (National Marine Fisheries Service

1986). Georgia sport fishermen harvested an

estimated 2.7 t in 1973 (Westin and Rogers

1978), but few catch statistics are available for

other areas.

Sex ratios in samples from striped bass

populations may vary with season, location,

fishing pressure, migration of females, and

other factors (Kohlenstein 1981). This may

occur because males and females have

different movement patterns. For example,

striped bass migrating offshore during the

summer and fall are about 90% female in the

Middle Atlantic Region (Bigelow and

Schroeder 1953; Holland and Yelverton 1973;

Oviatt 1977). Males may remain longer on the

spawning grounds (Chadwick 1967). Because

striped bass in the South Atlantic have less

propensity to migrate (Coutant 1985), the

extent of the effect of differences of

movements between males and females is

unknown.

12
The age structure of commercial landings

1_ reflects variable year class strength (Pay et al.

1983). Catch records indicate that dominant

year classes were produced in Middle Atlantic

waters in 1934, 1940, 1958, 1964, and 1970

(Merriman 1941; Tiller 1950; Mansueti and

Hollis 1963; Koo 1970; Schaefer 1972).

Mortality Rates

Few data on mortality rates are available for

striped bass in the South Atlantic Region.

Mortality from fishing ranges from about 25%

to 40% in the Middle Atlantic Region (Hassler

et al. 1966; Holland and Yelverton 1973;

Kohlenstein 1981), but probably is lower in

the South Atlantic because commercial fishing

is limited. A total exploitation rate of 8% was

estimated for the Ogeechee River, Georgia,

from March 1977 to February 1978; natural

mortality was estimated to be 42% (Homsby

and Hall 1981). A natural mortality rate of

24% and fishing mortality rate of 35% were

reported by Holland and Yelverton (1973) for

North Carolina waters. Fishing mortality rates

from 1956 to 1980 in Albemarle Sound and

the Roanoke River were 2%-28% (Hassler and

Hill 1981).

Abundance and Population Status

The status of striped bass populations in the

South Atlantic Region was summarized by

Rulifson et al. (1982b); many populations are

declining. Recent improvement has been

noted only in the Tar-Pamlico system of North

Carolina and in the St. Johns River of Florida;

Gulf State populations are also increasing

because of stocking (Rulifson et al. 1982b).

The striped bass population in the Ogeechee

River, Georgia, in fall 1976 was estimated to

be 95,000 to 264,000 yearlings, 29,000 2-year

olds, and 11,000 older fish (Hornsby and Hall

198 1).

Population Characteristics and Models

The occurrence of dominant year classes at

widely dispersed intervals is a characteristic of

Atlantic striped bass populations (Bain and

Bain 1982). No compensatory behavior

relative to variations in natural reproduction

has been noted (Ulanowicz and Polgar 1980;

Cooper and Polgar 1981). In general,

year-class success appears to be determined

during the first 2 months of life (Chadwick et

al. 1977), and may be correlated with

environmental conditions during larval stages

(Bain and Bain 1982).

Population regulation appeared to be

density-independent in California waters

(Chadwick 1974) and in the Potomac River

(Polgar et al. 1975). A few late-spawning fish

were responsible for the mid-summer density

of young-of- the-year (Chadwick 1974).

Successful year classes have been observed to

follow severe winters (Merriman 1941; Heinle

et al. 1976) and periods of high (Van Cleve

1945) and regular (Hassler 1958) waterflows.

Severe winters may increase estuarine detritus,

thereby increasing productivity at all trophic

levels (Heinle et al. 1976).

Predictive models have been used to

evaluate the effects of power plant operations

on striped bass populations (Setzler et al.

1980). Swartzman er al. (1977) reviewed

seven models simulating entrainment of early

life stages; six models used a modified Leslie

matrix to predict long-term effects on the adult

population. The accuracy of each, model

depended, however, on the validity of

mortality rates and other variables used at

13
different times and locations. Interpretations

drawn from modeling should be considered in

this light (Setzler et al. 1980).

Stock Identification

A number of discrete striped bass

populations have been described on the basis

of fin ray counts, morphometric characters,

and electrophoretic differences (Setzler et al.

1980). Generally, South Atlantic striped bass

populations are riverine and endemic to

individual river systems (McIlwain 1980). For

example, lateral line counts indicate that the

Cooper, Cape Fear, and Satilla-St. Johns

populations are each distinct (Murawski

1958). In addition, counts of the number of

fin rays, measures of body and caudal

peduncle depths, and tagging studies have

indicated that striped bass in the lower river

and estuarine portions of the Santee and

Cooper River systems are distinct from

populations above Pinopolis Dam (Raney and

Woolcott 1955; Lund 1957) and those in other

coastal stocks (Scruggs and Fuller 1955).

ECOLOGICAL ROLE

Food and Feeding Beltavior

Striped bass undergo an ontogenetic shift in

diet. The mouth is formed at 2-5 days

(Mansueti 1958; Tatum et al. 1966; Doroshev

1970; Bayless 1972~the age at which the

yolk sac is absorbed and exogenous feeding

begins (Doroshev 1970; Bayless 1972; Rogers

et al. 1977; Hardy 1978). Larval striped bass

feed primarily on mobile planktonic

invertebrates (Doroshev 1970; Markle and

Grant 1970; Bason 1971), and availability of

this prey may determine the success of a year

class (Kemehan et al. 1981; Setzler-Hamilton

et al. 1981; Martin et al. 1985). As striped

bass grow, their diet includes larger aquatic

invertebrates and small fishes (Shapovalov

1936; Ware 1971). Striped bass are

opportunistic feeders; specific food types

depend on the size of the fish, habitat, and the

season (Rulifson et al. 1982a). First feeding

larvae in Roanoke River and western

Albemarle Sound, North Carolina, consumed

beetle larvae, copepodids, Daphnia spp., and

Bosmina spp; older larvae ate larger food

items, such as Daphnia spp., copepodids, adult

copepods, and fish, including Morone spp.

larvae (Rulifson et al. 1986a).

Larvae feed by aiming and rushing at prey

(Doroshev 1970). Strike efficiency at first

feeding is only 2.0%-2.6% (Miller 1977). In

Florida waters, the diet of striped bass 5 l- 152

mm TL was dominated by mosquito fish

(Gambusia afinis), mollies (Mollienisia spp.)

and freshwater shrimp (Palaemonens spp.), &WI

whereas that of fish 153-483 mm TL was

dominated by threadfin shad (Dorosoma X’

petenense) (Ware 1971). Juveniles begin to

school while foraging (Bowles 1976). Adult

striped bass feed primarily on schooling prey

species, especially clupeids (Scofield 1928).

Clupeid fishes are also the dominant prey of

adult striped bass in the Santee-Cooper

system, although nymphs of burrowing

mayflies (Hexagenia bilineata) were the

predominant food source from April to June

(Stevens 1958). In general, when a variety of

prey types are available, adult striped bass

seem to prefer soft-rayed fishes (Stevens 1958;

Ware 1971; Manooch 1973). Adults feed

actively throughout the year (Hollis 1952;

Holland and Yelverton 1973), primarily just

after dark and just before dawn (Raney 1952),

although they may not eat just before and

14
during spawning (Hollis 1952; Stevens 1966; ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

/w Trent and Hassler 1966; Manooch 1973;

Woodhull 1947; Hassler and Hill 1981). Substrate

Predators, Competitors, Diseases, and

Parasites

Any sympatric piscivorous fish may be a

predator of young striped bass. Aquatic

invertebrates, such as Chaoborus spp. and

Cyclops bicuspidatus, also eat sac fry and

larvae (Tatum et al. 1966; Smith and Kemehan

1981). Because adult striped bass share forage

species with other piscivores, they are

potential competitors (Setzler et al. 1980).

Young striped bass may also compete with

other fishes for food. Similar nursery areas

and food habits show a potential for

competition between young white perch and

striped bass (Mihursky et al. 1976). The

young may also compete with the species of

clupeids that they later eat when they become

adults (Hollis 1967).

Juvenile striped bass prefer shallow areas

(Woolcott 1962) with substrates ranging from

sand to rock (Merriman 1937, 1941; Raney

1952, 1954; Rathjen and Miller 1957;

Woolcott 1962; Smith 1971). They rarely

inhabit areas with soft mud substrates (Rathjen

and Miller 1957). Adult populations in

inshore areas use a wide range of substrates,

including rock, boulder, gravel, sand, detritus,

grass, moss, and mussel beds (Rulifson et al.

1982a).

Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen

Some outbreaks of parasitic infections have

occurred in the South Atlantic Region. For

example, a parasitic nematode (Goezia sp.) has

caused mortality in populations in Florida

lakes and reservoirs (Ware 1971; Gaines and

Rogers 1972; Deardorff and Overstreet 1980).

The parasitic copepod (Lernaea sp.) also

caused an outbreak in Black Creek, Florida

(Barkuloo 1972). However, infections rarely

cause mortalities in wild populations unless

the fish are under severe stress (Westin and

Rogers 1978). Lists of diseases and parasites

of striped bass were given by Smith and Wells

(1977), Westin and Rogers (1978), and Setzler

et al. (1980).

A sudden rise in temperature may cause the

onset of spawning (Farley 1966), and a sudden

drop may cause its cessation (Calhoun et al.

1950; Mansueti and Hollis 1963; Boynton et

al. 1977). Temperatures at which spawning

has been observed in the South Atlantic

Region have been as low as 14 “C and as high

as 24 “C (Scruggs 1957; May and Fuller 1965;

Smith 1973; Barkuloo 1967). In general, the

temperatures associated with spawning

increase progressively southward, from North

Carolina to Florida.

Normal development and hatching of

striped bass eggs requires dissolved oxygen

levels of at least 3-5 mg/L (Turner and Farley

1971; Harrell and Bayless 1982). Larvae

require 5-6 mg/L, and the optimum range for

juveniles is probably 6-12 mg/L (Bogdanov et

al. 1967). Adult striped bass become restless

at levels approaching 3 mg& followed by

inactivity, loss of equilibrium, and death

(Chittenden 197 1 b).

15
Studies have indicated that larval striped

bass tolerate temperatures of 12-23 “C, with an

optimal range of 16-19 “C (Tagatz 1961;

Regan et al. 1968); these values coincide with

temperatures of areas where larvae were

spawned. The optimal temperature for

juveniles lies between 24 and 26 “C; however,

as striped bass age and grow, they undergo a

shift in thermal preference towards cooler

temperatures (Coutant 1985). In the southern

limits of their range, striped bass juveniles

grow well, but condition factors decrease and

mortality increases in adults unless cool areas,

such as springs, spring-fed streams, or

tailwaters from dams are available (Ware

1971).

Growth and survival of adults in reservoirs

appear to be limited by the presence of thermal

and oxygen refuges during summer (Axon and

Whitehurst 1985; Coutant 1985; Cheek et al.

1985; Moss 1985; Matthews et al. 1985).

During stratification, the hypolimnion

becomes anoxic, forcing the fish to limited

areas within their temperature and oxygen

tolerances. This limitation often leads to

overcrowding in refuges, which may cause

decreased growth, increased susceptibility to

disease, and heavy fishing mortality. Lethal

limits for temperature and dissolved oxygen

vary with geographic range and acclimation

conditions, but adults generally avoid

dissolved oxygen below 2-3 mg/L (Chittenden

197 1 a; Meldrim et al. 1974) and temperatures

above 25 “C (Merriman 1941; Wooley and

Crateau 1983; Matthews et al. 1985).

Excessively warm ocean waters (27-30 ‘C)

during the summer may limit seaward

migration from the Savannah River (Dudley et

al. 1977) and possibly from other South

Atlantic coastal rivers.

Salinity

As might be expected for a species that is

anadromous throughout much of its range,

tolerance for salinity varies with age. Low

salinities (O-3 ppt) enhance the survival of

eggs and larvae (Mansueti 1958; Dove1 197 l),

and moderate salinites (8-9 ppt) are apparently

not detrimental (Albrecht 1964; Morgan and

Rasin 1973). Larvae appear to survive and

grow faster at low salinities than in fresh water

(Bayless 1972); however, salinities above

21-28 ppt may decrease survival. As striped

bass increase in age, the range of salinity

tolerances and optima generally expand

(Tagatz 1961; Bogdanov et al. 1967; Regan et

al. 1968). Adults and juveniles tolerate transfer

from fresh water to sea water, but the reverse

transfer may cause a shock reaction (Loeber

1951). Combinations of high salinity and low

temperature cause the greatest mortality in

young striped bass (Otwell and Merriner

1975). Morgan et al. (1981) observed greatest

survival of newly hatched larvae at a

temperature-salinity combination of 10 ppt at

18 “C.

Current Velocity

Adequate current velocity is a key factor

influencing the survival of striped bass eggs

(Mansueti 1958; Albrecht 1964; Regan et al.

1968). A velocity of 30.5 cm/s maintains the

eggs in suspension (Albrecht 1964). At lower

velocities, eggs may settle onto the bottom

substrate and suffocate. Although moderate

flows are required for egg suspension,

excessive turbulence or irregular flows may

reduce survival by preventing larvae from

reaching nursery areas (Turner and Chadwick

1972; Skinner 1974; Chadwick et al. 1977;

Stevens et al. 1985). High flows may flush

16
iw

eggs and larvae out of rivers into unfavorable

estuarine waters before hatching and initial

feeding can occur (Rulifson et al. 1986a,

1986b). In addition, water diversions may

affect larval growth and survival indirectly by

influencing productivity, and hence larval food

abundance, in nursery areas. Spawning fish

are reportedly attracted to velocities above 156

cm/s (Fish and McCoy 1959) and tend to

avoid areas of high turbulence (Kerr 1953).

Other Environmental Factors

Striped bass are generally well adapted to

turbid conditions (Mansueti 1962; Talbot

1966) although different life stages vary

considerably in tolerance. Eggs can hatch

successfully at suspended sediment

concentrations as high as 2.3 g/L, but

development rate slows at levels exceeding 1.5

g/L (Morgan et al. 1973). In yolk-sac larvae,

which are more sensitive than eggs, survival

rates are reduced at suspended solid

concentrations exceeding 0.5 g/L (Auld and

Schubel 1978). Exposure to 3.4 g/L

suspended clay and silt for 48 hours caused

50% mortality of larvae (Morgan et al. 1973).

Larvae consumed significantly fewer prey in

highly turbid water (0.2-0.5 g/L of suspended

solids) than in clearer water (O-0.075 g/L)

when presented with predominantly copepods.

Turbidity had no effect on size of prey eaten in

this experiment. When larvae were presented

with cladocerans, turbidity up to 0.5 g/L did

not reduce number or size of prey eaten

(Breitburg 1988).

Tolerance of acidity also is age-dependent.

Striped bass eggs hatch normally at pH 6.6-

9.0, whereas juveniles tolerate the slightly

wider range of pH 6- 10 at 22-29 “C (Bowker

et al. 1969). Exposure to pH 5.3 for 24 hours

was lethal to larvae 25 mm TL (Tatum et al.

1965).

Habitat Alterations

Impingement. The susceptibility of the

early life stages of striped bass to industrial

water intakes has been intensively

investigated. The survival rates of young that

are impinged or trapped on the traveling

screens of water intake structures depend on

the life stage and impingement time (Rulifson

et al. 1982a). The survival time for impinged

eggs may be up to 6 min at an intake rate of 24

cm/s, but survival and hatching success are

variable (Skinner 1974). Kerr (1953) found

that 80% of striped bass larvae (19-38 mm

long) were able to avoid impingement at 30.5

cm/s, but 95% were impinged at 43 cm/s.

Impingement of striped bass of this size led to

total mortality. Juveniles were able to resist

impingement at much higher velocities, up to

61 cm/s (Kerr 1953). An alternative to

screening fish from passage through a power

facility is to allow the fish to pass through the

facility. Survival in young striped bass that

have passed through a power plant condenser

tube can be greater than survival of impinged

fish (Kerr 1953). Mortalities associated with

passage through a facility are due to thermal

shock, rather than to direct mechanical damage

(Coutant and Kedl1975).

Thermal pollution. Striped bass are often

exposed to heated waters discharged from

power plants. The fast change in temperature

can lead to thermal shock, depending on the

acclimation temperature, the magnitude of

temperature change (AT), and life stage

(Schubel et al. 1976; Meldrim and Gift 1971).

Eggs are most susceptible to mortality from

high temperatures early in their development

17
(Latter et al. 1974). Larvae and juveniles

generally show decreasing susceptibility to

temperature shock with increasing age (Lauer

et al. 1974). For larger striped bass, a direct

relationship exists between ambient and upper

avoidance temperatures (Meldrim and Gift

1971). Generally, mortality of adults does not

exceed 50% at any AT or exposure time until

water temperatures reach 32 “C. Minimization

of thermal shock requires that maximum water

temperatures be kept below 30 ‘C (Chadwick

1974). Although the warm water in power

plant discharge canals may attract fish and

provide winter sport fishing in some areas,

striped bass generally avoid high-temperature

effluents (Hall et al. 1984).

Dams, channelization, and lund

reclamation. Burns (1887) first noted the

decline of South Carolina striped bass

populations and attributed the decline to

muddy water. The effects of human-induced

changes on this species are not well

understood (Uhich et al. 1979). Several

authors have suggested that channelization of

coastal streams in the 1940’s and 1950’s

resulted in the low population levels observed

in many areas (Merriman 1937; Chittenden

1971a). Water diversion projects have affected

other streams (Chadwick et al. 1977). In many

coastal regions, up to 50% of the original

estuarine areas important to striped bass have

been lost to filling (with dredged material),

road construction, and real estate development

(Clark 1967). In the South Atlantic Region,

dam construction has restricted upstream

migrations on the Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, and

Pee Dee Rivers, among others (Baker 1968).

Rulifson et al. (1982b) documented changes in

rivers in the South Atlantic Region which may

affect these fisheries.

Environmental Contaminants

Qku

Interest in chemical toxicities to striped

bass has been focused on residual chlorine,

chlorinated hydrocarbons, and monocyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons (Fay et al. 1983). The

total residual chlorine that causes 50%

mortality is 0.22 ppm for eggs < 13 h old and

0.20 ppm (at salinities of 2.8 + 0.9 ppt) for

larvae 24-70 h old (Morgan and Prince 1977).

.

Exposure to sublethal levels of benzene for

24 h increases the respiratory rate of juvenile

striped bass; exposure for longer periods produces a reversible narcosis (Brocksen and

Bailey 1973). Benville and Kom (1977)

reported that exposure to 6.9 ppm benzene for

24 h resulted in 50% mortality of juvenile

striped bass.

Studies of the toxicity of heavy metals

indicate a sensitivity of yolk-sac larvae to

copper (O’Rear 1973) and zinc (Tatum et al.

1965); eggs are somewhat less affected.

Exposure of juvenile striped bass to cadmium

(30-90 days at 0.5, 2.5, and 5.0 ppb) and

mercury (30-120 days at 1.0, 5.0, and 10.0

ppb) caused lesions in gill tissue and impaired

respiration (Dawson et al. 1977). Exposure to

low pH, (5.5) and high aluminum (680 pg

A13+/L) severely altered epidermal

microridge structure in larvae (Rulifson et al.

1986b). Data on 24-, 48-, and 96-h tolerance

limits for other heavy metals have been

reported by Rehwoldt et al. (197 1).

A concentration of 10 ppm of oil spill

eradicator was toxic to striped bass after 48 h,

although no stress was observed at 5 ppm

(Chadwick 1960). Low tides and high

temperatures may elevate hydrogen sulfide

18
Ir concentrations to toxic levels in some

w localities (Silvey and Irwin 1969). The

toxicity of 61 pesticides, heavy metals, and

pharmaceuticals to young-of-the-year striped

bass was established by Bonn et al. (1976).

Inasmuch as temperature and salinity may

affect toxicity of chemicals, differences in

these factors may intensify or reduce potential

toxic effects. No significant mortality

occurred after acute exposure (96 h) of young

striped bass to a mixture of 13 organic

contaminants presented in high concentrations.

Water quality (hardness, alkalinity, salinity,

and pH) greatly influenced toxicity after acute

exposure (96 h) of young fish to cadmium,

zinc, copper, and nickel. Decreases in water

hardness and associated decreases in alkalinity

and pH were correlated with acute toxicity of a

mixture of contaminants to young fish

(Palawski et al. 1985). Toxicity of aluminum

to young striped bass increases with increasing

acidity. Levels of pH of 5.0 to 6.5 in the

absence of contaminants caused significant

mortality to ll- to 13-day-old fish, and a pH

of 5.5 was toxic to 159-day-old fish but not to

195day-old striped bass (Buckler et al. 1987).

Similarly, chronic exposure (30 to 90 days) of

young striped bass to a mixture of organic and

inorganic contaminants resulted in a high

mortality rate in fresh water, a lower mortality

rate in water of 2 ppt salinity, and the lowest

mortality rate in water of 5 ppt (Mehrie et al.

1987).

19

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34
Wooley, C.M., E.J. Crateau, and P.A. Moon.

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PP.

.

-\ 35
PAGE Biological ReDort 82(11.118)* 1

1. Tilb and Sut4itk 5. Report mta

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes December 1989

and Invertebrates (South Atlantic~Striped Bass &

,. Author(a)

J. Hill, J.W. Evans, and M.J. Van Den Avyle

a. Performing Ckganlntion Nam and Addmu

Georgia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit

School of Forest Resources

University of Georgia

Athens, GA 30602

12. Spoworing Organhation Nama md Addnu

a Pwformlng Organization Rapt. No.

10. Proj.ct~T~luWork Unit No.

1,. Contnct(c) or Grant(G) No.

(C)

(0)

13.lyp of f?sport h Period cowred

U.S. Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service

National Wetlands Research Center

Washington, DC 20240

15. Supplementay Notes

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Waterways Experiment Station

P.O. Box 63 1

Vicksburg, MS 39180

1,.

*U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Report No. TR EL-82-4.

16. Abetrwt (Limit: 200 words)

Species profiles provide literature reviews of the taxonomy, morphology, range, life history, ecology, and

environmental requirements of coastal aquatic species. They are designed to help individuals understand the

basic biology of these organisms and to assist in impact assessment. Striped bass are native to coastal rivers

and nearshore areas. Populations along the South Atlantic coast are primarily riverine. Spawning begins as

early as February and peaks at temperatures of 18-21 “C. Spawning usually occurs in downstream portions of

river systems having appropriate waterflow, salinity, temperature, and other water quality characteristics.

Striped bass populations have declined since the early 1900’s, but enough fish have survived or been restored

to support commercial fishing in Albemarle Sound and recreational fishing in most major rivers along the

South Atlantic coastline. Striped bass are predators and prey on many sympatric invertebrates and fishes.

Larval striped bass feed on aquatic invertebrates and switch to feed on small fish as juveniles and adults.

I 7. Documnt Analysb a. Descriptors

Rivers

Fishes

Striped bass

Morone saxatilis

Life history

Growth

Feeding

Temperature requirements

Spawning

Salinity requirements

c. CDSAI, Field/Group

18. Awitability Statemnt

Unlimited distribution

lg.Sacurhy Class (This Report)

Unclassified

20. Security Class (This Page)

Unclassified

Zi. No. of Pages

vi+35

-

22 Price

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see ANSI-239.18) OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77)

(Formerly NTIS-35)

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the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned

public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the

wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish

and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our

national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses

our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their

development is in the best interests of all our people. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation

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