ii African Reflections on the American Landscape

Table of Contents

Executive Summary.................................................... iv

Acknowledgments ..................................................... vi

Chapter 1 Africa in America: An Introduction........................... 1 

What are Africanisms? ...................................... 2

Scholarship on Africanisms................................... 3

African Dispersal and the African Diaspora. ..................... 9

Africans in America ........................................ 12

The Significance of Place.................................... 14

Conclusion ............................................... 16

Chapter 2 Identifying and Documenting 

Africanisms on the American Landscape ..................... 23

The National Register of Historic Places ....................... 24

Congo Square .......................................... 24

Smoketown Historic District .............................. 25

Christiansted Historic District ............................. 26

National Historic Landmarks ................................ 27

African Burial Ground Complex ........................... 27

Stono River Slave Rebellion Site............................ 28

Historic American Buildings Survey ........................... 29

African Baptist Society Church ............................ 29

Historic American Engineering Record ........................ 30

Laurel Valley Sugar Plantation ............................. 30

Places of Cultural Memory Conference ........................ 31

“Interwoven Traditions: Archaeology of the 

Conjurer’s Cabins and the African American Cemetery

at the Jordan and Frogmore Manor Plantations” .............. 32

“Africanisms Upon the Land: 

A Study of African Influenced Place Names of the USA” ........ 33

Conclusion ............................................... 34
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Chapter 3 Interpreting African Cultural Heritage 

at Historic Sites........................................... 39

Gullah/Geechee Culture .................................... 40

Teaching with Historic Places: “When Rice Was King” ............ 41

Shotgun Houses at Martin Luther King, Jr.

National Historic Site....................................... 43

Parting Ways Archeological District ........................... 44

Zion Poplars Baptist Church ................................. 45

Poplar Forest Archeological Research.......................... 46

Conclusion ............................................... 47

Chapter 4 Appendix................................................ 53

Bibliography .............................................. 53

Africanisms in National Park Service

Cultural Resources Programs ................................ 56

Index.................................................... 61

Illustrations and Tables ..................................... 64
iv African Reflections on the American Landscape

Executive Summary

African Reflections on the American Landscape:

Identifying and Interpreting Africanisms highlights

West and Central African cultural contributions 

to the nation’s built environment that have been

documented and recognized in the cultural resources

programs of the National Park Service (NPS). This

guide to Africanisms forms part of the larger effort

of NPS and its partners to increase awareness of 

the role of various cultural groups in shaping the

American landscape.

Starting in the first third of the twentieth century, research 

on African Americans and their heritage increasingly focused

on Africa for cultural antecedents. Throughout the social

science fields, studies recognized that aspects of American

culture had African roots called “Africanisms.” Scholars examined the built environment of America and found it infused

with reflections of Africa. Geographical locations held West

and Central African names; structures reflected an African

building aesthetic; and the land had been reshaped to take

advantage of African technological and cultural knowledge.

Both scholars and preservationists recognize that Africanisms

should become better known in the historic preservation/

cultural resources field.

This publication is intended to support historic preservation

and cultural resources stewardship efforts of organizations

and individuals within their communities. It is designed for

the general reader, without a background in the study of

Africanisms or West and Central African history and cultural

practices. This document includes:

● An introductory essay that summarizes Africanisms and 

their origins;
● An annotated discussion of African-related historic properties listed in the National Register of Historic Places, designated as National Historic Landmarks, and documented 

by the Historic American Buildings Survey and the Historic

American Engineering Record (all programs of the National

Park Service);

● Examples of historic sites where African cultural heritage 

is interpreted;

● A bibliography of well-known publications on the 

topic; and

● A more complete list of historic properties documented 

by National Park Service cultural resources programs,

arranged by program and state. 

African Reflections on the American Landscape summarizes

highlights of the scholarship presented at the conference,

“Places of Cultural Memory: African Reflections on the

American Landscape,” which was held May 9 - 12, 2001 in

Atlanta, Georgia. It represents a follow-up to the conference

because it illustrates ways in which this scholarship can be

applied to historic preservation/cultural resources stewardship work. 

National Park Service v
vi African Reflections on the American Landscape

Acknowledgments

This publication is an outgrowth of the conference,

“Places of Cultural Memory: African Reflections 

on the American Landscape,” which was held 

May 9 - 12, 2001, in Atlanta, Georgia. The National

Park Service sponsored the conference in cooperation with other government agencies and private

organizations. The conference addressed the

influence of African cultural heritage on the built

environment of the Americas in four thematic

sessions and three panel discussions. (The conference proceedings are available through the 

National Park Service, National Center for 

Cultural Resources, 1849 C Street, NW [2251],

Washington, DC 20240-0001 and is available 

online at www.cr.nps.gov/crdi.) 

The “Places of Cultural Memory” conference developed 

from an idea posed by Falona Heidelberg, former Executive

Director of the African American Experience Fund at the

National Park Foundation. She was concerned that there was

much about African cultural heritage in the United States that

received scant attention from the historic preservation/cultural

resources field. Working in conjunction with Katherine H.

Stevenson, Associate Director, Cultural Resource Stewardship

and Partnerships of the National Park Service, Ms. Heidelberg

initiated a series of meetings on a proposed conference on the

tangible aspects of African American history.

As the conference program evolved, three consultants were

engaged to advise on the conference themes and prospective

speakers. The interest and support of Professor Joseph E.

Harris of Howard University, Professor LaVerne Wells-Bowie

of Florida A & M University, and Professor John Vlach of The

George Washington University provided the scholarly foundation for the conference program.
National Park Service vii

Antoinette J. Lee, Special Projects Manager, National Center

for Cultural Resources, was assigned the responsibility of

managing the conference development. Scott Whipple, now 

of the Maryland Historical Trust, coordinated the solicitation

and review of abstracts during the early planning stages of the

event. Later, Brian D. Joyner took over the compilation of

conference papers. As the conference evolved, Lee suggested

that NPS review historic properties with African connections

in National Register listings, National Historic Landmarks

designations, and HABS/HAER documentation projects. As

compiled by Whipple, Joyner, and Lee, the initial list was not

exhaustive, but provided examples of dozens of properties

associated with African cultural heritage that were already

documented and recognized. The list was annotated and 

distributed at the conference; it later formed the basis for 

this publication. 

Many individuals contributed to content of African Reflections

on the American Landscape. Audrey Brown, James Charleton,

Terry Childs, Edward Dunson, Michèle Gates Moresi, Bernice

Johnson-Reagon, Tara Morrison, Arleen Pabón, Anthony

Parades, Warren Perry, Martin Perschler, Tracy Rone, Erika

Seibert, Carol Shull, John Sprinkle, Barbara Tagger, Dan

Vivian, and Sheila Waker reviewed drafts and provided 

important comments on the document. Ann Gibson assisted

with the duplication of the African diaspora maps. Joseph E.

Harris gave his permission to use these maps in the publication. Michael Twitty generously loaned many books from his

own personal library. Finally, the participants in the “Places of

Cultural Memory” conference provided inspiring scholarship

and fielded eloquent discussions on Africanisms in America

leading up to and through the Atlanta conference.