REFF,P,EhTG.T COW 

Do Not Remove from the Library 

U. -- S. - Fish and Wildlife Service 

Biological Report 82 (11.61) National Wetlands Kesearcn cAugust 1986 

TR EL-82-4 

700 Cajun Dome Boulevard 

~afa~ette, Louisiana 70506 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and 

Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes 

and Invertebrates (South Florida) 

SPINY LOBSTER 

Coastal Ecology Group 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 
Biological Report 82(11.61) 

TR EL-82-4 

August 1986 

Species Prof i les: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements 

of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Florida) 

SPINY LOBSTER 

James M. Marx 

and 

William F. Herrnkind 

Department of Biological Science 

Florida State University 

Tall ahassee, FL 32306 

Project Officer 

John Parsons 

National Wetlands Research Center 

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Slidell, LA 70458 

Performed for 

Coastal Ecology Group 

Waterways Experiment Station 

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 

and 

National Wetlands Research Center 

Research and Development 

Fish and Wildlife Service 

U. S. Department of the Interior 

Washi ngton, DC 20240 
This series should be referenced as follows: 

U. S. Fish and Wildl ife Service. 1983-19-. Species profiles: 1 ife histories 

and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates. U. S. Fish 

Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 

This profile should be cited as follows: 

Marx, J.M., and W.F. Herrnkind. 1986. Species profiles: life histories and 

environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (south 

Florida)--spiny lobster. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.61). U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 21 pp. 
PREFACE 

This species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms, 

principally fish, of sport, commercial, or ecological importance. The profiles 

are designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists with a brief 

comprehensive sketch of the biological characteristics and envi ronmental 

requirements of the species and to describe how populations of the species may be 

expected to react to environmental changes caused by coastal development. Each 

profile has sections on taxonomy, 1 i fe history, ecological role, environmental 

requirements, and economic importance, if applicable. A three-ring binder is 

used for this series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared. 

This project is jointly planned and financed by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers 

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to one of 

the foll owing addresses. 

Information Transfer Specialist 

National Wetlands Research Center 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

NASA-Sl idel 1 Computer Complex 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Sl i dell , LA 70458 

U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station 

Attention: WESER-C 

Post Office Box 631 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 
CONVERSION TABLE 

Metric to U.S . Customary 

Mu1 tiply & To Obtain 

mil 1 imeters (mn) 

centimeters ( an) 

meters (m) 

ki 1 ometers ( km) 

2 

square meters (m ) 10.76 

square ki 1 meters ( km2) 0.3861 

hectares (ha) 2.471 

1 i ters ( 1 ) 

cubic ineters (m3) 

cubic meters 

mil 1 igrams (mg ) 

grams (g) kilograms (kg) 

metric tons (t) 

metric tons 

ki 1 ocal ori es ( kcal ) 

inches 

inches 

feet 

miles 

square feet 

square inil es 

acres 

gal 1 ons 

cubic feet 

acre- feet 

ounces 

ounces 

pounds 

pounds 

short tons 

British themal units 

Celsius deyrees 1.8("C) + 32 Fahrenhei t degrees 

U.S. Customary to Metric 

inches 25.40 

inches 2.54 

feet (ft) 0.3048 

fathoms 1.829 

miles (mi) 1.609 

nautical miles (mi) 1.852 

square feet (ft2) 

acres 2 

square miles (mi 

gal 1 ons ( gal ) 

cubic feet (ft3) 

acre-feet 

ounces (02) 28.35 

pounds (lb) 0.4536 

short tons (ton) 0.9072 

British thermal units (Btu) 0.2520 

mil 1 imeters 

centimeters 

ineters 

meters 

kilometers 

ki 1 ometers 

square meters 

hectares 

square kilometers 

1 i ters 

cubic meters 

cubic meters 

grains 

ki 1 og rams 

metric tons 

ki 1 ocal ories 

Fahrenheit degrees 0.5556(OF - 32) Celsius degrees 
CONTENTS 

Page 

PREFACE .................................................................... iii 

CONVERSION TABLE ........................................................... iV 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................ vi 

NONMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE ............................................... 1 

MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS ............................................. 1 

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES ............................................. 3 

LIFE HISTORY .............................................................. 3 

Spawning Habits .......................................................... 3 

Larvae ................................................................... 5 

Postlarvae and Early Juveniles ......................................... 6 

Late Juveniles and Adults ................................................ 7 

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS ..................................................... 8 

COMMERCIAL AND SPORT FISHERY ............................................... 10 

Population Size Composition and Reproductive Potential ................... 10 

Fishery-Induced Juvenile Mortality/Growth Reduction ...................... 12 

ECOLOGICAL ROLE ........................................................... 12 

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS ................................................. 13 

Habitat .................................................................. 13 

Temperature .............................................................. 14 

Salinity ................................................................ 15 

Hydrodynamics ............................................................ 15 

Oceanic Circulation ...................................................... 16 

LITERATURE CITED ........................................................... 17 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

For their helpful reviews and suggestions, we thank Gary Davis, National 

Park Service, Ventura, California, and Will iam Lyons, Florida Department of 

Natural Resources, St. Petersburg, Florida. 
. 

..... Carapace 

Figure 1. Dorsal view of an adult spiny lobster, Panulirus argus. 

SPINY LOBSTER 

Scientific name. ... Panulirus argus 

(Latreille) 

Preferred common name. .Spiny lobster, 

crawfish (Figure 1) 

Other common names. .Crayfish, Florida 

spiny lobster, Western At1 antic 

spiny lobster, Caribbean spiny 

lobster, rock lobster, "bug" 

Class. ........... Crustacea 

Order. ........... .Decapoda 

Family .......... Pal inuridae 

Geographic range: The spiny lobster 

inhabits the coastal waters and 

shallow Continental Shelf waters 

from North Carolina south to Brazil, 

including Bermuda and the Gulf of 

Mexico (Williams 1965) (Figure 2). 

A few specimens have been collected 

in the Gulf of Guinea, West Africa 

(Marchal 1968). 

MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS 

General : The subcyl indrical 

carapace is studded with forwardprojecting spines, and prominent 

rostra1 horns extend over stal ked 

eyes. Long, whip-1 ike antennae are 

tapered anteriorly and covered with 

small spines. The slender, elongate 

walking legs (pereopods) bear setose 

dactyls. The tail is smooth except 

where notched along the lateral edges, 

and the transverse groove on each tail 

segment is interrupted at the midline. 

The tail fan is composed of a central 

telson bordered by a pair of biramous 

uropods. 
ATLANTIC OCEAN 

ST. PETE RSBU 

PALM BEACH 

OKEECHOBEE 

b 

CAPE ROMANO 

43 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

I 

\ 

\ 

MILES 

I 0 50 100 

I Offshore range llrnits II. 

0 50 100 

KILOMETERS 

Aroa of high concentration 

A 

Figure 2. Distribution of the spiny lobster, Panulirus argus, on the south 

Florida coast. . . 
Color: In young juveniles (7 to 

20 mm carapace length; all lengths of 

lobsters in this profile are carapace 

lengths unless otherwise stated), the 

antennae and pereopods are banded with 

distinct white stripes; a broad white 

stripe extends along the dorsal 

mid1 ine of the carapace and abdomen. 

The general body colors are shades of 

brown, black, and purple. Adult color 

varies from light gray or tan with 

green and brown shades to deeper brown 

with red and black shades. The second 

and sixth tail segments have large 

white or yellowish ocelli; small 

ocell i are dorsolateral on other tail 

segments. The legs are striped longitudinally with dull blue, and the 

pleopods are bright orange and black. 

Sexual dimorphism: Females are 

distinguished by the small chela on 

the dactyls of the fifth pereopods; 

the adult male is characterized by an 

elongate second pair of legs bearing 

extended, curved dactyls. The endopodite of female pleopods is well developed, hookli ke, and heavily setose. 

In males, the raised genital openings 

lie at the base of the fifth pair of 

legs; in females they lie at the base 

of the third pair of legs. The female 

sternum is striated and narrower at 

its posterior margin than in the male. 

Related species : The sympatr ic 

- P. laevicauda has no dorsal grooves 

on the tail segments and bears small 

white spots along the lateral margin 

of the tail; P. guttatus has a 

single, unintFrrupted transverse 

groove on the second through the fifth 

tail segments and has many white spots 

over the body. 

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN THE SERIES 

Panulirus argus supports major 

commercial fisheries in south Florida, 

the Bahamas, Cuba, Brazil, and 

throughout the Caribbean. Spiny 

lobsters are mid- to high-level predators and probably are important in 

structuring marine benthic communities. Throughout their lives, 

lobsters live among diverse habitats 

and exhibit behavioral and physiological characteristics that make them 

excellent test organisms for basic 

research. 

LIFE HISTORY 

The life history of the spiny 

lobster consists of five major phases, 

having the following distinctive behaviors and habitat use: (1) oceanic 

planktonic phyllosome 1 arvae, 

(2) swimming postlarval pueruli 

(singular = puerulus), (3) early 

benthic "banded" juveniles, (4) later 

juveniles (20-65 mm carapace length, 

CL), and (5) adults. A broad range of 

marine habitats are used during their 

life cycle (Figure 3). 

Spawning Habits 

Most spiny lobster in Florida 

waters reproduce during 1 ate spring 

and early sumner. Crawford and De 

Smidt (1922) reported peak spawning in 

April and May; Dawson and Idyll (1951) 

observed a peak in April (29% of females sampled bore eggs); and Lyons et 

a1. (1981) noted high levels in May 

(32.8%) and June (30.3%). Davis 

(1975) reported an April peak (55%) 

for an unfished population of large 

lobsters at Dry Tortugas. Yearly 

variations in peak spawning time 

depend largely on water temperature. 

Crawford (1921) reported optimal 

spawning at 24O C, whereas Lyons et 

al. (1981) observed that spawning 

began at 24O C in deep reef areas (30 

m). In Florida, there is no direct 

evidence that lobsters spawn more than 

once a year, but some repeat spawning 

by some individuals is suspected in 

Bermuda waters (Creaser 1950; 

Sutcliffe 1952). 

The spiny lobster spawns in 

offshore waters along the deeper reef 

fringes (Kanciruk and Herrnkind 1976; 

Warner et al. 1977; Lyons et al. 
Figure 3. The spatial aspects of the life cycle of the spiny lobster Panulirus 

argus. The postlarval puerul i move inshore, settling in subtidal algae. 

Juveniles during the first 2 years of benthic life remain in lagoons and shallow 

seagrass beds and show both nomadic and residential phases in apparent accord 

with food and shelter. The subadults gradually emigrate from the nursery and 

disperse about the extensive shallow (3-10 m depth) banks characteristic of their 

range. After breeding on the reefs, the females move to waters bordering oceanic 

currents to release larvae. Adults exhibit seasonal cycles of residency, nomadism, reproductive migration, and inshore-offshore migration (sometimes en 

masse). The pattern of movement varies considerably over the range of the speci es (from Herrnki nd 1980 reprinted with permission from Academic Press, New 

York). 

1981). Although adult males and females sometimes inhabit bays, 1 agoons, 

estuaries, and shallow banks, none are 

known to spawn there. Requirements of 

offshore spawning are high shelter 

qua1 ity, suitable water conditions 

(stable temperature and salinity, low 

surge and turbidity), and adequate 

larval transport by oceanic currents 

(Kanciruk and Herrnkind 1976). 

Mating follows a brief courtship 

involving signals by both male and 

female. During copulation, the male 

holds the female sternum to sternum 

against him and extrudes a spermatophoric mass. The gray tarry spermatophore adheres to the female sternum until spawning. The sperm may 

remain viable for as long as one 

month. 

Spawning is described in detail 

by Crawford and De Smidt (1922) and 

Sutcl iffe (1952). The female abdomen 

is flexed in cuplike fashion beneath 

the cephalothorax, and the telson and 

uropods are spread. Eggs (spherical, 

0.5 mm diameter) are liberated externally through the gonopores located at 

the base of the third pair of walking 

1 egs. Fertilization begins as a 

female scratches at the spermatophore 

packet using the chelate dactyls of 
the fifth walking legs. The bright 

orange, yolk-filled eggs adhere to 

hooklike pleopodal setae on the underside of the abdomen. Fecundity varies 

directly with size: females 71 to 75 

mm long carry 230,000 eggs; females 

longer than 100 mm may carry over 

700,000 eggs ( Mota-Alves and Bezerra 

1968). Embryonic development lasts 

about 3 weeks (Crawford 1921). The 

eggs turn brown a few days before 

hatching. The phyllosomes emerge from 

the egg membrane and disperse into the 

water column assisted by abdominal 

movements of the female. 

The relative (percentage) contribution of each size class in the population to the total number of eggs 

layed can be estimated using the Index 

of Reproductive Potenti a1 ( IRP; 

Kanciruk and Herrnkind 19761, which 

states: 

IRP = (A x B x C)/D 

where A = total females within a 

given size. class/total 

females in the 

popu 1 at i on 

B = % of females bearing 

eggs in that size class 

C = fe~undi~ty offemales in 

that size class 

D = a constant (total eggs 

1 aid/100%) derived to 

set the index of a particular size class at 

the percentage contri - 

bution to the total egg 

production. 

Applying the IRP to the lobster population of the upper Florida Keys, 

Lyons et al. (1981) estimated that 

the 76-85 mm CL size class contributed 

48% of total egg production. Females 

longer than 85 mm made up only 20% of 

a1 1 females, but contributed about 41% 

of eggs. Smaller size classes (< 76 

mm CL) constituted 25% of all females, 

but contributed only 11% of the eggs. 

Compared to the index values for the 

unf i shed population at Dry Tortugas 

(data provided by Davis 19751, Lyons 

et al. (1981) estimated that egg production in the Florida Keys was only 

12% of that to be expected from an 

unfished population of similar size. 

Intense fishing may have caused a 

decline in the minimum size of 

spawning females in Florida waters. 

The smallest egg-bearing females 

reported by Crawford and De Smidt in 

1922 were 76 mm, but in recent surveys 

egg-bearing females were as small as 

71 mm (Warner et al. 1977) and 65 m 

(Lyons et al. 1981). In contrast, the 

smallest egg bearer observed from an 

unf i shed population at Dry Tortugas 

was 78 mm (Davis 1975). Suggested 

causes for this apparent decline in 

size are genetic selection (Warner et 

al. 1977), modified sexual behavior 

when large females are rare (Lyons et 

al. 19811, and reduced growth caused 

by high injury rates (Davis and 

Dodrill 1980). The minimum legal size 

(established in 1965) may not adequately protect spawning stock in 

Florida (see a related discussion in 

the section on the Commercial and 

Sport Fishery). 

Larvae 

Eggs hatch as transparent, 

phyllosome (leaf-bodied) larvae. They 

are morphologically well equipped for 

planktonic life, bearing long, highly 

setose appendages extending from a 

dorsoventral ly f 1 attened, bi lobed 

cephalothorax. Phyllosomes swim in a 

horizontal position by means of the 

exopodal action of the biramous legs 

(Provenzano 1968). They undergo a 

die1 pattern of vertical distribution, 

ascending to surface waters at night 

and descending during the day (Sims 

and Ingle 1967). Distribution is 

otherwise regulated by ocean currents 

and other factors that influence water 

circulation patterns (Austin 1972). 

Phyllosomes develop through about 

11 stages, increasing in size from 

2 nun (total length) at hatching to 

nearly 34 m before metamorphosis 

(Lewis 1951). Duration of the phyllo- 
some stage is about 6 to 12 months 

(Lewis 1951; Lyons et al. 1981). 

The uncertainty of the duration 

of the phyllosome stage renders the 

question of larval origins problematic. Major factors causing uncertainty are variations in growth rates, 

delays in metamorphosis, the 

widespread abundance of 1 arvae, and 

the inherent complexities of oceanic 

circulation throughout the western 

Atlantic region (Lewis 1951; Sims and 

Ingle 1967; Austin 1972; Richards and 

Potthoff 1981). The larval source for 

Florida is.unknown, but two different 

origins are proposed: (1) larvae of 

Caribbean spawning stocks (Lewis 1951; 

Sims and Ingle 1967) are transported 

downcurrent to Florida, and (2) larvae 

of local stocks are retained by idiosyncratic current patterns off the 

coast of Florida (Menzies and Kerrigan 

1979). Neither proposal is conclusive, 

and new research approaches are under 

study, particularly biochemical 

genetics (Menzies 1981; see Lyons 1981 

for a thorough review). 

Post1 arvae and Earl v Juveniles 

The spiny lobster larva metamorphoses into a puerulus, a brief 

(several weeks), nonfeeding, oceanic 

phase (Lyons 1980). The puerulus 

possesses a number of distinctive 

features including adaptations for 

rapid, efficient swimming (e.g., a 

smooth, 1 ightweight transparent body 

1 acking calcification and spines, and 

a dorsoventral ly flattened carapace). 

After metamorphosis offshore 

(Sweat 1968; Witham et al. 19681, 

pueruli swim shoreward by night, 

antennae directed forward, within a 

few centimeters of the water surface 

(Lyons 1980). Propulsion is provided 

by special ized abdominal pleopods. 

Large numbers of pueruli arrive along 

the southeast Florida coast and 

southern shores of the Florida Keys 

throughout the year, principally 

during the new and first-quarter lunar 

phases (Sweat 1968; Witham et al. 

1968; Little 1977; Little and Milano 

1980). The season of peak recruitment varies considerably from year to 

year and regionally, but maximum numbers generally arrive inshore in 

spring; there is a lesser peak in fall 

( Lyons 1980 1. Because Florida 

lobsters spawn almost exclusively in 

late spring, year-round recruitment of 

larvae suggests that a substantial 

number of pueruli originate elsewhere. 

Pueruli settle rapidly when they 

encounter suitable inshore substrate. 

They acquire reddish-brown pigmentation and within days molt into the 

first juvenile stage. The distinctive 

color patterns of early benthic juveniles are a combination of cryptic 

(different shades) and disruptive 

(bands or stripes) features that make 

juveniles in vegetation nearly invisible. 

Little is known about factors 

that stimulate postl arval settlement 

and specific habitat requirements of 

early juveniles. Witham et al. (1964) 

caught postl arvae and young juveni les 

up to 25 mm long among algal-fouled 

mangrove roots and algal clumps 

collected from shallow seagrass beds. 

Marx ( 1983 ) observed post 1 arvae and 

juveniles up to 20 mm long in shallow 

(2-3 m) macroalgal assemblages dominated by several species of the red 

alga Laurencia. Somewhat 1 ater stages 

(31 = 21 mm CL) inhabited small holes 

and crevices within a shallow, algalfouled rubble zone dominated by 

various red algae, primarily Laurencia 

(Andree 1981). Eldred et al. (1972) 

and Davis (1979) reported substantial 

catches of lobsters 11 to 30 mm long 

in Biscayne Bay by bait shrimp 

trawlers. Trawling took place over 

sand/mud bottoms with abundant 

seagrasses, calcareous green algae, 

and Laurencia. 

Early benthic larvae and juveni les apparently concentrate in 

macroalgae beds along rocky shorelines 

and may be interspersed among large 
expanses of seagrass that typify known 

nursery areas like Florida Bay (Davis 

and Dodri 11 1980; Lyons et a1 . 1981) 

and Biscayne Bay (Davis 1979). 

Early benthic lobsters tend to 

live a solitary existence (Andree 

1981; Marx 1983). Because they have 

easy access to their food supply, 

foraging time for young juveniles and 

exposure to predators are minimal. 

Young juveniles are highly aggressive, 

using the antennae to lash or pry 

conspecifics, suggesting that 

dispersed spacing patterns may be 

maintained by agonistic behavior. 

Late Juveniles and Adults 

Most lobsters longer than 20 mm 

aggregate in various sheltering structures in protected bays, including 

estuaries with high salinity (Olsen et 

al. 1975; Davis 1979). She1 ters 

include large sponges, coral heads, 

mangrove roots, grass-bed undercuts, 

solution holes, rocky outcroppings or 

ledges, and even clumps of sea urchins 

(Davis 1971). Most shelters supply 

partial camouflage, physically deter 

predators, and provide refuge from 

physical stress. Adult coloration 

replaces the cryptic pattern, and late 

juveniles begin to exhibit active 

anti predator defense using the antennae as foils. 

The ontogenetic transition from 

'sol itary-asoci all1 to "aggregativesocial" is apparently not rigidly 

fixed, and probably depends in part on 

the distribution and physical characteristics of lobster shelter (Andree 

1981; Marx 1983). Juveniles tend to 

be nomadic, usually taking shelter 

after foraging at night. Where juvenile density is high, transient movements are especi a1 ly apparent in areas 

of intermittent shelter, e.g., the 

shallow waters of the Florida Keys 

(Herrnkind 1980). 

Lobsters approaching maturity 

(70-80 mm) emigrate offshore (Witham 

et al. 1968; Olsen et al. 1975; Davis 

1979). These emigrations are usually 

gradual and nomadic, but short-term 

mass movements do occur. These movements widely disperse the lobsters 

along the reefs that parallel the 

Florida Keys (Warner et al. 1977; 

Davis 1979; Herrnkind 1980). Sex 

ratios inshore indicate that more 

females than males emigrate offshore 

(Olsen et al. 1975; Davis and Dodrill 

1980; Lyons et al. 1981). 

Offshore lobster populations are 

composed predomi nantly of adults 

residing individually or communally in 

crevices of rock or coral. After 

foraging at night (up to several 

hundred meters) most adults return to 

the same or nearby dens (Herrnkind et 

a1 . 1975). Homing apparently involves 

orientation of the lobster to hydrodynamic (current and wave surge), chemical, topographic, and gravitational 

(slope) cues (Herrnkind 1980). Adult 

lobsters are highly selective of dens, 

residing most frequently in crevices 

that allow full withdrawal of the 

body, deny access by large predators, 

and contain other lobsters (Herrnkind 

et al. 1975). The preference for an 

occupied den is generally interpreted 

as a social response, i .e., being 

attracted to conspecif ics. Both 1 ate 

juveniles and adults are gregarious. 

The tendency for adult lobsters 

to congregate probably is a requirement for adequate defense, mating, and 

shelter use. Lobsters may resist 

predators by blocking 1 arge den openings or by forming a cohesive group 

adjacent to less formidable she1 ters 

like sponges and sea whips. Males 

initiate mating by seeking receptive 

females often found congregated during 

the day (Lipcius et al. 1983). 

Concentrations of spiny lobsters 

in the waters of the Florida Keys tend 

to shift in autumn and during the 

spring reproductive period. Some 

movements are sex dependent and sometimes cause sharp differences in malefemale ratios from place to place 
(Herrnkind 1980). Females move to 

deeper reefs in the spring, presumably 

to mate and shed larvae (Crawford and 

De Smidt 1922; Davis 1977; Lyons et 

a1 . 1981). At Dry Tortugas, females 

return to shallow water after 

releasing their larvae. Normal sex 

ratios (about 1:l) are restored by 

fall (Davis 1977). Both sexes 

emigrate offshore in the fall as water 

temperatures decl ine and fa1 1 storms 

arrive (Davis 1977; Kanciruk and 

Herrnkind 1978; Herrnkind 1982). 

Sometimes offshore movements are spectacul ar mass migrations of lobsters 

forming single-fi le columns or queues 

(Herrnkind and Kanciruk 1978; Kanciruk 

and Herrnkind 1978; Herrnkind 1980). 

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS 

The growth of the spiny lobster 

is largely correlated with the frequency of molting and increment growth 

while molting (Aiken 1980). 

Generally, the frequency of the molts 

and increment growth decline with age, 

as is borne out by the von Bertalanffy 

growth model (a decaying exponential 

curve), which states: 

where Lt = carapace length at time t 

L = asymptotic carapace length 

e = base of natural logarithms 

to = time at which carapace 

length was 0, 

k = the growth coefficient 

(rate at which Lt 

approaches L 1. 

Estimates of the growth coefficients (k) in different waters sometimes vary considerably. Coefficients 

were 0.11 for the lower Florida Keys 

(Yang and Obert 1978), 0.21 for 

Florida and Be1 i ze combined (Munro 

1974), 0.31-0.36 for south Florida 

(see Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic 

Fishery Management Counci 1 s CGMSAFMCI 

1982), 0.03-0.24 for the Bahamas 

(Waugh 19811, and 0.43 for St. John, 

U.S. Virgin Islands (Olsen and Koblick 

1975). Variation is caused partly by 

differences in methodology used to 

estimate growth, but most differences 

are caused by changes in environmental 

conditions. Local variability in food 

abundance, population density, predatory attacks (inducing injuries), and 

water temperature greatly affects 

growth rates of spiny lobsters (Newman 

and Pollock 1974; Chittleborough 1976; 

Davis 1979; Aiken 1980; Waugh 1981). 

Growth sometimes varies within a 

re1 atively small area; consequently, 

the relations among size, sex, and 

growth are unpredictable. 

Furthermore, data from recaptured 

tagged lobsters are difficult to 

obtain for all size ranges, prohibi ti ng accurate analysi s of mol t f requency and increment per molt and the 

use of von Bertalanffy growth models 

(Davis 1979; Waugh 1981). Growth data 

for Florida lobsters are usually shown 

as mean size increments per unit of 

time for particular size groups. 

The monthly growth rate of spiny 

lobster (starting with pueruli 6 mm 

CL) reared for 7 months was 3.8 to 4.2 

mn/mo, given an average size of 34 mm 

(6 mn CL at metamorphosis plus 7 X 4 

mn or 28 mn) (Witham et al. 1968); an 

average growth rate of 5 mm/mo for the 

first 9-10 months after settlement was 

estimated from length (CL) frequency 

data (Eldred et al. 1972) from 

lobsters sampled in Biscayne Bay. The 

pattern of 1 ength frequency, however, 

is reliable only up to lengths of 

25 mn, after which interpretations of 

field data are seriously biased by the 

lack of distinct settling classes. 

Young juveniles confined in small 

aquaria with a limited diversity of 

food grew substantially slower (< 2 

mn/mo) than most natural populations 

(Lewis et al. 1952; Sweat 1968). 

Growth rates were estimated 

during a 2-year tag-and-recapture 

study in Biscayne Bay and Florida Bay, 

both of which are major nursery areas 

(Davis and Dodrill 1980; Davis 1981). 
In Biscayne Bay, the mean growth rate 

of lobsters 40-85 mm long was 1.8 

mm/mo. The physical condition of 

individuals significantly affected 

growth: uninjured lobsters grew 2.2 

mn/mo, but those missing legs and 

antennae grew only 1.3 mm/mo, a 41% 

reduction. In Florida Bay, mean 

growth rate of lobsters of about the 

same size was 3.3 mm/mo. Injured 

lobsters grew nearly as fast. Davis 

and Dodri 11 (1980) attributed 

increased growth and the lack of 

damaging effects from injury to optimal growing conditions and low fishing 

effort in Florida Bay. In waters near 

Key West, tagged lobsters 49 to 83 mm 

long grew an average of 3.1 mm/mo 

(Little 1972). 

The postsettlement time required 

for juveniles to reach minimum legal 

size is important to fishery management. Estimates of postsettlement 

times, and of carapace lengths after 2 

years of benthic life, are shown in 

Table 1. The first 7 months of each 

growth estimate after the beginning of 

the puerulus stage (6 mn CL) are based 

on a mean growth rate of 4.0 mm/mo; 

thus the lobsters are 34 mm 

long 7 months after settling (Witham 

et al. 1968). The remaining 17 

months of each estimate are based on 

growth rates of lobsters over 40 mm 

long in various areas. For example, 

the estimated carapace length of 

injured Florida Bay lobsters after 2 

years was 34 mm + (17 mo x 3.2 mm/mo) 

= 88 mm. The estimated number of 

months to reach legal size (76 mm) is 

obtained by dividing 42 mm (76 mm - 34 

mm = 42 mm, the growth after 7 mo) by 

the observed growth rate after 7 

months and adding 7 months. From the 

above data it was calculated that the 

lobsters reach legal length in about 

20 months (42 mm/3.2 mm/mo + 7 mo). 

An interaction between sex and 

growth of spiny lobsters is known 

(Chi ttleborough 1976; Aiken 1980). 

Lobsters of the two sexes show near 

equal growth in the nurseries of 

Florida Bay and Biscayne Bay (Davis 

and Dodrill 1980). However, adult 

female lobsters grow slower than 

males. This growth differential has 

been reported for the lower Florida 

Keys (Little 19721, Bahamas (Waugh 

19811, and U.S. Virgin Islands (Olsen 

and Kobl ick 1975). 

Table 1. Estimated timea for injured and uninjured lobsters at different locations to reach legal size (76 mm carapace length [CL]). 

Location Numberof Meangrowth Carapacelength Numberofmonthsto 

and condition observations (mm/month) (mm) after 2 years reach legal lengtha 

Florida Bayb 644 

Injured 3.2 88 

Uninjured 3.4 92 

Biscayne Bayb 1688 

Injured 1.3 56 

Uninjured 2.2 7 1 

Key WestC 

Combined 44 3.1 8 7 

a After puerulus settlement; add 9 months to obtain approximate age. 

b Based on Davis and Dodrill (1980). 

c Based on Little (1972). 

9 
Length-weight re1 ationships 

differ significantly by sex. Lyons et 

al. (1981) derived the following 

equations: 

Ma1 es W = 0.00315 'CL 2.69934 

Females W = 0.00361 CL 2.68379 

where W = wet weight in grams, 

CL = carapace length in mm. 

The derived equation for combined 

sexes, 

W = 0,00422 CL 2.64091 9 

gives a reasonable approximation. 

COMMERCIAL AND SPORT FISHERY 

The Florida spiny lobster is a 

valuable sport and commercial species. 

The spiny lobster supports Florida's 

second most valuable shellfishery. In 

1980 the commercial catch was 6.7 

million lb, with a dockside value 

exceeding $14 million (National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Statistical 

Reporting Service, Miami, Florida). 

Sport and commercial fishing for this 

species is concentrated in the Florida 

Keys (Monroe County). Some spiny 

lobsters are taken by sportsmen in 

most coastal waters of Florida. 

Fishermen using top-entry woodslat traps account for 99% of the 

total commercial catch; commercial 

divers and shrimpers, who occasionally 

capture lobsters in trawls (GMSAFMC 

1982), account for the remainder. 

Sport divers use skin- or scuba-diving 

gear, gloves, and small hand-held nets 

to catch lobsters. The sport catch is 

about 10% of the commercial catch and 

provides a seasonal boost to the 

touri sm-dependent economy of the 

Florida Keys (GMSAFMC 1982). 

Regulations in 1984 prohibited lobster 

fishing from ,1 April through 25 July 

and required that all lobsters must be 

- > 76 mm CL or have tail lengths of at 

least 140 mm. Egg-bearing females 

must be returned to the sea. 

Commercial fishing has intensified 

greatly since the 1960's. New boats 

have entered the fishery, the number 

of traps fished per boat has 

increased, and Miami -based boats began 

fishing locally after Bahamian waters 

were closed to foreign fishing in 

1975. Total landings have not risen 

despite increased fishing intensity. 

The consequence has been a dramatic 

decline in catch per trap, e.g., catch 

per unit effort (CPUE; Table 2). 

Landings have remained relatively 

stable since 1970, averaging 4.8 

million lb/year. Some fisheries 

biologists believe that the stable 

landings indicate stable recruitment 

and abundance of harvestable stocks. 

Lowered CPUE is blamed on industri a1 

overcapi tal ization (Austin 1981; 

GMSAFMC 1982). Possibly three times 

the number of traps are fished as are 

needed to harvest the available yield 

(GMSAFMC 19821, so total mortal i ty 

estimates and exploitation ratios 

increased from 1975-76 to 1978-79 

(Table 3). If these increases truly 

reflect the efficiency of exploitation 

(resulting from increased effort), 

total landings should have increased 

given a constant harvestable stock. 

In short, stable landings may be a 

misleading consequence of increased 

fishing intensity on declining stocks. 

Population Size Composition and 

Reproductive Potential 

Lyons et a1 . (1981) noted a 12-mm 

decrease (90 mm to 78 mm CL) in the 

modal length of Florida Keys lobsters 

since 1945-49 (Dawson and Idyll 1951). 

The modal carapace length of 78 mm is 

about 30% smaller than that of the 

unf ished population at Dry Tortugas 

(100 mm CL; Davis 1977). The decline 

in the size of the mature female has 

caused a marked reduction in reproductive potential (egg production). 

Lyons et al. (1981) estimated the 

Florida Keys population spawns only 
Table 2. The landings (millions of pounds) and ex-vessel values (millions of 

U. S. do1 lars) in domestic waters and the landings, number of traps fished, and 

catch per trap for Monroe County (Florida Keys), 1970-79 (adapted from 

GMSAFMC 1982). 

Florida landings Monroe County landings 

Year Total a Total Domestic Total Number of Catch (Ib) 

(1b) ($1 (1b) (1b) traps per trap 

a Florida landings include some lobsters caught in foreign waters. 

b Domestic landings include waters of the entire State of Florida. 

Table 3. Size and mortality estimates for the unfished population of spiny 

lobsters at Dry Tortugas and the, fished populations of the lower Florida Keys 

and the middle to upper Florida Keys (adapted from GMSAFMC 1982). 

Locat i on L r L c Z A F E Data source 

Dry Tortugas 100 115 1.00 63 -- - - Davis (1977) 

Lower Florida Keys 65 78 1.72 82 1.32 0.77 Warner et al. 

( 1975-76) (1977) 

Middle to upper Florida 73 81 2.73 94 2.33 0.85 Lyonsetal. 

Keys (1978-79) (1981 

Lr = Size (m CL) at full recruitment 

LC = Average size of fully recruited population 

Z = K (L - Lc)/(Lc - Lr) = Total mortality coefficient 

A = 1 - e-Z = Annual mortality rate (%) 

F = Z - M = Fishing mortality coefficient 

E = F/Z = Exploitation ratio 

where L = 190 mm CL, growth coefficient (K) = 0.2, natural mortality (M) =O 
12% of the number of eggs of an 

unf ished population of equal number 

because the fishery selected and 

effectively removed the 1 arger, more 

fecund females. If the decrease in 

eggs spawned causes a decrease in larvae and recruitment into the fishery, 

then spawning stocks will have to be 

better protected. If locally spawned 

larvae are significant contributors, 

suggested actions include increasing 

the minimum legal size and 

establishing sanctuaries where large, 

fecund females are protected. If larvae from Florida support lobster 

fisheries outside of Florida waters 

and vice versa, cooperative international management agreements may be 

required (Lyons 1981; Villegas et al. 

1982 1. 

Fishery-Induced Juvenile Mortality/ 

Growth Reduction 

Laws enacted in 1976 allow 

fishermen in Florida to use small, 

i 1 legal lobsters (locally termed 

"shorts") as decoys in traps. 

Fishermen prefer "shorts" over conventional baits such as cowhide or fish 

heads. Studies confirm that catch 

rates increase with the number of 

"shorts" used per trap (Lyons and 

Kennedy 1981). This practice causes 

substantial mortality among juvenile 

stocks. Major stresses are boatside 

transport and starvation during conf i nement ( Lyons and Kennedy 1981 ). 

Loss to the fishery may be substantial 

because in the 1980's over 500,000 

traps are being fished, and fishermen 

typically use three to five "shorts" 

per trap (Lyons and Kennedy 1981). 

Attempts are underway to develop artificial lures as a low-cost alternative 

(Ache and Hamilton 1982). Another 

approach would be to require openings 

of sufficient size among the slats 

(escape gaps) to allow all undersized 

lobsters to escape (Lyons and Kennedy 

1981 1. 

Injuries to juvenile lobsters 

(loss of antennae and legs) are commonly caused by attacks from predators 

and from hand1 ing by commerci a1 

fishermen and sport divers. In 

Biscayne Bay, the frequency of 

injuries increased as much as 50% 

during the fishing season (Davis and 

Dodrill 1980). Less frequent injuries 

were reported for the middle and upper 

Florida Keys (Lyons et al. 1981). 

Injured lobsters grow slower (Davis 

1981; Waugh 1981) than uninjured 

lobsters presumably because they are 

less efficient foragers and because 

growth is redirected into 1 imb regeneration. Davis (1979) estimated that 

injuries from commercial handling in 

Biscayne Bay caused an annual loss of 

31,000 lobsters. Lyons et al. (1981) 

presented evidence that injuries cause 

high mortality among small (less than 

legal size) lobsters in the Florida 

Keys. The Florida State Legislature 

established a lobster sanctuary in 

Biscayne Bay in 1979, and the 

Everglades National Park portion of 

Florida Bay was closed to recreational 

lobstering in 1980; both measures were 

designed to protect juveniles. 

Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) 

for lobster landings in Monroe County 

is estimated to be 5.9 million Ib, on 

the basis of catch and fishing intensity data obtained from 1952 to 1975 

(GMSAFMC 1982). If domestic catches 

(0.2 million Ib), unrecorded landings, 

and losses due to harvesting practices 

(estimated at 5.9 million 1b) were 

included, the actual MSY would be 

nearer to 12 million Ib. 

ECOLOGICAL ROLE 

The diet of spiny lobster phyllosomes has not been sufficiently 

described. Phyllosomes in culture eat 

chaetognaths, euphausi ids, fish 1 arvae, medusae, and ctenophores 

(Provenzano 1968; Inoue 1978; Phillips 

and Sastry 1980). There are no indications that pueruli feed at all 

(Lyons 1980). 
Lobsters are nocturnal foragers 

throughout the benthic phase, locating 

food with chemoreceptive setae lining 

the antennules and dactyls of the 

walking legs (Ache and Macmillan 

1980). They prey upon a wide variety 

of slow-moving and sedentary animals, 

including gastropod and bivalve 

mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms 

(Figure 4). Powerful mandibles crush 

or chip away at molluscan she1 1s and 

other types of protective armor. 

Variations in the diets among recently settled juveniles in concentrations 

of algae, older. juveniles in inshore 

bays, and adults on coral reefs probably reflect differing prey avai labi 1- 

i ty among habitats. Spiny 1 obsters 

often are the dominant carnivores (as 

indicated by total biomass) in their 

habitat and probably have important 

ecological effects on marine benthic 

communities (Berry and Smale 1980). 

algal Ocomm. a bay reef 

8Or 

Figure 4. Frequency of occurrence of 

food items among samples of early 

benthic lobsters (inshore algal 

community), later juveniles (bay), and 

adults (reef) (Herrnkind et al. 1975; 

Andree 1981). 

Substantial numbers of larvae and 

postlarvae are probably eaten by pelagic fishes (Phillips and Sastry 1980). 

Pueruli are eaten by benthic (or 

epibenthic) fauna as well (Gracia and 

Lozano 1980; Little and Milano 1980). 

Octopods and portunid crabs prey on 

recently settled juveniles (Andree 

1981 1. Experiments in aquaria indicate that small fishes (e.g., gray 

snappers) are probably the most important predators on early benthic stages 

(Berrill 1976). Because of their 

relatively large size, spiny exoskeleton, rapid tai 1-fl ip escape response, 

and defense by group formation, late 

juveniles and adults are well protected from small predators. Large 

predators, primarily groupers, 

jewfish, sharks, loggerhead turtles, 

and octopods, prey on both juvenile 

and adult lobsters (Kanciruk 1980). 

Stomachs of 1 arge jewf ish often contain large lobsters (Crawford and De 

Smidt 1922). 

Competition among lobster species 

in Florida waters appears to be inconsequential. The other local shallowdwelling species, Panulirus laevicauda 

and P. guttatus, are relatively 

scarce and are restricted mainly to 

reef habitats. 

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 

Habitat 

Phyl losoma larvae inhabit the 

epipel agic zones of the open ocean, 

which are characterized by relatively 

constant temperature and salinity, low 

levels of suspended sediments, and few 

pollutants. Relatively stable, 

natural conditions are apparently 

required for optimum survival. Ingle 

and Witham (1968) noted that "spiny 

lobster 1 arvae are extremely delicate, 

physical ly, and inordinately fastidious, physiologically. " Larvae are 

particularly sensitive to silt particles, which can, in extreme instances, lodge on their setae, weigh them 

down, and cause death (Crawford and De 
Smidt 1922). Because nutritional 

requirements change throughout the 

life of the larvae (Provenzano 1968; 

Phi 11 ips and Sastry 1980), enhanced 

growth and survival require a diverse, 

productive oceanic plankton community. 

Positive correlations between plankton 

biomass and density of late-stage 

phyl losomes were reported by Ri tz 

(1972). 

Although pueruli settle on isolated oceanic banks where the minimum 

depth exceeds 10 m (Munro 19741, productive fisheries apparently require 

well -vegetated shallow habitat for 

juvenile development. Biscayne Bay 

and Florida Bay are critical nurseries 

for Florida lobsters (Davis and 

Dodrill 1980). These bays are characterized by extensive meadows of 

benthic veqetation. primarily 

turtlegrass fihalassia testudinum), 

shoalgrass (Halodule wrightii ), and 

various alqae (Tabb et al. 1962; 

Hudson et '81. 1970; Eldred et al. 

1972). Macroalgal cormnuni ties 

interspersed among these areas 

apparently are important for the 

earliest benthic staqes. Red alqae, 

Laurencia spp., are abundant in waters 

su~~ortinq concentrations of vounci 

juveniles" (Eldred et al. 1972; ~ndree 

1981; Marx 1983). Intricate algal 

branching provides young lobsters with 

cryptic shelter and supports a diverse 

assemblage of small gastropods, 

crustaceans, and other prey. 

Juveniles larger than 20 mm CL 

take refuge in both biotic (sponges, 

small coral heads, sea urchins) and 

abiotic (ledges, solution holes) 

structures. The importance of shelter 

availability on population distribution is magnified because, unlike 

clawed lobsters, spiny lobsters can 

modify but not construct dens 

(Kanciruk 1980). Substantial addition 

of artificial shelters in Biscayne Bay 

caused population redistribution but 

did not increase the numbers of 

lobsters in the area (Davis 1979). 

The south Florida juvenile lobster 

population may be 1 imi ted by recruitment, emigration, food, and perhaps 

other factors (Davis 1979). 

Adults inhabit coral reef crevices or overhangs, rocky outcroppings, 

ledges, and other discontinuities in 

hard substrate. Residential patterns 

of habitation are apparent in 1 arge, 

permanent dwell ings near extensive 

feeding grounds (Herrnkind et al. 

1975). Soft-substrate shelters, like 

grass-bed ledges, are occupied primari ly during nomadic movements. 

Muddy, turbidity-prone substrates are 

usually avoided (Herrnkind et al. 

1975; Kanciruk 1980). 

Throughout benthic life spiny 

lobsters use other habitats besides 

those providing shelter. Lobsters 

concentrated during the day in localized dens disperse at night to forage 

over adjacent grass beds, sand flats, 

and algal plains (Herrnkind et al. 

1975). Interactions between population density of spiny lobster and food 

availability have not been studied in 

south Florida. Extreme variation in 

growth rates, both among individuals 

and by habitat, suggests that food 

abundance is a critical factor, as 

demonstrated in spiny lobster species 

elsewhere (Chi ttleborough 1976). 

Temperature 

Spiny lobsters generally inhabit 

waters with annual minimum monthly 

temperatures that exceed 20° C (George 

and Main 1967). Along the northern 

edge of their distribution in Florida, 

mean monthly water temperatures rarely 

fall below 160 C (Witham et al. 1968; 

Hudson et al. 1970; Eldred et al. 

1972; Little 1977; Davis 1979). This 

is just above reported minimum survival temperatures for both larval and 

benthic life staqes. Phvllosomes of 

the slipper lobster, scyilarus americanus, which has a geographic range 

similar to the spiny lobster (Lyons 

19701, show retarded development at 

water temperatures below 16O C 

(Robertson 1968). Postlarval and 

young juvenile spiny lobster grow 
slower and demonstrate higher mortality at temperatures sustained below 

16O C (Witham 1974). Post1 arval 

tolerance of short-term, sharp temperature declines to 13O C (Little and 

Mil ano 1980) protects them against 

severe but short-lived cold fronts 

that sometimes frequent south Florida. 

At water temperatures near 13O C, 

spiny lobsters 65-85 mm CL demonstrate 

reduced locomotor activity and an inabilty to capture and manipulate prey 

(Wynne 1979). Direct mortal i ty may 

occur, especi a1 ly for lobsters 

undergoing ecdysis, during rapid water 

temperature declines to as low as 100 

C (Davis 1979). Poor survival at low 

temperatures, especially if they are 

sustained for several days, probably 

limits both the latitudinal and depth 

distributions of spiny lobsters as 

we1 1 as preventing migration across 

deep ocean basins like the Florida 

Straits (Witham 1974; Wynne 1979). 

The annual water temperature 

range in lobster habitats in south 

Florida is about 18O-31° C. Sharp 

temperature fluctuations within this 

range may alter the normal rate of 

growth of lobsters and their time of 

settlement. From November to April, 

the growth of juveniles in Biscayne 

Bay is reduced by as much as 59%, concurrent with water temperature 

declines of 80 C (Davis 1979). Growth 

is rapid but survival is poor at temperatures exceeding 32O C (Witham 

1974; Aiken 1980). Growth is optimal 

between 260 and 28O C. Newly settled 

postlarvae are particularly vulnerable 

during temperature extremes and 

disturbances by hurricanes and winter 

storms. Fluctuations in juvenile 

abundance probably are caused by 

interactions between the rate of 

settlement and seasonal environmental 

conditions. 

Seasonal temperatures and temperature changes regulate the time of 

spawning, 1 arval development, and the 

growth of adults and maturation and 

growth of juveniles, which vary 

markedly throughout the geographic 

range of the spiny lobster (Kanciruk 

1980). Year-round spawning occurs in 

tropical waters (e.g., Venezuela), 

extended spawning (spring through 

fall) in the Bahamas, and restricted 

spawning (March through June) in the 

Florida Keys. These variations may be 

caused by a physiological adjustment 

to differing photoperiods and temperatures (Quackenbush and Herrnkind 

1981). 

Sal ini ty 

Postl arvae do not usually 

tolerate salinities below 19 parts per 

thousand (ppt ) (Witham et a1 . 1968). 

Along the northern Gulf of Mexico, 

adverse synergistic effects of reduced 

temperature and variable salinities 

probably prevent recruitment into 

nearshore habitats (Austin 1972). 

Recruitment patterns were disrupted in 

both 1966 and 1968 in the St. Lucie 

Estuary when heavy freshwater inflow 

reduced salinity to below 19 ppt 

(Witham et al. 1968; Little 1977). 

Older juveniles are able to use margi nal inshore habitats because they 

are highly mobile and can retreat 

from unsuitable physical conditions 

(Herrnki nd 1980). 

Hydrodynamics 

Throughout benthic life, lobsters 

are i nf 1 uenced by hydrodynamic forces 

and stimuli (currents, wave surge, 

turbulence). Puerulus settlement is 

reduced in areas of strong currents, 

e.g., channels between the Florida 

Keys (Little 1977). The postsettlement period may be disrupted by disturbances that a1 ter she1 ter, 

interfere with foraging, or cause 

bodily abrasion. Subadults and adults 

respond to sharply increased currents 

and turbulence caused by the first 

autumnal storms by mass migration 

(Herrnkind and Kanciruk 1978; Kanciruk 

and Herrnkind 1978; Herrnkind 1980). 

Mass movements are particularly 

striking. The lobsters form singlefile lines, or queues, and march in 
locally precise directions day and 

night for up to 1 week. The role of 

sharply increased hydrodynamics in 

triggering migratory queuing has been 

experimentally demonstrated (Herrnkind 

1982 1. Mass migration by spiny 

lobster may redistribute migrants into 

stable overwintering habitat in deeper 

reef areas near the Gulf Stream 

(Herrnkind and Kanciruk 1978). 

Current flow provides a directional 

cue both for general orientation and 

for locating food by chemosenses 

(Herrnkind 1980). 

Oceanic Circulation 

Because the movement of phyllosoma larvae is restricted to vertical 

migration (Phi 11 ips and Sastry 1980), 

ocean circulation patterns are responsible for spreading larvae into 

distant waters. These patterns consist of (1) initial dispersal of larvae from spawning sites; (2) longdistance transport or retention of 

larvae; and (3) transport of larvae to 

nursery grounds. Mechanisms involved 

in larval transport to south Florida 

are poorly understood because of 

complex interactions of major currents 

of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean 

Sea, seasonal variation in current 

patterns off the Florida coast, and 

uncertainty of the extent to which 

phyllosomes regulate their horizontal 

distribution by vertical migration 

into and out of divergent water masses 

(Sims and Ingle 1967; Little 1977; 

Menzies and Kerrigan 1979; Lyons 

1981 1. Transport models proposed for 

other spiny lobster species cannot be 

strictly applied to spiny lobsters in 

Florida (Phillips 1981). 
LITERATURE CITED 

Ache, B.W. , and K.A. Hamil ton. 1982. 

Development of an artificial trap 

bait for spiny lobsters. Page 25 

- in W.G. Lyons, ed. Proceedings of a 

workshop on Florida spiny lobster 

research and management, 13-14 

August 1981. Florida Department of 

Natural Resources, St. Petersburg. 

Ache, B. W. , and D. L. Macmill ian. 

1980. Neurobiol ogy. Pages 215-268 

- in J.S. Cobb and B.F. Phillips, eds. 

The biology and management of 

lobsters, Vol. 1. Academic Press, 

New York. 

Aiken, D.E. 1980. Molting and growth. 

Pages 91-147 in J.S. Cobb and B. F. 

Phillips, eds: The biology and 

management of lobsters, Vol. 1. 

Academic Press, New York. 

Andree, S.W. 1981. Locomotory 

activity patterns and food items of 

benthic postlarval spiny lobsters, 

~anul irus' argus. 'M. 5. ~hesis: 

Florida State Universitv. ., , 

Tall ahassee. 

Austin, C.B. 1981. Difficulties of 

limiting entry into the overcapital ized Florida spiny lobster 

fishery. Proc. Gulf Caribb. Fish. 

Inst. 33:184-199. 

Austin, H.M. 1972. Notes on distribution of phyllosoma of the spiny 

lobster Panulirus spp. in the Gulf 

of Mexico. Proc. Natl. Shellfish. 

Assoc. 62: 26-30. 

Berrill, M. 1976. Aggressive behavior of postpuerul us 1 arvae of the 

western rock lobster Panul i rus 

longipes (Mi lne-Edwards). Aust. J. 

Mar. Freshwater Res. 27: 83-88. 

Berry, P.F., and M. J. Smale. 1980. 

An estimate of production and consumption rates in the spiny lobster 

Panul i rus homarus on a shal low 

1 ittoral reef off the Natal coast, 

South Africa. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 

2: 337-343. 

Chi ttl eborouqh. R. G. 1976. Growth of 

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George on coastal reefs compared 

with those reared under optimal 

environmental conditions. Aust. J. 

Mar. Freshwater Res. 27: 279-295. 

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of the spiny lobster (Panul irus 

argus) with notes on artificial 

spawning. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 50: 

312-319. 

Crawford, D.R., and W. J.J. De Smidt. 

1922. The spiny lobster, Panul i rus 

argus, of southern Florida: its 

natural history and uti 1 ization. 

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egg laying and number of eggs of 

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Davis, G.E. 1971. Aggregations of 

Spiny sea urchins, Diadema 

antillarum, as shelter for young 

spiny 1 obsters, Panul i rus argus. 

Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 100: 586-587. 

Davis, G.E. 1975. Minimum size of 

mature spiny lobsters, Panul i rus 

argus, at Dry Tortugas, Florida. 

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Panul i rus argus, popujation. Bull. 

Mar. Sci . 27: 233-236. 

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Biscavne National Monument. Florida. 

U.S. bep. Inter. So. Fla. *~es. Rep. 

M-530. 32 pp. 

Davis, G.E. 1981. Effects of 

injuries on spiny lobster, 

Panul i rus argus, and imp1 ications 

for fishery management. U. S. Natl . Mar. Fish. Serv. Fish. Bull. 78: 

979- 984. 

Davis, G.E., and J.W. Dodrill. 1980. 

Marine parks and sanctuaries for 

spiny lobster fishery management. 

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32: 194-207. 

Dawson, C. E., and C. P. Idyll. 1951. 

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1 obster; Panul i rus argus 

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Ingle. 1972. Studies of juvenile 

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Sci. Rep. 35. 15 pp. 

George, R.W., and A. R. Main. 1967. 

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(Pal i nuridae): study of evolution 

in the marine environment. Evolution 21: 803-820. 

Gracia, A., and E. Lozano. 1980. 

A1 imentacion del baare - marino 

Netuma platypogon y su importancia 

como indicador de recrutamiento de 

post1 arves de langosta (Decapoda: 

Pal i nuridae) , Guerrero, Mexico. An. 

Centro Cienc. Mar. Limnol. Univ. 

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Fishery Management Counci 1 s 

(GMSAFMC) . 1982. Fi shery management 

plan, environmental impact statement 

and regulatory analysis for spiny 

lobster in the Gulf of Mexico and 

South Atlantic. March 1982. U.S. 

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Herrnki nd, W. F. 1980. Spiny 

1 obsters: patterns of movement. 

Pages 349-407 J.S. Cobb and B.F. 

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management of lobsters, Vol. 1. 

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progress report. Pages 11-12 fi 

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workshop on Florida spiny -lobster 

research and management, 13-14 

August 1981. Florida Department of 

Natural Resources, St. Petersburg. 

Herrnkind, W.F., and P. Kanciruk. 

1978. Mass migration of s~inv . - 

lobster, ~anul ir& argus (Crustacea: 

Pal inuridae): svno~sis and orientation. Pages - 430-439 in K. 

Schmidt-Keonig and W. T. ~eetoK eds. 

Animal migration, navigation, and 

homing. Spri nger-Verl ag, New York. 

Herrnkind, W. F. , J. Vanderwal ker, and 

L. Barr. 1975. Population dynamics, ecology, and behavior of spiny 

lobster, Panulirus argus, of St. 

John, U.S. Virgin Islands: habitation and pattern of movements. 

Results of the Tektite Program, Vol. 

2. Nat. Hist. Mus. Los Ang. Cty. 

Sci. Bull. 20: 31-45. 

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1976. Autumnal reproduction of 

spiny 1 obster , ~anul irus argus, at 

Bimini. Bahamas. Bull. Mar. Sci. 

Kanciruk, P., and W.F. Herrnkind. 

1978. Mass migration of spiny 

lobster, Panulirus argus (Crustacea: 

Pal i nuridae): behavior and envi ronmental correlates. Bull. Mar. Sci. 

28: 601-623. 

Kennedy, F. S. , Jr. 1982. Catch rates 

of lobster traps baited with shorts, 

with notes on effects of confinement. Page 20 in W.G. Lyons, ed. 

Proceedings of a workshop on Florida 

spi ny 1 obster research and management, 13-14 August 1981. Florida 

Department of Natural Resources, St. 

Petersburg. 

Lewis, J.B. 1951. The phyl losoma 

larvae of the spiny lobster, 

Panulirus argus. Bull Mar. Sci. 

1: 89-103. 

Lewis, J. B. , H. B. Moore, and W. Babi s. 

1952. The postlarval stages of the 

spiny lobster Panul irus argus. 

Bull. Mar. Sci. 2:324-337. 

Lipcius, R. N., M. L. Edwards, W. F. 

Herrnki nd, and S. A. Waterman. 1983. 

-- In situ mating behavior of the spiny 

lobster Panul irus argus. J. Crust. 

Biol . 3: 217-222. 

Little, E. J. 1972. Tagging of spiny 

lobsters (Panulirus argus) in the 

Florida Keys, 1967-69. Fla. Dep. 

Nat. Resour. Mar. Res. Lab. Spec. 

Sci. Rep. 31. 23 pp. 

Little, E. J. 1977. Observations on 

recruitment of postlarval spiny 

1 obsters , ~anul irus argus , to ' the 

south Florida coast. Fla. Mar. Res. 

Publ. No. 29. 35 pp. 

Little, E.J., and G.R. Milano. 1980. 

Techniques to monitor recruitment 

of ~ostl arval s~i nv 1 obsters. 

~anul irus argus, to -the ~lorida 

Keys. Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. No. 37. 

Lyons, W. G. 1970. Scyl larid lobsters 

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the Hourglass Cruises 1: 1-74. 

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stage of scyl laridean lobsters. 

Fisheries 5:47-49. 

Lyons, W. G. 1981. Possible sources 

of Florida's spiny lobster population. Proc. Gulf Caribb. Fish. 

Inst. 33:253-266. 

Lyons, W.G. , and F. S. Kennedy, Jr. 

1981. Effects of harvest techniques 

on sublegal spiny lobsters and on 

subsequent fishery yield. Proc. Gulf 

Fish. Inst. 33: 290-300. 

Lyons, W.G., D.G. Barber, S.M. Foster, 

F. S. Kennedy, Jr. , and G. R. Mi lano. 

1981. The spiny lobster, Panul i rus 

argus, in the middle and upper 

Florida Keys: population structure, 

seasonal dynamics, and reproduction. 

Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. No. 38. 38 pp. 

Marchal , E.G. 1968. Sur la capture 

de long des cotes Africaines de deux 

specimens de Panul irus argus 

(Latreil le). Bull. Mus. Natl. Hist. 

Nat. 2 ser. 39:1120-1122. 

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spiny lobsters, ~anul irus argus. 

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University , Tall ahassee. 
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population genetics and the spiny 

1 obster 1 arval recruitment problem: 

an update. Proc. Gulf Caribb. Fish. 

Inst. 33:230-243. 

Menzies, R.A., and J.M. Kerrigan. 

1979. Implications of spiny lobster 

recruitment patterns of the 

Caribbean -- a biochemical genetic 

approach. Proc. Gulf Caribb. Fish. 

Inst. 31: 164-178 

Mota-A1 ves , M. I. , and R. C. F. Bezerra. 

1968. Sobre o numero de ovos da 

lagosta Panul i rus argus (Latr. ). 

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Ceara 8: 33-35. 

Munro, J. L. 1974. The biology, ecology, exploitation, and management of 

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1969-1973. Part 6. The biology, 

ecology, and bionomics of Caribbean 

reef fishes: 6. Crustaceans (spiny 

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339- 346. 

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behavior of spiny lobster, 

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resources in the western central 

At1 antic: a cooperative approach. 

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Joyce, Jr. 1968. Physiological and 

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1 imi ts on behavior of spi ny lobster, 

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State University, Tallahassee. 

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Selected statistical analyses of Key 

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Pap. No. 4. 56 pp. 
Species Profiles : Li fe Hi stories and Envi ronmental Requi rements of 

Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Florida) -- Spiny Lobster 

SO171 -101 

7. Author(%) 

James M. Marx and William F. Herrnkind 

9. Pstfomlng Orpnlzatlon Narne and Address 

Department of Biological Science 

Florida State University 

Tall ahassee, FL 32306 

3. Rec~p~ant's Accession NO. 

5. Rewrt Oate 

REPORT DOCUMENTATION 

PAGE 

11. Gontract(C) or Grant(G) No. 

I(C1 I 

'a REmRT 2. 

Biological Report 82(11.61) 

12. Sponsorin. Organization Narne and Addnss 

4. TRIO and Subtitle 

National Wetlands Research Center U. S. Army Corps of Engineers 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

U.S. Department of the Interior P.O. Box 631 

Washington, DC 20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180 

I 

15. 

*U.S. 

Supplementary Notes 

Army Corps of Engineers Report No. TR EL-82-4 

_

I 

I .IS. Abstract (Umit: 200 words) I 

The Florida spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) supports major commercial fisheries in south 

Florida and the Caribbean Sea. Its life history includes several life stages that live 

in the open ocean, inshore bays, and coastal reefs. The Florida population spawns along 

deeper offshore reefs in spring and early summer. Fate of locally spawned larvae is 

uncertain, but significant postlarval recruitment may originate from larvae spawned in 

foreign waters. After settlement in inshore vegetated habitats, juveniles reach legal 

harvestable size in about 2 years. The onset of maturity is coincident with a marked 

emigration offshore. Subsequent seasonal movements cued by reproductive activity and 

weather disturbances are pronounced. Excessive fishing has caused a decline in the size 

of the south Florida population and a corresponding reduction in total spawn. The 

relevance of spawn reduction is uncertain because of questions regarding larval origins 

and stock-recruitment relations. Water temperatures probably regulate population 

distribution and the seasonal dynamics of growth and reproduction. Postlarval recruitment is limited to high salinity inshore environments. Hydrodynamic stimuli and water 

circulation patterns play critical roles throughout the life cycle. 

I 

I 

17. 

Temperature 

Feeding 

Fisheries 

Lobsters 

Spiny 

Panul 

Environmental 

c. 

b. 

Document 

GOSATI 

IdentlhenlOpen.Endad 

i rus 

1 

Analmis 

obster 

FieldlGmup 

habits 

argus 

a. 

requirements 

Deurieton 

Terms 

Growth 

Depth 

Life 

Sal i ni 

cycles 

ty 

-

I I& Availsbility Statement ' 19. Sccunty Class CThis Repart) 21. NO. of Pages 

Unlimited distribution 2 1 20. Suurity Class (This Page) 

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