REFERENCE COW 

Do Not Remove from the Library 

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Biological Report 82(11.1()4) National Wetlands Kescarcn .. :nrer 'TR EL-82.4 

JUIY 1989 700 Cajun Dome Eoulc-tr.;yri 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and 

Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes 

and Invertebrates (South Florida) 

LADYFISH AND TARPON 

Fish and Wildlife Service 

Coastal Ecology Group 

Waterways Experiment Station 

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 
Biological Report 82(11.104) 

TR EL-82-4 

July 1989 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements 

of Coastal Fi shes and Invertebrates (South Florida) 

LADYFISH AND TARPON 

Alexander V. Zale 

and 

Susan G. Merrifield 

Oklahoma Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit 

Department of Zoology 

404 Life Sciences West 

Oklahoma State University 

Still water, OK 74078 

Project Officer 

David bran 

National We tl ands Research Center 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Srvice 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Slide1 1, LA 70458 

Performed for 

Coastal Ecology Group 

Waterways Experiment Station 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 

and 

National Wetlands Research Center 

Research and Development 

Fi sh and Mi1 dli fe Service 

U .S. Department of the Interior 

Washington, DC 20240 
This series may be referenced as follows: 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983-19 . Species profiles: life histories 

and environmental requirements of coasm fishes and invertebrates. U.S. Fish 

Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 

This profile may be cited as follows: 

Zale, A.V., and S.G. Merrifield. 1989. Species profiles: life histories and 

environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (South Florida) 

-- ladyfish and tarpon. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.104). U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 17 pp. 
PREFACE 

This species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms, 

principal ly fish, of sport, commercial, or ecological importance. The profiles 

are designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists with a brief 

comprehensive sketch of the biological characteristics and environmental 

requirements of the species and to describe how populations of the species may be 

expected to react to environmental changes caused by coastal development. Each 

profile has sections on taxonomy, 1 ife history, ecological role, environmental 

requirements, and economic importance, if appl icable. A three-ring binder is 

used for this series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared. 

This project is jointly planned and financed by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers 

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to one of 

the foll owing addresses. 

Information Transfer Specialist 

National Wetlands Research Center 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

NASA-Sl idel 1 Computer Complex 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Slidell, LA 70458 

U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station 

Attention: WESER-C 

Post Office Box 631 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 
CONVERSION TABLE 

Metric to U.S. Customary 

millimeters (mm) 

centimeters (cm) 

meters (m) 

meters (m) 

kilometers (km) 

kilometers (km) 

square meters (m2) 10.76 

square ki lometers (km2) 0.3861 

hectares (ha) 2.471 

liters (1) 

cubic meters (m3) 

cubic meters (m3) 

milligrams (mg) 

grams (g) 

ki 1 ograms (kg) 

metric tons (t) 

metric tons (t) 

kilocalories (kcal) 

Celsius degrees (OC) 

U.S. Customary to Metric 

inches 25.40 

inches 2.54 

feet (ft) 0.3048 

fathoms 1.829 

statute miles (mi) 1.609 

nautical miles (nmi) 1.852 

square feet (ft2) 

square miles (mi2) 

acres 

gallons (gal) 

cubic feet (ft3) 

acre-feet 

ounces (oz) 

ounces (02) 

pounds (lb) 

pounds (lb) 

short tons (ton) 

British thermal units (Btu) 

Fahrenheit degrees (OF) 

To Obtain 

inches 

i nc hes 

feet 

fathoms 

statute miles 

nautical miles 

square feet 

square miles 

acres 

gal 1 ons 

cubic feet 

acre-feet 

ounces 

ounces 

pounds 

pounds 

short tons 

British thermal units 

Fahrenheit degrees 

millimeters 

centimeters 

meters 

meters 

ki 1 ometers 

ki 1 ometers 

square meters 

square ki 1 ometers 

hectares 

1 i ters 

cubic meters 

cubic meters 

milligrams 

grams 

ki 1 ograms 

metric tons 

metric tons 

kilocalories 

Cel sius degrees 
CONTENTS 

Page 

PREFACE ................................................................... iji 

CONVERSION TABLE .......................................................... lv 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................... vi 

NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE ................................................ 1 

MORPHOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION AIDS ........................................ 3 

Ladyfish ................................................................ 3 

Tarpon .................................................................. 4 

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN THIS SERIES ....................................... 4 

LIFE HISTORIES ............................................................ 4 

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS .................................................... 7 

Age and Growth .......................................................... 7 

Morphometric Relations .................................................. 8 

FISHERY ................................................................... 8 

ECOLOGICAL ROLE ........................................................... 9 

Feeding Behavior/Food Habits ............................................ 9 

Predators ............................................................... 10 

Parasites ............................................................... 10 

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................ 10 

Temperature ............................................................. 10 

Salinity ................................................................ 11 

Dissolved Oxygen ........................................................ 11 

Contaminants ............................................................ 12 

Turbidity ............................................................... 12 

Wetlands Destruction and Degradation .................................... 12 

LITERATURE CITED .......................................................... 13 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Drafts of this Species Profile were critically reviewed by Ed Rutherford, 

National Park Service, Everglades National Park, Florida; C. Richard Robins, 

University of Miami, Miami, Florida; and Paul H. Eschmeyer, Editorial Office, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. Sheila G. Johnson, Edmon 

Low Library, Oklahoma State University, provided exceptional assistance with 

1 i terature searches and i nter-1 i brary 1 oan. H. Frank1 i n Percival of the Florida 

Cooperative Fish and Wil dl ife Research Unit, University of Florida, Gainesvil le, 

and 0. Eugene Maughan of the Oklahoma Uni t provided administrative assistance. 
Figure 1. A: ladyfish; B: tarpon. 

LADYFISH AND TARPON 

Scientific name ......... Elops saurus 

Linnaeus (Robins et a1 . TWOT - 

Preferred common name ....... 1 adyf i sh 

(Figure 1A) 

Other common names . . bigeyed herring, 

bony-fi sh, chi ro, Francesca, John 

Mari ggle, Liza, matajuelo real, 

piojo, skipjack, tenpounder (El dred 

and Lyons 1966; Jordan and Evermann 

19691 

Cl ass ................... Osteichthyes 

Order .................... El opiformes 

Family ...................... El opi dae 

Geographic range .... western Atlantic 

Ocean from Bermuda and southern New 

England (but uncommon north of Cape 

Hatteras) to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 

and throughout the Gulf of Mexico 

(Figure 2); also occurs in the Indian and western Pacific Oceans 

(Jordan and Evermann 1896; Bi gelow 

and Schroeder 1953; Briggs 1958; 

Berra 1981). Marine and brackish 

estuarine (Eldred and Lyons 1966; 

Nel son 1984). 

Scientific name . . Megalops at1 anticus 

Valenciennes (Rob-. 1980) 
T. PETERSBURG 

PALM BEACH 

CAPE ROMAN 

THOUSAND ISLANDS 

MILES 

KILOMETERS 

FLORIDA 

Figure 2. Ladyfish and tarpon are distributed along the entire coast of South 

Florida in the Continental Shelf and brackish estuarine waters; tarpon ascend 

rivers into freshwater also. 
Preferred common name ......... tarpon 

(Figure 1B) 

Other common names ........ big scale, 

caffum, grande ecail ley grande ecoy, 

jewfish, sabalo, sabi lo real, 

sadina, saval 1 e, saval 1 o, saval oreal , savani 1 1 a, si 1 ver fish, si 1 ver 

king, tarpom, tarpum (Gill 1907; 

Hildebrand 1937; Babcock 1951; Wade 

1962a; Jordan and Evermann 1969) 

Class ................... Osteichthyes 

Order .................... Elopiformes 

Family ....... Elopidae or Megalopidae 

The tarpon was placed in the 

Elopidae by Gosline (1971) and Robins 

et a1 . (1980) , whereas Greenwood et 

al. (1966), Forey (1973a, 1973b1, and 

Nelson (1984) recognized the 

Megalopidae and Elopidae as separate 

families within the suborder 

Elopoidei. The issue is equivocal and 

unl i kely to be resol ved soon. 

Geographic range .... Western Atlantic 

Ocean from Virginia to Brazil and 

Gulf of Mexico (Figure 2); eastern 

Atlantic off tropical Africa; chief 

centers of abundance are the West 

Indies, Florida, and Gulf of Mexico; 

stragglers recorded from Nova 

Scotia, Bermuda, Argentina, and the 

Pacific terminus of the Panama Canal 

(Hi1 debrand 1939; Wade 1962a, 1969; 

Nelson 1984). No evidence exists to 

suggest that tarpon have become established in the Pacific (Swanson 

1946; Wade 1962a). Generally marine 

or brackish estuarine, but often ascends rivers into fresh water 

1951; Wade 1962a; Robins 1978; Nelson 

1984). 

MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS 

'The ladyfish and tarpon are both 

herri ng-1 i ke in general appearance but 

are readily distinguished from 

clupeids by the presence of an elongate bony gular plate between the 

branches of the lower jaw and a much 

larger mouth; the jaw extends considerably posterior to the rear edge 

of the orbit (Bi gel ow and Schroeder 

1953). The belly is not keeled or 

serrated as in herrings, but is relati vely broad and covered with ordinary 

scales (Jordan and Evermann 1969). 

The following description of the 

El opi dae (i ncl udi ng the tarpon is 

summarized from Jordan and Evermann 

11969). Body elongate, somewhat 

compressed, and covered with silvery 

cycl oid scales. No scales on head. 

Lateral line present. Mouth broad, 

lower jaw prominent. Premaxill aries 

short and nonprotactile; maxi1 laries 

form lateral margins of the upper jaw. 

Eye re1 ati vely 1 arge, with adipose 

eyelid. Bands of vill iform teeth on 

jaws, vomer, palatines, pterygoids, 

tongue, and base of skull. Opercular 

bones thi n, with expanded membranous 

margins. Gill membranes enti rely 

separate and free from the isthmus; 

gill rakers long and slender. Dorsal 

fin inserted over or slightly behind 

the pelvics. Caudal fin forked, dorsal and anal fins depressible into 

scaly sheaths. No spines or adipose 

fin. Very long accessory scales at 

the pectorals and pelvics. 

Ladyfi sh 

Body very elongate and covered 

with small, thin, silvery scales. 

Head small and pointed, with very 

1 arge terminal mouth; maxi 11 ary 

reaches far behind eye. Branchiostegal rays 30. Dorsal fin inserted 

slightly behind the pelvics. Dorsal, 

anal, and pelvic fin ray counts, 20, 

13, and 15, respectively. Caudal 

lobes long and slender. Lateral line 

straight, with simple pores, 110 to 

120 scales. Color silvery a1 1 over 

and bluish dorsally, with lower parts 

of sides and ventral surface yellowish 

or white. Dorsal and caudal fins 

dusky ye1 1 owi sh and si 1 very. Pel vics 

and pectoral s speckled, ye1 1 owi shy and 
dusky. Reaches a maximum length of 

about 1 m (usually less than 60 cm) 

and weight of several kil ograms. 

Data from Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) 

and Jordan and Evermann (1969). 

Body oblong, compressed, and 

covered with large, thick, silvery, 

cycloid scales. Mouth large and superi or. Branchiostegal rays 23. Dorsal 

fin with 12 rays, inserted consi derably behind the pelvics. Anal 

deeply falcate, 20 rays, about twice 

as long as dorsal, has greatly elongated last ray. Caudal widely forked 

and scaly. Lateral line nearly 

straight, 41 to 48 scales; its tubes 

radiate widely over the surface of the 

scales. Vertebral counts 53 to 57. 

Color bright si 1 ver, wi th dorsal surface somewhat darker than ventral. 

Reaches 2 to 2.6 m and over 90 kg. 

Data from Bigel ow and Schroeder 

(19531, Jordan and Evermann (1969), 

and Nelson (1984). 

The two species are easily distinguished (Jordan and Evermann 1969). 

The 1 adyf i sh has 1 arge pseudobranchs 

and small scales. The 1 ast ray of the 

dorsal is not elongated, and the anal 

fin is small er than the dorsal . Conversely, the tarpon has large scales 

and no pseudobranchs. The last ray of 

the dorsal is elongated, its free portion being as long as, or longer than, 

the height of the fin. The anal fin 

is larger than the dorsal. 

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN THIS SERIES 

The tarpon is the premier inshore 

big-game fish of the Florida coast 

(McLane 1974; Robins 1978). Esteemed 

for its stamina, strength, and especially its leaping prowess, it is 

avidly sought by anglers. Numerous 

annual tournaments are directed 

specifically at this species. Tourist 

revenues generated by the fishery are 

formidable. The ladyfish is also 

sought by anglers; it has the sporting 

attributes of the tarpon, but comes in 

a smaller package suitable for light 

tackle. Both species are considered 

inedible in the United States because 

of the boniness of the flesh, and 

therefore do not support commercial 

fisheries. However, they are eaten in 

1 imi ted quanti ties el sewhere 

(Hi1 debrand 1939; Babcock 1951). 

LIFE HISTORIES 

Spawning 1 ocations of ladyfi sh 

are unknown, but have been inferred to 

be offshore throughout most of the 

range of the species, as judged by the 

locations of capture of early larvae 

(Hi ldebrand 1943; Gehri nger 1959a; 

Eldred and Lyons 1966). Similarly, 

tarpon are believed to spawn 

throughout most of their range in offshore waters (Wade 1962a; Hi 1 debrand 

1963; Eldred 1967). Eldred (1967, 

1968, 1972) inferred from larval 

capture locations that spawning took 

place in the Florida Straits, Gulf 

Stream, and Caribbean . Smith (1980) 

provided strong evidence (based on the 

collection of very young larvae) that 

tarpon spawn off the Caribbean coast 

of Mexico near Cozumel and Banco 

Chinchorro (Yucatan Channel ) , off 

west-central Florida, and off the 

southern part of Veracruz, Mexico. 

The presence of small larvae off 

Georgia (Gehringer 1959b) and North 

Carolina (Berrien et al. 1978) 

i ndi ca tes that spawn i ng occurs there 

also, and probably to some extent 

along the entire coast from Florida to 

Cape Hatteras. 

Fecundity of a tarpon 2 m long 

was estimated to be about 12,200,000 

(Babcock 1951). Sexual maturity is 

attained at a total length (TL) of 

about 120 cm (Breder 1944). Fecundity 

and size at sexual maturity of 

1 adyf i sh are unknown. 
Eggs of neither tarpon nor 

ladyfish have been described, nor are 

yo'l k-sac 1 arvae of the 1 adyf i sh known. 

Smith (1980) described and ill ustrated 

late yo1 k-sac larvae of tarpon. His 

smallest specimen, 5.7 mm in notochord 

length (NL), retained only trace 

amounts of yolk, indicating that the 

yolk-sac stage ends at about 6 mm NL. 

Eggs and yo1 k-sac 1 arvae that Breder 

(1944) believed to be tarpon were erroneously identified (El dred 1972). 

Post yo1 k-sac 1 arval devel opment 

in both species progresses through 

three di sti nct stages ( termi no1 ogy 

from Wade 1962a, modified by Jones et 

al. 1978). Stage I is an initial 

period of length increase that culminates in the development of a fully 

formed 1 eptocephal us 1 arva. The 1 eptocephal us is characterized by a 1 ong, 

ri bbon-1 ike, colorless, transparent 

body; large fang-1 ike teeth; a very 

small head; and small fins. It lacks 

gills and red blood cells, and its gut 

is not open (Robins 1978). Oxygen and 

nutrients are absorbed through the 

skin. In Stage 11, the larva 

decreases markedly in length and 

gradually loses the ri bbon-1 ike leptocephalic morphology. Stage I11 is a 

second period of length increase that 

terminates with the beginning of the 

juvenile stage. Late in Stage I1 and 

throughout Stage I11 the larva undergoes pronounced changes in body 

form, including increases in body 

depth, snout 1 ength, head length, dorsal and anal fin height, and pectoral 

fin size. Late in Stage 111, the body 

starts to become opaque and silvery. 

Juveniles resemble adul ts in general 

appearance. Early life history stages 

of tarpon were described by Hildebrand 

(1934), Holl ister (1939), Harri ngton 

(1958), Gehringer (1959b1, Wade 

(1962a1, Eldred (1967, 1968, 19721, 

Mercado and Ciardell i (19721, Jones et 

al. (19781, and Smith (1980). 

Descriptions of 1 arval and juvenile 

ladyfish were published by Hildebrand 

(19431, Alikunhi and Rao (19511, Gehringer (1959a1, Eldred and Lyons 

(1966), and Jones et a1 . (1978). 

Ladyfish grow to a maximum standard length (SL) of about 40-45 mm 

during Stage I, shrink to about 18-20 

mm SL during Stage 11, and metamorphose into juveniles at about 30-35 mm 

SL at the end of Stage I11 (Hildebrand 

1943; Alikunhi and Rao 1951; Gehringer 

1959a; Jones et a1 . 1978). Durations 

of about 29 days for Stage I1 and 42 

days for Stage I11 were reported by 

Gehringer (1959a) for larvae reared in 

the 1 aboratory. Alikunhi and Rao 

(1951) reported the duration of Stages 

I1 and I11 combined as only 9 days in 

the 1 aboratory; concurrent field col1 ecti ons provided supporting evidence 

for this rapid rate of change. No 

records of water temperature accompanied the data for either study. 

Sizes of Stage I tarpon range 

from 6 mm NL to 28 mm SL (Mercado and 

Ci ardell i 1972; Smith 1980). Duration 

of Stage I is estimated to be 2 to 3 

months in the ocean (Smith 1980). 

Larval tarpon shrink to about 14 mm SL 

during Stage I1 and become juveniles 

at about 40 mm SL after Stage I11 

(Wade 1962a). Duration of Stage I1 

was 20-25 days in the laboratory 

(Mercado and Ciardelli 1972). On the 

basis of Harrington's (1966) data, we 

estimate duration of Stage I11 to be 

about 7-8 weeks . 

Spawni ng of 1 adyfi sh appears to 

extend throughout most of the year, 

perhaps peaking in fall, as judged by 

the occurrence of Stage I larvae. 

Alikunhi and Rao (1951) collected late 

Stage I 1 arvae from October to December in coastal Indian waters. Hildebrand (1943) collected Stage I 

1 arvae off Beaufort, North Carol i na, 

from October through May; off Texas in 

February, March, April, and November; 

off the Florida Keys in November; and 

off Cuba in May. Offshore collections 

of Stage I larvae were made by Gehringer (1959a) off Florida and Georgia 

in October, off South Carolina in May, 

and off North Carolina in November. 

Arnold et al. (1960) collected lep- 
tocephali from early March to mid-May 

near Gal veston, Texas. Tabb and Manning (1961) reported that larvae were 

abundant in Florida Bay from September 

through December. El dred and Lyons 

(1966) reported col lecti ng Stage I 

leptocephali off Fl orida in January, 

February, May, June, August, October, 

and December. 

Summarizing various references on 

the occurrences of larval tarpon, 

Robins (1978) and Smith (1980) noted 

that Stage I larvae occur from mid-May 

to late August, and Stage I1 larvae 

from late June to early October; they 

inferred that spawning occurs in late 

spring or early summer. 

Early Stage 1 larvae of ladyfish 

were captured offshore (Gehringer 

1959a) at 28.5 ppt and 28.1 "C (Eldred 

and Lyons 1966). Late Stage I larvae 

occur inshore (Gehri nger 1959a) at 

26.3-38.5 ppt and 17.5-29.0 "C (Eldred 

and Lyons 1966). 01 der early-life 

stages (Stage I1 and I11 larvae and 

juveniles) inhabit coastal beaches, 

canal s, bayous, 1 agoons, tidal ponds, 

creeks, rivers, and mosquito control 

impoundments (Erdman 1960; Zi1 berberg 

1966; Dahl berg 1972; Govoni and Merriner 1978; Gilmore et al. 1981; 

Thompson and Deegan 1982; Snelson 

1983). They live in water of a wide 

range of sal i ni ties and temperatures : 

14-45 ppt and 24-32 " C (Harrington 

1958); 17.5-39.0 ppt (Harrington and 

Harrington 1961); 34.3-34.6 ppt and 

18-23 OC (Eldred and Lyons 1966); 1.4- 

11.2 ppt and 21-30 "C (Herke 1969); 

0.1-28.7 ppt and >19.9 " C (Dahlberg 

1972); 10-20 ppt and <35 "C (Rose et 

al. 1975); 5.6-5.8 ppt (Theiling and 

Loyacano 1976); 2.2-6.1 ppt (Govoni 

and Merriner 1978); 0.0-8.8 ppt and 

16-28 "C (Thompson and Deegan 1982). 

Rose et a1 . (1975) reported a pH range 

of 6.8-8.7 for a coastal impoundment 

inhabited by juvenile ladyfish. Adult 

ladyfish usually live in relatively 

open inshore and coastal habitats 

(Dahl berg 1972; Gilmore et a1 . 1981; 

Snelson 1983) but may ascend rivers 

for considerable distances (Tagatz 

1967 1. 

Habitats of Stage I tarpon larvae 

are clear, warm, oceani c waters 

(Gehringer 1959b; Robins 1978) wi thi n 

100 m of the surface (Wade 1962a). Surface water temperatures at col 1 ection sites ranged from 26.0 to 30.0 "C 

and salinities from 33.6 to 36.0 ppt 

(Wade 1962a; Berrien et al. 1978; 

Smith 1980). Estimated temperature 

and salinity ranges at depth of capture were 22.2-28.4 "C and 33.6-36.7 

ppt (Wade 1962a 1. 

Stage I1 and I11 tarpon larvae 

and juveniles live in salt marsh and 

mangrove ponds, tidal creeks, rivers, 

di tches, beaches, and mosqui to-con trol 

impoundments (Storey and Perry 1933; 

Breder 1944; Simpson 1954; Moffett and 

Randal 1 1957; Erdman 1960; Harri ngton 

and Harri ngton 1960, 1961; Wade 1962a, 

1969; Rickards 1968; Dahlberg 1972; 

Tagatz 1973; Gilmore et al. 1981; 

Snelson 1983). These habitats are 

typically shallow (<I m), have a sandy 

mud or mud substrate with no rooted 

submerged vegetation, are 1 i ned by 

reeds or mangroves, usually have turb i d o r dark-stained waters, and may be 

either stagnant or have considerable 

current (Beebe 1927; Breder 1933; 

Simpson 1954; Wade 1962a, 1969; Rickards 1968). In such habitats, larvae 

and juveniles are able to wi thstand 

environmental conditions deleterious 

to many other fishes. Juvenile tarpon 

have been c o l l e c t e d at widely varying 

salinities: 31.8 ppt (Simpson 19541, 

18.8-33.4 ppt (Moffett and Randall 

1957), 14-45 ppt (Harri ngton 19581, 

17.5-39.0 ppt (Harri ngton and Harrington 19611, 0.0-22.3 ppt (Rickards 

19681, 0-47 ppt (Wade 19691, and 15-21 

ppt (Gilmore et a1 . 1982). Most larval and juvenile tarpon live at relatively high temperatures: 36.6 "C 

(Moffett and Randall 19571, 36.0 "C 

(Rickards 19681, and 40 "C (Wade 

1969). Because tarpon respire 
aerially (by gulping air) at least as 

early as the beginning of Stage I11 

(Harri ngton 1966 1, 1 ow di ssol ved 

oxygen concentrations are not 

deleterious to survival. The strong 

odor of hydrogen sulfide at capture 

sites, indicative of poor tidal flushing, has been reported by various investi gators (e.g., Beebe 1927; Breder 

1933, 1944; Rickards 1968; Wade 1969). 

Juvenile tarpon are often collected 

from isolated marsh ponds that are 

connected to the estuary only during 

spring tides. Wade (1969) collected 

juvenile tarpon at pH's of 6.8 to 8.2. 

In eastern Florida marshes, Wade 

(1969) found Stage I11 larvae in 

ditches at the headwaters of small 

creeks. Small juveniles (40-80 mm SL) 

lived in larger ditches and creeks, 

especially in the deeper pools. Large 

juveniles were found in 1 arger canals 

and rivers. Juvenile tarpon eventually emigrate from marsh and mangrove 

habitats and enter coastal waters when 

they reach about 600-800 mm TL (Robins 

1978). In Georgia, tarpon are unable 

to overwi nter in marsh habitats; 

juveni 1 es left marshes, presumably to 

mi grate south, by 1 ate October, when 

they had attained about 160 mm SL 

(Rickards 1968). Adults live in bays, 

1 agoons, and coastal habitats (Breder 

1944; Dahl berg 1972; Gilmore et a1 . 1981; Snelson 1983) or may cruise the 

open ocean (Robins 1978). 

GROWTH CHARACTER1 ST1 CS 

Age and Growth 

Moffett and Randall (19571, who 

examined length-frequency di stri butions of juvenile tarpon from a south 

Florida mangrove pond, reported that 

modal lengths increased from 75-80 mm 

FL in early September to 110-115 mm FL 

at the end of the month, and inferred 

a length increase of about 1.4 mm/day; 

rates declined by about 50% in October. Five marked juvenile tarpon 

(301-376 mm FL when tagged) in a south 

Florida drainage ditch grew an average 

of 1.0 mm/day (range, 0.7-1.4 mm/day) 

from 22 August to 20 October (Moffett 

and Randall 1957). Over the same 

period, modal lengths of tarpon in 

this population increased by 1.4 

mm/day. In a Georgia salt marsh, 

juvenile tarpon grew at a rate of 

about 30 mm/month (Rickards 1968). 

Breder (1944), who de termi ned 

growth rates of captive juvenile tarpon, wrote that 12 fish maintained at 

the old New York Aquarium for 113 to 

314 days grew an average of 0.088 

mm/day (range, 0.048-0.186 mm/day); 

initial and final length ranges were 

94-145 and 110-176 mm TL. Three 

tagged fish (355-365 mm TL) confined 

in natural ponds in southern Florida 

did not grow in 133 to 152 days 

(August to January). Two others 

(tagged in July) grew from 345 to 390 

and from 370 to 380 mm TL in 258 and 

167 days, respectively. Four juvenile 

tarpon (originally 230-350 mm TL) 

maintained in laboratory pools grew 13 

to 179 mm (mean increment, 97 mm) in 

15 months; a fifth grew from 436 to 

465 mm TL in 6 months. 

Ten tarpon raised by Harrington 

(1966) in the laboratory from Stage 

I11 larvae (18.1-22.7 mm SL; mean, 

21.4 mm) for 1 year grew to 55.4-105.3 

mm SL (mean, 67.2 mm SL). 

A1 though scales of adul t tarpon 

have di stinct rings resembl ing annul i 

(Breder 1944; Moffett and Randall 

19571, these marks have not been 

validated as annuli and should be consi dered with extreme caution. Backcalculated mean lengths at the formation of these putative annuli are 

shown in Figure 3. Maximum age based 

on these checks was 16 years (Moffett 

and Randal 1 1957) ; however, 1 arger 

f i sh have been captured. 

Gehringer (1959a reared 1 adyfish 

in the laboratory from early Stage I1 
to the juvenile phase. Rates of 

change in standard length during the 

first part of Stage I1 (from about 35- 

40 mn to 25 mm SL) averaged -1.061 

mm/day . Further shri nki ng to about 

20-21 mm SL proceeded at about -0.342 

mm/day. Initial length increase 

during early Stage 111, from about 20 

to 25 mn SL, averaged 0.140 mn/day. 

Growth rates of late Stage I11 larvae 

and early juveniles (~60 mm SL) were 

about 0.626 mm/day. Larger juveniles 

grew an average of 0.628 mm/day. 

Field collections suggested a faster 

rate of growth (about 2 mn/day) under 

natural conditions (Gehringer 1959a). 

No information is available on growth 

of adult 1 adyfi sh. 

Mor~hometric Re1 ati ons 

Breder (1944) presented the fol1 owing 1 ength-wei ght relation for 

adult tarpon in Florida: 

where W = weight in grams and TL = total length in millimeters. 

Harri ngton (1958) derived the 

following length-wei ght relation for 

154 tarpon, 16.0-45.5 mm SL: 

where W = weight in grams and SL = 

standard length in millimeters. The 

relation is valid only for fish within 

the stated size range. 

On the basis of a graph presented 

by Moffett and Randall (19571, we 

derived the fol 1 owing relati on between 

total length (TL) and fork length (FL) 

for tarpon: 

TI- = 1.10 FL. 

Harrington (1958 1 developed the 

fol lowing conversions between fork 

length (FL), total length (TL), and 

standard 1 ength (SL in mi 11 imeters 

for tarpon 25-54 mn SL: 

Sekavec (1974) derived the fol1 owing length-weight formula from 295 

juvenile ladyfi sh 45-201 mn FL from 

Louisiana: 

n met eort (Moffon md kndal 1957) 

o out mrrt (Monen mna Rmndmll 1857) 

0 10 15 

NUMBER OF PUTATIVE ANNULI 

Figure 3. Back-calcul ated mean 

lengths of tarpon from the west and 

east coasts of Florida, at putative 

annuli on scales. 

where W = weight in grams and FL = 

fork length in millimeters. Mean condition factor (K, where K = [W/(FL)'] 

x 106; Lagler 1956) of these fish was 

8.1 (range 6.6-8.9). 

FISHERY 

The tarpon and ladyfish fisheries 

are solely recreational ; no commercial 

fishery exists for either species in 

the United States. Neither species is 

recorded in the National Marine 

Recreational Fisheries Survey and 
regional catch data are nonexistent 

(Grant L. Beardsley, Senior Scientist 

for Recreational Fisheries, National 

Mari ne Fi sheri es Service, Southeast 

Fisheries Center, Miami, Florida; 

pers. comm. 1. 

Ti1 mont et a1 . (unpubl i shed) summarized recreational fishery statistics for tarpon and ladyfi sh in 

Evergl ades National Park, Florida, 

from 1958 through 1984. Tarpon were 

sought by less than 3% of anglers and 

made up an average of 0.2% of the 

reported recreational catch annual ly . Mean annual catch rates varied from 

0.1 to 0.4 fish/h. Less than 10% of 

the tarpon caught were harvested, 

primarily for trophy mounts. Tarpon 

accounted for 1% of the catch, 0.4% of 

the harvest, and 7% of the effort in 

the professional ly guided fishery i n 

the park. Reported catch rates suggested that stocks of tarpon in the 

park were re1 atively stable. 

Ladyfish were commonly caught but 

infrequently harvested by anglers i n 

Everglades National Park (Tilmont et 

al., unpublished). Ladyfish made up 

about 5% of the total reported catch 

but less than 0.4% of the harvest. 

Few anglers (0.02%) considered the 

fish a preferred species. Mean annual 

catch rates varied from 0.25 to 0.67 

fish/h. Ladyfish population abundances in the park were cyclic, peaking about every five years. However, 

a general increase in ladyfish abundances in the park occurred from the 

late 1960's through the early 1980's. 

ECOLOGICAL ROLE 

Feeding Behavi or/Food Habits 

Stage I tarpon and 1 adyfish 

larvae do not forage; nutrients are 

obtained directly from seawater by integumentary absorption (Pfeiler 1986). 

Stage I1 and I11 tarpon larvae 

and small juveniles (<I25 mn SL) feed 

primarily on zooplankton (e. g., 

copepods and os tracods) and secondarily on insects and small fishes; 

larger juveniles continue to feed on 

zooplankton, but progressively increase consumption of insects, fishes 

(especially poecil iids and 

cyprinodontids), crabs, and grass 

shrimps of the genus Palaemonetes 

(Beebe 1927; Breder 1933; Mottett and 

Randall 1957; Harrington and Harrington 1960, 1961; Rickards 1968). 

Juvenile tarpon are typically crepuscular and nocturnal foragers (Robi ns 

1978). 

In laboratory settings, early 

Stage I1 ladyfish larvae ate 1 ive 

plankton (Alikunhi and Rao 1951) and 

1 ive brine shrimp (Artemia) naupl ii 

(Gehringer 1959a). Stage I11 larvae 

ate small live Fundulus and Gambusia 

and pieces of shrimp and fish. Under 

natural conditions, Stage I1 and I11 

ladyfish larvae (<50 mm SL) feed almost exclusively on zooplankton; consumption of zooplankton by juveniles 

i s progressively reduced as i nges ti on 

of small fishes and shrimps increases 

(Harri ngton and Harri ngton 1961). 

Ladyfish <lo0 mm long feed especially 

on insects, copepods, and other 

arthropods (Fyfe 1986). 

Adult tarpon and ladyfish are 

strictly carnivorous and feed 

primarily on mi d-water prey (Hi1 debrand 1963; Sekavec 1974). Food is 

swal 1 owed who1 e (Sekavec 1971). 

Adult ladyfish feed primarily on 

fish; fish constituted 94%, 82%, and 

34% of food items found in ladyfish 

stomachs by Sekavec (19741, Darnel1 

(19581, and Knapp (19491, respectively. In Sekavec's (1974) study, 

juvenile Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia 

tyrannus) composed 72% ot the identifiable fish consumed. 

Decapod crustaceans are also important foods of ladyfish. Linton 

(1904) reported that diets of 12 

1 adyf i sh from North Carolina consisted 

excl usively of shrimp. Knapp ( 1949) 

found that 78.2% of stomach contents 
of ladyfish from the Texas coast were reported from the intestine of 

crustaceans. Decapods made up 5.5% ladyfish (Corkum 1959). 

(Sekavec 1974) and 10% (Darnell 1958) 

of the diets of ladyfish from 

Louisiana. ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 

Adult tarpon feed both nocturnally and diurnally (Wade 1962a) on a 

variety of organisms including mu1 lets 

(Mugil spp.), pinfish (Lagodon 

rwdes), ari id catfishes, At1 antic 

need1 ef i sh (Strongyl ura marina) , sardines (Harengu la spp. ),shrimp, and 

crabs (Babcock 1951; Wade 1962a). 

Predators 

Predation by carnivorous 

zooplankters and small fishes undoubtedly causes high mortality of eggs 

and 1 arvae of both ladyfish and tarpon 

before the larvae enter coastal nursery marshes. In marshes, juvenile 

tarpon are probably immune to piscine 

predation other than that by juvenile 

ladyfish or tarpon (Beebe 1927; Moffett and Randall 1957; Rickards 1968; 

Wade 1969). Both species are probably 

preyed upon by pi sci vorous birds 

(Beebe 1927; Rickards 19681, and adult 

tarpon are occasionally eaten by 

sharks, porpoi ses, and alligators 

(Wade 1962a, 1962b). 

Parasites 

The di genetic trematode 

Leci thochirium microstomum occurs in 

the stomach of tarpon (Manter 1947). 

The i sopods Neroci 1 a acumi nata and 

Cymothoa oestrum are external 

parasites (Babcock 1951; Pearse 1952). 

Causey (1953) reported the cope pod 

Para1 ebi on pearsei from tarpon. The 

trematode Bivescula tarponi s i s 

present in the pyloric caecae and 

along the entire length of the intesti ne ( Sogandares-Bernal and Hutton 

1959). Though not parasitic, remoras 

( Remora remora) are commonly observed 

attache- arge tarpon (Babcock 

1951; Wade 1962a). 

Trematodes of the genera 

Bucephal us and Prosorhynchus have been 

The tarpon and ladyfish are disti nctly thermophil ic fishes. Both 

have been reported i n col d-re1 ated 

fish kills in Florida (Storey and 

Gudger 1936; Storey 1937; Snelson and 

Bradley 1978). At Port Aransas, 

Texas, annual tarpon abundances are 

correlated with yearly water temperature regimes (Moore 1975). Tarpon 

concentrate around heated power-pl ant 

effluents during winter in the Indian 

River, Florida (Snel son 1983). 

Early Stage I larvae of both 

species occur only in warm oceanic 

waters (22.2-30.0 "C; Wade 1962a; 

Eldred and Lyons 1966; Eldred 1967, 

1968, 1972; Berrien et a1 . 1978; Smith 

1980), and it appears probable that 

such temperatures are necessary for 

proper development of eggs and early 

1 arvae. 

Moffett and Randall (1957) exposed juvenile tarpon (72-130 mm FL) 

he1 d at 25-27 " C to high temperatures 

in laboratory trials. Fish were 

warmed from maintenance to test temperatures in 3 hours. Fish subjected 

to 39.4-39.6 "C survived the 24-h 

trials; those exposed to 40.5-41.9 "C 

did not. In a series of coldto1 erance trial s, juvenile tarpon (71- 

130 mm FL) died within 24 h at temperatures of 14.8-18.0 "C; others survived trials at 14.8-19.7 " C (Moffett 

and Randall 1957). Tabb (personal 

communication in Wade 1962a) reported 

mortal i ty of tarpon in Everglades Nati onal Park when water temperature 

decreased from 24 to 11 "C within a 

few hours. Rickards (1968) col lected 

a sluggish juvenile tarpon in a Georgia 

salt marsh in late November when water 

temperature was 16.0 " C. Concurrently, several juveni 1 es mai ntai ned 

in a steel holding tank died overnight 
when water temperatures dropped from 

21.0 to 12.0 OC. However, Wade (1969) 

collected juvenile tarpon at temperatures as low as 12 OC, and Gilmore et 

al. (1982) collected tarpon at 14 "C 

from a mosquito control impoundment in 

eastern Florida. Robins (1978) stated 

that the lower lethal temperature of 

tarpon is about 10 O C. 

Ladyfish appear to be slightly 

more tolerant of low temperatures than 

tarpon, judging by the 1 ower frequency 

of fish-kills (Storey 1937); they have 

been collected at temperatures of 11.0 

to 35.0 OC (Harrington 1958; Tagatz 

1967; Dahlberg 1972; Rose et al. 

1975). 

Sal i ni ty 

Throughout most of their life 

stages, tarpon and ladyfish tolerate a 

wide range of salinities. However, 

early Stage I larvae of both species 

have been collected only at oceanic 

sal ini tes of 28.5-39.0 ppt (Wade 

1962a; Eldred and Lyons 1966; Eldred 

1967, 1968, 1972; Berrien et a1 . 1978; 

Smith 1980), and it is likely that 

such concentrations are required by 

eggs, yo1 k-sac larvae, and early Stage 

I larvae of both species for proper 

development. 

Beyond Stage I, tarpon and 

1 adyf i s h are decidedly euryhal i ne. 

Juvenile tarpon can withstand direct 

transfer from salt - to freshwater and 

vice-versa (Breder 1944; Moffett and 

Randal 1 1957 1. Habitats occupied by 

tarpon range from fresh to hypersaline, or 0 to 47 ppt (Hildebrand 

1939; Simpson 1954; Moffett and Randall 1957; Harrington 1958; Harrington 

and Harrington 1961; Rickards 1968; 

Wade 1969; Dahlberg 1972; Tagatz 1973; 

Tucker and Hodson 1976). 

Alikunhi and Rao (1951) collected 

late Stage I ladyfish larvae from 

brackish water (10.4 ppt) and successful ly transferred them directly to 

freshwater (0.08 ppt). Juvenile 

1 adyfi sh have been collected at 

salinities ranging from 0.0 to 45.0 

ppt (Harrington 1958; Harrington and 

Harri ngton 1961; Herke 1969; Dahl berg 

1972; Govoni and Merriner 1978; 

Thompson and Deegan 1982). 

Adult ladyfish also tolerate a 

wide range of sali nities, but appear 

less likely than tarpon to occupy 

freshwater. We found no reference in 

the 1 i terature specifically reporting 

adults from truly freshwater. One of 

us (A.V.Z.) has captured ladyfish in 

the Lake George section of the St. 

Johns River, Florida, at salinities of 

0.5-2.0 ppt. This area is often assumea [by compilers evaluating 

salinity requirements of fishes) to be 

freshwater because of its distance 

from the mouth of the river (about 190 

km) , but numerous salt springs maintain re1 atively high salinities. 

Tagatz (1967) collected ladyfish as 

far upstream as Palatka, Florida (135 

km from the mouth) and reported 

salinity there to be 0 ppt; however, 

he recorded all salinities less than 

1.0 ppt as 0 ppt. It is likely that 

appreciable salinities (perhaps >0.5 

ppt) are, if not required, then at 

least preferred by ladyfish. 

Dissolved Oxvaen 

Tarpon are obligate air breathers 

( the swimbl adder contains a1 veol ar 

tissue; Shlaifer 1941) and are 

frequently seen "rolling" at the surface gulping air; when prevented from 

reaching the surface, they die within 

7 to 128 h, even in highly oxygenated 

water (Shl aifer 1941 1. Air breathing 

is imitatively mediated by visual 

cues; juveniles in a school come to 

the surface in rapid succession 

(Shl aifer and Breder 1940; Shl aifer 

1941 1, perhaps to reduce i ndi vi dual 

suscepti bi 1 i ties to predation by fisheating birds (Kramer and Graham 1976). 

The frequency of air breathing is inversely correlated with dissolved 

oxygen concentration (Shl ai f er and 

Breder 1940; Shlaifer 1941). Airbreathing precludes mortal i ty in 

anoxic waters and allows tarpon to 
survive under conditions deleterious 

to most fishes. Tarpon have this 

ability at least as early as the 

begi nni ng of Stage I I1 (Harri ngton 

1966). 

Air breathing has not been 

reported for ladyfish, and it is unlikely that it occurs. "Rolling" has 

not been reported in the literature. 

Di ssol ved oxygen requirements of 

ladyfish are unknown, but it is likely 

that the species is relatively tolerant of hypoxic conditions, as it 

is often found with tarpon in poorly 

oxygenated habitats. Ladyfi sh inhabited a coastal impoundment in 

Louisiana in which di ssol ved oxygen 

concentrations reached a minimum of 

1.0 mg/l (Rose et a1 . 1975). 

Contami nants 

Aerial spraying and ground fogging for nuisance insect control are 

widely practiced in Florida ' s coastal 

zone, and agricultural . pesticides and 

herbicides used in south Florida enter 

coastal waters. Robins (1978) 

reported that tarpon are extremely 

susceptible to contaminants. Appl ication of dieldrin pellets in a Florida 

salt marsh for the control of 1 arval 

sandfl ies (Cul icoides) resul ted in 

mortality of l adytl sh and tarpon 

(harri ngton and Bid1 ingmayer 1958). 

Turbi di ty 

Stage I larvae of both ladyfish 

and tarpon occur only in clear offshore waters. Subsequent 1 ife hi story 

stages appear to be tolerant of high 

turbidi ties. Habitats occupied, especially by juveniles, are generally 

described as turbid and dark-stai ned. 

Wet1 ands Destruction and Dearadati on 

Offshore and coastal habi tats of 

very young and adult tarpon and 

ladyfish are relatively immune to 

human-i nduced degradation. Conversely, the estuaries, sal t marshes, 

and coastal mangroves used as nurseries by larval and juvenile ladyfish 

and tarpon in Florida are highly vulnerable to changes induced by development. Robins (1978) discussed the 

various activities that are degradi ng 

tarpon nursery grounds in Florida; hi s 

comnents are also applicable to early 

1 ife history stages of ladyfish, which 

share these habitats. Among factors 

resulting in the destruction of nursery wetlands, he listed filling of 

wetl ands, canal ization, bulkheading, 

construction of water-1 ine right-ofways and steep-si ded boat-access 

finger-canal s, and impoundment of wet1 ands for mosquito control. Progress 

has recently been made in ameliorating 

the effects of impoundment for 

mosquito control because impoundment 

does not necessarily result in the 

destruction of wetl ands. Rather, impounded wetl ands, if properly managed, 

can retain the beneficial characteri stics of natural wetl ands whi 1 e providi ng adequate mosquito control 

(Clements and Rogers 1964; Provost 

1973). However, access to these wetlands (and subsequent opportunities 

for egress) by larval and juvenile 

tarpon and 1 adyfish is precluded or 

severely curtailed by reduced or nonexi stent exchange with estuari ne 

waters (Wade 1969; Gi 1 more e t a1 . 1982; Harri ngton and Harri ngton 1982). 

Improved impoundment management 

strategies, aimed at enhancing exchange rates, have been proposed by 

Clements and Rogers (1964), Provost 

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PP 

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4. Title and Subtle 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements 

of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Florida) -- Ladyfish 

so272 - 101 

and Tarpon 

REPORT WCUMENTAllON 1. RE*m t 

PAGE I Biological Report 82(11.104)*I 

7. Author(,) 

Alexander V. Zale and Susan G. Merrifield 

3. Rulplent's Acenslon No. 

9. Performing Omniratlon Name and Mdms 

Oklahoma Cooperative Fish and Wild1 ife Research Unit 

404 Life Sciences Nest 

Oklahoma State University 

Stil lwater, OK 74078 

12 Sponsoring Omnlzation Name and Addms 

National Wetlands Research Center U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior P.O. Box 631 

Washington, DC 20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180 

5. Report Dote 

July 1989 

8. Performing Or#onlration Rept. No. 

10. Rol.ct/TasklWorlc Unit No. 

11. Mnet(C) or GrantfG) No. 

(C) 

(GI 

1% Typa of Report & Period Cowred 

IS. Supplementary Not.. 

* U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Report No. TR EL-82-4 

16. Abrtract (Limit: 200 word.) 

Species profiles are literature summaries of the taxonany, morpholoqv, distribution, life history, habitats, and environmental requiremnts of coastal species 

of fishes and aquatic invertebrates. They are designed to assist in environmental impact assessment. The tarpon and ladyfish are popular gamfishes. 

Adults spawn offshore. Larval and juvenile stages inhabit coastal marshes and 

mangroves. Both species are thermophilic (preferring warm water), euryhaline 

(tolerant of a wide range of salinity), and are capable of surviving at low 

oxygen concentrations. Wetlands destruction and degradation negatively affect 

these species by reducing nursery areas. 

17. Document Analysis a. Dorripton 

Fi shes Fisheries Life cycles 

Estuaries Temperature 

Feeding habits Sal i ni ty 

Growth Oxygen 

b. Identitienl0p.n-Ended Terms 

Tarpon Trophic ecology 

Megalops atlanti cus Spawni ng 

Ladyfi sh Envi ronmental requi rements 

Elops saurus 

I la Availablllty Stakmen: I 19. Suurlty Class (This Report) 1 21. No. of PWW I 

OFrIONAL FORM 272 (4-77) 

(Formerly NTiS35) 

Unlimited 

Dopartm.nt of Commerce 

Unclassified 

20. Suurlty Class (This Pago) 

Unclassified 

17 

n. PAC. 
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