REFEREYCECOPY 

Do Not Remove from the Library 

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Biological Report 82 (1 1.58) Nationa 1 Wetlands Research Center TR EL-82-4 

June 1986 700 Cajun Dome Boulevard 

Lafayette, Louisiana 70506 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and 

Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes 

and Invertebrates (South Florida) 

KING AND SPANISH MACKEREL 

Coastal Ecology Group 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 
Biological Report 82(11.58) 

TR EL-82-4 

June 1986 

Species Profi les: Life History and Environmental Requirements 

of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Florida) 

KING MACKEREL AND SPANISH MACKEREL 

Mark F. Godcharles 

and 

Michael D. Murphy 

Division of Marine Resources 

Florida Department of Natural Resources 

100 8th Ave. S.E. 

St. Petersburg, FL 33701 

Project Officer 

John Parsons 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Slidell, LA 70458 

Performed for 

Coastal Ecology Group 

Waterways Experiment Station 

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 

and 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

Research and Development 

Fish and Wildlife Service 

U. S. Department of the Interior 

Washington, DC 20240 
This series should be referenced as follows: 

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983-19 Species profiles: 1 ife histories and 

environmental requirements of coastar fishes and invertebrates. U. S. Fish 

Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 

This profile should be cited as follows: 

Godcharles, M. F. , and M. D. Murphy. 1986. Species profiles: 1 ife histories 

and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (south 

Florida) -- king mackerel and Spanish mackerel. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. 

Rep. 82(11.58). U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 18 pp. 
PREFACE 

This species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms, 

principal ly fish, of sport, commercial , or ecological importance. The profiles 

are designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists with a brief 

comprehensive sketch of the biological characteristics and environmental 

requirements of the species and to describe how populations of the species may be 

expected to react to environmental changes caused by coastal development. Each 

profile has sections on taxonomy, 1 ife history, ecological role, environmental 

requirements, and economic importance, if applicable. A three-ri ng binder is 

used for this series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared. 

This project is jointly planned and financed by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers 

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to one of 

the foll owing addresses. 

Information Transfer Specialist 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

NASA-Sl idel 1 Computer Complex 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Sl idel 1 , LA 70458 

U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station 

Attention: WESER-C 

Post Office Box 631 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 
CONVERSION TABLE 

Metric to U.S. Customary 

Mu1 tiply !?L To Obtain 

mill irneters (mm) 

centimeters (n) 

meters (m) 

ki 1 ometers ( km) 

2 square meters (m ) 10.76 

square ki 1 meters ( km2) 0.3861 

hectares (ha) 2.471 

liters (1) 

cubic meters (m3) 

cubic meters 

inches 

inches 

feet 

mil es 

square feet 

square (nil es 

acres 

gal 1 ons 

cubic feet 

acre-feet 

mil 1 igrams (mg) 0.00003527 ounces 

grams (g) 0.03527 ounces 

kil ojralns (kg) 2.205 pounds 

metric tons (t) 2205.0 pounds 

metric tons 1.102 short tons 

ki 1 ocal ories ( kcal ) 3.968 British thermal units 

Celsius degrees 1.8("C) + 32 Fahrenheit degrees 

U.S. Customary to Metric 

inches 25.40 

inches 2.54 

feet (ft) 0.3048 

fathoms 1.829 

miles (mi) 1.609 

nautical miles (mi) 1.852 

square feet (ft2) 

acres 2 

square miles (mi ) 

gal 1 ons (gal ) 

cubic feet (ft3) 

acre-feet 

ounces (02) 28.35 

pounds (lb) 0.4536 

short tons (ton) 0.9072 

British thermal uni ts (Btu) 0.2520 

mil 1 imeters 

centimeters 

meters 

meters 

kilometers 

ki 1 oneters 

square meters 

hectares 

square ki 1 ometers 

1 i ters 

cubic meters 

cubic meters 

grams 

ki 1 og rams 

metric tons 

ki 1 ocal ories 

Fahrenheit degrees 0.5556("F - 32) Celsius degrees 
CONTENTS 

Page 

PREFACE ................................ CONVERSIONTABLE ........................... TABLES ................................. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................ 

NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE ...................... MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS .................... REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES .................... LIFE HISTORY ............................. Seasonal Distribution and Populations ................ Spawning .............................. Maturity and Fecundity ....................... Eggs. Larvae. and Juveniles ..................... Longevity and Growth ........................ COMMERCIAL AND SPORT FISHERIES .................... ECOLOGICAL ROLE ............................ Food Habits ............................. Predators .............................. ENVIRONMENTALREQUIREMENTS ...................... Temperature ............................. Salinity .............................. 

LITERATURE CITED ............................ 

iii 

i v 

v i 

vi i 
TABLES 

Number Page 

1 Meristic characteristics of mackerels in Florida ......... 4 

2 Regressions of fecundity on total weight and fork length 

for king mackerel and Spanish mackerel. .............. 7 

3 Mean back-calculated fork lengths of king mackerel and Spanish 

mackerel. ............................. 8 

4 Von Bertalanffy growth parameters for king mackerel and Spanish 

mackerel. ............................. 10 

5 Length-weight relations for king mackerel and Spanish mackerel. .. 10 

6 Florida commercial landings of king and Spanish mackerel in the 

Gulf of Mexico and along the Atlantic coast, 1960-83. ....... 12 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

We are grateful for reviews by J. Connor Davis, Florida Marine Fisheries 

Commission; Roy Wi 11 iams, Florida Department of Natural Resources; Dr. Bill 

Seaman, University of Florida; and staff of the National Marine Fisheries Service 

Laboratory in Panama City, FL. 
King mackerel 

Spanish mackerel 

Figure 1. King and Spanish mackerel (fran Goode 1884). 

KING MACKEREL AND SPANISH MACKEREL 

Scientific name. . Scomberomorus caval la 

(Cuvier) 

preferred- common name.. . king mackerel 

(Figure 1) 

Other common names. ......... ki ngf i sh, 

kings, serucho 

Scientific name........ . Scomberomorus 

maculatus (Mitchi 11 ) 

Preferred common name. ........ Spanish 

mackerel (Figure 1) 

Class .................... Osteichthyes 

Order ..................... Perciformes 

Family ..................... Scombridae 

Geographic range: King mackerel 

inhabit Atlantic coastal waters 

from the Gulf of Maine to Rio de 

Janei ro, Brazi 1 , including the Gulf 

of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea 

(Bri ggs 1958; Beaumari age 1973). 

They are concentrated off the coast 

of the Carolinas in the spring, 

summer, and fall ; in the northern 

Gulf of Mexico from Texas to northwest Florida in summer; and off 

southern Florida and Louisiana in 

winter. The distributions and 

concentrations in south Florida are 

shown in Figure 2. 
T. PETERSBURG FT. PIERCE 

Coastal distribution 

Areaa of high concentration 

Figure 2. Distribution of mackerel along the coast of South Florida. 

2 
Spanish mackerel inhabit coastal 

waters of the western Atlantic Ocean 

from the Gulf of Maine to the 

Yucatan Peninsula (Col lette et a1 . 1978). They are common as far north 

as Chesapeake Bay in summer (Bigelow 

and Schroeder 1953). Large schools 

are common in south Florida waters 

in late fall and winter (Figure 2). 

MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS 

King Mackerel 

The elongated, fusiform, compressed body of king mackerel is 4.25 

to 5.00 times as long as the head, and 

5.50 to 6.25 times as long as it is 

deep (Berrien and Finan 1977a). They 

have two dorsal fins, the second 

followed by eight or nine finlets. 

The lateral line, which abruptly 

curves downward below the second 

dorsal fin, distinguishes the king 

mackerel from the Spanish mackerel and 

the cero mackerel (S. regal is). The 

caudal peduncle has a large fleshy 

keel. The body is entirely scaled 

with rudimentary scales, except for 

most of the pectoral fin. The mouth 

is large and oblique with the 

maxi1 1ary reaching posteriorly to 

slightly beyond the eye orbit. Each 

side of the jaw has about 30 strongly 

compressed triangular teeth. This 

species gets considerably 1 arger than 

the Spanish mackerel. 

'The dorsal surface of the king 

mackerel is black with iridescent hues 

of green and blue. The lateral and 

ventral sides are silvery white. The 

lateral ye1 low spotting on the young 

is almost always absent on mature 

specimens (Berrien and Fi nan 1977a). 

second fin is concave and originates a 

short distance in front of the anal 

fin, which is similar in form and 

size. These are followed by eight or 

nine dorsal and anal finlets. The 

lateral 1 ine is wavy, and the caudal 

peduncle is keeled. The caudal fin is 

lunate, and the pectorals are not 

covered with scales. See Table 1 for 

other key diagnostic characters. 

Spanish mackerel are dark blue or 

blue-green above, pale and silvery 

below. Their sides are marked with 

many small, oblong, dull orange or 

yellowish spots that are prominent 

both above and below the lateral line. 

The membrane is black on the anterior 

one-third of the first dorsal fin and 

the posterior is greenish-whi te. The 

second dorsal and the pectoral fins 

are pale yellow with dusky edges. The 

anal and ventral fins are white 

(Berrien and Finan 1977b). 

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES 

King and Spanish mackerel support 

commercial and sport fisheries of 

major importance. Both species inhabit coastal waters but Spanish 

mackerel usually come closer to shore, 

e.g., along the beaches and in the 

outer waters of estuaries. In the 

summer, large sol i tary king mackerel 

are sometimes captured off piers and 

near deepwater inlets. Juveni 1 e king 

mackerel sometimes mix with schools of 

Spanish mackerel. Both species feed 

principal ly on estuary-dependent species such as menhaden (Brevoortia 

spp. ) and anchovies (Anchoa spp. ). 

Excessive alterations of estuaries 

could reduce the production of coastal 

forage fish on which king and Spanish 

mackerel feed. 

Spanish Mackerel LIFE HISTORY 

Spanish mackerel have compressed, Seasonal Distribution and Populations 

elonaated bodies about 4.5 to 5.0 

time; as long as they are deep. The King mackerel. Extensive tagging 

first dorsal fin is triangular; the studies indicate that there are at 
Table 1. Meristic characteristics of mackerels in Florida (Mago-Leccia 1958). 

Ki ng 

Characteristic mackerel 

Spanish Cero 

mackerel mackerel 

Total number of vertebrae 

kirst closed haemal arch 

at vertebra number 

First haemal spine at 

vertebra number 

Dorsal spines 

Dorsal rays 

Dorsal f i nl ets 

Anal spines 

Anal rays 

Anal finlets 

+- Angle 

Gill rakers 

Lower 1 imb 

least two migratory groups of king 

mackerel. Those tagged in the winter 

south of Cape Canaveral , Florida, 

usual ly moved southward through the 

Florida Keys, entered the Gulf of 

Mexico in late winter and spring, and 

then continued northward along the 

west Florida Continental Shelf. Some 

were recaptured as far west as Texas 

and a few as far south as Veracruz and 

Yucatan, Mexico. These western 

migrants, some tagged off the coasts 

of Texas and northwest Florida in the 

summer, returned to south Florida in 

the winter (Will iams and Taylor 1978; 

Williams and Sutherland 1979; 

Sutherl and and Fable 1980). 

A second group of king mackerel, 

tagged in the spring off southeast 

Florida, moved northward in the summer 

along the Atlantic coast to the 

Carolinas. One was recaptured as far 

north as Chincoteague, Virginia. King 

mackerel tagged in South Carolina in 

the spring generally moved south in 

May through August and were recaptured in Florida that summer. In the 

fall they migrated to the northern 

1 imi t of their distribution, and many 
were recaptured in North Carolina 

(Wi 11 iams and Sutherland 1979; 

Wi 11 iams and Godcharl es 1983). 

Preliminary electrophoretic analyses of 48 enzymes extracted from king 

mackerel tissues (heart, 1 iver, eye, 

and muscle) give evidence that there 

are two populations of king mackerel. 

Variation of two alleles for the peptidase with glycyl leucine-2 locus 

gave the greatest differences between 

South Carol i na and Texas specimens ; 

however, other loci were minimally 

polymorphic and of limited value for 

separating populations (May, unpubl . MS.). Homing tendencies are additional 

evidence of two populations. After a 

year or more of freedom, king mackerel 

usually are recaptured at or near 

their release site at about the same 

time of year they were first tagged 

(Wi 1 1 i ams and Godcharl es 1983). 

Spanish mackerel. Spanish mackerel are also migratory, general ly 

moving northward each spring , spending 

summer in the northern art of their 

range, and migrating south in fall. 

In spring, summer, and fall, they are 

most abundant in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico and along the east coast of the 

United States up to Virginia (Wollam 

1970; Dwinell and Futch 1973; Powell 

1975). Their major wintering grounds 

are off south Florida, but some overwinter off the east coast of Mexico 

(Mendoza 1968; Sutherl and and Fable 

1 980). 

Spanish mackerel from different 

geographic areas may mix in south 

Florida during the winter. In summer, 

the south Atlantic and eastern Gulf of 

Mexico populations spawn in isolation 

in the northern parts of their ranges 

(Wol lam 1970). Electrophoretic patterns of two hemoglobin phenotypes 

demonstrated that northwestern gulf 

fish are distinct from fish captured 

along the U.S. east coast (Skow and 

Chi ttenden 1981). 

Spawni ng 

King mackerel. This species 

spawns in the coastal waters of the 

northern Gulf of Mexico, and off the 

south Atlantic coast (Dwinell and 

Futch 1973; McEachran et al. 1980; 

Burns 1981 ; Powles, unpubl. MS. ). 

Because of a protracted spawning 

season, larvae have been collected by 

sampling gear from May through 

October. Catches were highest in 

September. The paucity of larvae in 

the eastern Gulf of Mexico south of 

Cape San Blas, off the Yucatan Channel 

and southeast Florida, indicates minimal spawning in these waters (Wol lam 

1970; Houde et al. 1979; Burns 1981). 

King mackerel larvae were discovered off northwest Florida and Texas 

between the Middle and Outer (35-183 

m) Continental Shelf (Dwinell and 

Futch 1973; McEachran et al. 1980). 

Larvae captured near Palm Beach, 

Florida, were closer to shore than 

those captured farther north off Cape 

Canaveral, Florida, Savannah, Georgia, 

and Cape Fear, North Carolina. North 

of Cape Canaveral , 1 arvae were found 

near or off the shelf along the 200 m 

depth contour and near the Gulf Stream 

(Wollam 1970; Burns 1981; Powles, 

unpubl. MS.). 

Further evidence of protracted 

spawning for king mackerel is the 

holding of vi tell ogenic eggs (eggs 

with forming yolk) from May through 

October (Beaumariage 1973). Mu1 tiple 

spawning is suggested by bimodal distributions of mean oocyte diameter of 

yo1 kbearing vi te1 logenic (stage 4) 

eggs. The first mode was in late May 

through early July and the second was 

in late July and early August. The 

appearance of spent males from 

September throqgh December coincided 

with a commensurate absence of vi tellogenic eggs beginning in August, 

suggesting a final climactic spawn. 

Spanish mackerel . Spanish 

mackerel also spawn over a protracted 

season (Powel 1 1975). ~ipe females 
have been collected from April through 

September in Florida waters (Kl ima 

1959; Powel 1 1975; Finucane and 

Col 1 i ns , unpubl . MS. ) . Larvae have 

been collected from spring until late 

summer in the eastern Gulf of Mexico 

(Dwinell and Futch 1973; Houde et al. 

1979), and from May through midSeptember from Cape Fear, North 

Carol i nay to Cape Canaveral , Fl orida 

(Pow1 es , unpubl . MS. ). 

The onset of spawning progresses 

from south to north. Spawning begins 

in April in the Caroltnas, in mid-June 

in Chesapeake Bay, and from late 

August to late September off Sandy 

Hook, New Jersey, and Long Island, New 

York (Earl 1 1883). Beaumariage (1970) 

reported that few mackerel spawned at 

water temperatures below 26 OC. In 

Texas, mackerel spawned when water 

temperatures exceeded 25 OC and at 

salinities between 30 and 36 ppt 

(Hoese 1965). Spanish mackerel 

apparently spawn at night (Earll 1883; 

Smith 1907). 

Col lections of small 1 arvae 

indicate that Spanish mackerel spawn 

over the Inner Continental Shelf in 

waters 12-34 m deep (McEachran et a1 . 1980). In the northeastern Gulf of 

Mexico off northwest Florida, most 

larvae were collected in water 

shallower than 13 my although some 

were in water as deep as 91.5 m 

(Dwinell and Futch 1973). All larvae 

collected along the west coast of 

Florida by Houde et al. (1979) were 

taken inside the 50 m depth contour; 

most were within the 20 m contour. 

Maturity and Fecundity 

In south Florida, most male king 

mackerel probably spawn in their 

fourth year of life (Age 111) when 

about 718 mm fork length (FL); most 

females spawn at Age IV when about 857 

mm FL (Beaumariage 1973). Finucane et 

al. (unpubl. MS.) reported mature females. about 600 mm FL distributed from 

Texas to the Carol inas, with egg count 

estimates ranging from 69,000 (446 mm 

FLY Age I, 0.68 kg) to 12,207,000 

(1,489 mm FLY Age XIII, 25.6 kg). The 

best indicator of fecundity is the 

total weight of the fish (Finucane et 

al. unpubl . MS). Fecundi ty-weight 

equations are listed in Table 2. 

Spanish mackerel in south Florida 

become sexually mature in their second 

and third year of 1 ife (Ages I and 11) 

when about 250 to 350 mm FL. In 

southeast Florida, the length of most 

mature males and females ranges between 325 and 349 mm FL; all fish 

larger than 375 mm FL were mature. 

Klima (1959) found mature females as 

small as 250 mm FL and mature males 

between 280 and 340 mm FL. He estimated that most of these fish were 1 

or 2 years old. On the other hand, 

Powell (1975) reported that Klima 

overestimated all ages by one year 

because he misread the f i rst annul us ; 

therefore, fish less than 1 year old 

may have been mature. Many Age I fish 

had ripe oocytes, but observations in 

the Apri 1 -September spawning season 

suggested that the eggs of Age I fish 

were not advanced enough to be spawned 

that season (Powel 1 1975). Spanish 

mackerel Age I11 and older constitute the bulk of the spawning stock. 

The fecundity of Spanish mackerel 

(Table 2) in southeast Florida increases with increasing length and 

weight (Fi nucane and Col 1 ins, unpubl . MS.). Egg number estimates ranged 

from 194,000 to 1,491,000 for females 

354 to 664 mm FL. Earll (1883) reported 1.5 million eggs from a 6-lb 

(2.7- kg) female col 1 ected from 

Chesapeake Bay. 

Eggs, Larvae, and Juveni 1 es 

Examination of king and Spanish 

mackerel larvae 2.0 to 2.9 mm standard 

length (SL) offered diagnostic aids 

for separating the larvae based on 

pigment (me1 anophore) differences in 

the jaw, head, and nape areas 

(Richardson and McEachran 1981). The 

myomere counts, mouth, teeth, preopercular spines, fin elements, and pig- 
Table 2. Regressions of fecundity (F) on total weight (TW) and fork length (FL) 

for king mackerel (Finucane et a1 . , unpubl . MS. ) and Spanish mackerel ; r is the 

correlation coefficient (Finucane and Collins, unpubl. MS.). 

Equation 

Number of 

100r2 fish 

KING MACKEREL (SOUTHEAST U. S. ) 

F = 1.854 x 10 (TW) 1.361 85.6 6 5 

F = 4.391 x (FL) 3.974 82.0 64 

SPANISH MACKEREL (SOUTHEAST FLORIDA) 

F = 9.076 x lo2 (TW) 0.919 94.1 11 

F = 1.027 x (FL) 2.863 92.5 11 

mentation of larger king mackerel 

larvae (3.3 to 17.0 mm SL) were described by Wol lam (1970). King mackerel eggs have not yet been described. 

King mackerel. Because most king 

mackerel larvae are collected near the 

surface, the refinement of quanti tative sampl ing techniques to col lect 

larvae 3 mm SL (about 3 days old) 

would aid in the delineation of 

spawning grounds (McEachran et al. 

1980). In the gulf, mackerel larvae 

have been taken at surface salinities 

and temperatures from 27 to 36 ppt and 

26 to 31 OC, and in the south Atlantic 

between 30 and 37 ppt and 22 to 28 OC 

(Dwinell and Futch 1973; Powles, 

unpubl . MS. ). 

Spanish mackerel. The eggs and 

newly hatched larvae of Spanish mackerel have been described by Ryder 

(1882). The eggs are pelagic, smooth, 

and transparent, with a single oil 

droplet. Eggs are round and about 1 

mm (0.9 - 1.3 mm) in diameter; the 

perivitelline space (the clear space 

inside the egg between the chorion and 

the oil globule) is about 0.1 mm 

across, and the oil globule is 0.25 mm 

in diameter. Hatching takes place 

after about 25 h at a temperature of 

26 OC (Smith 1907). Larvae longer 

than 3 mm SL were described by Wollam 

(1970). Most larvae have been collected in coastal waters of the Gulf 

of Mexico (Wollam 1970; McEachran et 

el. 1980) and the east coast of the 

United States (Powles, unpubl . MS. ). 

Juveni 1 e Spanish mackerel have 

been collected from low salinity 

estuaries and high salinity beach 

waters. A Spanish mackerel 58 mm long 

was collected from Sabot Pond, 

Louisiana, at a salinity of 0.2 ppt 

(Kel ley 1965). Juveniles (133 to 158 

mm SL) were collected along high salinity (33.8 ppt) beaches and low saliinity (12.8 to 19.7 ppt) bayous in 

Tampa Bay, Florida (Springer and Woodburn 1960). Apparently, some juveni 1 e 

Spanish mackerel use estuaries as 

nursery grounds, but most stay nearshore in open beach waters. 
Longevity and Growth The von Bertalanffy growth equation is 

as follows: 

Kin mackerel. A1 though Beaumari age 4-i- 1973 estimated age, growth, 

and mortality of king mackerel, recent 

estimates (Johnson et al. 1983) are 

probably more accurate because the 

data base included more of the larger 

and older king mackerel collected from 

North Carolina to Texas. Most of 

Beaumariagels (1973) specimens came 

from winter collections in South 

Florida. The mean back-calculated 

fork lengths are listed in Table 3. 

where 1 is length at age t, L, is 

asymptot.c length, K is the growth 

coefficient, and t is the age when 

the theoretical length is zero (Table 

4) 

Both Beaumariage (1973) and 

Johnson et al. (1983) aged king mackerel by using otoliths. Although 

Tab1 e 3. Mean back-cal culated fork 1 engths (mm) of king mackerel (Beaumariage 

1973; Johnson et al. 1983) and Spanish mackerel (Kilma 1959; Powell 1975). 

Beaumariage's lengths were converted to fork lengths using his relation FL = 1.096(SL) - 17.143. Powel 1 Is lengths were converted by using his relation FL = 1.073(SL) + 2.427. Lengths for female king mackerel reported by Johnson et al. 

(1983) excluded Louisiana specimens. 

Ma1 es Females 

Beaumariane Johnson et al. Beaumariage Johnson et al. 

Ki ng mackerel 

I11 

I v 

v 

VI 

VI I 

VIII 

I X 

X 

Femal es 

Kilma Powel 1 

Spanish mackerel 
there was good correlation between the 

growth of otoliths and length of fish, 

neither study clearly demonstrated 

that opaque otolith growth rings were 

valid indicators of age (Powers and 

Eldridge, unpubl. MS. a). 

Females live longer than males 

and usually grow faster after Age I1 

(Table 3). The oldest females collected were 14 years of age or older: 

a 1.4 m FL fish from Louisiana 

(Johnson et al. 1983) and a 90 lb 

(40.8 kg) fish from Key West 

(Beaumariage, unpubl . data). The 

oldest male (979 mm SL) was 12 years 

old (Johnson et al. 1983). 

King mackerel growth is highly 

variable. For example, females 850 to 

899 mm FL could be 1 to 8 years old; 

males about the same size could be 3 

to 8 years old. Johnson et al. (1983) 

suggested that compensatory growth 

occurs in "slow growing" fish during 

their second year when their growth 

increment surpasses that of "fast 

growers. I' Nevertheless , "slow 

growing" mackerel remain small er than 

"fast growers" throughout their lives. 

Equations relating weight to 

length of king and Spanish mackerel 

are listed in Table 5. The total 

annual mortality estimate by Johnson 

et al. (1983) was 0.37; Beaumariage 

(1973) reported 0.54. 

Spanish mackerel. The growth of 

larval and luveni 1 e S~anish mackerel 

has not b&n measured in the laboratory. The protracted spawning season 

makes it difficult to estimate growth 

from length distributions. Hildebrand 

and Cable (1938) collected larvae 4 mm 

long as early as June off North 

Carolina; some juveniles were 80 mm 

1 ong by October. 

By determining age and growth 

from otoliths in south Florida, Powell 

(1975) and Klima (1959) reported that 

females grow faster than males (Table 

3). The average length of Age I1 fish 

reported by' Klima (1959) , however, is 

about equal to the average length of 

Age I fish reported by Powell (1975). 

One author probably misread the first 

annulus. Growth parameters for each 

sex are in Table 4. 

Spanish mackerel of the same age 

are smaller in the southwestern Gulf 

of Mexico than in south Florida 

(Powel 1 1975). Mendoza (1968) and Doi 

and Mendizabal (1979) also used 

otoliths to determine age, but the 

data for both sexes were combined. 

Mendoza (1968) reported average fork 

lengths (FL) of 333, 408, 471, 543, 

and 593 mm for Ages 11-VI, respectively, and an estimated asymptotic 

length of 860 mm FL. Estimated 

average total lengths (TL) reported by 

Doi and Mendizabal (1979) for Ages 

I-VI were 262, 426, 475, 512, 575, and 

638 mm, respectively. 

The life span of Spanish mackerel 

is about 5 to 8 years (Kl ima 1959; 

Powell 1975; Doi and Mendizabal 1979). 

The total annual mortality rate based 

on Powell's (1975) data was estimated 

at 0.62 (GM&SAFMC 1982), which approximates the rate calculated by Doi and 

Mendizabal (1979) for Spanish mackerel 

taken off the Mexican coast (0.59). 

Weight-length relations for Spanish 

mackerel are given in Table 5. 

COMMERCIAL AND SPORT FISHERIES 

Ki ng Mackerel 

Florida has historical ly produced 

about 90% of the king mackerel commercial landings in the United States 

(Table 6). The species is also highly 

regarded as a sport fish. Sport fishermen in the south Atlantic region are 

estimated to have caught 598,000 king 

mackerel in 1979 and 1,370,000 in 

1980. In the gulf, about 600,000 were 

taken in 1979 and 1 million in 1980 

(Trent et al. 1983). At times, keen 

competition for this resource has led 

to serious user conflicts. 
Table 4. Von Bertalanffy growth parameters for king mackerel (Beaumariage 1973; 

Johnson et al. 1983) and Spanish mackerel (Powell 1975). Johnson et al. did not 

include large, mostly female fish captured off Louisiana in data used to estimate 

growth parameters. Beaurnariage' s and Powel 1 ' s estimates of asymptotic length 

(Lm) were converted to fork lengths by using their length-length regressions 

(Table 3). K is the growth coefficient. 

Species 

and sex 

Growth parameters 

K Lm(mm FL) to(years) Source 

King mackerel 

Ma1 es 0.35 903 -2.50 Beaumariage 1973 

0.28 965 -1.17 Johnson et al. 1983 

Females 0.21 1,243 -2.40 Beaumari age 1973 

0.29 1,067 -0.97 Johnson et al. 1983 

Spani sh mackerel 

Ma1 es 0.48 555 -1.12 Powel 1 1975 

Females 0.45 694 -0.78 Powell 1975 

Tab1 e 5. Length-weight relations for king mackerel and Spanish mackerel. 

Weights (W) are in grams and lengths (L) in millimeters. 

Species Length Number of W = aL b 

and sex measure* fish a b Source 

King mackerel 

Ma1 es S L 237 1.330 x 101: 2.9372 Beaumari age 1973 

F L 701 0.8064 x 2.9928 Johnson et al. 1983 

Females S L 292 3.907 x 3.1256 Beaumariage 1973 

FL 2,023 0.8801 x 10 2.9827 Johnson et al. 1983 

Spanish mackerel 

Ma1 es S L 135 1.1519 x 1012 2.9822 Powel 1 1975 

Females S L 217 4.7491 x 10 3.1373 Powel 1 1975 

%L = Standard 1 ength 

FL = Fork length. 
Major commerci a1 catches a1 ong 

the Florida east coast are centered 

between Cape Canaveral and Palm Beach, 

and on the west coast from Key West to 

Naples (Beaumariage 1973). A1 though 

king mackerel support a year-round 

fishery, most are caught in winter and 

early spring. The percentages of the 

total catch taken from 1950 to 1974 

along the east coast of Florida were 

67% by troll i ng , 29% by runaround gi 11 

nets, and 4% by handlines. The percentages for the west coast were 56% 

for runaround gill nets, 34% for 

troll ing, 6% for hand1 ines, and 4% for 

other methods (Trent et al. 1983). 

Purse seining has recently been permitted in Federal waters (GWSAFMC 

1982). 

Major changes in the locations 

and the intensity of fishing in Florida have taken place since about 1960. 

The east coast center of production 

has gradually shifted northward from 

Dade County toward Volusia County and 

a spring fishery of major importance 

has developed off Palm Beach County 

near Jupiter and Juno (Williams and 

Godcharles 1983). As a result of 

higher dockside prices, fishing 

efforts increased sharply: from 1969 

to 1977 there was a three-fold 

increase in hook-and-1 i ne vessels, 

100 to 300, and gill net vessels, 12 

to 33 (GM&SAFMC 1982). By 1983, the 

number of gi 11 net vessels had risen 

to about 80, and the larger net boat 

fleet had moved onto fishing grounds 

that had formerly been used principally by trollers and handliners. In 

addition, the net fleet has increased 

its efficiency through the use of 

spotter airplanes, monof i lament net 

construction, 1 arger and deeper nets 

mechanical ly retrieved by power 

rol lers, and electronic equipment. 

Spanish mackerel. This species 

is of major commercial im~ortance in 

south ~iorida (Klima 1959; Powell 

1975). The main fishing areas are the 

Florida Keys and the Atlantic coast 

between Palm Beach and Cape Canaveral. 

Small numbers are caught as an incidental or supplemental commercial 

species off the coasts of Alabama, 

Mississippi, Louisiana, North 

Carolina, and, to a smaller extent, 

Georgia and South Carol ina. 

Spanish mackerel are primarily 

captured with gill nets deployed from 

small boats 20 to 22 ft long, and with 

power rollers used on large boats 30 

to 60 ft long. Since 1976, commercial 

production on the gulf coast has fluctuated between 1.5 and 3.5 million Ib, 

and production on the Atlantic coast 

has fluctuated between 3.4 and 11 

mil lion lb (Table 6). The causes of 

fluctuation in catch cannot be identified because there are no catch-peruni t-of-effort data. 

Spanish mackerel also are an 

important species for the private boat 

and charter boat sport fishery a1 ong 

the gulf and south Atlantic coasts. 

Most anglers fish from private boats, 

although good catches are made from 

charter boats, fishing piers, and 

beach fishing (Deuel 1973). 

The limited sport statistics suggest that 1979 commercial landings on 

the Atlantic coast were double the 

sport catch. On the gulf coast, however, the sport catch was probably 50% 

higher than the commercial catch 

(GWSAFMC 1982). 

Fisheries Management Plan. The 

Fishery Management Plan (FMP) for 

coastal pelagic fish species, including mackerel, was implemented in March 

1983 by the Gulf of Mexico and South 

At1 antic Fishery Management Counci 1 s 

(GM&SAFMC). Quotas based on theoretical yields partitioned according to 

historical landings were establ ished 

for the commercial hook-and-1 ine 

(3,877,200 lb), net (5,122,800 lb), 

and sport (28,000,000 1b) fisheries, 

and were in effect from 1 July 1982 to 

30 June 1983. In May 1983, the commercial hook-and- 1 ine fishery was 

officially closed when that quota was 

attained. This early closure was 
Table 6. Florida commercial landings (thousands of pounds) of king and Spanish 

mackerel in the Gulf of Mexico and along the Atlantic coast, 1960-83 (NMFS Annual 

Landings). 

Gulf of Mexico 

King Spanish Year mac ke re 1 mackerel 

Atlantic 

Kina Spanish 

mackerel mackerel 

attributed to increased catches in 

North Carolina (0.7 mil lion Ib) and 

Louisiana (1.2 million Ib). These new 

developments in conjunction with 

decreasing catches in south Florida 

are currently under review by the 

GM&SAFMC. Recent studies suggest that 

increased catches are related to 

strong year classes, that more than 

one migratory group exists, and that a 

maximum sustainable yield of 37.7 

mi 11 ion 1 b may have been overestimated 

(Powers and Eldridge, unpubl. MS. a, 

b; Wi 11 iams and Godcharl es 1983). 

A maximum sustainable yield of 27 

million 1b for Spanish mackerel was 

established by the fisheries management plan (GM&SAFMC 1982). Sport and 

commercial catch statistics from the 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

reveal that only about half of the 

maximum sustainable yield was landed 

in 1979. 

ECO LOG I CA L ROLE 

Food Habits 

King and Spanish mackerel juveni les and adults are primari ly pelagic 

carnivores. Analysis of the stomach 
contents of 84 juvenile king mackerel 

(103-309 mm FL) from Cape Canaveral, 

130 Spanish mackerel (117-432 mm FL) 

from Cape Canaveral, and 214 Spanish 

mackerel from Gal veston Bay revealed 

that juveniles of both species were 

principally piscivorous, but king 

mackerel showed a greater preference 

for invertebrates. Anchovies (Anchoa 

spp. ) , menhaden (Brevoortia spp.), 

and Atlantic thread herri na - 

(Opi sthonema ogl i num) were the dominant forage of the mackerels. Much 

less common were mugi 1 ids, sciaenids, 

carangids, and eleotrids. Squid was 

the major invertebrate prey for both 

species. Juveniles fed heavily on 

anchovies, as shown by their frequency 

of occurrence (19%-39%) and volume 

(30%-54%) in mackerel stomachs. 'The 

body shape of anchovies appears to 

make them highly suitable prey for 

juveni le mackerel (Naughton and 

Sal oman 1981). 

King mackerel feed mostly on 

schooling fish, secondarily on crustaceans, and minimally on mollusks. The 

dominant prey by number (59%) were 

cl upeids (Atlantic thread herring) and 

scaled sardines, Haren ul a jagua?a. 

The minor fish preydre specles 

of Carangidae, Lutjanidae, Pomadasyidae (Haemul idae) , Sparidae, and 

Trig1 idae. Invertebrates, particularly squid and shrimps, made up 33% 

of the diet (Beaumariage 1973). 

In south Florida, the kina mackerel fed primarily on the bailyhoo, 

~emiramphus brasiliensis, foll owed by 

lutjanids (five species), clupeids, 

scombrids, mugi lids- (two speciesj, and 

serranids (Saloman and Naughton 

1983a). The invertebrates eaten were 

mostly penaeid shrimp and some squid 

and nematodes. In east central 

Florida, clupeids (principally the 

Spanish sardine, (Sardi nel 1 a a u r i t a ) 

were the dominant fish prey. -Other 

prey were anchovies, mullet, flying 

fish, drum, and jacks. Squid was the 

major invertebrate food; others were 

nematodes, penaeid shrimp, and isopods. Most fish eaten by adult king 

mackerel were about the same size: 

100 to 150 mm FL (Saloman and Naughton 

1983a). 

The food of adult king and 

Spanish mackerel is similar. Klima 

(1959) exami ned 190 Spanish mackerel 

stomachs and reported that 76% contained herringli ke fishes, principally 

the scaled sardine and Atlantic thread 

herring. Shrimp (Penaeus spp. ), 

mu1 let (Mugil spp.),eedlefish 

(Strongylura spp.), and anchovies were 

less abundant. In Texas, Miles and 

Simmons (1951) examined 2,274 Spanish 

mackerel stomachs containing food, and 

found that 30% contained menhaden. 

Kemp (1950), also working in Texas, 

reported the contents of 611 Spanish 

mackerel stomachs: 13% contained 

shrimp; 5%, squid; 9%, ribbonfish; I%, 

menhaden; I%, other species; and the 

remainder, unidentifiable. The round 

scad (Decapterus punctatus) was also 

1 isted as a food of the Spanish mackerel (Anderson and Gehringer 1957). 

Stomachs of 6,933 Spanish mackerel (64% were empty) were examined 

from the northern Gulf of Mexico, from 

east central Florida, and from the 

Carolinas. In vol ume, anchovies made 

up 96% of the food in Texas and 99% in 

east central Florida (Saloman and 

Naughton 1983b). Anchovies a1 so made 

up 94% of the diet by number in 

Louisiana and 98% in North and South 

Carolina. The predominance of anchovies, herring, and small jacks in 

the Spanish mackerel diet demonstrates 

major predation on small , school ing 

pelagic fishes. 

Predators 

Larvae and juveniles of king and, 

principal ly, Spanish mackerel have 

been identified as prey for the little 

tunny, Euth nnus alletteratus, and 

dolphin, Coryphaena hi ppuru; (Carl son 

1952: Klawe raaov~ch 969: Rose and^ '~assler 1974). -kelatively ,large 

king and Spanish mackerel are eaten by 
pelagic sharks, little tunny, and 

dolphins. The bottlenose dolphin 

(~ursio~s truncatus) interferes with 

commercial fishing bv ~iratina kina 

mackerel hooked on ti1 l'ing 1 i tes ani 

in nets (Cato and Prochaska 1976). 

Sharks sometimes interfere with gil 1 

net sets by eating mackerel caught in 

the mesh. The most common shark species are the tiger shark, Galeocerdo 

cuvieri ; bull shark, Carcharhin~ 

leucase dusky shark, C. obsc -9 - smooth hammerhead, Sphyyna zva 

shortfin mako, Isurus ox 

- 

, ,aena; 

- yri nchus ; 

lemon shark, Negaprion brevi rostri s; 

and porbeagl e, Lamna nasus (Bigelow 

and Schroeder 1948: CTark and von 

Schmidt 1965; GMASAFMC 1982). 

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 

Temperature 

Temperature and salinity are believed to be the most important factors governing the distribution of the 

two mackerels. Their northern range 

extends only to the 20 OC isotherm 

within the 18 m depth contour (Munro 

1943; Berrien and Finan 1977a). Their 

northern range limit is in the vicinity of Block Island, Rhode Island 

(Beaumari age 1970). Duri ng years of 

warm water temperatures, Spanish mackerel have been reported as far north 

as North Bay, Massachusetts (Arnold 

1951). According to Earll (1883), 

water temperatures of 21 to 27 OC are 

preferred by the Spanish mackerel ; 

rarely are they observed in waters 

cooler than 18 OC. 

The arrival of king mackerel off 

west central Florida in the spring 

depends on changes in water temperature and on the preceding winter's air 

temperature (Wi 11 iams and Taylor 

1980). Furthermore, sport catch data 

from northwest Florida indicate that 

catch-per-hour is usually higher 

fol lowing warm winters and lower 

following cold winters (Fable et al. 

1981). 

Salinity 

All life stages of king and 

Spanish mackerel usually inhabit 

waters within salinities of 32 to 36 

ppt. Spanish mackerel usually avoid 

freshwater or low salinities near the 

mouths of rivers (Earll 1883). Exceptions were reported by Tagatz and 

Dudley (1961), who collected young 

Spanish mackerel in a salinity of 4.7 

ppt in the Neuse River, North 

Carol i na. Other investigators have 

reported juveni 1 es in low salinities 

(17.8 ppt, Springer and Woodburn 1960; 

0.2 ppt, Kelley 1965). 
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m. 

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Sci. 43 (suppl.):26. (Abstr.) 

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juveni 1 es of ki ng mackerel , Scomberomorus cavalla (Cuvier), and Spanish 

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61. 35 pp. 
60172 -101 

15. Supplementaty Nates 

*U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Report No. TR EL-82-4 

16. Abstrmsl (Umit: 200 words) This Species Profile on king and Spanish mackerel summarizes the taxonomy, morphology, distribution, 1 ife history, fishery descriptions, ecological role, 

and environmental requirements of these coastal pelagic fish to assist environmental 

impact assessment. King and Spanish mackerel support major commercial and sport 

fisheries in south Florida. In 1974-83, Gulf of Mexico and Altantic commerical 

landings of king mackerel declined from 10.4 to 4.3 mil lion I b. ; Spanish mackerel have 

fluctuated between 4.9-17.4 mil 1 ion 1 b. Both inhabit coastal waters, but Spanish 

mackerel are generally found closer to beaches and in outer estuarine waters. Both 

species feed principally on estuarine-dependent species. They are highly migratory, 

exhibiting seasonal migrations to winter feeding grounds off south Florida and summer 

spawning/feeding grounds in the northern Gulf of Mexico and off the Atlantic coast of 

the Southeastern U.S. Spawning occurs from March/April through September/October 

between the middle and Outer Continental Shelf (35-183 mi) for king mackerel and the 

inner shelf (12-34 mi) for Spanish mackerel. King mackerel reach sexual maturity in 

'their 3rd and 4th years and Spanish, between their 2nd and 3rd. Female king mackerel 

live longer and grow larger and faster than males. Spanish mackerel live to 8 years; 

females also grow faster than males. King and Spanish mackerel feed principally on 

schooling fishes. Larvae and juveniles of both species are prey to little tunny and 

dolphin; adults are prey for sharks and bottlenose dolphin. Temperature and salinity 

are important factors regulating mackerel distribution. 17. Document Analysus a. Deacripton 

REPORT DOCUMENTATION 1. REPORT NO. 2. 

PAGE . Bioloaical Report 82(11.58)* 1 I - I 

4. Title and Subtitle Species Profi 1 es: Life History and Environmental 

Requirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Florida)-- 

King Mackerel and Spanish Mackerel. 

7. Author(s) 

Mark F. Godcharles and Michael D. Murphy 

9. perform in^ Organization Name end Address 

Florida Department of Natural Resources 

Division of Marine Resources, Bureau of Marine Research 

100 Eighth Avenue, SE 

St. Petersburg, FL 33701 

12. Sponsorinn Organlzatlon Name and Address 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team U. S. corps of ~~~i neers 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

U.S. Department of the Interior P. 0. Box 631 

Washington, DC 20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180 

Growth 

Feeding habits 

3. Reclplent's Accass~on No. 

L RepoR Date 

J~~~ 1986 

8. Performin. Oraan~zatlon Re@. NO. 

10. PmiectlTaskIWod~ Unit No. 

11. bntract(C) or Crant(C) NO. 

(c) 

(C) 

13. TYP* of Report 6 Penad Covemd 

14. 

1 b. Identlfier8lOoan.Ended Terms 

King mackerel 

Scomberomorus cavalla 

Spani sh mac kerr 

I c. COSATI !GeldlGroup 

Temperature 

Sal i ni ty 

Life cycles 

Marine fishes 

Animal migrations 

Scomberomorus maculatus 

kcological roles 

Environmental requirements 

18. Avallmbllity Statement 19. Sccurkty Class (This ReporO 21. No. of Pages 

Unclassified 

Re1 ease Unl imi ted m. Security CI~SS (This Page) 

Unclassified 

(See ANSI-Z39.lB) OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77) 

(Formerly NTIE35) 

Department of Commerce 
REGION 1 

Regional Director 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Lloyd Five Hundred Building, Suite 1692 

500 N.E. Multnornah Street 

Portland, Oregon 97232 

REGION 4 

Regional Director 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Richard B. Russell Building 

75 Spring Street, S.W. 

Atlanta, Georgia 30303 

REGION 2 REGION 3 

Regional Director Regional Director 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

P.O. Box 1306 Federal Building, Fort Snelling 

Albuquerque, New Mexico 87 103 Twin Cities, Minnesota 55 1 1 1 

REGION 5 REGION 6 

Regional Director Regional Director 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

One Gateway Center P.O. Box 25486 

Newton Corner, Massachusetts 02158 Denver Federal Center 

Denver, Colorado 80225 

REGION 7 

Regional Director 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

101 1 E. Tudor Road 

Anchorage, Alaska 99503 
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in Amerzcd 

DEPARTMENT OF THE IWTERIOR 

U.S. FISH AND WllDLlA SERVICE 

As the Nation's principal conservation agency. the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our .nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes 

fostering the wisest use of our land and water resourcm, protecting our fish and wildlife, 

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