QL

155

Library

National Wetlands Research Center

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

700 Cajundome Boulevard

Lafayette, La. 70506

Biological Report 82(11.98)

April 1989

TR EL-824

Species Profiles: Life Histories and

Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes

and Invertebrates (South Atlantic)

BLUEFISH

Coastal Ecology Group

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment- Station

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Biological Report 82111.96)

TR EL-82-4

April 1989

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of

Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Atlantic)

BLUEFISH

J. Douglas Oliver,

Michael J. Van Den Avyle, and Earl L. Bozeman, Jr.

Georgia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit

School of Forest Resources

University of Georgia

Athens, GA 30602

Project Officer

David Moran

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

National Wetlands Research Center

1010 Gause Boulevard

Slidell, LA 70458

Performed for

Coastal Ecology Group

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Waterways Experiment Station

Vicksburg, MS 39180

and

U.S. Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service

Research and Development

National Wetlands Research Center

Washington, DC 20240
This series should be referenced as follows:

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983-19 . Species profiles: life histories

and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates. U.S.

Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers TR EL-82-4.

This profile should be cited as follows:

Oliver, J.D., M.J. Van Den Avyle, and E.L. Bozeman, Jr. 1989. Species profiles:

life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and

invertebrates (South Atlantic)--bluefish. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep.

82(11.96). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers TR EL-82-4. 13 pp.
PREFACE

This species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms,

principally fish, of sport, commercial, or ecological importance. The profiles

are designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists with a brief

comprehensive sketch of the biological characteristics and environmental

requirements of the species and to describe how populations of the species may be

expected to react to environmental changes caused by coastal development. Each

profile has sections on taxonomy, life history, ecological role, environmental

requirements, and economic importance, if applicable. A three-ring binder is

used for this series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared.

This project is jointly planned and financed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to one Of

the following addresses.

Information Transfer Specialist

National Wetlands Research Center

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

NASA-Slide11 Computer Complex

1010 Gause Boulevard

Slidell, LA 70458

or

U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station

Attention: WESER-C

Post Office Box 631

Vicksburg, MS 39180

iii
CONVERSION TABLE

Multiply Ilr

millimeters (mm) 0.03937

centimeters (cm) 0.3937

meters (m) 3.281

meters (m) 0.5468

kilometers (km) 0.6214

kilometers (km) 0.5396

To Obtain

inches

inches

feet

fathoms

statute miles

nautical miles

square meters (m*) 10.76 square feet

square kilometers (km*) 0.3861 square miles

hectares (ha) 2.471 acres

liters (1)

cubic meters (m3)

cubic meters (m3)

milligrams (mg)

grams (9)

kilograms (kg)

metric tons (t)

metric tons (t)

0.2642 gallons

35.31 cubic feet

0.0008110 acre-feet

0.00003527 ounces

0.03527 ounces

2.205 pounds

2205.0 pounds

1.102 short tons

kilocalories (kcal) 3.968 British thermal units

Celsius degrees ("C) 1.8(OC) + 32 Fahrenheit degrees

inches

inches

feet (ft)

fathoms

statute miles (mi)

nautical miles (nmi)

U.S. Customary to Metric

25.40

2.54

0.3048

1.829

1.609

1.852

millimeters

centimeters

meters

meters

kilometers

kilometers

square feet (ft*) 0.0929 square meters

square miles (mi*) 2.590 square kilometers

acres 0.4047 hectares

gallons (gal) 3.785 liters

cubic feet (ft3) 0.02831 cubic meters

acre-feet 1233.0 cubic meters

ounces (02) 28350.0 milligrams

ounces (oz) 28.35 grams

pounds (lb) 0.4536 kilograms

pounds (lb) 0.00045 metric tons

short tons (ton) 0.9072 metric tons

British thermal units (Btu 0.2520 kilocalories

Fahrenheit degrees (OF) 0.5556 (OF 32) Celsius degrees

Metric to U.S. Customary

iv
CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE .................................................................... iii

CONVERSION TABLE ........................................................... i v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE....

MORPHOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION A

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES.

LIFE HISTORY...................

Migration of Adults and Spawn i

Eggs and Larvae.............. .

Juveniles and Adults.........

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS..........

DS .........................................

........................................... :

...........................................

ng ......................................... :

........................................... 6

........................................... 6

........................................... 7

THE FISHERY ................................................................ 8

ECOLOGICAL ROLE ............................................................ 9

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................. 9

Temperature and Salinity .................................................

Dissolved Oxygen ......................................................... 1:

Depth .................................................................... 10

Water Movement and Turbidity ............................................. 10

LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

V
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Stuart Wilk, U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, Sandy Hook

Laboratory, Sandy Hook, New Jersey, and L. E. Barger, U.S. National Marine

Fisheries Service, Panama City, Florida,for reviewing this manuscript.

vi
Figure 1. Bluefish.

BLUEFISH

NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE

Scientific name.... Pomatomus saltatrix

Pr$~::$":&non name.........Bluefish

(Figure 1)

Other common names...............Blue,

snapper, horse mackerel, Hatteras

blue, tailor

Class.................... Osteichthyes

Order......................Perciformes

Family.....................Pomatomidae

(p. saltatrix is the only species.)

Geographic range: The bluefish occurs

in most temperate coastal regions of

all oceans except the north and central Pacific Ocean (Briggs 1960;

Wilk 1977). It is abundant in estuarine and continental shelf waters

of the east coast of North America

from Nova Scotia southward to Florida and occurs in the Gulf of Mexico

1

westward to Texas (Dahlberg 1975).

In the South Atlantic Region (Cape

Hatteras, North Carolina, southward

to Cape Canaveral, Florida), bluefish are most abundant along the

coasts of North Carolina and Florida (Figure 2).

MORPHOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION AIDS

The first dorsal fin has 8-9

spines; the second dorsal fin has

24-25 rays; and the anal fin has 2-3

spines and 26 rays. The number of

lateral line scales is usually 95.

Adults are bluish or greenish above

and silvery below and have a blackish

spot at the base of the pectoral fins

(Jordan and Evermann 1896). The large

lower jaw projects beyond the upper

jaw (Dahlberg 1975). The head is

proportionally larger in advanced
NORTH CAROLINA

SOUTH CAROLINA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

SONVILLE

m Coastal distribution

-.- Major abundance

MILES

KILOMETERS

Figure 2. Distribution of the bluefish in the South Atlantic Region. Major

centers of abundance are along North Carolina and Florida.

2
,

juveniles than in adults (Lippson and

Moran 1974). Larvae and juveniles

were described by Deuel et al. (1966)

and Norcross et al. (1974).

Two stocks of bluefish have been

identified along the Atlantic coast.

One stock spawns during late summer in

continental shelf waters in the Middle

Atlantic Region (Cape Cod,

Massachusetts, to Cape Hatteras), and

the other spawns during spring at the

margin of the 6ulf Stream in the South

Atlantic Region between Cape Hatteras

and northern Florida (Lassiter 1962;

Kendall and Walford 1979). The two

stocks are distinguishable through

multivariate analysis of differences

in body proportions (morphometrics) as

well as growth patterns on the scales

of selected year classes. Compared

with summer-spawned yearlings of the

Middle Atlantic Region, spring-spawned

yearlings of the South Atlantic have a

relatively larger head and pectoral

fin, larger eye in proportion to the

head, longer maxillary bone, and

shorter dorsal, anal, and ventral fins

(Wilk 1977).

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES

The bluefish is an important

recreational and commercial fish along

the Atlantic seaboard; the

recreational fishery predominates in

the South Atlantic Region (Anderson

1978). In the charter boat fishery

from Cape Hatteras to South Carolina,

the catch of bluefish is exceeded only

by that of king mackerel,

Scomberomorus cavalla (Manooch et al.

1981). Recreational bluefish harvest

for 1983 in the South Atlantic Region

was about 10 million fish--or about

23% of the total east coast

recreational catch of bluefish (NMFS

1985). Due to their abundance and

high trophic level, bluefish play a

major ecological role in estuarine and

continental shelf waters and are

dependent on these habitats for

spawning and nursery areas. No other

Atlantic coast species is as abundant

throughout such a wide range and

variety of habitats (Wilk 1980).

LIFE HISTORY

Migration of Adults and Spawning

The bluefish is a migratory

pelagic species that generally travels

northward in spring and summer and

southward in fall and winter along the

Atlantic seaboard. Concentrations of

bluefish are greatest from northern

North Carolina to Cape Cod in summer

and along the Florida coast in winter

(Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management

Council 1982). Bluefish in the Gulf

of Mexico apparently remain separate

from those along the Atlantic coast

(Lyman 1974; Barger et al. 1978). The

present discussion is limited to the

two stocks of bluefish that occur

along the Atlantic coast.

In the South Atlantic Region,

spawning occurs primarily during

spring in waters just shoreward of the

Gulf Stream, from southern North Carolina to Florida (Figures 3a, 4a).

Ripening bluefish arrive along the

coast of the Carolinas in mid-spring.

Males with free-flowing milt are mOre

commonly found in coastal areas than

are ripe females because the females

move offshore before their final stage

of ripening (Deuel et al. 1966).

There is evidence of relatively minor

fall and winter spawning just south of

Cape Hatteras (Kendall and Walford

1979).

In the Middle Atlantic Region,

spawning occurs in summer (May - September) in waters over the continental shelf (Figures 3b, 4b; Lippson

and Moran 1974; Kendall and Walford

1979; Smith et al. 1979). Norcross

et al. (1974) found that bluefish

north of Cape Hatteras spawned mainly

over the outer half of the continental shelf; 80% of the eggs they collected were taken more than 55 km

3
l--+-b

a. Sorlna-aaawnlna

.

.

.

.

.

.

* e..____ _____._I__

. . . ..././... .,. .,.,., ::li:‘:i:~:~i:li:~isi:~~:, ‘:i:‘:i:‘:i:~:::i:~:;iiEiP spawning area ‘:‘::::\:::::::;::: :,:,:,., I’

l 1-2 montha, summer

..:::.::::;:::;:::::::::::::::>.

. . . . . ..i. :.:.::.:.:.: >:.>>,

‘:iij:~j;ii:~i;ii:~i~~~~~~ : spawning area

., . . . . . . . . . . ., ., ., ., . .

4- - - - - - S-6 months, fall 4

--_____ 2-4 months, fall

+.e..... I 2-l 3 months, spring

40 l l l l l l 9-11 months, spring

Figure 3. Migration routes of bluefish from hatching until 1 year old.

4
i

Cape k_1

Cod, MA

Hatteras.

I

I

..:‘::i...:.:.::‘::::.::‘::::

.:: :y:(_::.,+:,::..,:::::,

: ..:.:.::i:: :.:i::.,:::.::.,:::: :::‘::::::::.::“::.‘:~,,::.~:~~ spawning area

. . . . . . . . ., ., ., ., .i ii. : ..: . . . ..i. :.:...: :i :

:.::,::y::: :>I.>..: ,.: :..,y ‘:‘:.i:::i:;i:::iii::i:::~::~:~ spawning area

*-1+ years, fall

4 --_-___- 2 2 years, spring

+ l l l a l l 2 2 years, fall

4 l+ years, fall

4 _____-- > 2 years, spring

and summer

+.*.*o* > 2 years, fall

Figure 4. ftigration routes of bluefish over 1 year old.

5
from shore. The depth at which

spawning occurs is not known.

In the Middle Atlantic Region,

significant nubers of summer-spawning

adult bluefish that have apparentlY

completed spawning move inshore into

bays and inlets of Long Island Sound

and the New Jersey coast during July

and August (Figure 4b; Lund and

Maltezos 1970). In the South Atlantic

Region, bluefish (aged < 2

years fo?U!iFyng spawners and aged

between 1 and 2 years for Sumnler

spawners) inhabit nearshore areas

during their southerly migration in

fall and winter (Figures 3a, 4a, 4b;

Wilk 1977).

Eggs and Larvae

Female bluefish weighing 1.9-2.7

kg contained 600,000-1,400,OOO eggs

(Lassiter 1962). Fertilized eggs are

spherical, 0.9-1.2 mm in diameter, and

have an oil globule of 0.22-0.30 mm.

In laboratory studies, eggs hatched

after 46-48 h at 20 "C, and newly

hatched larvae were 2.0-2.2 mm total

length (TL) (Deuel et al. 1966).

Kendall and Walford (1979) collected

larvae as small as 3 mm standard

length (SL) in outer continental shelf

waters of the South Atlantic Region.

Detailed descriptions of embryonic and

early larval stages of bluefish were

published by Deuel et al. (1966);

Norcross et al. (1974) described

development from the stage immediately

after yolk sac absorption to the early

juvenile stage at 17 mm SL.

During spring, concentrations of

larvae in the South Atlantic Region

were greatest off the New River, North

Carolina, and Charleston, South

Carolina, near the outer edge of the

continental shelf (Kendall and Walford

1979). These larvae apparently are

carried northward past Cape Hatteras

by the Gulf Stream in April and May

(Figure 3) and are dispersed over the

continental slope of the Middle

Atlantic Region (Kendall and Walford

1979; Smith 1980; Powles 1981).

Collins and Stender (1987), however,

presented evidence for southward and

seaward migration of bluefish larvae

that came from spring spawning in the

South Atlantic Bight. Larvae from the

minor fall and winter spawning in

southern waters may find their way

inshore south of Cape Hatteras, as

indicated by the presence of a few

juveniles there during winter (Kendall

and Walford 1979; Powles 1981).

Morse et al. (1987) found a high

abundance of larvae in summer on the

continental shelf of the Middl e

Atlantic Region. Larvae spawned in

the Middle Atlantic Region remain

offshore until late Sumner and then

apparently move southward in fall.

Their distribution in winter is

unknown (Kendall and Walford 1979).

Larval development takes place

in outer continental shelf waters,

primarily within 6 m of the surface,

at temperatures of 18-26 "C and

salinities of 30-32 ppt (Kendall and

Walford 1979). Larvae undergo die1

vertical migrations, concentrating at

depths near 4 m during midday and at

the surface at night (Kendall and

Naplin 1981).

Juveniles and Adults

Bluefish of 13-17 mm SL have full

fin ray counts and most of the other

characteristics of adults (Lippson and

Moran 1974; Norcross et al. 1974).

Juveniles from the spring spawn in the

South Atlantic Region occur in outer

continental shelf waters of the Middle

Atlantic Region from April through

llune (Kendall and Walford 1979). As

inshore waters warm, they move

shoreward across the continental shelf

into estuaries between Cape May, New

Jersey, and Long Island, New York,

where they reach fork lengths (FL) of

180-200 mm by fall (Wilk 1977; Figure

3). Vyman and Conover (1987) suggest

that most young-of-the-year bluefish

in New York waters come from the

spring spawning area. Juveniles from

6
the summer spawn in the Middle

Atlantic Region probably remain at

sea, migrate south of Cape Hatteras

in early fall, and spend the winter

offshore, appearing in the sounds of

North Carolina during the following

spring (Kendall and Walford 1979).

Bluefish typically reach sexual

maturity by age III at about 450 mm FL

(Wilk 1977). Adults move in schools

of similar-sized individuals; these

schools remain loosely associated to

form large aggregations that sometimes

extend over many square kilometers

along the coastline. Movement

patterns are determined by several

environmental factors, among which

temperature and photoperiod are

probably the most important (Olla and

Studholme 1971).

In fall and winter, most adult

bluefish from both Atlantic Coast

stocks migrate southward and

overwinter along the east coast of

Florida. Tagging studies have

indicated that the southward migration

in fall is closer to shore than the

subsequent northerly migration in

spring (Wilk 1977). Some adults

overwinter between Cape Hatteras and

Cape Lookout, North Carolina, where

large fish (4-9 kg) have been taken in

trawls and gill nets from December

through March (J. L. Ross, North

Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries,

Morehead City; pers. connn.).

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS

Growth rate of larval bluefish is

initially very rapid but decreases

after about 3 days. Deuel et al.

(1966), who determined growth rates

for Long Island bluefish larvae from

eggs that were fertilized and hatched

in a laboratory, reported average

total lengths of 2.1 mm at hatching,

2.8 mm on day 1, 3.0 mm on day 2, 3.2

mm on day 3, and 3.3 mm on day 4.

Growth rates for laboratory reared

fish, however, may not be representative of growth at sea.

No data on growth of juvenile

bluefish have been published,

but some information is available on

juvenile sizes at different times of

the year from collections taken in the

Middle and South Atlantic Regions.

Spring-spawned fish collected in

Middle Atlantic Region estuaries were

25-35 mm FL during summer and grew to

about 200 mm FL by fall. Summerspawned fish were about 230 mm FL when

collected in North Carolina waters the

following spring and about 290 mm FL

in fall (Wilk 1977). Male and female

bluefish grow at about the same rate

(Hamer 1959; Richards 1976). Von

Bertalanffy growth equations have

been developed for bluefish collected

from North Carolina (Lassiter 1962)

and from South Carolina to southern

Florida (Barger , unpublished MS ), but

differences in aging techniques and

stocks sampled make comparisons

difficult. Wilk (1977) published the

most comprehensive summary of age and

growth of bluefish along the Atlantic

seaboard (Table 1).

Length-weight relationships for

North Carolina bluefish are similar to

those for bluefish collected from

South Carolina to southern Florida.

Equations useful for predicting weight

(W, in grams) from fork length (mm)

are

W = (2.45 x 10-5)FL2'go3

for fish collected off North Carolina

(Lassiter 1962) and

W = (1.49 x 10-5)FL2'g85

for fish collected in South Carolina,

Georgia, and Florida (Barger,

unpublished MS ). Wilk et al. (1978)

reported the predictive equation for

bluefish collected in the New York

Bight as

W = (1.12 x 10-5)FL3*036.

7
Table 1. Average size of bluefish of

different ages collected from Rhode

Island to Florida, 1963-68 (Wilk

1977). Averages were based on about

25,000 determinations of age (using

scales) and 7,500 measurements of

weight.

Age Fork length Weight

(cm) (kg)

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

XI

XII

XIII

XIV

21

35

46

55

62

66

::

78

80

82

83

85

86

0.1

0.6

::“2

is

5:o

~~~

6:8

7.3

7.6

8.0

8.4

THE FISHERY

The recreational catch of bluefish in the South Atlantic Region

generally exceeds the commercial

catch. In 1983, anglers caught about

10 million bluefish, of which 8.2

million were from North Carolina, 1.4

million were from Florida, 0.2 million

were from South Carolina, and 0.2

million were from Georgia (NMFS 1985).

The 1979 commercial harvest in the

South Atlantic Region was less than 5

million lb. The dependence of adult

bluefish on nearshore habitats is

reflected by the areas from which most

of the recreational catch was taken;

60% of the harvest came from areas

within 5 km of the shore. Catches

from private or charter boats

accounted for about 69% of the total

bluefish catch, and catches from shore

accounted for about 31% (NMFS 1985).

Commercial landings of bluefish

increased considerably in the late

1970's and early 1980's, primarily due

to increased catches in North Carolina

(Table 2). During the early 1970's,

long-haul seine fishermen in Pamlico

Sound and the Outer Banks landed most

of the North Carolina catch, but

prices were less than $0.10 per lb.

Most of the increase in harvest has

come from offshore gillnet catches

Table 2. Reported commercial bluefish landings and values, 1976-81 (Mid-Atlantic

Fishery Management Council 1982).

Commercial landings (thousands of lb)

North South Florida Value

Year Carolina Carolina Georgia (E. coast) Total (per lb)

1976 1,356 I:, cl 1,380 2,737 0.10

I977 2,331 1 1,500 3,842 0.09

1978 1,948 10 <l 1,230 3,188 0.13

1979 3,407 13 cl 1,348 4,768 0.19

1980 5,444 4 Cl 1,762 7,210 0.14

1981 6,610 3 1 2,016 8,626 0.19

8
(J. L. Ross, North Carolina Division

of Flarine Fisheries, Morehead City;

pers. comm.) and from the winter

trawl fishery, which exploits a

variety of pelagic

1983).

species (Street

The bulk of the commercial

bluefish harvest is composed of age

I-IV fish (Wilk 1977), but many age

V-VII fish are taken commercially

from Chesapeake Bay southward to Cape

Lookout, North Carolina (J. L. Ross,

North Carolina Division of Marine

Fisheries, Morehead city; pers.

comm.). Data on bluefish abundance,

mortality rates, recruitment, and

other stock characteristics that

would be helpful in making management

decisions are not

1977).

available (Wilk

ECOLOGICAL ROLE

The feeding ecology of larval

and postlarval bluefish is not well

known. The only published account

(Kendall and Naplin 1981) indicated

that larval bluefish ate mostly

co;epods, but also fed on cladocerans

invertebrate eggs. Lassiter

(1962) reported that the diet of

juvenile blueoffish from North Carolina

consisted 18% invertebrates

(shrimp, Penaeus spp., and squid,

Loli o spmnd 82% vertebrates

T-4 predominantly pinfish,

rhomboides, and silversides, E

. .

spp.).

Adult bluefish are visual

feeders and are most active during

daylight (Olla et al. 1970; Olla and

Studholme 1971, 1978). They are predominantly piscivorous; invertebrates

play a progressively smaller role in

the diet as age of the fish increases

(Lassiter 1962; Naughton and Saloman

1984). Important prey in North Carolina included other bluefish; butterfish, Peprilus triacanthus; harvestfish, P. alepidotus; anchovies,

Anchoa -spp.; seatrout, Cynoscion

spp.; spot, Leiostomus xanthurus; and

Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus

(Lassiter 1962). Naughton and Saloman

(1984) described the food habits of

283 bluefish collected along North and

South Carolina in 1977-1981; a preference for schooling coastal fish

species was evident--the most common

prey included Sciaenidae, Clupeidae,

Mugilidae, and Engraulidae. A list

of the known food of bluefish collected along the entire Atlantic coast

contained 16 invertebrate and 67

vertebrate species (Wilk 1977).

Only large predators, such as

sharks

Isurus

(Epaprtjcularly mako sharks,

tunas,

dlidius),

swordfish

Xmas and wahoo

ah

(Acanthoc bium solanderi) prey on

Possible competitors

are Spanish mackerel, Scomberomorus

maculatus; king mackerel, S. cavalla;

striped bass, Morone saxatilis;e

weakfish, Cynoscionregalis; Atlantic

bonito, Sarda sarda; and little tunny,

&

Euth nnusletteratus (C.S. Manooch,

 Marine Fisheries Service,

Southeast Fisheries Center, Beaufort,

North Carolina; pers. comm.).

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

Temperature and Salinity

Newly spawned bluef

have been found in the Sou

Region just shoreward of

ish larvae

th At lantic

the Gulf

Stream at temperatures of 20-26 "C and

salinities of 35-38 ppt (Kendall and

Walford 1979; Powles 1981). Spawning

in the Middle Atlantic Region occurs

at slightly lower temperatures of

17-24 "C and salinities of 30-32 ppt

(Norcross et al. 1974; Kendall and

Walford 1979; Smith 1980). Bluefish

up to about 250 mm TL require temperatures higher than 10 'C for survival

(Lund and Maltezos 1970), but adults

may be able to survive brief exposures

to temperatures as low as 7.5 "C (Wilk

1977). Adults held in a laboratory

were able to survive temperatures as

high as 30.4 "C (Olla and Studholme

1971). In northeast and east central

9
Florida, adults occur in nearshore

areas where temperatures exceed 27 'C

for prolonged periods (Padgett 1970).

Dissolved Oxygen

Data describing effects of dissolved oxygen concentration on bluefish are not available. However, two

situations where bluefish avoided

areas of low dissolved oxygen have

been reported. One report comes from

observations of small bluefish preying

on spawninq Atlantic

Menidi'a menidia

silversides,

(Middaugh et ali

1981). Dissdlved oxygen concentration

was lowest (less than 1 mg/l) in the

area of most intense spawning;

bluefish penetrated no further than

the 4 mg/l isopleth. In another case,

adult bluefish were absent from areas

of the New York Bight having depressed

dissolved oxygen during summer, but

specific oxygen levels avoided were

not determined (Azarovitz et al.

1979).

Depth

Bluefish are seldom found beyond

the continental shelf, but juveniles

and adults occupy nearshore habitats

as shallow as 0.15 m (De Sylva 1976).

A bluefish can secrete gas into its d

swim bladder at the fastest rate known

for any fish; consequently it can

rapidly change depths over a large

range (Bentley and Wiley 1982).

Water Movement and Turbidity

Adult bluefish forced to swim

against water currents in a laboratory

system maintained speeds of 4.0 to 4.6

body lengths per second for at least

30 min. At intermediate and high

swimming velocities, bluefish can

shift to ram gill ventilation,

transferring the workload of ventilation from the branchial to the

swimming musculature. This transfer

results in significant metabolic

savings during

(Freadman 1979).

rapid swimming

Bluefish are powerful swimmers and can swim in

turbulent waters. Ogilvy and Dubois

(1981) determined that turbulence

introduced into a swimming chamber did

not reduce the fish's maximum swimming

speed.

Turbidity may affect bluefish 4

feeding. Adult bluefish are visual

feeders (Olla et al. 1970), and

anglers are usually more successful

when water is relatively clear than

when it is turbid (Padgett 1970).

10
LITERATURE CITED

Anderson, R.D. 1978. Feeding and

spawning of bluefish. Sea Front.

24:335-339.

Azarovitz, T.R., C.J. Byrne, M.J.

Silverman, B.L. Freeman, W.G. Smith,

S.C. Turner, B.A. Halgren, and P.J.

Festa. 1979. Effects on finfish

and lobster. Pages 295-314 in R.L.

Swanson and C.J. Sinderman, eds.

Oxygen depletion and associated

benthic mortalities in New York

Bight, 1976. NOAA Prof. Pap. No.

11. 345 pp.

Barger, L.E. Age and growth of

bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix

(Linneaus), from the northeastern

Gulf of Mexico and the southeastern

coast of the United States. U.S.

National Marine Fisheries Service.

Panama City, FL. Unpublished

manuscript.

Barger, L.E., L.A. Collins, and J.H.

Finucane. 1978. First record of

bluefish larvae, Pomatoinus

saltatrix, in the Gulf of Mexico.

Northeast Gulf Sci. 2:145-148.

Bentley, T.B., and M.L. Wiley. 1982.

Intra- and inter-specific variation

in buoyancy of some estuarine

fishes. Env. Biol. Fishes 7:77-81.

Briggs, J.C. 1960. Fishes of worldwide (circumtropical) distribution.

Copeia 1960:171-180.

Collins, M.R., and B.W. Stender.

1987. Larval kina

(Scomberomorus cavalla‘j

mackerel

s -%Ziil&sl.

Spanish

mackerel . and

bluefish (Pomatcmus saltatrix) off

the southeast coast of the United

States, 1973-1980. Bull. Mar. Sci.

41:822-823.

Dahlberg, M.D. 1975. Guide to

coastal fishes of Georgia and nearby

States. University of Georgia

Press, Athens. 187 pp.

De Svlva, D.P. 1976. Attacks bv

bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) &

humans in South Florida.

1976:196-198.

Copeia

Deuel, D.G., J.R. Clark, and A.J.

Mansueti. 1966. Description of

embryonic and early larval stages of

bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix.

Trans. Am. Fish. Sot. 95:264-2/l.

Freadman, M.A. 1979. Swimming

energetics of striped bass (Morone

saxatilis) and bluefish (Pomatomus

saltatrix): Gill ventilation and

swimming metabolism. J. Exp. Biol.

83:217-230.

Hamer, P.E. 1959. Age and growth

studies of the bluefish (Pomatomus

saltatrix Linnaeus) of the New YorE

Bight. M.S. Thesis. Rutgers

University, New Brunswick, N.J.

Jordan, D.S., and B.W. Evermann.

1896. The fishes of North and

Middle America. Bull. U.S. Natl.

Mus. No. 47. 4 parts. 3,313 pp.

Kendall, A.W., Jr., and L.A. Walford.

1979. Sources and distribution of

bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix,

11
larvae and juveniles off the east

coast of the United States. U. S.

Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Fish. Bull.

77:213-227.

Kendall, A.W., Jr., and N.A. Naplin.

1981. Diel-depth distribution of

summer ichthyoplankton in the Middle

Atlantic Bight. U. S. Natl. Mar.

Fish. Serv. Fish. Bull. 79:705-726.

Lassiter, R.R. 1962. Life history

aspects of the bluefish, Pomatomus

saltatrix (Linnaeus), from the coast

of North Carolina. M.S. Thesis.

North Carolina State College,

Raleigh. 103 pp.

Lippson, A.J., and R.L. Moran. 1974.

Manual of identification of early

developmental stages of fishes of

the Potomac River Estuary. Power

Plant Siting Program, Maryland Dept.

Nat. Resour., PPSP-MP-13. 282 pp.

Lund, W.A., Jr., and G.C. Maltezos.

1970. Movements and migrations of

the bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix,

tagged in waters of New York and

southern New England. Trans. Am.

Fish. Sot. 99:719-725.

Lyman, H. 1974. Successful bluefishing. International Marine Publ.

co;, Camden, Me. 112 pp.

nooch, C.S., III, L.E. Abbas, and

J.L. Ross. 1981. A biological and

economic analysis of the North

Carolina charter boat fishery. Mar.

Fish. Rev. 43(8):1-11.

d-Atlantic Fishery Management Council. 1982. Bluefish fishery management plan. Mid-Atlantic Fishery _ _Management Council, Dover, Del. 63

PP.

Middaugh, D.P., G. I. Scott, and J.M.

Dean. 1981. Reproductive behavior

of the Atlantic silverside, Menidia

menidia (Pisces, Atherinidae). Env.

-Fishes 6:269-276.

Morse, W.W., M.P. Fahav, and W.G.

Smith. 1987. MARMAP surveys of the

Continental Shelf from Cape

Hatteras, North Carolina, to Cape

Sable, Nova Scotia (1977-1984).

Atlas No. 2. Annual distribution

patterns of fish larvae. NOAA Tech.

Memo. NMFS-F/NEC-47.

Naughton, S.P., and C.H. Saloman.

1984. Food of bluefish (Pomatomus

saltatrix) from the U.S. South

Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. NOAA

Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFC-150. 37 pp.

NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service, U.S. Department of Commerce).

1985. Marine recreational fishery

statistics survey, Atlantic and Gulf

Coasts, 1983-1984. U.S. Natl. Mar.

Fish. Serv. Curr. Fish. Stat. No.

8326. 222 pp.

Norcross, J.J., S.L. Richardson,Ii+t.

Massman, and E.B. Joseph.

Development of young bluefish

(Pomatbmus saltatrix) and distribution of eggs and young in Virginian

coastal waters. Trans. Am. Fish.

sot. 103:477-497.

Nyman, R.M., and 0.0. Conover. 1987.

The relation between spawning season

and the recruitment of young-ofthe-year bluefish, Pomatomus

saltatrix, to New York. U.S. Natl.

!&:

tish. Serv. Fish. Bull. 86:237-

Ogilvy, C.S., and A.B. Dubois. 1981.

The hydrodynamic drag of swimming

bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) in

different intensities of turbulence:

variation with changes of buoyancy.

J. Exp. Biol. 92:67-85.

la, B.L., H.M. Katz, and A.L.

Studholme. 1970. Prey capture and

feedino motivation in the bluefish.

0 1

Pomatomus saltatrix. Copeia 19701

360-362.

Olla, B.L., and A.L. Studholme. 1971.

The effect of temoerature on the

activity of bluefish, Pomatomus

1 2
saltatrix L. Biol. Bull. (Woods

Hole):337-349.

Olla, B.L., and A.L. Studholme. 1978.

Comparative aspects of the activity

rhythms of tautog, Tauto a onitis,

bluefish, Pomatomus sa --+- tatrix, and

Atlantic mackerel Scomber scombrus,

as related to iheirlifehabits.

Pages 131-151 in J.E. Thorpe, ed.

Rhythmic acfivity of fishes.

Academic Press, New York. 312 pp.

Padgett, H.R. 1970. Notes on Florida

bluefish. Underwater Nat. 6(4):40-

41.

Powles, H. 1981. Distribution and

movements of neustonic young of

estuarine dependent (Mugil spp.,

Pomatomus saltatrix) and estuarine

independentmena spp.) fishes

off the Southeastern United States.

Rapp. P.-V. Reun. Cons. Int. Explor.

Mer 178:207-209.

Richards, S.W. 1976. Age, growth,

and food of bluefish (Pomatomus

saltatrix) from East-Central Long

Island Sound from July through

November 1975. Trans. Am. Fish.

Sot. 105:523-525.

Smith, W.G., A.W. Kendall, Jr., P.L.

Berrien, and M.P. Fayhay. 1979.

Principal spawning areas and times

of marine fishes. Cape Sable to Cape

Hatteras. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish.

Serv. Fish. Bull. 76:911-915.

Smith, W.G. 1980. What studies of

young fish tell about fish opulations. Underwater Nat. 12(47:9-16.

Street, M.W. 1983. A look at the

1982 commercial catch. Tar Heel

Coast 18(2):1-5.

Wilk, S.J. 1977. Biological and

fisheries data on bluefish,

Pomatomus saltatrix (Linnaeus).

U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Tech.

Ser. Rep. 11, Northeast Fisheries

Center, Highlands, N.J. 56 pp.

Wilk, S.J. 1980. The recreational

fishery. Underwater Nat. 12(4):

40-45.

Wilk, S.J., W.W. Morse, and D.E.

Ralph. 1978. Length-weight relationships of fishes collected in the

New York Bight. Bull. New Jersey

Acad. Sci. 23:58-64.

.3
REPORT DOCUMENTATION 1. .‘-‘Jfl.“O. 3. Recipienrs Acc*sslon NO.

PAGE 61 ol ogl cal Report 82( 11.96)

____________ _____ ----__--_

*It

4. Title and Subtitle 9. Report Da19

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of April 1989

Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Atlantic)--Bluefish 6 .

7. AuthwW J . Douglas Oliver, Michael J. Van Den Avyle and Earl L. a F+*r(orming O~*niX&ion R*pt. NC

Bozeman, Jr.

+. Pwioormin# Org4nization N4me and Addnss

Georgia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit

10. PmiM/l~sk/WorL Unit No.

School of Forest Resources

University of Georgia

11. COntract or Onrat No.

Athens, GA 30602 (0

- -

12. Swonwwirq OrSanlzatlon Name 4nd Addnsa

(G)

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 13. TYM of R*port 6 Pwiod cownd

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station

National Wetlands Research Center P.O. Box 631

Washington, DC -20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180

-

14.

15. Supplwnwtrry Nptu

*U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Report No. TR EL-82-4

16. Abstract (Limit: 200 words)

Species profiles are literature summaries of the life history, distribution, and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates. Profiles are prepared to assist

with environmental impact assessment. The ,bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) is a valuable

recreational and commercial fish on the Atlantic coast. In the South Atlantic Region the

recreational catch exceeds the commercial catch. The bluefish is a migratory pelagic fish

that generally travels northward in spring and summer and southward in fall and winter

along .the Atlantic seaboard.In the South Atlantic Region, spawning occurs primarily during

spring in waters just shoreward of the Gulf Stream from southern North Carolinato Florida.

Most larvae are carried northward by the Gulf Stream and are dispersed over the continental

slope of the Middle Atlantic Region. Adult bluefish inhabit nearshore areas in the South

Atlantic Region during their southerly migration in fall and winter. Larval bluefish eat

mostly copepods, cladocerans, and invertebpate eggs; juveniles eat larger invertebrates

and fishes. Adult bluefish eat fishes and seem to prefer schooling coastal species.

Bluefish have been reported to avoid areas of low dissolved oxygen. Water turbidity may

affect feeding because bluefish rely on vision to locate prey. Environmental disturbances

which affect the dissolved oxygen concentration or turbidity of estuarine and nearshore

waters may, therefore, affect bluefish distribution and feeding.

17. Document Analysis . . Dacripban

Estuaries

Fishes

Growth

Bluefish

Pomatomus saltatrix

Habitat

Spawning

Fisheries

C. COSATI FIeldlGmup

1S. Av4llabllity SWornant

Unlimited Distribution

19. Security Class (This Repoo~) 21. No. of PaSea

Unclassified 13

20. %urity Class Uhis P4q.j

unclassified

22. Pric*

Sn ANSI-239.18) OPTIONAL FORM 272 W-7:

(Formerly NTIS-IS)

Oapastment of Commmx
As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of

the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned

public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the

wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish

and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our

national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses

our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their

development is in the best interests of all our people. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation

communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S.

administration.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

in America

UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

National Wetlands Research Center

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