# Patent

## Title
Use of biomolecular targets in the treatment and visualization of brain tumors

## Abstract

The present invention relates to the use of proteins that are differentially expressed in primary brain tumor tissues, as compared to normal brain tissues, as biomolecular targets for brain tumor treatment therapies. Specifically, the present invention relates to the use of immunotherapeutic and immunoimaging agents, which specifically bind to one or more of the identified brain tumor protein targets. The present invention also provides compounds and pharmaceutically acceptable compositions for administration in the methods of the invention. Nucleic acid probes specific for the spliced mRNA encoding these variants and affinity reagents specific for the novel proteins are also provided.

## Background
This application claims benefit to provisional application 60/343,422, filed Dec. 27, 2001.


BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Among tumors, those of the brain are considered to have one of the least favorable prognoses for long term survival: the average life expectancy of an individual diagnosed with a central nervous system (CNS) tumor is just eight to twelve months. Several unique characteristics of both the brain and its particular types of neoplastic cells create daunting challenges for the complete treatment and management of brain tumors. Among these are the physical characteristics of the intracranial space; the relative biological isolation of the brain from the rest of the body; the relatively essential and irreplaceable nature of the organ mass; and the unique nature of brain tumor cells.
The intracranial space and physical layout of the brain create significant obstacles to treatment and recovery. The brain is primarily comprised of astrocytes, which make up the majority of the brain mass, and serve as a scaffold and support for the neurons, neurons, which carry the actual electrical impulses of the nervous system, and a minor contingent of other cells, such as insulating oligodendrocytes that produce myelin. These cell types give rise to primary brain tumors, including astrocytomas, neuroblastomas, glioblastomas, oligodendrogliomas, and the like.
The brain is encased in the rigid shell of the skull, and is cushioned by the cerebrospinal fluid. Because of the relatively small volume of the skull cavity, minor changes in the volume of tissue in the brain can dramatically increase intracranial pressure, causing damage to the entire organ. Thus, even small tumors can have a profound and adverse affect on the brain's function. The cramped physical location of the cranium also makes surgery and treatment of the brain a difficult and delicate procedure. However, because of the dangers of increased intracranial pressure from the tumor, surgery is often the first strategy of attack in treating brain tumors.
In addition to its physical isolation, the brain is chemically and biologically isolated from the rest of the body by the “Blood-Brain-Barrier” (or BBB). This physiological phenomenon is due to the “tightness” of the epithelial cell junctions in the lining of the blood vessels in the brain. Nutrients, which are actively transported across the cell lining, can reach the brain, but other molecules from the bloodstream are excluded. This prevents toxins, viruses, and other potentially dangerous molecules from entering the brain cavity. However, it also prevents therapeutic molecules, including many chemotherapeutic agents that are useful in other types of tumors, from crossing into the brain. Thus, many therapies directed at the brain must be delivered directly into the brain cavity, e.g. by an Ommaya reservoir, or administered in elevated dosages to ensure the diffusion of an effective amount across the BBB.
With the difficulties of administering chemotherapies to the brain, radiotherapy approaches have also been attempted. However, the amount of radiation necessary to completely destroy potential tumor-producing cells also produce unacceptable losses of healthy brain tissue. The retention of patient cognitive function while eliminating the tumor mass is another challenge to brain tumor treatment. Neoplastic brain cells are often pervasive, and travel throughout the entire brain mass. Thus, it is impossible to define a true “tumor margin,” unlike, for example, in lung or bladder cancers. Unlike reproductive (ovarian, uterine, testicular, prostate, etc.), breast, kidney, or lung cancers, the entire organ, or even significant portions, cannot be removed to prevent the growth of new tumors. In addition, brain tumors are very heterogeneous, with different cell doubling times, treatment resistances, and other biochemical idiosyncrasies between the various cell populations that make up the tumor. This pervasive and variable nature greatly adds to the difficulty of treating brain tumors while preserving the health and function of normal brain tissue.
Although current surgical methods offer considerably better post-operative life for patients, current combination therapy methods (surgery, low-dosage radiation, and chemotherapy) have only improved the life expectancy of patients by one month, as compared to the methods of 30 years ago. Without effective agents to prevent the growth of brain tumor cells that are present outside the main tumor mass, the prognosis for these patients cannot be significantly improved. Although some immuno-affinity agents have been proposed and tested for the treatment of brain tumors, see, for example, the tenascin-targeting agents described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,624,659, these agents have not proven sufficient for the treatment of brain tumors. Thus, therapeutic agents which are directed towards new molecular targets, and are capable of specifically targeting and killing brain tumor cells, are urgently needed for the treatment of brain tumors.
Relevant Literature
Analysis of differential gene expression in glioblastoma may be found in, for example, Mariani et al. (2001) J Neurooncol 53(2):161–76; Markert et al. (2001) Physiol Genomics 5(1):21–33; Yano et al. (2000) Neurol Res 22(7):650–6; Kroes et al. (2000) Cancer Lett 156(2):191–8; and Reis et al. (2000) Am J Pathol 156(2):425–32, among others.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The present invention provides methods and reagents for specifically targeting brain tumor neoplastic cells for both therapeutic and imaging purposes, by targeting brain tumor protein targets (TBT). These targets have been identified as being overexpressed in brain tumors, and thus allow for the selective inhibition of cell function or selective marking for visualization with therapeutic or visualizing compositions which have a specific affinity for these protein targets. The invention also provides methods for the identification of compounds that modulate the expression of genes or the activity of gene products involved in such tumors, as well as methods for the treatment of disease by administering such compounds to individuals suffering from such tumors.


DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS
Brain tumor protein targets and genes that are differentially expressed between brain tumor tissue and normal brain tissue are provided herein. Differential cloning between cancerous and normal brains has identified brain tumor protein target genes by DNA sequence analysis. Genes and their protein products that are up-regulated in glioblastoma are important because they provide a specific marker for neoplastic cells, and are expected to mediate the initiation and progression of brain tumors. Inhibition of the gene and/or protein activity can be advantageous in treating brain tumors, e.g. glioblastoma multiforme; ependymoma; glioma; astrocytoma; medulloblastoma; neuroglioma; oligodendroglioma; meningioma, etc. The overexpressed brain tumor protein targets provide excellent targets for immunotherapeutic agents that either deliver cytotoxic agents to directly promote tumor cell death, or that alter the function of the brain tumor protein targets to inhibit the normal physiology of the tumor cell. In addition, immunoimaging agents targeted to the brain tumor protein targets can be utilized to visualize the tumor mass in diagnostic methods, e.g. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), radiography, etc. and/or in surgery, e.g. by the use of optically visual dye moieties in an immunoimaging agent, etc.
Therapeutic and prophylactic treatment methods for individuals suffering, or at risk of brain tumor, involve administering either a therapeutic or prophylactic amount of an agent that modulates the activity of TBT protein or gene, or which specifically binds to a TBT protein, for example, a chemotherapeutic agent coupled to a TBT specific binding moiety.
Screening methods may involve conducting various types of assays to identify agents that modulate the expression or activity of a TBT gene or protein, or may involve screening for specific binding activity to a TBT gene or protein. Lead compounds and/or binding moieties identified during these screens can serve as the basis for the synthesis of more active analogs. Lead compounds and/or active analogs generated therefrom can be formulated into pharmaceutical compositions effective in treating brain tumors.
Disease Conditions
The present methods are applicable to brain tumors, particularly glioblastoma. In general, the goals of brain tumor treatments are to remove as many tumor cells as possible, e.g. with surgery, kill as many of the cells left behind after surgery as possible with radiation and/or chemotherapy, and put remaining tumor cells into a nondividing, quiescent state for as long as possible with radiation and chemotherapy. Careful imaging surveillance is a crucial part of medical care, because tumor regrowth requires alteration of current treatment, or, for patients in the observation phase, restarting treatment.
Brain tumors are classified according to the kind of cell from which the tumor seems to originate. Diffuse, fibrillary astrocytomas are the most common type of primary brain tumor in adults. These tumors are divided histopathologically into three grades of malignancy: World Health Organization (WHO) grade II astrocytoma, WHO grade III anaplastic astrocytoma and WHO grade IV glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). WHO grade II astocytomas are the most indolent of the diffuse astrocytoma spectrum. Astrocytomas display a remarkable tendency to infiltrate the surrounding brain, confounding therapeutic attempts at local control. These invasive abilities are often apparent in low-grade as well as high-grade tumors.
Glioblastoma multiforme is the most malignant stage of astrocytoma, with survival times of less than 2 years for most patients. Histologically, these tumors are characterized by dense cellularity, high proliferation indices, endothelial proliferation and focal necrosis. The highly proliferative nature of these lesions likely results from multiple mitogenic effects. One of the hallmarks of GBM is endothelial proliferation. A host of angiogenic growth factors and their receptors are found in GBMs.
There are biologic subsets of astrocytomas, which may reflect the clinical heterogeneity observed in these tumors. These subsets include brain stem gliomas, which are a form of pediatric diffuse, fibrillary astrocytoma that often follow a malignant course. Brain stem GBMs share genetic features with those adult GBMs that affect younger patients. Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma (PXA) is a superficial, low-grade astrocytic tumor that predominantly affects young adults. While these tumors have a bizarre histological appearance, they are typically slow-growing tumors that may be amenable to surgical cure. Some PXAs, however, may recur as GBM. Pilocytic astrocytoma is the most common astrocytic tumor of childhood and differs clinically and histopathologically from the diffuse, fibrillary astrocytoma that affects adults. Pilocytic astrocytomas do not have the same genomic alterations as diffuse, fibrillary astrocytomas. Subependymal giant cell astrocytomas (SEGA) are periventricular, low-grade astrocytic tumors that are usually associated with tuberous sclerosis (TS), and are histologically identical to the so-called “candle-gutterings” that line the ventricles of TS patients. Similar to the other tumorous lesions in TS, these are slowly-growing and may be more akin to hamartomas than true neoplasms. Desmoplastic cerebral astrocytoma of infancy (DCAI) and desmoplastic infantile ganglioglioma (DIGG) are large, superficial, usually cystic, benign astrocytomas that affect children in the first year or two of life.
Oligodendrogliomas and oligoastrocytomas (mixed gliomas) are diffuse, usually cerebral tumors that are clinically and biologically most closely related to the diffuse, fibrillary astrocytomas. The tumors, however, are far less common than astrocytomas and have generally better prognoses than the diffuse astrocytomas. Oligodendrogliomas and oligoastrocytomas may progress, either to WHO grade III anaplastic oligodendroglioma or anaplastic oligoastrocytoma, or to WHO grade IV GBM. Thus, the genetic changes that lead to oligodendroglial tumors constitute yet another pathway to GBM.
Ependymomas are a clinically diverse group of gliomas that vary from aggressive intraventricular tumors of children to benign spinal cord tumors in adults. Transitions of ependymoma to GBM are rare. Choroid plexus tumors are also a varied group of tumors that preferentially occur in the ventricular system, ranging from aggressive supratentorial intraventricular tumors of children to benign cerebellopontine angle tumors of adults. Choroid plexus tumors have been reported occasionally in patients with Li-Fraumeni syndrome and von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) disease.
Medulloblastomas are highly malignant, primitive tumors that arise in the posterior fossa, primarily in children. Meningiomas are common intracranial tumors that arise in the meninges and compress the underlying brain. Meningiomas are usually benign, but some “atypical” meningiomas may recur locally, and some meningiomas are frankly malignant and may invade the brain or metastasize. Atypical and malignant meningiomas are not as common as benign meningiomas. Schwannomas are benign tumors that arise on peripheral nerves. Schwannomas may arise on cranial nerves, particularly the vestibular portion of the eighth cranial nerve (vestibular schwannomas, acoustic neuromas) where they present as cerebellopontine angle masses. Hemangioblastomas are tumors of uncertain origin that are composed of endothelial cells, pericytes and so-called stromal cells. These benign tumors most frequently occur in the cerebellum and spinal cord of young adults. Multiple hemangioblastomas are characteristic of von Hippel-Lindau disease (VHL). Hemangiopericytomas (HPCs) are dural tumors which may display locally aggressive behavior and may metastasize. The histogenesis of dural-based hemangiopericytoma (HPC) has long been debated, with some authors classifying it as a distinct entity and others classifying it as a subtype of meningioma.
The symptoms of both primary and metastatic brain tumors depend mainly on the location in the brain and the size of the tumor. Since each area of the brain is responsible for specific functions, the symptoms will vary a great deal. Tumors in the frontal lobe of the brain may cause weakness and paralysis, mood disturbances, difficulty thinking, confusion and disorientation, and wide emotional mood swings. Parietal lobe tumors may cause seizures, numbness or paralysis, difficulty with handwriting, inability to perform simple mathematical problems, difficulty with certain movements, and loss of the sense of touch. Tumors in the occipital lobe can cause loss of vision in half of each visual field, visual hallucinations, and seizures. Temporal lobe tumors can cause seizures, perceptual and spatial disturbances, and receptive aphasia. If a tumor occurs in the cerebellum, the person may have ataxia, loss of coordination, headaches, and vomiting. Tumors in the hypothalamus may cause emotional changes, and changes in the perception of hot and cold. In addition, hypothalamic tumors may affect growth and nutrition in children. With the exception of the cerebellum, a tumor on one side of the brain causes symptoms and impairment on the opposite side of the body.
Other disorders of the nervous system that may be treated or imaged with the compositions of the present invention include, but are not limited to ischemic stroke, brain cancer, epilepsy, schizophrenia, depression, Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Huntington's Chorea, traumatic head injury, dementia, coma, stupor, headache (and other neurological pain), vertigo, weakness, myasthenia gravis (and other disorders of the neuromuscular junction), ataxia and cerebellar disorders, cranial nerve disorders (such as Bell's Palsy), cerebrovascular disorders, infectious disorders including bacterial, fungal, viral and parasitic infections, multiple sclerosis, and other complications associated with pregnancy, medical illness, alcohol and substance abuse, toxins and metabolic deficiencies.
Identification of TBT Genes
A genetic sequence that comprises all or a part of a cDNA sequence that is differentially expressed in brain tumor cells, particularly glioblastoma cells, relative to expression in normal, or non-disease conditions, is herein termed a “TBT gene”, which encode “TBT proteins”. TBT genes were identified by creating cDNA libraries from glioblastoma tissues. The cDNA's from control and disease states were subjected to kinetic re-annealing hybridization during which normalization of transcript abundances and enrichment for differentially expressed transcripts (i.e., subtraction) occurs. Only clones displaying a significant transcriptional induction and/or repression were sequenced and carried forward for expression profiling, using a variety of temporal, spatial and disease-related probe sets. Selected clones showing a significant transcriptional induction and/or repression were sequenced and functionally annotated in a proprietary database structure (See WO01/13105). Because large sequence fragments were utilized in the sequencing step, the data generated has a much higher fidelity and specificity than other approaches, such as SAGE. The resulting sequence information was compared to public databases using the BLAST (blastn) and iterative-Smith Waterman analysis for protein sequence comparisons. The results are listed in Table 1. Table 1 includes, in some instances, the human and animal counterparts of a sequence, as indicated by a shared internal reference designation.













TABLE 1







NUCLEOTIDE
SEQ
PROTEIN
SEQ
ADDITIONAL


AGY ID
DESCRIPTION
ACCESSION
ID
ACCESSION
ID
ACCESSIONS







AL00003_CP4_M02
Homo sapiens neuroligin 2
XM_071910
 1
XP_071910
 2
AB037787



(NLGN2)


AL00003_CP1_H24
Homo sapiens, guanine
BC000214
 3
AAH00214
 4
(N/A)



nucleotide binding protein (G



protein), beta polypeptide 2-



like 1, clone MGC:2416



IMAGE:2959178, mRNA,



complete cds


AL00003_CP1_K19
Homo sapiens protocadherin
AF152331
 5
AAD43725
 6
(N/A)



gamma B2 (PCDH-gamma-



B2)


AL00003_CP14_A08
Homo sapiens similar to
XM_017039
 7
XP_017039
 8
NM_002822



protein tyrosine kinase 9



(LOC147023)


AL00003_CP14_B17
Homo sapiens ABC
AF071202
 9
AAC27076
10
NM_005845



transporter MOAT-B (MOAT-



B)


AL00003_CP14_M09
Human mRNA for alpha-
D13866
11
BAA02979
12
XM_038221



catenin


AL00003_CP14_P05
Homo sapiens mitogen-
XM_004372
13
XP_004372
14
NM_005922



activated protein kinase kinase



kinase 4 (MAP3K4)


SL00043_CP3_P11
Homo sapiens protein kinase
XM_008971
15
XP_008971
16
NM_002741



C-like 1 (PRKCL1)


SL00045_CP2_F22
Homo sapiens cathepsin O
XM_011168
17
XP_011168
18
NM_001334



(CTSO)


SL00093_X_K08
Homo sapiens endothelial
NM_004720
19
NP_004711
20
NM_004720



differentiation,



lysophosphatidic acid G-



protein-coupled receptor, 4



(EDG4)


SL00095_C_F09
Homo sapiens clone
AY007162
21
(N/A)

NM_004383



CDABP0138


SL00045_CP1_F01
Homo sapiens contactin 1
XM_006607
22
XP_006607
23
NM_001843



(CNTN1)


SL00045_CP1_L14
Homo sapiens, kangai 1
BC000726
24
AAH00726
25
NM_002231


SL00094_CP2_E05
Homo sapiens organic cation
XM_007289
26
XP_007289
27
NM_020372



transporter (LOC57100)


AL00003_CP2_A10
Homo sapiens, reticulocalbin 2
BC004892
28
AAH04892
29
NM_002902





Note: This is the sequence table generated for AGYT-008US2 (or 125PUS2). The previously-assigned accession numbers were used for a subset of sequences from provisional filing. The “Additional Accessions” column represents additional nucleotide sequences with updated descriptions and identical homology. These “Additional Accessions” are not included in the sequence listing.


Note: The “Additional Accessions” column represents additional nucleotide sequences with updated descriptions and identical homology. These “Additional Accessions” are not included in the sequence listing.






Transcripts that represent differentially expressed genes may be identified by utilizing a variety of methods known to those of skill in the art, including differential screening, subtractive hybridization, differential display, or hybridization to an array comprising a plurality of gene sequences.
“Differential expression” as used herein refers to both quantitative as well as qualitative differences in the genes' temporal and/or tissue expression patterns. Thus, a differentially expressed gene may have its expression activated or inactivated in normal versus neuronal disease conditions, or in control versus experimental conditions. Such a qualitatively regulated gene will exhibit an expression pattern within a given tissue or cell type that is detectable in either control or tumor samples, but is not detectable in both. Detectable, as used herein, refers to an RNA expression pattern that is detectable via the standard techniques of differential display, reverse transcription-(RT-)PCR and/or Northern analyses, which are well known to those of skill in the art. Generally, differential expression means that there is at least a 20% change, and in other instances at least a 2-, 3-, 5- or 10-fold difference between disease and control tissue expression. The difference usually is one that is statistically significant, meaning that the probability of the difference occurring by chance (the P-value) is less than some predetermined level (e.g., 5%). Usually the confidence level (P value) is <0.05, more typically <0.01, and in other instances, <0.001.
Alternatively, a differentially expressed gene may have its expression modulated, i.e., quantitatively increased or decreased, in normal versus neuronal disease states, or under control versus experimental conditions. The difference in expression need only be large enough to be visualized via standard detection techniques as described above. Generally the difference in expression levels, measured by either the presence of mRNA or the protein product, will differ from basal levels (i.e. normal tissue) by at least about 2 fold, usually at least about 5 fold, and may be 10 fold, 100 fold, or more.
Identification of TBT pathway genes may be performed through physical association of gene products, or through database identification of known physiologic pathways. Among the methods for detection protein—protein association are co-immunoprecipitation, crosslinking and co-purification through gradients or chromatographic columns. The two-hybrid system detects the association of proteins in vivo, as described by Chien et al. (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:9578–9582. The two-hybrid system or related methodology may be used to screen activation domain libraries for proteins that interact with a known “bait” gene protein.
Once a sequence has been identified as differentially expressed, the sequence can be subjected to a functional validation process to determine whether the gene plays a role in tumor initiation, progression or maintenance. Such candidate genes can potentially be correlated with a wide variety of cellular states or activities. The term “functional validation” as used herein refers to a process whereby one determines whether modulation of expression or function of a candidate gene or set of such genes causes a detectable change in a cellular activity or cellular state for a reference cell, which cell can be a population of cells such as a tissue or an entire organism. The detectable change or alteration that is detected can be any activity carried out by the reference cell. Specific examples of activities or states in which alterations can be detected include, but are not limited to, phenotypic changes (e.g., cell morphology, cell proliferation, cell viability and cell death); cells acquiring resistance to a prior sensitivity or acquiring a sensitivity which previously did not exist; protein/protein interactions; cell movement; intracellular or intercellular signaling; cell/cell interactions; cell activation (e.g., T cell activation, B cell activation, mast cell degranulation); release of cellular components (e.g., hormones, chemokines and the like); and metabolic or catabolic reactions.
A variety of options are available for functionally validating candidate genes. Such methods as RNAi technology can be used. Antisense technology can also be utilized to functionally validate a candidate gene. In this approach, an antisense polynucleotide that specifically hybridizes to a segment of the coding sequence for the candidate gene is administered to inhibit expression of the candidate gene in those cells into which it is introduced. The functional role that a candidate gene plays in a cell can also be assessed using gene “knockout” approaches in which the candidate gene is deleted, modified, or inhibited on either a single or both alleles. The cells or animals can be optionally be reconstituted with a wild-type candidate gene as part of a further analysis.
In one embodiment of the invention, RNAi technology is used in functional validation. As used herein, RNAi technology refers to a process in which double-stranded RNA is introduced into cells expressing a candidate gene to inhibit expression of the candidate gene, i.e., to “silence” its expression. The dsRNA is selected to have substantial identity with the candidate gene. In general such methods initially involve transcribing a nucleic acids containing all or part of a candidate gene into single- or double-stranded RNA. Sense and anti-sense RNA strands are allowed to anneal under appropriate conditions to form dsRNA. The resulting dsRNA is introduced into reference cells via various methods and the degree of attenuation in expression of the candidate gene is measured using various techniques. Usually one detects whether inhibition alters a cellular state or cellular activity. The dsRNA is prepared to be substantially identical to at least a segment of a candidate gene. Because only substantial sequence similarity between the candidate gene and the dsRNA is necessary, sequence variations between these two species arising from genetic mutations, evolutionary divergence and polymorphisms can be tolerated. Moreover, the dsRNA can include various modified or nucleotide analogs. Usually the dsRNA consists of two separate complementary RNA strands. However, in some instances, the dsRNA may be formed by a single strand of RNA that is self-complementary, such that the strand loops back upon itself to form a hairpin loop. Regardless of form, RNA duplex formation can occur inside or outside of a cell.
A number of options are available to detect interference of candidate gene expression (i.e., to detect candidate gene silencing). In general, inhibition in expression is detected by detecting a decrease in the level of the protein encoded by the candidate gene, determining the level of mRNA transcribed from the gene and/or detecting a change in phenotype associated with candidate gene expression.
TBT Genes and Polypeptides
Neuroligin2 is a neuronal cell surface protein that is enriched in synaptic plasma membranes and acts as a splice site-specific ligand for beta-neurexins, to form asymmetric intercellular junctions. The extracellular sequence of neuroligin 1 is composed of a catalytically inactive esterase domain homologous to acetylcholinesterase. Neuroligin 1 is known to colocalize with glutamatergic but not gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) ergic synapses. Thus neuroligin 1 is a synaptic cell-adhesion molecule that is enriched in postsynaptic densities where it may recruit receptors, channels, and signal-transduction molecules to synaptic sites of cell adhesion. The neuroligin/beta-neurexin junction may be involved in the specification of excitatory synapses.
Neuroligin-1 and -2 can trigger the de novo formation of presynaptic structure, suggesting that neuroligins are part of the machinery employed during the formation and remodeling of CNS synapses. Northern blot analysis shows that Neuroligin2 maps to the rat brain. The sequence and function of the protein in synapses may be found in, for example, Ichtchenko et al. (1995) Cell 81(3):435–43; Ichtchenko et al. (1996) J Biol. Chem. 271(5):2676–82; Song et al. (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 96(3):1100–5; Nguyen (1997) J Biol. Chem. 272(41):26032–9; and Scheiffele et al. (2000) Cell 101(6):657–69.
Alpha-Catenin is an integral component of cell—cell contact sites. These contacts are highly dynamic and regulate morphogenesis, tissue remodeling, cell adhesion and motility. Among the hallmarks of cancer are defective cell—cell and cell-matrix adhesion. Alpha-catenin is homologous to the actin binding protein vinculin. Alpha-catenin has many binding partners, including PTPzeta. Alterations in alpha-catenin containing complexes may have a major contributing role in cell-adhesion defects in carcinomas arising in many different tissues. See, for example, Furukawa et al. (1994) Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 65:74–78; Herrenknecht et al. (1991) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 88:9156–9160; Hirano et al. (1992) Cell 70:293–301; and Shimoyama et al. (1992) Cancer Res. 52:5770–5774. Cadherin-mediated cell—cell adhesion is known to be affected by the cytoplasmic proteins: alpha-, beta- and gamma-catenin. These catenins are believed to work as connectors that anchor E-cadherin to the cytoskeletal actin bundle, through the cadherin cytoplasmic domain. Dysfunction of this adhesion complex causes dissociation of cancer cells from primary tumor nodules, thus contributing to cancer invasion and metastasis. It has been shown that the human lung cancer cell line, PC9, which expresses E-cadherin but only a small quantity of abnormal-sized alpha-catenin, can grow as isolated cells but regains its cell—cell adhesion potential when transfected with alpha-catenin. Studies of the cadherin-catenin complex in retinoblastoma and normal retina tissues have shown N-cadherin is associated with alpha- and beta-catenin but not with E- or P-cadherin. Retinoblastoma cells, in contrast with normal retinal cells, express an N-cadherin/catenin complex that is irregularly distributed and weakly linked to the cytoskeleton. In retinoblastoma, this complex acts as an invasion promoter.
MEKK4 is a component of a sequential kinase cascade that is activated in response to a variety of extracellular signals. MEKK4 mRNA is widely expressed and encodes a protein of approximately 180 kDa. MEKK4 is localized in a perinuclear, vesicular compartment. MEKK4 binds to Cdc42 and Rac and stimulates the JNK pathway. MEKK family members are characterized as localized sensors that control cell responses at the level of gene expression, metabolism and the cytoskeleton. Analysis of the apoptotic pathway induced by growth factor withdrawal has demonstrated that BRCA1 can enhance signals via H-Ras, MEKK4, JNK, Fas ligand/Fas interactions, and caspase-9 activation, see Thangaraju et al. (2000) J Biol Chem 275(43):33487–96.
PRKCL, 1 also known as PKN, is a serine/threonine protein kinase that has a catalytic domain highly homologous to protein kinase C in the carboxyl-terminal region and a unique regulatory domain in the amino-terminal region. The kinase activity can be abolished by a mutation in the predicted ATP binding site. PKN translocates from the cytosol to the nucleus upon stimulation and is cleaved during apoptosis, an event that generates a constitutively active kinase fragment (55 kDa cleavage product). PKN is ubiquitously expressed and is activated by fatty acids and is part of a signaling network that controls cell responses at the level of gene expression, metabolism and cytoskeleton. PKN maps to the same region of the mouse chromosome as myodystrophy mutation. It is ubiquitously expressed in human tissues.
Cathepsin O (also known as Cathepsin K) is a human cysteine protease and belongs to peptidase family C1. It is closely involved in osteoclast bone resorption and may participate in bone remodelling. The gene is composed of eight coding exons and seven introns and spans more than 30 kb. The number and distribution of exons and introns differs from other cathepsins and its chromosomal location (4q31–q32) is unique from othe cysteine proteases. Cathepsin O is highly expressed in osteocalasts and is transcriptionally regulated. Cathepsin O is further distinguished by its potent collagenolytic activity against Collagen I, suggesting a role for this protein in extracellular matrix destruction/remodeling. Cathepsin O has broad proteolytic activity. See Shi et al. (1995) FEBS Lett 357(2):129–34; and Inaoka et al. (1995) Biochem Biophys Res Commun 206(1):89–96.
EDG receptor is a high affinity receptor for lysophosphatidic acid and plays a role in biologically important processes including proliferation, morphological changes, and angiogenesis. EDG is a seven-transmembrane domain receptor. This receptor can couple to all but the Gs types and is linked to the mitogen activated kinase cascade. The expression of the EDG receptor is regulated and restricted. The Edg transcript is induced in differentiating human endothelial cells and sphingosine-1-phosphate as a ligand for the G protein-coupled receptor EDG-1. This gene encodes a member of family I of the G protein-coupled receptors, as well as the EDG family of proteins. This protein functions as a lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptor and contributes to Ca2+ mobilization, a critical cellular response to LPA in cells, through association with Gi and Gq proteins. See An et al. (1998) J. Biol. Chem. 273 (14), 7906–7910.
Contactin 1 is a GPI anchored membrane protein involved in cell-adhesion and morphogenesis. It belongs to the immunoglobulin superfamily of proteins and contains 6 immunoglobulin like c2-type domains and 4 fibronectin type III-like domains. Contactin displays both homophilic and heterophilic binding activities and participates in bidirectional exchange of information between neurons and glial cells. The cell-contact dependent interactions involve several proteins. It is known to bind the carbonic anhydrase domain of PTPzeta. These interactions may lead to initiation of bidirectional signals that regulate cell migration and morphologic changes. It is highly expressed in the brain, spleen, muscle, kidney and lungs. See Berglund and Ranscht (1994) Genomics 21 (3), 571–582; and Reid and Hemperly (1994) Brain Res. 21:1–8.
OCT1 translocates hydrophobic and hydrophilic organic cations of different structures, and may be important for drug elimination. The OCT transporters belong to a superfamily that includes multi-drug resistance proteins, facilitative diffusion systems, and proton antiporters. OCT1 is not homologous to any other known protein and is found in kidney, liver and intestine. It is also expressed in cerebellar granule cells, medial habenula, medial mammillary cells and area postrema. The human OCT1 gene is an octamer binding transcription factor containing a POU domain with one homeobox containing domain. It consists of 7 exons and 6 introns, and is alternatively spliced. OCT1 is thought to potentiate CREB-dependent cyclin D1 transcriptional activity independent of Ser 133 phosphorylation and E1A-sensitive coactivator function and offers a new paradigm for the regulation of cyclin D1 induction by proliferative signals. OCT1 is differentially phosphorylated during progression through the cell cycle. See Roberts et al. (1991) Science 253(5023):1022–6; and Sturm et al. (1988) Genes Dev 2(12A): 1582–99.
Reticulocalbin2 is a ubiqiutously expressed calcium binding protein. It can regulate calcium-dependent activities in the endoplasmic reticulum lumen or post-ER compartment. This protein has four functional calcium-binding sites; potential sites II and VI have lost affinity for calcium. It belongs to the CREC family and contains 6 EF-hand calcium-binding domains. Elevated levels of expression of reticulocalbin are found in lens epithelial cells after oxidative stress. Human reticulocalbin localizes to a region on chromosome 11 (11p13). The gene is hemizygously deleted in individuals with the Wilms tumor, aniridia, genitourinary anomalies, mental retardation (WAGR) syndrome. See Carper et al. (2001) Free Radic Biol Med. 31(1):90–7; and Vorum et al. (2000) FEBS Lett. 465(2–3):129–34.
Protocadherin gamma B2. Protocadherins constitute a large family belonging to the cadherin superfamily. Protocadherins have unique features that are not found in classic cadherins. Expression of protocadherins is spatiotemporally regulated and they are localized at synapses in the CNS. Although protocadherins have Ca(2+)-dependent homophilic interaction activity, the activities are relatively weak. Some protocadherins have heterophilic interaction activity and the cytoplasmic domains associate with the unique cytoplasmic proteins, which are essential for their biological functions. Given the characteristic properties, the large size, and the diversity of members of the protocadherin family, protocadherins may participate in various biological processes. In particular, protocadherins play a central role in the CNS, as related to synaptic function. Since protocadherin expression correlate with synaptogenesis, changes in PDCH expression may reflect disturbed synaptogenesis. The gene maps to 5q31, where several neurological disorders map. See Suzuki (2000) Exp Cell Res. 261(1):13–8; and Hilschmann et al. (2001) Naturwissenschaften 88(1):2–12.
MOAT-B. This is a ubiquitously expressed organic anion pump that belongs to the ABC family of transporters. It is relevant to cellular detoxification and localizes to the integral membrane. MOAT-B is widely expressed with high levels in prostrate and low levels in the liver. It is closely related to MRP and cMOAT and yeast organic anion transporter YCF1. It is distinguished by the absence of 200 aa hydrophobic extension absent at the N-terminus and predicted to encode several transmembrane spanning regions. See Kool et al. (1997) Cancer Res. 57: 3537–3547; and Lee et al. (1998) Cancer Res. 58: 2741–2747.
RACK-1 is a guanine nucleotide binding protein that acts as an intracellular receptor that binds and anchors activated PKC to the cytoskeleton. It contains 7WD repeats and is widely expressed in many tissues. RACK interacts with Src tyrosine kinase and inhibits Src activity and cell growth. PKC activation induces RACK1 and Src co-localization and tyrosine phosphorylation of RACK. RACK1 is an important Src substrate that signals downstream of growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases and is thus involved in the regulation of Src function and cell growth. RACK1 may also be involved in angiogenesis. See Ron et al. (1994) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91(3):839–43; and Int J Cancer 2002 Nov. 10; 102(2):129–36.
Kangai-1. Expression of this gene is reduced in human cell lines derived from metastatic prostate tumors. KAI1 specifies a protein of 267 amino acids, with 4 transmembrane domains and 1 large extracellular hydrophilic domain with 3 potential N-glycosylation sites. KAI1 is evolutionarily conserved, is expressed in many human tissues, and encodes a member of a structurally distinct family of leukocyte surface glycoproteins. Sequence comparisons showed that KAI1 is likely to be the human homolog of the mouse leukocyte surface antigen R2. It also appears to be upregulated in activated T cells. The expression of the KAI1 gene is also downregulated during tumor progression of prostate, breast, lung, bladder, and pancreatic cancers in humans, and this downregulation appears to be at the level of transcription or posttranscription. The tumor suppressor gene p53 can directly activate the KAI1 gene by interacting with the 5-prime upstream region. See Dong et al. (1995) Science 268: 884–886; and Miyazaki et al. (2000) Cancer 89:955–962.
PTK9 is a protein tyrosine kinase that is divergent from other protein tyrosine kinases, as it lacks any of the known motifs observed in the catalytic domain of protein tyrosine kinases. The gene maps to 20q13. It is expressed at high levels in the bone marrow, spleen, brain, heart, liver, prostrate, kidney and lung.
CDAABP0138 is a protein tyrosine kinase isolated from patient with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. It may regulate pattern formation of hindbrain segmentation and has approximately 53% homology to mouse Csk kinase. This protein lacks the N-myristylation and autophosphorylation sites present in related src kinases.
Nucleic Acids
The sequences of TBT genes find use in diagnostic and therapeutic methods, for the recombinant production of the encoded polypeptide, and the like. The nucleic acids of the invention include nucleic acids having a high degree of sequence similarity or sequence identity to one of the sequences provided in Table 1. Sequence identity can be determined by hybridization under stringent conditions, for example, at 50° C. or higher and 0.1×SSC (9 mM NaCl/0.9 mM Na citrate). Hybridization methods and conditions are well known in the art, see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,707,829. Nucleic acids that are substantially identical to the provided nucleic acid sequence, e.g. allelic variants, genetically altered versions of the gene, etc., bind to one of the sequences provided in Table 1 under stringent hybridization conditions. Further specific guidance regarding the preparation of nucleic acids is provided by Fleury et al. (1997) Nature Genetics 15:269–272; Tartaglia et al., PCT Publication No. WO 96/05861; and Chen et al., PCT Publication No. WO 00/06087, each of which is incorporated herein in its entirety.
The genes listed in Table 1 may be obtained using various methods well known to those skilled in the art, including but not limited to the use of appropriate probes to detect the genes within an appropriate cDNA or genomic DNA library, antibody screening of expression libraries to detect cloned DNA fragments with shared structural features, direct chemical synthesis, and amplification protocols. Libraries are preferably prepared from glioblastoma versus normal cells. Cloning methods are described in Berger and Kimmel, Guide to Molecular Cloning Techniques, Methods in Enzymology, 152, Academic Press, Inc. San Diego, Calif.; Sambrook, et al. (1989) Molecular Cloning—A Laboratory Manual (2nd ed) Vols. 1–3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Press, NY; and Current Protocols (1994), a joint venture between Greene Publishing Associates, Inc. and John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
The sequence obtained from clones containing partial coding sequences or non-coding sequences can be used to obtain the entire coding region by using the RACE method (Chenchik et al. (1995) CLONTECHniques (X) 1: 5–8). Oligonucleotides can be designed based on the sequence obtained from the partial clone that can amplify a reverse transcribed mRNA encoding the entire coding sequence. Alternatively, probes can be used to screen cDNA libraries prepared from an appropriate cell or cell line in which the gene is transcribed. Once the target nucleic acid is identified, it can be isolated and cloned using well-known amplification techniques. Such techniques include, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) the ligase chain reaction (LCR), Qβ-replicase amplification, the self-sustained sequence replication system (SSR) and the transcription based amplification system (TAS). Such methods include, those described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202 to Mullis et al.; PCR Protocols A Guide to Methods and Applications (Innis et al. eds) Academic Press Inc. San Diego, Calif. (1990); Kwoh et al. (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 1173; Guatelli et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87: 1874; Lomell et al. (1989) J. Clin. Chem. 35: 1826; Landegren et al. (1988) Science 241: 1077–1080; Van Brunt (1990) Biotechnology 8: 291–294; Wu and Wallace (1989) Gene 4: 560; and Barringer et al. (1990) Gene 89: 117.
As an alternative to cloning a nucleic acid, a suitable nucleic acid can be chemically synthesized. Direct chemical synthesis methods include, for example, the phosphotriester method of Narang et al. (1979) Meth. Enzymol. 68: 90–99; the phosphodiester method of Brown et al. (1979) Meth. Enzymol: 68: 109–151; the diethylphosphoramidite method of Beau cage et al. (1981) Tetra. Lett., 22: 1859–1862; and the solid support method of U.S. Pat. No. 4,458,066. Chemical synthesis produces a single stranded oligonucleotide. This can be converted into double stranded DNA by hybridization with a complementary sequence, or by polymerization with a DNA polymerase using the single strand as a template. While chemical synthesis of DNA is often limited to sequences of about 100 bases, longer sequences can be obtained by the ligation of shorter sequences. Alternatively, subsequences may be cloned and the appropriate subsequences cleaved using appropriate restriction enzymes.
The nucleic acids can be cDNAs or genomic DNAs, as well as fragments thereof. The term “cDNA” as used herein is intended to include all nucleic acids that share the arrangement of sequence elements found in native mature mRNA species, where sequence elements are exons and 3′ and 5′ non-coding regions. Normally mRNA species have contiguous exons, with the intervening introns, when present, being removed by nuclear RNA splicing, to create a continuous open reading frame encoding a polypeptide of the invention.
A genomic sequence of interest comprises the nucleic acid present between the initiation codon and the stop codon, as defined in the listed sequences, including all of the introns that are normally present in a native chromosome. It can further include the 3′ and 5′ untranslated regions found in the mature mRNA. It can further include specific transcriptional and translational regulatory sequences, such as promoters, enhancers, etc., including about 1 kb, but possibly more, of flanking genomic DNA at either the 5′ or 3′ end of the transcribed region. The genomic DNA flanking the coding region, either 3′ or 5′, or internal regulatory sequences as sometimes found in introns, contains sequences required for proper tissue, stage-specific, or disease-state specific expression, and are useful for investigating the up-regulation of expression in tumor cells.
Probes specific to the nucleic acid of the invention can be generated using the nucleic acid sequence disclosed in Table 1. The probes are preferably at least about 18 nt, 25 nt, 50 nt or more of the corresponding contiguous sequence of one of the sequences provided in Table 1, and are usually less than about 2, 1, or 0.5 kb in length. Preferably, probes are designed based on a contiguous sequence that remains unmasked following application of a masking program for masking low complexity. Double or single stranded fragments can be obtained from the DNA sequence by chemically synthesizing oligonucleotides in accordance with conventional methods, by restriction enzyme digestion, by PCR amplification, etc. The probes can be labeled, for example, with a radioactive, biotinylated, or fluorescent tag.
The nucleic acids of the subject invention are isolated and obtained in substantial purity, generally as other than an intact chromosome. Usually, the nucleic acids, either as DNA or RNA, will be obtained substantially free of other naturally-occurring nucleic acid sequences, generally being at least about 50%, usually at least about 90% pure and are typically “recombinant,” e.g., flanked by one or more nucleotides with which it is not normally associated on a naturally occurring chromosome.
The nucleic acids of the invention can be provided as a linear molecule or within a circular molecule, and can be provided within autonomously replicating molecules (vectors) or within molecules without replication sequences. Expression of the nucleic acids can be regulated by their own or by other regulatory sequences known in the art. The nucleic acids of the invention can be introduced into suitable host cells using a variety of techniques available in the art, such as transferrin polycation-mediated DNA transfer, transfection with naked or encapsulated nucleic acids, liposome-mediated DNA transfer, intracellular transportation of DNA-coated latex beads, protoplast fusion, viral infection, electroporation, gene gun, calcium phosphate-mediated transfection, and the like.
For use in amplification reactions, such as PCR, a pair of primers will be used. The exact composition of the primer sequences is not critical to the invention, but for most applications the primers will hybridize to the subject sequence under stringent conditions, as known in the art. It is preferable to choose a pair of primers that will generate an amplification product of at least about 50 nt, preferably at least about 100 nt. Algorithms for the selection of primer sequences are generally known, and are available in commercial software packages. Amplification primers hybridize to complementary strands of DNA, and will prime towards each other. For hybridization probes, it may be desirable to use nucleic acid analogs, in order to improve the stability and binding affinity. The term “nucleic acid” shall be understood to encompass such analogs.
Polypeptides
Polypeptides encoded by TBT genes are of interest for screening methods, as reagents to raise antibodies, as therapeutics, and the like. Such polypeptides can be produced through isolation from natural sources, recombinant methods and chemical synthesis. In addition, functionally equivalent polypeptides may find use, where the equivalent polypeptide may contain deletions, additions or substitutions of amino acid residues that result in a silent change, thus producing a functionally equivalent differentially expressed on pathway gene product. Amino acid substitutions may be made on the basis of similarity in polarity, charge, solubility, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and/or the amphipathic nature of the residues involved. “Functionally equivalent”, as used herein, refers to a protein capable of exhibiting a substantially similar in vivo activity as the polypeptide encoded by an ischemia associated gene, as provided in Table 1.
The polypeptides may be produced by recombinant DNA technology using techniques well known in the art. Methods which are well known to those skilled in the art can be used to construct expression vectors containing coding sequences and appropriate transcriptional/translational control signals. These methods include, for example, in vitro recombinant DNA techniques, synthetic techniques and in vivo recombination/genetic recombination. Alternatively, RNA capable of encoding the polypeptides of interest may be chemically synthesized.
Typically, the coding sequence is placed under the control of a promoter that is functional in the desired host cell to produce relatively large quantities of the gene product. An extremely wide variety of promoters are well-known, and can be used in the expression vectors of the invention, depending on the particular application. Ordinarily, the promoter selected depends upon the cell in which the promoter is to be active. Other expression control sequences such as ribosome binding sites, transcription termination sites and the like are also optionally included. Constructs that include one or more of these control sequences are termed “expression cassettes.” Expression can be achieved in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells utilizing promoters and other regulatory agents appropriate for the particular host cell. Exemplary host cells include, but are not limited to, E. coli, other bacterial hosts, yeast, and various higher eukaryotic cells such as the COS, CHO and HeLa cells lines and myeloma cell lines.
In mammalian host cells, a number of viral-based expression systems may be used, including retrovirus, lentivirus, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, and the like. In cases where an adenovirus is used as an expression vector, the coding sequence of interest can be ligated to an adenovirus transcription/translation control complex, e.g., the late promoter and tripartite leader sequence. This chimeric gene may then be inserted in the adenovirus genome by in vitro or in vivo recombination. Insertion in a non-essential region of the viral genome (e.g., region E1 or E3) will result in a recombinant virus that is viable and capable of expressing differentially expressed or pathway gene protein in infected hosts.
Specific initiation signals may also be required for efficient translation of the genes. These signals include the ATG initiation codon and adjacent sequences. In cases where a complete gene, including its own initiation codon and adjacent sequences, is inserted into the appropriate expression vector, no additional translational control signals may be needed. However, in cases where only a portion of the gene coding sequence is inserted, exogenous translational control signals must be provided. These exogenous translational control signals and initiation codons can be of a variety of origins, both natural and synthetic. The efficiency of expression may be enhanced by the inclusion of appropriate transcription enhancer elements, transcription terminators, etc.
In addition, a host cell strain may be chosen that modulates the expression of the inserted sequences, or modifies and processes the gene product in the specific fashion desired. Such modifications (e.g., glycosylation) and processing (e.g., cleavage) of protein products may be important for the function of the protein. Different host cells have characteristic and specific mechanisms for the post-translational processing and modification of proteins. Appropriate cell lines or host systems can be chosen to ensure the correct modification and processing of the foreign protein expressed. To this end, eukaryotic host cells that possess the cellular machinery for proper processing of the primary transcript, glycosylation, and phosphorylation of the gene product may be used. Such mammalian host cells include but are not limited to CHO, VERO, BHK, HeLa, COS, MDCK, 293, 3T3, WI38, etc.
For long-term, high-yield production of recombinant proteins, stable expression is preferred. For example, cell lines that stably express the differentially expressed or pathway gene protein may be engineered. Rather than using expression vectors that contain viral origins of replication, host cells can be transformed with DNA controlled by appropriate expression control elements, and a selectable marker. Following the introduction of the foreign DNA, engineered cells may be allowed to grow for 1–2 days in an enriched media, and then are switched to a selective media. The selectable marker in the recombinant plasmid confers resistance to the selection and allows cells to stably integrate the plasmid into their chromosomes and grow to form foci which in turn can be cloned and expanded into cell lines. This method may advantageously be used to engineer cell lines that express the target protein. Such engineered cell lines may be particularly useful in screening and evaluation of compounds that affect the endogenous activity of the TBT protein. A number of selection systems may be used, including but not limited to the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase, hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase, and adenine phosphoribosyltransferase genes. Antimetabolite resistance can be used as the basis of selection for dhfr, which confers resistance to methotrexate; gpt, which confers resistance to mycophenolic acid; neo, which confers resistance to the aminoglycoside G-418; and hygro, which confers resistance to hygromycin.
The polypeptide may be labeled, either directly or indirectly. Any of a variety of suitable labeling systems may be used, including but not limited to, radioisotopes such as 125I; enzyme labeling systems that generate a detectable calorimetric signal or light when exposed to substrate; and fluorescent labels. Indirect labeling involves the use of a protein, such as a labeled antibody, that specifically binds to the polypeptide of interest. Such antibodies include but are not limited to polyclonal, monoclonal, chimeric, single chain, Fab fragments and fragments produced by a Fab expression library.
Once expressed, the recombinant polypeptides can be purified according to standard procedures of the art, including ammonium sulfate precipitation, affinity columns, ion exchange and/or size exclusivity chromatography, gel electrophoresis and the like (see, generally, R. Scopes, Protein Purification, Springer-Verlag, N.Y. (1982), Deutscher, Methods in Enzymology Vol. 182: Guide to Protein Purification., Academic Press, Inc. N.Y. (1990)).
As an option to recombinant methods, polypeptides and oligopeptides can be chemically synthesized. Such methods typically include solid-state approaches, but can also utilize solution based chemistries and combinations or combinations of solid-state and solution approaches. Examples of solid-state methodologies for synthesizing proteins are described by Merrifield (1964) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 85:2149; and Houghton (1985) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 82:5132. Fragments of a TBT protein can be synthesized and then joined together. Methods for conducting such reactions are described by Grant (1992) Synthetic Peptides: A User Guide, W.H. Freeman and Co., N.Y.; and in “Principles of Peptide Synthesis,” (Bodansky and Trost, ed.), Springer-Verlag, Inc. N.Y., (1993).
For various purposes, for example as an immunogen, the entire TBT polypeptide or a fragment derived therefrom may be used. Preferably, one or more 8–30 amino acid peptide portions, e.g. of an extracellular domain may be utilized, with peptides in the range of 10–20 being a more economical choice. Custom-synthesized peptides in this range are available from a multitude of vendors, and can be order conjugated to KLH or BSA. Alternatively, peptides in excess of 30 amino acids may be synthesized by solid-phase methods, or may be recombinantly produced in a suitable recombinant protein production system. In order to ensure proper protein glycosylation and processing, an animal cell system (e.g., Sf9 or other insect cells, CHO or other mammalian cells) is preferred.
Specific Binding Members
The term “specific binding member” or “binding member” as used herein refers to a member of a specific binding pair, i.e. two molecules, usually two different molecules, where one of the molecules (i.e., first specific binding member) through chemical or physical means specifically binds to the other molecule (i.e., second specific binding member). The complementary members of a specific binding pair are sometimes referred to as a ligand and receptor; or receptor and counter-receptor. For the purposes of the present invention, the two binding members may be known to associate with each other, for example where an assay is directed at detecting compounds that interfere with the association of a known binding pair. Alternatively, candidate compounds suspected of being a binding partner to a compound of interest may be used.
Specific binding pairs of interest include carbohydrates and lectins; complementary nucleotide sequences; peptide ligands and receptor; effector and receptor molecules; hormones and hormone binding protein; enzyme cofactors and enzymes; enzyme inhibitors and enzymes; lipid and lipid-binding protein; etc. The specific binding pairs may include analogs, derivatives and fragments of the original specific binding member. For example, a receptor and ligand pair may include peptide fragments, chemically synthesized peptidomimetics, labeled protein, derivatized protein, etc.
In a preferred embodiment, the specific binding member is an antibody. The term “antibody” or “antibody moiety” is intended to include any polypeptide chain-containing molecular structure with a specific shape that fits to and recognizes an epitope, where one or more non-covalent binding interactions stabilize the complex between the molecular structure and the epitope. The term includes monoclonal antibodies, multispecific antibodies (antibodies that include more than one domain specificity), human antibody, humanized antibody, and antibody fragments with the desired biological activity.
Antibodies that bind specifically to one of the brain tumor protein targets are referred to as α (TBT). The specific or selective fit of a given structure and its specific epitope is sometimes referred to as a “lock and key” fit. The archetypal antibody molecule is the immunoglobulin, and all types of immunoglobulins, IgG, e.g. IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b, IgG3, IgG4, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD, etc., from all sources, e.g. human, rodent, rabbit, cow, sheep, pig, dog, other mammal, chicken, other avians, etc., are considered to be “antibodies.” Antibodies utilized in the present invention may be polyclonal antibodies, although monoclonal antibodies are preferred because they may be reproduced by cell culture or recombinantly, and can be modified to reduce their antigenicity.
Polyclonal antibodies can be raised by a standard protocol by injecting a production animal with an antigenic composition, formulated as described above. See, e.g., Harlow and Lane, Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1988. In one such technique, a TBT antigen comprising an antigenic portion of the polypeptide is initially injected into any of a wide variety of mammals (e.g., mice, rats, rabbits, sheep or goats). When utilizing an entire protein, or a larger section of the protein, antibodies may be raised by immunizing the production animal with the protein and a suitable adjuvant (e.g., Fruend's, Fruend's complete, oil-in-water emulsions, etc.) When a smaller peptide is utilized, it is advantageous to conjugate the peptide with a larger molecule to make an immunostimulatory conjugate. Commonly utilized conjugate proteins that are commercially available for such use include bovine serum albumin (BSA) and keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH). In order to raise antibodies to particular epitopes, peptides derived from the full sequence may be utilized. Alternatively, in order to generate antibodies to relatively short peptide portions of the brain tumor protein target, a superior immune response may be elicited if the polypeptide is joined to a carrier protein, such as ovalbumin, BSA or KLH. The peptide-conjugate is injected into the animal host, preferably according to a predetermined schedule incorporating one or more booster immunizations, and the animals are bled periodically. Polyclonal antibodies specific for the polypeptide may then be purified from such antisera by, for example, affinity chromatography using the polypeptide coupled to a suitable solid support.
Alternatively, for monoclonal antibodies, hybridomas may be formed by isolating the stimulated immune cells, such as those from the spleen of the inoculated animal. These cells are then fused to immortalized cells, such as myeloma cells or transformed cells, which are capable of replicating indefinitely in cell culture, thereby producing an immortal, immunoglobulin-secreting cell line. The immortal cell line utilized is preferably selected to be deficient in enzymes necessary for the utilization of certain nutrients. Many such cell lines (such as myelomas) are known to those skilled in the art, and include, for example: thymidine kinase (TK) or hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoriboxyl transferase (HGPRT). These deficiencies allow selection for fused cells according to their ability to grow on, for example, hypoxanthine aminopterinthymidine medium (HAT).
Preferably, the immortal fusion partners utilized are derived from a line that does not secrete immunoglobulin. The resulting fused cells, or hybridomas, are cultured under conditions that allow for the survival of fused, but not unfused, cells and the resulting colonies screened for the production of the desired monoclonal antibodies. Colonies producing such antibodies are cloned, expanded, and grown so as to produce large quantities of antibody, see Kohler and Milstein, 1975 Nature 256:495 (the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference).
Large quantities of monoclonal antibodies from the secreting hybridomas may then be produced by injecting the clones into the peritoneal cavity of mice and harvesting the ascites fluid therefrom. The mice, preferably primed with pristane, or some other tumor-promoter, and immunosuppressed chemically or by irradiation, may be any of various suitable strains known to those in the art. The ascites fluid is harvested from the mice and the monoclonal antibody purified therefrom, for example, by CM Sepharose column or other chromatographic means. Alternatively, the hybridomas may be cultured in vitro or as suspension cultures. Batch, continuous culture, or other suitable culture processes may be utilized. Monoclonal antibodies are then recovered from the culture medium or supernatant.
In addition, the antibodies or antigen binding fragments may be produced by genetic engineering. In this technique, as with the standard hybridoma procedure, antibody-producing cells are sensitized to the desired antigen or immunogen. The messenger RNA isolated from the immune spleen cells or hybridomas is used as a template to make cDNA using PCR amplification. A library of vectors, each containing one heavy chain gene and one light chain gene retaining the initial antigen specificity, is produced by insertion of appropriate sections of the amplified immunoglobulin cDNA into the expression vectors. A combinatorial library is constructed by combining the heavy chain gene library with the light chain gene library. This results in a library of clones which co-express a heavy and light chain (resembling the Fab fragment or antigen binding fragment of an antibody molecule). The vectors that carry these genes are co-transfected into a host (e.g. bacteria, insect cells, mammalian cells, or other suitable protein production host cell.). When antibody gene synthesis is induced in the transfected host, the heavy and light chain proteins self-assemble to produce active antibodies that can be detected by screening with the antigen or immunogen.
Preferably, recombinant antibodies are produced in a recombinant protein production system that correctly glycosylates and processes the immunoglobulin chains, such as insect or mammalian cells. An advantage to using insect cells, which utilize recombinant baculoviruses for the production of antibodies, is that the baculovirus system allows production of mutant antibodies much more rapidly than stably transfected mammalian cell lines. In addition, insect cells have been shown to correctly process and glycosylate eukaryotic proteins, which prokaryotic cells do not. Finally, the baculovirus expression of foreign protein has been shown to constitute as much as 50–75% of the total cellular protein late in viral infection, making this system an excellent means of producing milligram quantities of the recombinant antibodies.
Antibodies with a reduced propensity to induce a violent or detrimental immune response in humans (such as anaphylactic shock), and which also exhibit a reduced propensity for priming an immune response which would prevent repeated dosage with the antibody therapeutic or imaging agent are preferred for use in the invention. Even through the brain is relatively isolated behind the blood brain barrier, an immune response still can occur in the form of increased leukocyte infiltration, and inflammation. Although some increased immune response against the tumor is desirable, the concurrent binding and inactivation of the therapeutic or imaging agent generally outweighs this benefit. Thus, humanized, single chain, chimeric, or human antibodies, which produce less of an immune response when administered to humans, are preferred for use in the present invention. Also included in the invention are multi-domain antibodies, and anti-idiotypic antibodies that “mimic” TBT. For example, antibodies that bind to a TBT domain and competitively inhibit the binding of TBT to its ligand may be used to generate anti-idiotypes that “mimic” TBT and, therefore, bind, activate, or neutralize a TBT, TBT ligand, TBT receptor, or TBT ligand. Such anti-idiotypic antibodies or Fab fragments of such anti-idiotypes can be used in therapeutic regimens involving a TBT mediated pathway (see, for example, Greenspan and Bona (1993) FASEB J 7(5):437–444; Nissinoff (1991) J. Immunol. 147(8):2429–2438.
A chimeric antibody is a molecule in which different portions are derived from different animal species, for example those having a variable region derived from a murine mAb and a human immunoglobulin constant region. Techniques for the development of chimeric antibodies are described in the literature. See, for example, Morrison et al. (1984) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 81:6851–6855; Neuberger et al. (1984) Nature 312:604–608; Takeda et al. (1985) Nature 314:452–454. Single chain antibodies are formed by linking the heavy and light chain fragments of the Fv region via an amino acid bridge, resulting in a single chain polypeptide. See, for example, Huston et al., Science 242:423–426; Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 85:5879–5883; and Ward et al. Nature 341:544–546.
Antibody fragments that recognize specific epitopes may be generated by techniques well known in the field. These fragments include, without limitation, F(ab′)2 fragments, which can be produced by pepsin digestion of the antibody molecule, and Fab fragments, which can be generated by reducing the disulfide bridges of the F(ab′)2 fragments.
In one embodiment of the invention, a human or humanized antibody is provided, which specifically binds to the extracellular region of TBT with high affinity. Binding of the antibody to the extracellular region can lead to receptor down regulation or decreased biological activity, and decrease in cell proliferation, invasion and/or decrease in tumor size. Low affinity binders may also be useful for some immuno-therapies. See Lonberg et al. (1994) Nature 368:856–859; and Lonberg and Huszar (1995) Internal Review of Immunology 13:65–93. In another aspect of the invention, a humanized antibody is provided that specifically binds to the extracellular region of TBT with high affinity, and which bears resemblance to the human antibody. These antibodies resemble human antibodies and thus can be administered to a human patient with minimal negative side effects.
Humanized antibodies are human forms of non-human antibodies. They are chimeras with a minimum sequence derived from of non-human Immunoglobulin. To overcome the intrinsic undesirable properties of murine monoclonal antibodies, recombinant murine antibodies engineered to incorporate regions of human antibodies, also called “humanized antibodies” are being developed. This alternative strategy was adopted as it is difficult to generate human antibodies directed to human antigens such as cell surface molecules. A humanized antibody contains complementarity determining region (CDR) regions and a few other amino acid of a murine antibody while the rest of the antibody is of human origin.
Chimeric antibodies may be made by recombinant means by combining the murine variable light and heavy chain regions (VK and VH), obtained from a murine (or other animal-derived) hybridoma clone, with the human constant light and heavy chain regions, in order to produce an antibody with predominantly human domains. The production of such chimeric antibodies is well known in the art, and may be achieved by standard means (as described, e.g., in U.S. Pat. No. 5,624,659, incorporated fully herein by reference). Humanized antibodies are engineered to contain even more human-like immunoglobulin domains, and incorporate only the complementarity-determining regions of the animal-derived antibody. This is accomplished by carefully examining the sequence of the hyper-variable loops of the variable regions of the monoclonal antibody, and fitting them to the structure of the human antibody chains. Although facially complex, the process is straightforward in practice. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,187,287, incorporated fully herein by reference.
Alternatively, polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies may be produced from animals that have been genetically altered to produce human immunoglobulins. Techniques for generating such animals, and deriving antibodies therefrom, are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,162,963 and 6,150,584, incorporated fully herein by reference.
Alternatively, single chain antibodies (Fv, as described below) can be produced from phage libraries containing human variable regions. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,174,708. Intrathecal administration of single-chain immunotoxin, LMB-7 [B3(Fv)-PE38], has been shown to cure of carcinomatous meningitis in a rat model. Proc Natl. Acad. Sci USA 92, 2765–9, all of which are incorporated by reference fully herein.
In addition to entire immunoglobulins (or their recombinant counterparts), immunoglobulin fragments comprising the epitope binding site (e.g., Fab′, F(ab′)2, or other fragments) are useful as antibody moieties in the present invention. Such antibody fragments may be generated from whole immunoglobulins by ficin, pepsin, papain, or other protease cleavage. “Fragment,” or minimal immunoglobulins may be designed utilizing recombinant immunoglobulin techniques. For instance “Fv” immunoglobulins for use in the present invention may be produced by linking a variable light chain region to a variable heavy chain region via a peptide linker (e.g., poly-glycine or another sequence which does not form an alpha helix or beta sheet motif).
Fv fragments are heterodimers of the variable heavy chain domain (VH) and the variable light chain domain (VL). The heterodimers of heavy and light chain domains that occur in whole IgG, for example, are connected by a disulfide bond. Recombinant Fvs in which VH and VL are connected by a peptide linker are typically stable, see, for example, Huston et al., Proc. Natl. Acad, Sci. USA 85:5879–5883 (1988) and Bird et al., Science 242:423–426 (1988), both fully incorporated herein, by reference. These are single chain Fvs which have been found to retain specificity and affinity and have been shown to be useful for imaging tumors and to make recombinant immunotoxins for tumor therapy. However, researchers have bound that some of the single chain Fvs have a reduced affinity for antigen and the peptide linker can interfere with binding. Improved Fv's have been also been made which comprise stabilizing disulfide bonds between the VH and VL regions, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,147,203, incorporated fully herein by reference. Any of these minimal antibodies may be utilized in the present invention, and those which are humanized to avoid HAMA reactions are preferred for use in embodiments of the invention.
In addition, derivatized immunoglobulins with added chemical linkers, detectable moieties, such as fluorescent dyes, enzymes, substrates, chemiluminescent moieties and the like, or specific binding moieties, such as streptavidin, avidin, or biotin, and the like may be utilized in the methods and compositions of the present invention. For convenience, the term “antibody” or “antibody moiety” will be used throughout to generally refer to molecules which specifically bind to an epitope of the brain tumor protein targets, although the term will encompass all immunoglobulins, derivatives, fragments, recombinant or engineered immunoglobulins, and modified immunoglobulins, as described above.
Candidate anti-TBT antibodies can be tested for by any suitable standard means, e.g. ELISA assays, etc. As a first screen, the antibodies may be tested for binding against the immunogen, or against the entire brain tumor protein target extracellular domain or protein. As a second screen, anti-TBT candidates may be tested for binding to an appropriate tumor cell line, or to primary tumor tissue samples. For these screens, the anti-TBT candidate antibody may be labeled for detection. After selective binding to the brain tumor protein target is established, the candidate antibody, or an antibody conjugate produced as described below, may be tested for appropriate activity (i.e., the ability to decrease tumor cell growth and/or to aid in visualizing tumor cells) in an in vivo model, such as an appropriate tumor cell line, or in a mouse or rat human brain tumor model, as described below. In a preferred embodiment, anti-TBT protein antibody compounds may be screened using a variety of methods in vitro and in vivo. These methods include, but are not limited to, methods that measure binding affinity to a target, biodistribution of the compound within an animal or cell, or compound mediated cytotoxicity. These and other screening methods known in the art provide information on the ability of a compound to bind to, modulate, or otherwise interact with the specified target and are a measure of the compound's efficacy.
Antibodies that alter the biological activity of TBT protein may be assayed in functional formats, such as glioblastoma cell culture or mouse/rat CNS tumor model studies. In glioblastoma cell models of activity, expression of the protein is first verified in the particular cell strain to be used. If necessary, the cell line may be stably transfected with a coding sequence of the protein under the control of an appropriate constituent promoter, in order to express the protein at a level comparable to that found in primary tumors. The ability of the glioblastoma cells to survive in the presence of the candidate function-altering anti-protein antibody is then determined. In addition to cell-survival assays, cell migration assays may be utilized to determine the effect of the candidate antibody therapeutic agent on the tumor-like behavior of the cells. Alternatively, if the brain tumor protein target is involved in angiogenesis, assays may be utilized to determine the ability of the candidate antibody therapeutic to inhibit vascular neogenesis, an important function in tumor biology.
The binding affinity of the TBT antibody may be determined using Biacore SPR technology, as is known in the art. In this method, a first molecule is coupled to a Dextran CM-5 sensor chip (Pharmacia), and the bound molecule is used to capture the antibody being tested. The antigen is then applied at a specific flow rate, and buffer applied at the same flow rate, so that dissociation occurs. The association rate and dissociation rates and corresponding rate constants are determined by using BIA evaluation software. For example, see Malmqvist (1993) Surface plasmon resonance for detection and measurement of antibody-antigen affinity and kinetics. Volume: 5:282–286; and Davies (1994) Nanobiology 3:5–16. Sequential introduction of antibodies permits epitope mapping. Once the antigen has been introduced, the ability of a second antibody to bind to the antigen can be tested. Each reactant can be monitored individually in the consecutive formation of multimolecular complexes, permitting multi-site binding experiments to be performed.
The binding of some ligands to their receptors can result in receptor-mediated internalization. This property may be desirable, e.g. with antibody therapeutics such as immunoliposomes; or undesirable, e.g. with antibody directed enzyme-prodrug therapy (ADEPT), where the enzyme needs to be present at the cell surface to convert non active prodrugs into active cytotoxic molecules.
Similarly, in vivo models for human brain tumors, particularly nude mice/SCID mice model or rat models, have been described, for example see Antunes et al. (2000). J Histochem Cytochem 48, 847–58; Price et al. (1999) Clin Cancer Res 5, 845–54; and Senner et al. (2000). Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 99, 603–8. Once correct expression of the protein in the tumor model is verified, the effect of the candidate anti-protein antibodies on the tumor masses in these models can be evaluated, wherein the ability of the anti-protein antibody candidates to alter protein activity is indicated by a decrease in tumor growth or a reduction in the tumor mass. Thus, antibodies that exhibit the appropriate anti-tumor effect may be selected without direct knowledge of the particular biomolecular role of the protein in oncogenesis. In vivo models may also be used to screen small molecule modulators of TBT function.
Arrays
Arrays provide a high throughput technique that can assay a large number of polynucleotides in a sample. In one aspect of the invention, an array is constructed comprising one or more of the TBT genes, proteins or antibodies, preferably comprising all of these sequences, which array may further comprise other sequences known to be up- or down-regulated in tumor cells. This technology can be used as a tool to test for differential expression. Arrays can be created by spotting polynucleotide probes onto a substrate (e.g., glass, nitrocellulose, etc.) in a two-dimensional matrix or array having bound probes. The probes can be bound to the substrate by either covalent bonds or by non-specific interactions, such as hydrophobic interactions. Techniques for constructing arrays and methods of using these arrays are described in, for example, Schena et al. (1996) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 93(20):10614–9; Schena et al. (1995) Science 270(5235):467–70; Shalon et al. (1996) Genome Res. 6(7):639–45, U.S. Pat. No. 5,807,522, EP 799 897; WO 97/29212; WO 97/27317; EP 785 280; WO 97/02357; U.S. Pat. No. 5,593,839; U.S. Pat. No. 5,578,832; EP 728 520; U.S. Pat. No. 5,599,695; EP 721 016; U.S. Pat. No. 5,556,752; WO 95/22058; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,631,734.
The probes utilized in the arrays can be of varying types and can include, for example, synthesized probes of relatively short length (e.g., a 20-mer or a 25-mer), cDNA (full length or fragments of gene), amplified DNA, fragments of DNA (generated by restriction enzymes, for example) and reverse transcribed DNA. Both custom and generic arrays can be utilized in detecting differential expression levels. Custom arrays can be prepared using probes that hybridize to particular preselected subsequences of mRNA gene sequences or amplification products prepared from them.
Arrays can be used to, for example, examine differential expression of genes and can be used to determine gene function. For example, arrays can be used to detect differential expression of TBT genes, where expression is compared between a test cell and control cell. Exemplary uses of arrays are further described in, for example, Pappalarado et al (1998) Sem. Radiation Oncol. 8:217; and Ramsay. (1998) Nature Biotechnol. 16:40. Furthermore, many variations on methods of detection using arrays are well within the skill in the art and within the scope of the present invention. For example, rather than immobilizing the probe to a solid support, the test sample can be immobilized on a solid support which is then contacted with the probe. Additional discussion regarding the use of microarrays in expression analysis can be found, for example, in Duggan, et al., Nature Genetics Supplement 21:10–14 (1999); Bowtell, Nature Genetics Supplement 21:25–32 (1999); Brown and Botstein, Nature Genetics Supplement 21:33–37 (1999); Cole et al., Nature Genetics Supplement 21:38–41 (1999); Debouck and Goodfellow, Nature Genetics Supplement 21:48–50 (1999); Bassett, Jr., et al., Nature Genetics Supplement 21:51–55 (1999); and Chakravarti, Nature Genetics Supplement 21:56–60 (1999).
For detecting expression levels, usually nucleic acids are obtained from a test sample, and either directly labeled, or reversed transcribed into labeled cDNA. The test sample containing the labeled nucleic acids is then contacted with the array. After allowing a period sufficient for any labeled nucleic acid present in the sample to hybridize to the probes, the array is typically subjected to one or more high stringency washes to remove unbound nucleic acids and to minimize nonspecific binding to the nucleic acid probes of the arrays. Binding of labeled sequences is detected using any of a variety of commercially available scanners and accompanying software programs.
For example, if the nucleic acids from the sample are labeled with fluorescent labels, hybridization intensity can be determined by, for example, a scanning confocal microscope in photon counting mode. Appropriate scanning devices are described by e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,578,832 to Trulson et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 5,631,734 to Stern et al. and are available from Affymetrix, Inc., under the GeneChipTM label. Some types of label provide a signal that can be amplified by enzymatic methods (see Broude, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91, 3072–3076 (1994)). A variety of other labels are also suitable including, for example, radioisotopes, chromophores, magnetic particles and electron dense particles.
Those locations on the probe array that are hybridized to labeled nucleic acid are detected using a reader, such as described by U.S. Pat. No. 5,143,854, WO 90/15070, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,578,832. For customized arrays, the hybridization pattern can then be analyzed to determine the presence and/or relative amounts or absolute amounts of known mRNA species in samples being analyzed as described in e.g., WO 97/10365.
Diagnostic and Prognostic Methods
The differential expression of TBT genes and/or gene products in tumors indicates that these can serve as markers for diagnosis, for imaging, as well as for therapeutic applications. In general, such diagnostic methods involve detecting an elevated level of expression of TBT gene transcripts or gene products in the cells or tissue of an individual or a sample therefrom. A variety of different assays can be utilized to detect an increase in gene expression, including both methods that detect gene transcript and protein levels. More specifically, the diagnostic and prognostic methods disclosed herein involve obtaining a sample from an individual and determining at least qualitatively, and preferably quantitatively, the level of a TBT gene product expression in the sample. Usually this determined value or test value is compared against some type of reference or baseline value.
Nucleic acids or binding members such as antibodies that are specific for polypeptides derived from the sequence of one of the sequences provided in Table 1 are used to screen patient samples for increased expression of the corresponding mRNA or protein, or for the presence of amplified DNA in the cell. Samples can be obtained from a variety of sources. Samples are typically obtained from a human subject. However, the methods can also be utilized with samples obtained from various other mammals, such as primates, e.g. apes and chimpanzees, mice, cats, rats, and other animals. Such samples are referred to as a patient sample.
Samples can be obtained from the tissues or fluids of an individual, as well as from cell cultures or tissue homogenates. For example, samples can be obtained from spinal fluid, or tumor biopsy samples. Also included in the term are derivatives and fractions of such cells and fluids. Samples can also be derived from in vitro cell cultures, including the growth medium, recombinant cells and cell components. Diagnostic samples are collected from an individual that has, or is suspected to have, a brain tumor. The presence of specific markers is useful in identifying and staging the tumor.
Nucleic Acid Screening Methods
Some of the diagnostic and prognostic methods that involve the detection of a TBT gene transcript begin with the lysis of cells and subsequent purification of nucleic acids from other cellular material, particularly mRNA transcripts. A nucleic acid derived from an mRNA transcript refers to a nucleic acid for whose synthesis the mRNA transcript, or a subsequence thereof, has ultimately served as a template. Thus, a cDNA reverse transcribed from an mRNA, an RNA transcribed from that cDNA, a DNA amplified from the cDNA, an RNA transcribed from the amplified DNA, are all derived from the mRNA transcript and detection of such derived products is indicative of the presence and/or abundance of the original transcript in a sample.
A number of methods are available for analyzing nucleic acids for the presence of a specific sequence, e.g. upregulated or downregulated expression. The nucleic acid may be amplified by conventional techniques, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), to provide sufficient amounts for analysis. The use of the polymerase chain reaction is described in Saiki et al. (1985) Science 239:487, and a review of techniques may be found in Sambrook, et al. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, CSH Press 1989, pp. 14.2–14.33.
A detectable label may be included in an amplification reaction. Suitable labels include fluorochromes, e.g. ALEXA dyes (available from Molecular Probes, Inc.); fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), rhodamine, Texas Red, phycoerythrin, allophycocyanin, 6-carboxyfluorescein(6-FAM), 2,7-dimethoxy-4,5-dichloro-6-carboxyfluorescein (JOE), 6-carboxy-X-rhodamine (ROX), 6-carboxy-2,4,7,4,7-hexachlorofluorescein (HEX), 5-carboxyfluorescein (5-FAM) or N,N,N,N-tetramethyl-6-carboxyrhodamine (TAMRA), radioactive labels, e.g. 32P, 35S, 3H; etc. The label may be a two stage system, where the amplified DNA is conjugated to biotin, haptens, etc. having a high affinity binding partner, e.g. avidin, specific antibodies, etc., where the binding partner is conjugated to a detectable label. The label may be conjugated to one or both of the primers. Alternatively, the pool of nucleotides used in the amplification is labeled, so as to incorporate the label into the amplification product.
The sample nucleic acid, e.g. amplified, labeled, cloned fragment, etc. is analyzed by one of a number of methods known in the art. Probes may be hybridized to northern or dot blots, or liquid hybridization reactions performed. The nucleic acid may be sequenced by dideoxy or other methods, and the sequence of bases compared to a wild-type sequence. Single strand conformational polymorphism (SSCP) analysis, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), and heteroduplex analysis in gel matrices are used to detect conformational changes created by DNA sequence variation as alterations in electrophoretic mobility. Fractionation is performed by gel or capillary electrophoresis, particularly acrylamide or agarose gels.
In situ hybridization methods are hybridization methods in which the cells are not lysed prior to hybridization. Because the method is performed in situ, it has the advantage that it is not necessary to prepare RNA from the cells. The method usually involves initially fixing test cells to a support (e.g., the walls of a microtiter well) and then permeabilizing the cells with an appropriate permeabilizing solution. A solution containing labeled probes is then contacted with the cells and the probes allowed to hybridize. Excess probe is digested, washed away and the amount of hybridized probe measured. This approach is described in greater detail by Nucleic Acid Hybridization: A Practical Approach (Hames, et al., eds., 1987).
A variety of so-called “real time amplification” methods or “real time quantitative PCR” methods can also be utilized to determine the quantity of mRNA present in a sample. Such methods involve measuring the amount of amplification product formed during an amplification process. Fluorogenic nuclease assays are one specific example of a real time quantitation method that can be used to detect and quantitate transcripts. In general such assays continuously measure PCR product accumulation using a dual-labeled fluorogenic oligonucleotide probe—an approach frequently referred to in the literature simply as the “TaqMan” method. Additional details regarding the theory and operation of fluorogenic methods for making real time determinations of the concentration of amplification products are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,210,015 to Gelfand, U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,848 to Livak, et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 5,863,736 to Haaland, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.
Polypeptide Screening Methods
Screening for expression of the subject sequences may be based on the functional or antigenic characteristics of the protein. Various immunoassays designed to detect polymorphisms in proteins encoded by the sequences corresponding to the sequences provided in Table 1 may be used in screening. Detection may utilize staining of cells or histological sections, performed in accordance with conventional methods, using antibodies or other specific binding members that specifically bind to the TBT polypeptides. The antibodies or other specific binding members of interest are added to a cell sample, and incubated for a period of time sufficient to allow binding to the epitope, usually at least about 10 minutes. The antibody may be labeled with radioisotopes, enzymes, fluorescers, chemiluminescers, or other labels for direct detection. Alternatively, a second stage antibody or reagent is used to amplify the signal. Such reagents are well known in the art. For example, the primary antibody may be conjugated to biotin, with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated avidin added as a second stage reagent. Final detection uses a substrate that undergoes a color change in the presence of the peroxidase. The absence or presence of antibody binding may be determined by various methods, including flow cytometry of dissociated cells, microscopy, radiography, scintillation counting, etc.
An alternative method for diagnosis depends on the in vitro detection of binding between antibodies and the polypeptide corresponding to a sequence of Table 1 in a lysate. Measuring the concentration of the target protein in a sample or fraction thereof may be accomplished by a variety of specific assays. A conventional sandwich type assay may be used. For example, a sandwich assay may first attach specific antibodies to an insoluble surface or support. The particular manner of binding is not crucial so long as it is compatible with the reagents and overall methods of the invention. They may be bound to the plates covalently or non-covalently, preferably non-covalently.
The insoluble supports may be any compositions to which polypeptides can be bound, which is readily separated from soluble material, and which is otherwise compatible with the overall method. The surface of such supports may be solid or porous and of any convenient shape. Examples of suitable insoluble supports to which the receptor is bound include beads, e.g. magnetic beads, membranes and microtiter plates. These are typically made of glass, plastic (e.g. polystyrene), polysaccharides, nylon or nitrocellulose. Microtiter plates are especially convenient because a large number of assays can be carried out simultaneously, using small amounts of reagents and samples.
Patient sample lysates are then added to separately assayable supports (for example, separate wells of a microtiter plate) containing antibodies. Preferably, a series of standards, containing known concentrations of the test protein is assayed in parallel with the samples or aliquots thereof to serve as controls. Preferably, each sample and standard will be added to multiple wells so that mean values can be obtained for each. The incubation time should be sufficient for binding. After incubation, the insoluble support is generally washed of non-bound components. After washing, a solution containing a second antibody is applied. The antibody will bind to one of the proteins of interest with sufficient specificity such that it can be distinguished from other components present. The second antibodies may be labeled to facilitate direct, or indirect quantification of binding. In a preferred embodiment, the antibodies are labeled with a covalently bound enzyme capable of providing a detectable product signal after addition of suitable substrate. Examples of suitable enzymes for use in conjugates include horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, malate dehydrogenase and the like. Where not commercially available, such antibody-enzyme conjugates are readily produced by techniques known to those skilled in the art. The incubation time should be sufficient for the labeled ligand to bind available molecules.
After the second binding step, the insoluble support is again washed free of non-specifically bound material, leaving the specific complex formed between the target protein and the specific binding member. The signal produced by the bound conjugate is detected by conventional means. Where an enzyme conjugate is used, an appropriate enzyme substrate is provided so a detectable product is formed.
Other immunoassays are known in the art and may find use as diagnostics. Ouchterlony plates provide a simple determination of antibody binding. Western blots may be performed on protein gels or protein spots on filters, using a detection system specific for the targeted polypeptide, conveniently using a labeling method as described for the sandwich assay.
In some cases, a competitive assay will be used. In addition to the patient sample, a competitor to the targeted protein is added to the reaction mix. The competitor and the target compete for binding to the specific binding partner. Usually, the competitor molecule will be labeled and detected as previously described, where the amount of competitor binding will be proportional to the amount of target protein present. The concentration of competitor molecule will be from about 10 times the maximum anticipated protein concentration to about equal concentration in order to make the most sensitive and linear range of detection.
Imaging In Vivo
In some embodiments, the methods are adapted for imaging use in vivo, e.g., to locate or identify sites where tumor cells are present. In these embodiments, a detectably-labeled moiety, e.g., an antibody, which is specific for the TBT polypeptide is administered to an individual (e.g., by injection), and labeled cells are located using standard imaging techniques, including, but not limited to, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography scanning, and the like.
For diagnostic in vivo imaging, the type of detection instrument available is a major factor in selecting a given radionuclide. The radionuclide chosen must have a type of decay that is detectable by a given type of instrument. In general, any conventional method for visualizing diagnostic imaging can be utilized in accordance with this invention. Another important factor in selecting a radionuclide for in vivo diagnosis is that its half-life be long enough that it is still detectable at the time of maximum uptake by the target tissue, but short enough that deleterious radiation of the host is minimized. A currently used method for labeling with 99mTc is the reduction of pertechnetate ion in the presence of a chelating precursor to form the labile 99mTc-precursor complex, which, in turn, reacts with the metal binding group of a bifunctionally modified chemotactic peptide to form a 99mTc-chemotactic peptide conjugate.
The detectably labeled TBT specific antibody is used in conjunction with imaging techniques, in order to analyze the expression of the target. In one embodiment, the imaging method is one of PET or SPECT, which are imaging techniques in which a radionuclide is synthetically or locally administered to a patient. The subsequent uptake of the radiotracer is measured over time and used to obtain information about the targeted tissue. Because of the high-energy (γ-ray) emissions of the specific isotopes employed and the sensitivity and sophistication of the instruments used to detect them, the two-dimensional distribution of radioactivity may be inferred from outside of the body.
Among the most commonly used positron-emitting nuclides in PET are included 11C, 13N, 15O, and 18F. Isotopes that decay by electron capture and/or γ emission are used in SPECT, and include 123I and 99mTc.
Therapeutic/Prophylactic Treatment Methods
Agents that modulate activity of TBT genes or proteins provide a point of therapeutic or prophylactic intervention, particularly agents that inhibit or upregulate activity of the polypeptide, or expression of the gene. Numerous agents are useful in modulating this activity, including agents that directly modulate expression, e.g. expression vectors, antisense specific for the targeted polypeptide; and agents that act on the protein, e.g. specific antibodies and analogs thereof, small organic molecules that block catalytic activity, etc.
Methods can be designed to selectively deliver nucleic acids to certain cells. Examples of such cells include, neurons, microglia, astrocytes, endothelial cells, oligodendrocytes, etc. Certain treatment methods are designed to selectively express an expression vector to neuron cells and/or target the nucleic acid for delivery to CNS derived cells. One technique for achieving selective expression in nerve cells is to operably link the coding sequence to a promoter that is primarily active in nerve cells. Examples of such promoters include, but are not limited to, prion protein promoter, calcium-calmodulin dependent protein kinase promoter. Alternatively, or in addition, the nucleic acid can be administered with an agent that targets the nucleic acid to CNS derived cells. For instance, the nucleic acid can be administered with an antibody that specifically binds to a cell-surface antigen on the nerve cells or a ligand for a receptor on neuronal cells.
When liposomes are utilized, substrates that bind to a cell-surface membrane protein associated with endocytosis can be attached to the liposome to target the liposome to nerve cells and to facilitate uptake. Examples of proteins that can be attached include capsid proteins or fragments thereof that bind to nerve cells, antibodies that specifically bind to cell-surface proteins on nerve cells that undergo internalization in cycling and proteins that target intracellular localizations within CNS derived cells, (see, e.g., Wu et al. (1987) J. Biol. Chem. 262:4429–4432; and Wagner, et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:3410–3414). Gene marking and gene therapy protocols are reviewed by Anderson et al. (1992) Science 256:808–813. Various other delivery options can also be utilized. For instance, a nucleic acid containing a sequence of interest can be injected directly into the cerebrospinal fluid. Alternatively, such nucleic acids can be administered by intraventricular injections.
Antisense molecules can be used to down-regulate expression in cells. The antisense reagent may be antisense oligonucleotides (ODN), particularly synthetic ODN having chemical modifications from native nucleic acids, or nucleic acid constructs that express such antisense molecules as RNA. The antisense sequence is complementary to the mRNA of the targeted gene, and inhibits expression of the targeted gene products. Antisense molecules inhibit gene expression through various mechanisms, e.g. by reducing the amount of mRNA available for translation, through activation of RNAse H, or steric hindrance. One or a combination of antisense molecules may be administered, where a combination may comprise multiple different sequences.
Antisense molecules may be produced by expression of all or a part of the target gene sequence in an appropriate vector, where the transcriptional initiation is oriented such that an antisense strand is produced as an RNA molecule. Alternatively, the antisense molecule is a synthetic oligonucleotide. Antisense oligonucleotides will generally be at least about 7, usually at least about 12, more usually at least about 20 nucleotides in length, and not more than about 500, usually not more than about 50, more usually not more than about 35 nucleotides in length, where the length is governed by efficiency of inhibition, specificity, including absence of cross-reactivity, and the like. It has been found that short oligonucleotides, of from 7 to 8 bases in length, can be strong and selective inhibitors of gene expression (see Wagner et al. (1996) Nature Biotechnology 14:840–844).
A specific region or regions of the endogenous sense strand mRNA sequence is chosen to be complemented by the antisense sequence. Selection of a specific sequence for the oligonucleotide may use an empirical method, where several candidate sequences are assayed for inhibition of expression of the target gene in vitro or in an animal model. A combination of sequences may also be used, where several regions of the mRNA sequence are selected for antisense complementation.
Antisense oligonucleotides may be chemically synthesized by methods known in the art (see Wagner et al. (1993) supra. and Milligan et al., supra.) Preferred oligonucleotides are chemically modified from the native phosphodiester structure, in order to increase their intracellular stability and binding affinity. A number of such modifications have been described in the literature, which alter the chemistry of the backbone, sugars or heterocyclic bases.
Among useful changes in the backbone chemistry are phosphorothioates; phosphorodithioates, where both of the non-bridging oxygens are substituted with sulfur; phosphoroamidites; alkyl phosphotriesters and boranophosphates. Achiral phosphate derivatives include 3′-O′-5′-S-phosphorothioate, 3′-S-5′-O-phosphorothioate, 3′-CH2-5′-O-phosphonate and 3′-NH-5′-O-phosphoroamidate. Peptide nucleic acids replace the entire ribose phosphodiester backbone with a peptide linkage. Sugar modifications are also used to enhance stability and affinity. The alpha.-anomer of deoxyribose may be used, where the base is inverted with respect to the natural .beta.-anomer. The 2′-OH of the ribose sugar may be altered to form 2′-O-methyl or 2′-O-allyl sugars, which provides resistance to degradation without comprising affinity. Modification of the heterocyclic bases must maintain proper base pairing. Some useful substitutions include deoxyuridine for deoxythymidine; 5-methyl-2′-deoxycytidine and 5-bromo-2′-deoxycytidine for deoxycytidine. 5-propynyl-2′-deoxyuridine and 5-propynyl-2′-deoxycytidine have been shown to increase affinity and biological activity when substituted for deoxythymidine and deoxycytidine, respectively.
Compound Screening
Compound screening may be performed using an in vitro model, a genetically altered cell or animal, or purified protein corresponding to any one of the provided TBT genes. One can identify ligands or substrates that bind to, modulate or mimic the action of the encoded polypeptide.
The polypeptides include those encoded by TBT genes, as well as nucleic acids that, by virtue of the degeneracy of the genetic code, are not identical in sequence to the disclosed nucleic acids, and variants thereof. Variant polypeptides can include amino acid (aa) substitutions, additions or deletions. The amino acid substitutions can be conservative amino acid substitutions or substitutions to eliminate non-essential amino acids, such as to alter a glycosylation site, a phosphorylation site or an acetylation site, or to minimize misfolding by substitution or deletion of one or more cysteine residues that are not necessary for function. Variants can be designed so as to retain or have enhanced biological activity of a particular region of the protein (e.g., a functional domain and/or, where the polypeptide is a member of a protein family, a region associated with a consensus sequence). Variants also include fragments of the polypeptides disclosed herein, particularly biologically active fragments and/or fragments corresponding to functional domains. Fragments of interest will typically be at least about 10 aa to at least about 15 aa in length, usually at least about 50 aa in length, and can be as long as 300 aa in length or longer, but will usually not exceed about 500 aa in length, where the fragment will have a contiguous stretch of amino acids that is identical to a polypeptide encoded by brain tumor associated genes, or a homolog thereof.
Transgenic animals or cells derived therefrom are also used in compound screening. Transgenic animals may be made through homologous recombination, where the normal locus corresponding to a TBT gene is altered. Alternatively, a nucleic acid construct is randomly integrated into the genome. Vectors for stable integration include plasmids, retroviruses and other animal viruses, YACs, and the like. A series of small deletions and/or substitutions may be made in the coding sequence to determine the role of different exons in enzymatic activity, oncogenesis, signal transduction, etc. Specific constructs of interest include antisense sequences that block expression of the targeted gene and expression of dominant negative mutations. A detectable marker, such as lac Z may be introduced into the locus of interest, where up-regulation of expression will result in an easily detected change in phenotype. One may also provide for expression of the target gene or variants thereof in cells or tissues where it is not normally expressed or at abnormal times of development. By providing expression of the target protein in cells in which it is not normally produced, one can induce changes in cell behavior.
Compound screening identifies agents that modulate function of the TBT polypeptides. Of particular interest are screening assays for agents that have a low toxicity for human cells. A wide variety of assays may be used for this purpose. Knowledge of the 3-dimensional structure of the encoded protein, derived from crystallization of purified recombinant protein, could lead to the rational design of small drugs that specifically inhibit activity. These drugs may be directed at specific domains.
Two commonly used markers of GPCR activation are intracellular calcium and cAMP. This method can also be used for the identification of functional agonists and antagonists for G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). FLIPR (Fluorometric Imaging Plate Reader Molecular Devices Corp) is used to monitor intracellular calcium mobilization. In order to monitor orphan GPCR activity orphan GPCR targets are force coupled to chimeric G-proteins. This enables the measurement of orphan GPCR's that stimulate either the Gq or Gs pathways to be probed in a single well. First, excitation of the Gq-PLC pathway resulting in calcium mobilization is measured in an intact cell utilizing a FLIPR instrument. Subsequently Gs-activation is monitored by lysing the cells and measuring the levels of cAMP using an HTRF method. This type of dual readout reduces reagent costs and compound consumption during ligand fishing screens.
The effect of an agent on an invasion assay may be monitored, for example, to provide a measure of the cells ability to move through a matrix like matrigel in response to a chemoattractant, e.g. 5% fetal bovine serum, etc. Percent Invasion is determined by the number of cells invading through matrigel coated FluoroBlok membrane divided by the number of cells invading through uncoated Fluorblok membrane.
A number of in vitro and in vivo bioassays have been developed to mimic the complex process of angiogenesis. Among these, two assays in particular have been widely used to screen specifically for angiogenic regulatory factors, each mimicking an aspect of angiogenesis; namely, endothelial cell proliferation and migration. The proliferation assay uses cultured capillary endothelial cells and measures either increased cell number or the incorporation of radiolabeled or modified nucleosides to detect cells in S phase. In contrast, the chemotaxis assay separates endothelial cells and a test solution by a porous membrane disc (a Boyden Chamber), such that migration of endothelial cells across the barrier is indicative of a chemoattractant present in the test solution.
Rate of internalization can be measured by coupling a fluorescent tag to the protein for example using the Cellomics Array Scan HCS reader. Rate of association and dissociation can also be measured in a similar fashion. Receptor internalization can be measured by its accumulation in the recycling compartment, and the receptor's decrease in the recycling compartment.
The ability of an agent to affect apoptosis may be determined. Apoptosis can be defined as “gene-directed cellular self-destruction”. Cell death can occur by necrosis or apoptosis. There are many ways to measure apoptosis. For example, loss of cell viability, determined by failure to exclude vital dye, or uptake of MTT; DNA fragmentation, in situ tunnel labeling, cell and nuclear morphology, sub G1 peak FACS analysis, cysteine protease activation, inhibition of Bcl2 etc.
Gelatin zymography is a qualitative method to analyze enzymes involved in matrix degradation. It can be combined with fluorogenic substrate assays to demonstrate temporal changes in enzyme concentration and activity. The invasive property of a tumor may be accompanied by the elaboration of proteolytic enzymes, such as collagenases, that degrade matrix material and basement membrane material, to enable the tumor to expand beyond the confines of the particular tissue in which that tumor is located. Elaboration of such enzymes may be by endogenous synthesis within the tumor cells, or may be elicited from adjacent cells or by circulating neutrophils, in which cases the elicitation by the tumor results from chemical messengers elaborated by the tumor and expression of the enzymes occurs at the tumor site or proximal to the tumor.
The effect of an agent on signaling pathways may be determined using reporter assays that well known in the art. Binding by a ligand triggers activation of key cell signaling pathways, such as p21ras, MAP kinases, NF-kappaB and cdc42/rac implicated in tumors. The cis reporting system can be used to determine if the gene or protein of interest acts on speciifc enhancer elements while the trans-activator indicates if the gene or protein of interest directly or indirectly may be involved in the phosphorylation and activation of the transcription factor.
The term “agent” as used herein describes any molecule, e.g. protein or pharmaceutical, with the capability of altering or mimicking the physiological function of a TBT polypeptide. Generally a plurality of assay mixtures are run in parallel with different agent concentrations to obtain a differential response to the various concentrations. Typically one of these concentrations serves as a negative control, i.e. at zero concentration or below the level of detection.
Candidate agents encompass numerous chemical classes, though typically they are organic molecules, preferably small organic compounds having a molecular weight of more than 50 and less than about 2,500 daltons. Candidate agents comprise functional groups necessary for structural interaction with proteins, particularly hydrogen bonding, and typically include at least an amine, carbonyl, hydroxyl or carboxyl group, preferably at least two of the functional chemical groups. The candidate agents often comprise cyclical carbon or heterocyclic structures and/or aromatic or polyaromatic structures substituted with one or more of the above functional groups. Candidate agents are also found among biomolecules including peptides, saccharides, fatty acids, steroids, purines, pyrimidines, derivatives, structural analogs or combinations thereof.
Candidate agents are obtained from a wide variety of sources including libraries of synthetic or natural compounds. For example, numerous means are available for random and directed synthesis of a wide variety of organic compounds and biomolecules, including expression of randomized oligonucleotides and oligopeptides. Alternatively, libraries of natural compounds in the form of bacterial, fungal, plant and animal extracts are available or readily produced. Additionally, natural or synthetically produced libraries and compounds are readily modified through conventional chemical, physical and biochemical means, and may be used to produce combinatorial libraries. Known pharmacological agents may be subjected to directed or random chemical modifications, such as acylation, alkylation, esterification, amidification, etc. to produce structural analogs. Test agents can be obtained from libraries, such as natural product libraries or combinatorial libraries, for example. A number of different types of combinatorial libraries and methods for preparing such libraries have been described, including for example, PCT publications WO 93/06121, WO 95/12608, WO 95/35503, WO 94/08051 and WO 95/30642, each of which is incorporated herein by reference.
Where the screening assay is a binding assay, one or more of the molecules may be joined to a label, where the label can directly or indirectly provide a detectable signal. Various labels include radioisotopes, fluorescers, chemiluminescers, enzymes, specific binding molecules, particles, e.g. magnetic particles, and the like. Specific binding molecules include pairs, such as biotin and streptavidin, digoxin and antidigoxin, etc. For the specific binding members, the complementary member would normally be labeled with a molecule that provides for detection, in accordance with known procedures.
A variety of other reagents may be included in the screening assay. These include reagents like salts, neutral proteins, e.g. albumin, detergents, etc that are used to facilitate optimal protein—protein binding and/or reduce non-specific or background interactions. Reagents that improve the efficiency of the assay, such as protease inhibitors, nuclease inhibitors, anti-microbial agents, etc. may be used. The mixture of components are added in any order that provides for the requisite binding. Incubations are performed at any suitable temperature, typically between 4 and 40° C. Incubation periods are selected for optimum activity, but may also be optimized to facilitate rapid high-throughput screening. Typically between 0.1 and 1 hours will be sufficient.
Preliminary screens can be conducted by screening for compounds capable of binding to a TBT polypeptide, as at least some of the compounds so identified are likely inhibitors. The binding assays usually involve contacting a TBT polypeptide with one or more test compounds and allowing sufficient time for the protein and test compounds to form a binding complex. Any binding complexes formed can be detected using any of a number of established analytical techniques. Protein binding assays include, but are not limited to, methods that measure co-precipitation, co-migration on non-denaturing SDS-polyacrylamide gels, and co-migration on Western blots (see, e.g., Bennet, J. P. and Yamamura, H. I. (1985) “Neurotransmitter, Hormone or Drug Receptor Binding Methods,” in Neurotransmitter Receptor Binding (Yamamura, H. I., et al., eds.), pp. 61–89.
Certain screening methods involve screening for a compound that modulates the expression of a TBT gene. Such methods generally involve conducting cell-based assays in which test compounds are contacted with one or more cells expressing a TBT gene and then detecting and an increase in expression. Some assays are performed with tumor cells that express endogenous TBT genes. Other expression assays are conducted with non-neuronal cells that express an exogenous TBT gene.
The level of expression or activity can be compared to a baseline value. As indicated above, the baseline value can be a value for a control sample or a statistical value that is representative of expression levels for a control population. Expression levels can also be determined for cells that do not express TBT gene, as a negative control. Such cells generally are otherwise substantially genetically the same as the test cells. Various controls can be conducted to ensure that an observed activity is authentic including running parallel reactions with cells that lack the reporter construct or by not contacting a cell harboring the reporter construct with test compound. Compounds can also be further validated as described below.
Compounds that are initially identified by any of the foregoing screening methods can be further tested to validate the apparent activity. The basic format of such methods involves administering a lead compound identified during an initial screen to an animal that serves as a model for humans and then determining if TBT gene is in fact upregulated. The animal models utilized in validation studies generally are mammals. Specific examples of suitable animals include, but are not limited to, primates, mice, and rats.
Active test agents identified by the screening methods described herein that inhibit TBT polypeptide activity and/or tumor growth can serve as lead compounds for the synthesis of analog compounds. Typically, the analog compounds are synthesized to have an electronic configuration and a molecular conformation similar to that of the lead compound. Identification of analog compounds can be performed through use of techniques such as self-consistent field (SCF) analysis, configuration interaction (CI) analysis, and normal mode dynamics analysis. Computer programs for implementing these techniques are available. See, e.g., Rein et al., (1989) Computer-Assisted Modeling of Receptor-Ligand Interactions (Alan Liss, New York).
Antibody Conjugates
The anti-TBT antibodies for use in the present invention may have utility without conjugation when the native activity of the brain tumor protein target is altered in the tumor cell. Such antibodies, which may be selected as described above, may be utilized without as a therapeutic agent. In another embodiment of the invention, TBT specific antibodies, which may or may not alter the activity of the target polypeptide, are conjugated to cytotoxic or imaging agents, which add functionality to the antibody.
The anti-TBT antibodies can be coupled or conjugated to one or more therapeutic cytotoxic or imaging moieties. As used herein, “cytotoxic moiety” is a moiety that inhibits cell growth or promotes cell death when proximate to or absorbed by the cell. Suitable cytotoxic moieties in this regard include radioactive isotopes (radionuclides), chemotoxic agents such as differentiation inducers and small chemotoxic drugs, toxin proteins, and derivatives thereof. “Imaging moiety” (I) is a moiety that can be utilized to increase contrast between a tumor and the surrounding healthy tissue in a visualization technique (e.g., radiography, positron-emission tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, direct or indirect visual inspection). Thus, suitable imaging moieties include radiography moieties (e.g. heavy metals and radiation emitting moieties), positron emitting moieties, magnetic resonance contrast moieties, and optically visible moieties (e.g., fluorescent or visible-spectrum dyes, visible particles, etc.). It will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill that some overlap exists between therapeutic and imaging moieties. For instance 212Pb and 212Bi are both useful radioisotopes for therapeutic compositions, but are also electron-dense, and thus provide contrast for X-ray radiographic imaging techniques, and can also be utilized in scintillation imaging techniques.
In general, therapeutic or imaging agents may be conjugated to the anti-TBT moiety by any suitable technique, with appropriate consideration of the need for pharmokinetic stability and reduced overall toxicity to the patient. A therapeutic agent may be coupled to a suitable antibody moiety either directly or indirectly (e.g. via a linker group). A direct reaction between an agent and an antibody is possible when each possesses a functional group capable of reacting with the other. For example, a nucleophilic group, such as an amino or sulfhydryl group, may be capable of reacting with a carbonyl-containing group, such as an anhydride or an acid halide, or with an alkyl group containing a good leaving group (e.g., a halide). Alternatively, a suitable chemical linker group may be used. A linker group can function as a spacer to distance an antibody from an agent in order to avoid interference with binding capabilities. A linker group can also serve to increase the chemical reactivity of a substituent on a moiety or an antibody, and thus increase the coupling efficiency. An increase in chemical reactivity may also facilitate the use of moieties, or functional groups on moieties, which otherwise would not be possible.
Suitable linkage chemistries include maleimidyl linkers and alkyl halide linkers (which react with a sulfhydryl on the antibody moiety) and succinimidyl linkers (which react with a primary amine on the antibody moiety). Several primary amine and sulfhydryl groups are present on immunoglobulins, and additional groups may be designed into recombinant immunoglobulin molecules. It will be evident to those skilled in the art that a variety of bifunctional or polyfunctional reagents, both homo- and hetero-functional (such as those described in the catalog of the Pierce Chemical Co., Rockford, Ill.), may be employed as a linker group. Coupling may be effected, for example, through amino groups, carboxyl groups, sulfhydryl groups or oxidized carbohydrate residues. There are numerous references describing such methodology, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,671,958. As an alternative coupling method, cytotoxic or imaging moieties may be coupled to the anti-TBT antibody moiety through a an oxidized carbohydrate group at a glycosylation site, as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,057,313 and 5,156,840. Yet another alternative method of coupling the antibody moiety to the cytotoxic or imaging moiety is by the use of a non-covalent binding pair, such as streptavidin/biotin, or avidin/biotin. In these embodiments, one member of the pair is covalently coupled to the antibody moiety and the other member of the binding pair is covalently coupled to the cytotoxic or imaging moiety.
Where a cytotoxic moiety is more potent when free from the antibody portion of the immunoconjugates of the present invention, it may be desirable to use a linker group that is cleavable during or upon internalization into a cell, or which is gradually cleavable over time in the extracellular environment. A number of different cleavable linker groups have been described. The mechanisms for the intracellular release of a cytotoxic moiety agent from these linker groups include cleavage by reduction of a disulfide bond (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,489,710), by irradiation of a photolabile bond (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,625,014), by hydrolysis of derivatized amino acid side chains (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,638,045), by serum complement-mediated hydrolysis (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,671,958), and acid-catalyzed hydrolysis (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,569,789).
Two or more cytotoxic and/or imaging moieties may be conjugated to an antibody, where the conjugated moieties are the same or different. By poly-derivatizing the anti-TBT antibody, several cytotoxic strategies can be simultaneously implemented; an antibody may be made useful as a contrasting agent for several visualization techniques; or a therapeutic antibody may be labeled for tracking by a visualization technique. Immunoconjugates with more than one moiety may be prepared in a variety of ways. For example, more than one moiety may be coupled directly to an antibody molecule, or linkers which provide multiple sites for attachment (e.g., dendrimers) can be used. Alternatively, a carrier with the capacity to hold more than one cytotoxic or imaging moiety can be used.
A carrier may bear the cytotoxic or imaging moiety in a variety of ways, including covalent bonding either directly or via a linker group, and non-covalent associations. Suitable covalent-bond carriers include proteins such as albumins (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,507,234), peptides, and polysaccharides such as aminodextran (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,699,784), each of which have multiple sites for the attachment of moieties. A carrier may also bear an agent by non-covalent associations, such as non-covalent bonding or by encapsulation, such as within a liposome vesicle (e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,429,008 and 4,873,088). Encapsulation carriers are especially useful for imaging moiety conjugation to anti-TBT antibody moieties for use in the invention, as a sufficient amount of the imaging moiety (dye, magnetic resonance contrast reagent, etc.) for detection may be more easily associated with the antibody moiety. In addition, encapsulation carriers are also useful in chemotoxic therapeutic embodiments, as they can allow the therapeutic compositions to gradually release a chemotoxic moiety over time while concentrating it in the vicinity of the tumor cells:
Carriers and linkers specific for radionuclide agents (both for use as cytotoxic moieties or positron-emission imaging moieties) include radiohalogenated small molecules and chelating compounds. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,735,792 discloses representative radiohalogenated small molecules and their synthesis. A radionuclide chelate may be formed from chelating compounds that include those containing nitrogen and sulfur atoms as the donor atoms for binding the metal, or metal oxide, radionuclide. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,673,562, to Davison et al. discloses representative chelating compounds and their synthesis. Such chelation carriers are also useful for magnetic spin contrast ions for use in magnetic resonance imaging tumor visualization methods, and for the chelation of heavy metal ions for use in radiographic visualization methods.
Preferred radionuclides for use as cytotoxic moieties are radionuclides that are suitable for pharmacological administration. Such radionuclides include 123I, 125I, 131I, 90Y, 211At, 67Cu, 186Re, 188Re, 212Pb, and 212Bi. Iodine and astatine isotopes are more preferred radionuclides for use in the therapeutic compositions of the present invention, as a large body of literature has been accumulated regarding their use. 131I is particularly preferred, as are other β-radiation emitting nuclides, which have an effective range of several millimeters. 123I, 125I, 131I, or 211At may be conjugated to antibody moieties for use in the compositions and methods utilizing any of several known conjugation reagents, including Iodogen, N-succinimidyl 3-[211At]astatobenzoate, N-succinimidyl 3-[131I]iodobenzoate (SIB), and, N-succinimidyl 5-[131]iodob-3-pyridinecarboxylate (SIPC). Any iodine isotope may be utilized in the recited iodo-reagents. Radionuclides can be conjugated to anti-TBT antibody moieties by suitable chelation agents known to those of skill in the nuclear medicine arts.
Preferred chemotoxic agents include small-molecule drugs such as carboplatin, cisplatin, vincristine, taxanes such as paclitaxel and doceltaxel, hydroxyurea, gemcitabine, vinorelbine, irinotecan, tirapazamine, matrilysin, methotrexate, pyrimidine and purine analogs, and other suitable small toxins known in the art. Preferred chemotoxin differentiation inducers include phorbol esters and butyric acid. Chemotoxic moieties may be directly conjugated to the anti-TBT antibody moiety via a chemical linker, or may encapsulated in a carrier, which is in turn coupled to the anti-TBT antibody moiety.
Chemotherapy is helpful in controlling high-grade gliomas. A common combination of chemotherapeutics is “PCV”, which refers to the three drugs: Procarbazine, CCNU, and Vincristine. Temozolomide (Temodar) is approved by the FDA for treatment of anaplastic astrocytoma, and this drug is now widely used for high-grade gliomas. Neupogen may be administered to patients whose white blood counts fall to very low levels after chemotherapy.
Preferred toxin proteins for use as cytotoxic moieties include ricins A and B, abrin, diphtheria toxin, bryodin 1 and 2, momordin, trichokirin, cholera toxin, gelonin, Pseudomonas exotoxin, Shigella toxin, pokeweed antiviral protein, and other toxin proteins known in the medicinal biochemistry arts. The nontoxic ricin B chain is the moiety that binds to cells while the A chain is the toxic portion that inactivates protein synthesis—but only after delivery to the cytoplasm by the disulfide-linked B chain which binds to galactose-terminal membrane proteins. Abrin, diphtheria toxin, and Pseudomonas exotoxins all have similar 2-chain components; with one chain mediating cell membrane binding and entry and the toxic enzymatic A chain. Cholera has a pentameric binding subunit coupled to the toxic A chain. As these toxin agents may elicit undesirable immune responses in the patient, especially if injected intravascularly, it is preferred that they be encapsulated in a carrier for coupling to the anti-TBT antibody moiety.
Preferred radiographic moieties for use as imaging moieties in the present invention include compounds and chelates with relatively large atoms, such as gold, iridium, technetium, barium, thallium, iodine, and their isotopes. It is preferred that less toxic radiographic imaging moieties, such as iodine or iodine isotopes, be utilized in the compositions and methods of the invention. Examples of such compositions which may be utilized for x-ray radiography are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,709,846, incorporated fully herein by reference. Such moieties may be conjugated to the anti-TBT antibody moiety through an acceptable chemical linker or chelation carrier. In addition, radionuclides which emit radiation capable of penetrating the scull may be useful for scintillation imaging techniques. Suitable radionuclides for conjugation include 99Tc, 111In, and 67Ga. Positron emitting moieties for use in the present invention include 18F, which can be easily conjugated by a fluorination reaction with the anti-TBT antibody moiety according to the method described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,187,284.
Preferred magnetic resonance contrast moieties include chelates of chromium(III), manganese(II), iron(II), nickel(II), copper(II), praseodymium(III), neodymium(III), samarium(III) and ytterbium(III) ion. Because of their very strong magnetic moment, the gadolinium(II), terbium(III), dysprosium(III), holmium(III), erbium(III), and iron(III) ions are especially preferred. Examples of such chelates, suitable for magnetic resonance spin imaging, are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,733,522, incorporated fully herein by reference. Nuclear spin contrast chelates may be conjugated to the anti-TBT antibody moieties through a suitable chemical linker.
Optically visible moieties for use as imaging moieties include fluorescent dyes, or visible-spectrum dyes, visible particles, and other visible labeling moieties. Fluorescent dyes such as ALEXA dyes, fluorescein, coumarin, rhodamine, bodipy Texas red, and cyanine dyes, are useful when sufficient excitation energy can be provided to the site to be inspected visually. Endoscopic visualization procedures may be more compatible with the use of such labels. For many procedures where imaging agents are useful, such as during an operation to resect a brain tumor, visible spectrum dyes are preferred. Acceptable dyes include FDA-approved food dyes and colors, which are non-toxic, although pharmaceutically acceptable dyes which have been approved for internal administration are preferred. In preferred embodiments, such dyes are encapsulated in carrier moieties, which are in turn conjugated to the anti-TBT antibody. Alternatively, visible particles, such as colloidal gold particles or latex particles, may be coupled to the anti-TBT antibody moiety via a suitable chemical linker.
Pharmaceutical Formulations
One strategy for drug delivery through the blood brain barrier (BBB) entails disruption of the BBB, either by osmotic means such as mannitol or leukotrienes, or biochemically by the use of vasoactive substances such as bradykinin. The potential for using BBB opening to target specific agents to brain tumors is also an option. A BBB disrupting agent can be co-administered with the therapeutic or imaging compositions of the invention when the compositions are administered by intravascular injection. Other strategies to go through the BBB may entail the use of endogenous transport systems, including carrier-mediated transporters such as glucose and amino acid carriers, receptor-mediated transcytosis for insulin or transferrin, and active efflux transporters such as p-glycoprotein. Active transport moieties may also be conjugated to the therapeutic or imaging compounds for use in the invention to facilitate transport across the epithelial wall of the blood vessel. Alternatively, drug delivery behind the BBB is by intrathecal delivery of therapeutics or imaging agents directly to the cranium, as through an Ommaya reservoir.
Pharmaceutical compositions can include, depending on the formulation desired, pharmaceutically-acceptable, non-toxic carriers of diluents, which are defined as vehicles commonly used to formulate pharmaceutical compositions for animal or human administration. The diluent is selected so as not to affect the biological activity of the combination. Examples of such diluents are distilled water, buffered water, physiological saline, PBS, Ringer's solution, dextrose solution, and Hank's solution. In addition, the pharmaceutical composition or formulation can include other carriers, adjuvants, or non-toxic, nontherapeutic, nonimmunogenic stabilizers, excipients and the like. The compositions can also include additional substances to approximate physiological conditions, such as pH adjusting and buffering agents, toxicity adjusting agents, wetting agents and detergents.
The composition can also include any of a variety of stabilizing agents, such as an antioxidant for example. When the pharmaceutical composition includes a polypeptide, the polypeptide can be complexed with various well-known compounds that enhance the in vivo stability of the polypeptide, or otherwise enhance its pharmacological properties (e.g., increase the half-life of the polypeptide, reduce its toxicity, enhance solubility or uptake). Examples of such modifications or complexing agents include sulfate, gluconate, citrate and phosphate. The polypeptides of a composition can also be complexed with molecules that enhance their in vivo attributes. Such molecules include, for example, carbohydrates, polyamines, amino acids, other peptides, ions (e.g., sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese), and lipids.
Further guidance regarding formulations that are suitable for various types of administration can be found in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mace Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa., 17th ed. (1985). For a brief review of methods for drug delivery, see, Langer, Science 249:1527–1533 (1990).
The pharmaceutical compositions can be administered for prophylactic and/or therapeutic treatments. Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of the active ingredient can be determined according to standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures and/or experimental animals, including, for example, determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio LD50/ED50. Compounds that exhibit large therapeutic indices are preferred.
The data obtained from cell culture and/or animal studies can be used in formulating a range of dosages for humans. The dosage of the active ingredient typically lines within a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED50 with low toxicity. The dosage can vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized.
The pharmaceutical compositions described herein can be administered in a variety of different ways. Examples include administering a composition containing a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier via oral, intranasal, rectal, topical, intraperitoneal, intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, subdermal, transdermal, intrathecal, and intracranial methods.
For oral administration, the active ingredient can be administered in solid dosage forms, such as capsules, tablets, and powders, or in liquid dosage forms, such as elixirs, syrups, and suspensions. The active component(s) can be encapsulated in gelatin capsules together with inactive ingredients and powdered carriers, such as glucose, lactose, sucrose, mannitol, starch, cellulose or cellulose derivatives, magnesium stearate, stearic acid, sodium saccharin, talcum, magnesium carbonate. Examples of additional inactive ingredients that may be added to provide desirable color, taste, stability, buffering capacity, dispersion or other known desirable features are red iron oxide, silica gel, sodium lauryl sulfate, titanium dioxide, and edible white ink. Similar diluents can be used to make compressed tablets. Both tablets and capsules can be manufactured as sustained release products to provide for continuous release of medication over a period of hours. Compressed tablets can be sugar coated or film coated to mask any unpleasant taste and protect the tablet from the atmosphere, or enteric-coated for selective disintegration in the gastrointestinal tract. Liquid dosage forms for oral administration can contain coloring and flavoring to increase patient acceptance.
The active ingredient, alone or in combination with other suitable components, can be made into aerosol formulations (i.e., they can be “nebulized”) to be administered via inhalation. Aerosol formulations can be placed into pressurized acceptable propellants, such as dichlorodifluoromethane, propane, nitrogen.
Formulations suitable for parenteral administration, such as, for example, by intraarticular (in the joints), intravenous, intramuscular, intradermal, intraperitoneal, and subcutaneous routes, include aqueous and non-aqueous, isotonic sterile injection solutions, which can contain antioxidants, buffers, bacteriostats, and solutes that render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient, and aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions that can include suspending agents, solubilizers, thickening agents, stabilizers, and preservatives.
The components used to formulate the pharmaceutical compositions are preferably of high purity and are substantially free of potentially harmful contaminants (e.g., at least National Food (NF) grade, generally at least analytical grade, and more typically at least pharmaceutical grade). Moreover, compositions intended for in vivo use are usually sterile. To the extent that a given compound must be synthesized prior to use, the resulting product is typically substantially free of any potentially toxic agents, particularly any endotoxins, which may be present during the synthesis or purification process. Compositions for parental administration are also sterile, substantially isotonic and made under GMP conditions.
The compositions of the invention may be administered using any medically appropriate procedure, e.g., intravascular (intravenous, intraarterial, intracapillary) administration, injection into the cerebrospinal fluid, intracavity or direct injection in the tumor. Intrathecal administration maybe carried out through the use of an Ommaya reservoir, in accordance with known techniques. (F. Balis et al., Am J. Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. 11, 74, 76 (1989). For the imaging compositions of the invention, administration via intravascular injection is preferred for pre-operative visualization of the tumor. Post-operative visualization or visualization concurrent with an operation may be through intrathecal or intracavity administration, as through an Ommaya reservoir, or also by intravascular administration.
One method for administration of the therapeutic compositions of the invention is by deposition into the inner cavity of a cystic tumor by any suitable technique, such as by direct injection (aided by stereotaxic positioning of an injection syringe, if necessary) or by placing the tip of an Ommaya reservoir into a cavity, or cyst, for administration. Where the tumor is a solid tumor, the antibody may be administered by first creating a resection cavity in the location of the tumor. This procedure differs from an ordinary craniotomy and tumor resection only in a few minor respects. As tumor resection is a common treatment procedure, and is often indicated to relieve pressure, administration of the therapeutic compositions of the invention can be performed following tumor resection. Following gross total resection in a standard neurosurgical fashion, the cavity is preferable rinsed with saline until all bleeding is stopped by cauterization. Next the pia-arachnoid membrane, surrounding the tumor cavity at the surface, is cauterized to enhance the formation of fibroblastic reaction and scarring in the pia-arachnoid area. The result is the formation of an enclosed, fluid-filled cavity within the brain tissue at the location from where the tumor was removed. After the cyst has been formed, either the tip of an Ommaya reservoir or a micro catheter, which is connected to a pump device and allows the continues infusion of an antibody solution into the cavity, can be placed into the cavity. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,558,852, incorporated fully herein by reference.
Alternatively, a convection-enhanced delivery catheter may be implanted directly into the tumor mass, into a natural or surgically created cyst, or into the normal brain mass. Such convection-enhanced pharmaceutical composition delivery devices greatly improve the diffusion of the composition throughout the brain mass. The implanted catheters of these delivery devices utilize high-flow microinfusion (with flow rates in the range of about 0.5 to 15.0 μl/minute), rather than diffusive flow, to deliver the therapeutic or imaging composition to the brain and/or tumor mass. Such devices are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,720,720, incorporated fully herein by reference.
The effective amount of a therapeutic composition to be given to a particular patient will depend on a variety of factors, several of which will be different from patient to patient. A competent clinician will be able to determine an effective amount of a therapeutic agent to administer to a patient to retard the growth and promote the death of tumor cells, or an effective amount of an imaging composition to administer to a patient to facilitate the visualization of a tumor. Dosage of the antibody-conjugate will depend on the treatment of the tumor, route of administration, the nature of the therapeutics, sensitivity of the tumor to the therapeutics, etc. Utilizing LD50 animal data, and other information available for the conjugated cytotoxic or imaging moiety, a clinician can determine the maximum safe dose for an individual, depending on the route of administration. For instance, an intravenously administered dose may be more than an intrathecally administered dose, given the greater body of fluid into which the therapeutic composition is being administered. Similarly, compositions which are rapidly cleared from the body may be administered at higher doses, or in repeated doses, in order to maintain a therapeutic concentration. Imaging moieties are typically less toxic than cytotoxic moieties and may be administered in higher doses in some embodiments. Utilizing ordinary skill, the competent clinician will be able to optimize the dosage of a particular therapeutic or imaging composition in the course of routine clinical trials.
Typically the dosage will be 0.001 to 100 milligrams of conjugate per kilogram subject body weight. Doses in the range of 0.01 to 1 mg per kilogram of patient body weight may be utilized for a radionuclide therapeutic composition which is administered intrathecally. Relatively large doses, in the range of 0.1 to 10 mg per kilogram of patient body weight, may used for imaging conjugates with a relatively non-toxic imaging moiety. The amount utilized will depend on the sensitivity of the imaging method, and the relative toxicity of the imaging moiety. In a therapeutic example, for example where the therapeutic composition comprises a 131I cytotoxic moiety, the dosage to the patient will typically start at a lower range of 10 mCi, and go up to 100, 300 or even 500 mCi. Stated otherwise, where the therapeutic agent is 131I, the dosage to the patient will typically be from 5,000 Rads to 100,000 Rads (preferably at least 13,000 Rads, or even at least 50,000 Rads). Doses for other radionuclides are typically selected so that the tumoricidal dose will be equivalent to the foregoing range for 131I. Similarly, chemotoxic or toxin protein doses may be scaled accordingly.
The compositions can be administered to the subject in a series of more than one administration. For therapeutic compositions, regular periodic administration (e.g., every 2–3 days) will sometimes be required, or may be desirable to reduce toxicity. For therapeutic compositions which will be utilized in repeated-dose regimens, antibody moieties which do not provoke immune responses are preferred. The imaging antibody conjugate compositions may be administered at an appropriate time before the visualization technique. For example, administration within an hour before direct visual inspection may be appropriate, or administration within twelve hours before an MRI scan may be appropriate. Care should be taken, however, to not allow too much time to pass between administration and visualization, as the imaging compound may eventually be cleared from the patient's system.
In addition to the use of imaging antibody conjugates for simple visualization, these compositions may be utilized as a “dry run” for more toxic cytotoxic antibody conjugates. If the same antibody moiety is utilized for the imaging conjugate as for the therapeutic conjugate, the physician may first use a visualization technique to determine precisely where in the brain the cytotoxic conjugate will concentrate. If a sufficient degree of tissue selectivity is not achieved (e.g., if the tumor cells are too disperse in the normal tissue, or if the particular brain tumor protein target chosen is not sufficiently overexpressed in the particular patient's tumor cells), then the physician may choose another brain tumor protein target. The provision of numerous brain tumor protein targets by the present invention, along with both imaging and therapeutic agents, allows a high degree of flexibility in designing an effective treatment regimen for the individual patient.
Combination Therapies
Brain tumors tend to be heterogeneous in character, and pervasive throughout the brain tissue. This combination often makes them difficult to treat. In some cases, it may be preferred to use various combinations of therapeutic or imaging agents, in order to more fully target all of the cells exhibiting tumorigenic characteristics. Such combination treatments may be by administering blended antibody therapeutic or imaging compositions, individually prepared as described above, and administering the blended therapeutic to the patient as described. The skilled administering physician will be able to take such factors as combined toxicity, and individual agent efficacy, into account when administering such combined agents. Additionally, those of skill in the art will be able to screen for potential cross-reaction with each other, in order to assure full efficacy of each agent.
Alternatively, several individual brain tumor protein target compositions may be administered simultaneously or in succession for a combined therapy. This may be desirable to avoid accumulated toxicity from several antibody conjugate reagents, or to more closely monitor potential adverse reactions to the individual antibody reagents. Thus, cycles such as where a first antibody therapeutic agent is administered on day one, followed by a second on day two, then a period with out administration, followed by re-administration of the antibody therapeutics on different successive days, is comprehended within the present invention.
Cancer Vaccines
The proteins identified in this invention can be used to elicit an immune response in an autologous, allogeneic and xenogeneic host. For example where a tumor cell specifically expresses the protein, or over-expresses the protein relative to normal cells, a cytolytic immune response may be induced, where the tumor cell is preferentially killed. The antigen for such purposes may be from the same or a different species. As used herein, the term antigen is intended to refer to a molecule capable of eliciting an immune response in a mammalian host, which may be a humoral immune response, i.e. characterized by the production of antigen-specific antibodies, or a cytotoxic immune response, i.e. characterized by the production of antigen specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes.
The portion of the antigen bound by the antibody or T cell receptor is referred to as an epitope. Antigens, particular complex antigens such as polypeptides, usually comprise multiple epitopes. Where the antigen is a protein, linear epitopes range from about 5 to 20 amino acids in length. Antibodies and T cell receptor may also recognize conformational determinants formed by non-contiguous residues on an antigen, and an epitope can therefore require a larger fragment of the antigen to be present for binding, e.g. a protein domain, or substantially all of a protein sequence. It will therefore be appreciated that a therapeutic protein, which may be several hundred amino acids in length, can comprise a number of distinct epitopes.
Several methods exist which can be used to induce an immune response against weakly antigenic protein, i.e. autologous proteins, etc. The immunogen is usually delivered in vivo to elicit a response, but in some cases it is advantageous to prime antigen presenting cells, e.g. dendritic cells, ex vivo prior to introducing them into the host animal.
In order to produce an immune response, the protein may be made as a fusion protein or otherwise conjugated to another polypeptide, and may be chemically modified or mixed with an adjuvant.
Examples of conjugates, which may utilize peptide linkage or other linkage to joint the molecules, include, for example KLH, pre-S HbsAg or cytokines or chemokines such as, for example interferon inducible protein 10 (IP-10), monocyte chemotactic protein 3 (MCP-3), interleukin-1, -2 and -8, granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), etc, or may be chemically modified. Examples of suitable fusion chemokines and methods for antigen preparation and immunization are provided in Biragyn et al (Immunol Rev (1990) 170:115–126); Biragyn et al (Nature Biotechnology (1999) 17:253–258 and Tao et al Nature (1993) 362:755–695).
The polypeptide antigens may be mixed with an adjuvant that will augment specific immune reponses to the antigen. Many different types of adjuvants are known in the art and may include e.g. alum, stearyl tyrosine, saponin, monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL-A), muramyl tripeptide phosphatidylethanolamine (MTP-PE) etc. Adjuvants may also contain cytokines, such as interleukin 1 (IL1), interleukin 2 (IL2) other interleukins, TNFα, and γ-interferon, granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor, tumor necrosis factor etc. Adjuvants may also contain other moieties such as cholera toxin B subunit, whole cell killed mycobacteria, Bordetella pertussis components, diptheria toxins and the like. Vaccine antigens may be presented using microspheres, liposomes, may be produced using an immunostimulating complex (ISCOM), as is known in the art.
Where an ex vivo antigen loading step is included, dendritic cells are isolated from an individual, using known methods, and incubated with the peptide antigen, preferably fused to a cytokine such as GM-CSF. The dendritic cell preparation may then be fractionated and administered to the host by intravenous or central injection according to established procedures (e.g., infusion over 30 to 60 minutes). The responsiveness of the subject to this treatment may measured by monitoring the induction of a cytolytic T-cell response, a helper T-cell response and antibody response towards the antigen in peripheral blood mononuclear cells by methods well known in the art. The disclosures of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,851,756, 6,080,409, 5,994,126 and 5, 972,334 are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.
EXPERIMENTAL
The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how to make and use the present invention, and are not intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as their invention nor are they intended to represent that the experiments below are all or the only experiments performed. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers used (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.) but some experimental errors and deviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, molecular weight is weight average molecular weight, temperature is in degrees Centigrade, and pressure is at or near atmospheric.
All publications and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent application were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.
The present invention has been described in terms of particular embodiments found or proposed by the present inventor to comprise preferred modes for the practice of the invention. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that, in light of the present disclosure, numerous modifications and changes can be made in the particular embodiments exemplified without departing from the intended scope of the invention. For example, due to codon redundancy, changes can be made in the underlying DNA sequence without affecting the protein sequence. Moreover, due to biological functional equivalency considerations, changes can be made in protein structure without affecting the biological action in kind or amount. All such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the appended claims.
Example 1
Identification of Differentially Expressed Sequences
Brain Tumors: Tumor tissue, confirmed as glioblastoma grade IV by neuropathology, from an unknown patient was snap frozen in the operation hall and served as experimental sample. Human whole brain tissue (Clontech Laboratories, Palo Alto, USA) served as control sample. Poly-A+ RNA prepared from the cells was converted into double-stranded cDNA (dscDNA). Subtractive hybridization was carried out using the dscDNA from tumors with an excess of dscDNA prepared from the same region of a non-cancerous brain. Differentially expressed gene fragments were cloned into a plasmid vector, and the resulting library was transformed into E. Coli cells. Inserts of recombinant clones were amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The PCR products (fragments of 200–2000 bp in size) were sequenced using an oligonucleotide complementary to common vector sequences. The resulting sequence information was compared to public databases using the BLAST (blastn) and Smith Waterman algorithm. The differentially expressed sequences thus identified are listed in Table 1.
The foregoing is intended to be illustrative of the embodiments of the present invention, and are not intended to limit the invention in any way. Although the invention has been described with respect to specific modifications, the details thereof are not to be construed as limitations, for it will be apparent that various equivalents, changes and modifications may be resorted to without departing from the spirit and scope thereof and it is understood that such equivalent embodiments are to be included herein. All publications and patent applications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

## Claims

1. A method for the diagnosis or staging of a brain tumor, the method comprising:
determining the upregulation or downregulation of expression of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:8.

2. The method according to claim 1, wherein said brain tumor is an astrocytoma.

3. The method according to claim 2, wherein said astrocytoma is a glioblastoma.

4. The method according to claim 1, wherein said determining comprises detecting increased or decreased amounts of polypeptide in brain tumor cells.

5. A method of imaging a brain tumor, the method comprising:
administering to a patient an effective amount of a compound an antibody that specifically binds the polypeptide set forth in SEQ ID NO:8, wherein said compound antibody is conjugated to an imaging moiety; and
visualizing the imaging moiety of said conjugate.

6. The method of claim 5 wherein said antibody is administered by intrathecal administration.

7. The method of claim 5 wherein said antibody is administered by intravascular administration.

8. The method of claim 5 wherein the brain tumor is an astrocytoma.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein said astrocytoma is a glioblastoma.

10. The method of claim 5, wherein said imaging moiety is selected from the group consisting of a radiographic moiety, a positron-emitting moiety, an optically visible dye, an optically visible particle, and a magnetic spin contrast moiety.

11. A method to treat a brain tumor, the method comprising:
administering a therapeutic amount of an antibody that specifically binds a the polypeptide set forth in SEQ ID NO:8, wherein said antibody is conjugated to one or more cytotoxic moieties.

12. The method of claim 11 wherein said antibody is administered by intrathecal administration.

13. The method of claim 11 wherein said antibody is administered by intravascular administration.

14. The method of claim 11 wherein the brain tumor is an astrocytoma.

15. The method of claim 14, wherein said astrocytoma is a glioblastoma.

16. The method of claim 11, wherein said cytotoxic moiety is selected from the group consisting of a radioactive moiety, a chemotoxic moiety, and a toxin protein moiety.

17. A method for generating an immune response to a brain tumor, comprising:
(a) administering to a host an immunogenic composition comprising the polypeptide set forth in SEQ ID NO:8;
(b) monitoring the induction of an immune response.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein the host is suffering from a brain tumor.

19. The method of claim 17, wherein said administering step further comprises incubating isolated dendritic cells with the polypeptide.

20. A screening method for developing biologically active agents that inhibit or increase activity of a brain tumor protein target (TBT) gene or gene product, the method comprising:
combining a candidate biologically active agent with:
a polypeptide encoded by the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:8; and
determining the effect of said agent on brain tumor induced molecular and cellular changes.