REFERENCE COW 

Do Not Remove from the Librorv 

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

NQtinnnI WM Research Center 

Blologlcal Report 82(11.106) 700 Cajun Dome Boulevard TR EL-82.4 

August 1989 Lofoyette, Louisiana 70506 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and 

Environmental ~equirements of Coastal Fishes 

and Invertebrates (North Atlantic) 

RAINBOW SMELT 

Coastal Ecology Group 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 
Biological Report 82(11.106) 

TR EL-82-4 

August 1989 

Species Profi 1 es: Life Hi stories and Environmental Requirements 

of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (North Atlantic) 

RAINBOW SMELT 

Jack Buckley 

Massachusetts Cooperative Fishery Research Unit 

Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management 

University of Massachusetts 

Amherst, MA 01003 

Project Officer 

David Moran 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

National Wetlands Research Center 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Sl idel 1 , LA 70458 

Performed for 

Coastal Ecol ogy Group 

Waterways Experiment Station 

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 

and 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Fish and Wildlife Service 

Research and Development 

National Wet1 ands Research Center 

Washington, DC 20240 
This series may be referenced as follows: 

U. S. Fish and Wildl ife Service. 1983-19-. Species profiles: 1 ife historif 

and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates. U. S. Fi s 

Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4 

This profile may be cited as follows: 

Buckley, J. L. 1989. Species profiles: 1 ife histories and environment; 

requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (North At1 antic)--rai nbc 

smelt. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(11.106). U.S. Army Corps I 

Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 11 pp. 
PREFACE 

This species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms, 

principally fish, of sport, commercial, or ecological importance. The profiles 

are designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists with a brief 

comprehensive sketch of the biological characteristics and environmental 

requirements of the species and to describe how populations of the species may be 

expected to react to environmental changes caused by coastal development. Each 

profile has sections on taxonomy, 1 ife history, ecological role, environmental 

requirements, and economic importance, if applicable. A three-ring binder is 

used for this series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared. 

This project is jointly planned and financed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to one of 

the foll owing addresses. 

Information Transfer Specialist 

National Wetlands Research Center 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

NASA-Sl idel 1 Computer Complex 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Slidell, LA 70458 

U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station 

Attention: WESER-C 

Post Office Box 631 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 
CONVERSION TABLE 

Metric to U.S. Customary 

Multiply 

millimeters (mm) 

centimeters (cm) 

meters (m) 

meters (m) 

ki 1 ometers (km) 

kilometers (km) 

square meters (m2) 

square ki lometers (km2) 

hectares (ha) 

liters (1) 

cubic meters (m3) 

cubic meters (m3) 

mi 1 1 i grams (mg) 

grams (g) 

ki lograms (kg) 

metric tons (t) 

metric tons (t) 

kilocalories (kcal) 

Celsius degrees (OC) 

inches 

inches 

feet (ft) 

fathoms 

statute miles (mi) 

nautical miles (nmi) 

square feet (ft2) 

square miles (mi2) 

acres 

gal lons (gal ) 

cubic feet (ft3) 

acre- feet 

ounces (oz) 

ounces (oz) 

pounds (lb) 

pounds (lb) 

short tons (ton) 

British thermal units (Btu) 

Fahrenheit degrees (OF) 

U.S. Customary to Metric 

25.40 

2.54 

0.3048 

1.829 

1.609 

1.852 

To Obtain 

inches 

inches 

feet 

fathoms 

statute miles 

nautical miles 

square feet 

square miles 

acres 

gal 1 ons 

cubic feet 

acre- feet 

ounces 

ounces 

pounds 

pounds 

short tons 

British thermal units 

Fahrenheit degrees 

millimeters 

centimeters 

meters 

meters 

kilometers 

kilometers 

square meters 

square ki 1 ometers 

hectares 

1 i ters 

cubic meters 

cubic meters 

milligrams 

grams 

ki 1 ograms 

metric tons 

metric tons 

ki 1 ocal ories 

Celsius degrees 
CONTENTS 

PREFACE .............................................................. CONVERSION TABLE ..................................................... ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................... 

NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE .......................................... MORPHULOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS ....................................... REASONS FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES ...................................... LIFE HISTORY ......................................................... Spawning and Migration ............................................. Eggs ............................................................... Yolk-sac Larvae .................................................... Juvenile/Adult ..................................................... GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS ............................................... Growth Rate ........................................................ Length-Weight Relationships ........................................ THE FISHERY .......................................................... Sport and Commercial ............................................... Population Dynamics ................................................ ECOLOGICAL ROLE ...................................................... Food Habits and Feeding Behavior ................................... Predators .......................................................... ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS ........................................... Temperature ........................................................ Salinity ........................................................... Contaminants ....................................................... Disease and Parasites .............................................. 

Page 

iii 

i v 

v i 

1 

1 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

6 

6 

6 

6 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

LITERATURE CITED ..................................................... 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

I am grateful for the reviews by S.A. Murawski, National Marine Fisheries 

Service, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, and Robert Lawton, Massachusetts Division of 

Marine Fisheries, Sandwich. 
Figure 1. Rainbow smelt. (From Lee et al. 1980.) 

RAINBOW SMELT 

Scientific name.. ...... Osmerus mordax 

(Mitchill) 1815 

Preferred common name .... Rainbow smelt 

(Figure 1) 

Other common names ............... smelt, 

American smelt, 1 eef i shy freshwater 

smelt, frost fish (Scott and 

Crossman 1973) 

Class ..................... Osteichthyes 

Order .................... Salmoniformes 

Fami 1 y. ...................... Osmeri dae 

Geographic range: 

Rainbow smelt are distributed a1 ong 

the east coast of North America from 

eastern Labrador and the Gulf of St. 

Lawrence south to the Delaware River 

(Figure 2). Smelt occur naturally in 

lakes and ponds in New Hampshire, 

Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and 

Newfound1 and (Bigel ow and Schroeder 

1953). The range of smelt was greatly 

extended when they were introduced 

into the Great Lakes in the early 

1900's (Van Oosten 1937; Dymond 1944). 

The species is now abundant in all of 

the Great Lakes (Scott and Crossman 

1973). Smelt were first reported in 

the Mississippi drainage by Burr and 

Maydew (1980). 

MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS 

The following description of the 

rainbow smelt is compiled from Bigelow 

and Schroeder (1963) and Scott and 

Crossman (1973). 

The smelt's body is slender and 

elongated with a long, pointed head, 

1 arge mouth, protruding 1 ower jaw, 

maxi 11 ary extending to middle of eye, 

deeply forked tail, and a small but 

evident adipose fin. Cycloid scales 

number 62-72 in lateral series; the 

peritoneum is silver with dark 

speckles. Nuptial tubercles develop on 

the head, body, and fins of males. 

The color is transparent olive to pale 

green on the back; the sides are 

similar, each with a broad longitudi nal si 1 very band. When smelt are 

freshly caught, sides may have a 
0 Coastal distribution 

MILES 

KILOMETERS 

ATLANTIC OCEAN 

Figure 2. Distribution of rainbow smelt in the North Altantic Region. 
purple, blue, and pink iridescent 

reflection; the belly is silver. 

The taxonomic relationships among 

members of the genus Osmerus have been 

the subject of persistent controversy. 

Although there have been numerous 

efforts to c1ari.f~ the taxonomy, 

including a systematic revision by 

McAll ister (1963), the relationships 

remain obscure. A review of the 

controversy and present status is 

given by Scott and Crossman (1973). 

REASONS FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES 

The rainbow smelt is an abundant 

forage fish, preyed upon by many 

commercially and recreational ly 

valuable coastal marine species, such 

as striped bass, Morone sa'xatilis, and 

bluefish, Pomatomus sal tatrix (Smith 

and Wells 1977).1n the Great Lakes 

it is the prey of several species of 

salmon and trout (Scott and Crossman 

1973; Stewart et al. 1981). In 

addition, the species supports an 

important coastal and estuarine sportfishery throughout most of its range, 

particularly in the Great Lakes, New 

England, and eastern Canada. 

LIFE HISTORY 

Spawning and Migration 

Rainbow smelt are anadromous, 

spawning in freshwater and growing and 

maturing in estuaries and coastal 

waters. Natural ly occurring or 

introduced freshwater populations have 

similar migrations into streams for 

spawning, although successful shore 

spawning has been documented (Rupp 

1965). 

In coastal streams, most smelt spawn 

above the head of the tide. Spawners 

usually begin to move into spawning 

areas before the ice breakup (McKenzie 

1964). Spawni ng usual ly peaks with 

bimonthly spring tides (Clayton 

1976). Depending on location, peak 

spawning occurs in late March through 

late May (Clayton 1976). Along the 

east coast, smelt spawn at water 

temperatures of 4.0 to 9.0 OC (Clayton 

1976). An exception to this i s i n the 

Mi ramichi Estuary, New Brunswick, 

where McKenzie (,1964) reported early 

and late runs into the spawning area. 

Early spawning runs began when water 

temperature reached 10 OC and later 

spawning runs lasted until water 

temperature reached 15 OC. In some 

freshwater populations , spawning 

occurs at higher temperatures; Ji lek 

et al. (1979) reported reproduction 

in Lake Michigan at 10 and 18 OC. 

Typically, the substrate in the 

spawning area of coastal streams is 

gravel, with water depths at low tide 

of 0.1 to 1.3 m (Murawski et al. 

1980). According to Clayton (1976), 

spawning site selection is influenced 

largely by water velocity rather than 

depth or substrate. Sutter (1980) 

found a significant positive relationship between survival to the earlyeyed egg stage and increasing water 

velocity (up to 60-80 cm/s). Hu'lbert 

(1974) found the greatest number of 

eggs deposited in areas of highest 

velocity. 

The degree of genetic homogeneity 

within an estuary with multiple 

spawning streams appears to be related 

to distance between streams. A mark 

and recapture study by Murawski et al. 

(1980) showed that individual fish 

sometimes spawn in several streams in 

an estuary during the spawning period. 

Rupp (1968) found simi 1 ar "wanderi ng" 

of spawning fish between streams for a 

freshwater population in Maine. 

Frechet et al. (1983) used variations 

in meristics, growth, and fecundity to 

assess the degree of spatial integrity 

of smelt groups in rivers. They found 

that homing to spawning rivers is rare 

when distances between rivers within a 

geographic area such as an estuary are 

small. In contrast, studies in the 

Miramichi River found only occasional 
movement of spawning fish between 

streams (McKenzie 1964). Distance between streams used for spawning could 

be an important factor in assessing 

the effect of short-term environmental 

disturbances on smelt populations. 

In coastal waters, smelt spawn at 

night and most return to the estuary 

during the day, although some males 

may remain in the spawning area 

(McKenzie 1964; Clayton 1976). 

Usually several males attend one 

female during spawning (Langl oi s 1935; 

Clayton 1976). Smelt in the spawning 

runs are predominantly ma1 es, but sex 

ratios vary widely over the duration 

of the spawning run (Kendall 1927; 

Langlois 1935; Warfel et al. 1943; 

McKenzie 1964). The preponderance of 

males can be attributed to the longer 

spawning period for males (Murawski et 

al. 1980). Rupp (1968) reported that 

individual males may spawn on as many 

as 8 nights consecutively, whereas 

females may spawn only 3 to 4 nights. 

The age of new recruits in spawning 

runs shows clinal variation along the 

east coast, increasing with latitude. 

In the Parker River, Massachusetts, 

age I fish made up 26% of the spawning 

run (Murawski 1976), whereas age I 

spawners were scarce or absent in a 

more northerly population in Great 

Bay, New Hampshire (Warfel et al. 

1943). In the Miramichi River, all 

spawners were ages I1 (66%), I11 

(30%), or IV (4%) (McKenzie 1964). An 

introduced population in Lake Superior 

was not fully recruited into the 

spawning population until age I11 

(Bailey 1964). The attainment of 

maturity in smelt appears related to 

size; thus, fish in the more southerly 

populations with faster growth rates 

mature at an earlier age. 

Clayton (1976) reported fecundi ties 

of 7,000 to 44,000 eggs for fish from 

the Parker River, Massachusetts. For 

the Miramichi estuary in New 

Brunswick, McKenzie (1964) reported 

fecundities of 8,500 eggs for a fish 

of 12.7 cm TL and 69,600 eggs for 

a fish of 20.9 cm TL. Fertilized eggs 

are demersal , adhesive, and range in 

size from 1.0 to 1.2 mm (Crestin 1973; 

Cooper 1978). 

Water velocity, substrate type, and 

egg density appear to be important 

factors in egg survival. Sutter 

(1980) found a significant positive 

relationship between survival to the 

early-eyed stage and rate of flow from 

60 to 80 cm/s. Typically, eggs are 

deposited over gravel; mean survival 

rates reported have been 0.8%-1.8% 

(McKenzie 1964), 1.06% (Rupp 1965), 

0.55% (Rothschild 1961), and 1.0% 

(Sutter 1980). In contrast, Sutter 

(1980) observed a survival rate of 10% 

when eggs were deposited on aquatic 

vegetation. 

Hatching success has been shown to 

be related to egg density; McKenzie 

(1964) reported 3.6% hatching success 

at a density of 487 eggs/ft2. In 

Maine, maximum production of yo1 k-sac 

1 arvae was at 11,745 eggs/ft2 

(Rothschi 1 d 1961). Egg crowding resul ts from spawning fish encountering 

obstructions in their upstream 

migration. 

Incubation time for eggs was 29 days 

at 6 to 7 OC; 25 days at 7 to 8 OC; 19 

days at 9 to 10 OC; 11 days at 12.0 

OC, and 8 days at 16.5 OC (McKenzie 

1964; Cooper 1978). 

Major predators on smelt eggs are 

the common mummichog, (Fundul us 

heterocl i tus) and fourspine stickleback (Ape1 tes quadracus) (Sutter 

1980). 

Yo1 k-sac Larvae 

The larvae at the time of hatching 

are 5 to 6 mm long (McKenzie 1964; 

Clayton 1976; Cooper 1978). Yo1 k-sac 

larvae have been reported to be 

negatively phototactic (Rupp 1965). 

The yolk sac is absorbed when the 

larvae are about 7 mm long. After 
hatchi ng, the larvae drift downstream, 

where they are concentrated near the 

surface (McKenzie 1964; Cresti n 1973). 

As the larvae grow, they tend to congregate on the bottom in deeper areas 

(Clayton 1976). Using plankton nets, 

McKenzie (1964) took 90% of the larvae 

collected within 5 ft of the bottom. 

At night they moved near the surface, 

apparently to feed (McKenzie 1964). 

It has been postulated that larvae are 

maintained in an estuary by the twoway transport system (Rogers 1939). 

Juveni 1 e/Adul t 

As the smelt grow, they move into 

waters of increased salinity in the 

lower estuary or into nearshore 

coastal waters (Crestin 1973). Smelt 

begin to school when they are about 19 

mm long (Belyanina 1969), moving into 

shallow water at night and returning 

to deeper channels during the day. 

Young fish have also been observed in 

eelgrass (Zostera marina) beds 

(Cresti n 1973mthefall, as water 

temperatures drop, juveni 1 es move into 

the upper estuary, concentrating in 

channels, where they mix with adult 

smelt (McKenzie 1964; Clayton 1976). 

After spawning, adults return to 

saltwater to spend the summer in the 

estuary or in a narrow zone along the 

coast. Smelt have never been reported 

more than 2 km from shore or in water 

depths greater than 6 m (Bigelow and 

Schroeder 1953). In the fa1 1, adults 

return to the estuary where they overwinter before beginning their spring 

spawning run. 

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS 

Growth Rate 

Growth in length is greatest in the 

first year and decreases thereafter. 

After females reach maturity (at age 

I, 11, or 111, depending on location), 

they grow faster than males (Warfel 

et al. 1943; Bailey 1964; Murawski 

and Cole 1978). Smelt in marine 

populations usually grow faster than 

those in freshwater populations, and 

smelt in northern marine populations 

grow slower than those in more 

southerly populations. In the Parker 

River in Massachusetts, the mean total 

lengths (sexes combined) for smelt 

ages I through V were 141, 192, 213, 

240, 245 mm, respectively (Muraws ki 

1976). In Great Bay, New Hampshire, 

the mean total length for age I was 

86 mm; age 11, 145 mm; age 111, 171 

mm; and age IVY 245 mm (Warfel et al. 

1943). In the Miramichi River, New 

Brunswick, mean total lengths for ages 

11-V were 139, 165, 187, and 206 mm, 

respectively. 

For smelt in the Parker River, 

Massachusetts, Murawski and Cole 

(1978) gave the von Bertalanffy growth 

equation for the first year as: 

where TL = total length in mm and t = 

years. 

Length-weight Relationships 

Table 1 contains published equations 

for length-weight relationships for 

adults and juveni les. 

THE FISHERY 

Sport and Commercial 

Smelt support a hook-and-1 ine 

sportfishery in coastal waters and a 

dipnet sportfishery during the 

spawning run (Bigel ow and Schroeder 

1953). A small commercial fishery in 

eastern Canada and the Gulf of Maine 

uses trapnets (McKenzie 1964). In 

1976, the total smelt harvest in the 

coastal waters of New England was 

105,000 1b (U.S. Department of 

Commerce 1980). In 1976, commerci a1 

landings from U.S. waters of the Great 

Lakes totaled 23,580,000 lb (U.S. 

Department of Commerce 1980). 
Table 1. Equations for length-weight relationships for adult and juvenile 

rainbow smelt. 

Age group Location Equation Source 

Adults 

Lake Superior Log W = -2.57962+2.95233 log L Bailey 1964 

Gull Lake, MI Log W = -5.0952+2.9539 log L Burbi dge 1969 

Parker River, MA Log W = -6.0315+3.3592 1 og L Murawski and 

Cole 1978 

Juveni les 

Weweantic River, MA Log W = -2.73+3.51 log L Crestin 1973 

Population Dynamics 

Age I1 smelt are fully recruited 

into the fishery along the entire 

range of the species in the North 

Atlantic (McKenzie 1964; Murawski and 

Cole 1978). From Massachusetts 

southward, age I smelt are recruited 

into the spawning runs but none are 

taken by the fishery. Murawski and 

Cole (1978) attributed this to either 

habitat segregation of age groups or 

gear selectivity. 

In the Parker River, Massachusetts, 

the mortality of adults is about 72% 

and is apparently greater among males 

than females (Murawski and Cole 1978). 

This is probably because males spend 

more time on the spawning ground. 

Historical ly, decl ines in smelt 

abundance in Massachusetts have been 

linked to industrial pollution, blockage of spawning migration by dams, and 

possibly the loss of estuarine 

habitats such as eelgrass beds crucial 

to specific life stages (Bigelow and 

Schroeder 1953; Crestin 1973). 

ECOLOGICAL ROLE 

Food Habits and Feeding Behavior 

Larval and juvenile smelt in coastal 

waters feed on copepods and other 

planktonic crustaceans. Larger 

juveniles and adults feed on 

euphausiids, amphipods, polychaetes, 

and fish (Flagg 1972). Adults were 

reported to feed on small mummichogs, 

cunner, anchovies, sticklebacks, 

Atlantic silversides, and alewives 

(Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). 

In the Great Lakes, smelt larvae 

fed mainly on dipteran larvae, 

crustaceans, and fish (Gordon 1961; 

Burbidge 1969). In Lake Michigan, 

adults and juvenile smelt fed largely 

on Mysis in the winter and young-ofthe-year and year1 ing alewives in 

spring and summer; they began feeding 

actively at dusk and ceased by nightfall (Foltz and Norden 1977). 

Predators 

Smelt are the food of many 

predators. Larvae and juveniles are 

probably eaten by most estuarine 

pi sci vores. Adult smelt are preyed 

upon by bluefish, striped bass, harbor 

seals, and other large predators 

(Clayton et a1 . 1978). 

Since they were introduced into the 

Great Lakes, smelt have become a major 

forage fish (Argyle 1982) and the 

~rimarv food of the lake trout 

i~al veii nus namaycush) (Stewart et a1 . 1981). 
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 

Temperature 

In tests to assess the effects of 

acute thermal shock, rainbow smel t 

showed the lowest tolerance when 

tested in seawater (Barker et al. 

1981). A sharp increase in water 

temperature and i ncreased sal i ni ty 

might act synergistically to induce 

stress and mortality in larval smelt. 

Most of the local migrations of 

smelt in estuaries are searches for 

optimum water temperature (Bigelow and 

Schroeder 1953). Sudden decreases in 

water temperature can cause temporary 

cessation of spawning, and pro1 onged 

low temperatures can result in a 

protracted spawning period (Murawski 

et a1 . 1980). 

Sal i ni ty 

The exposure of smelt eggs to salt 

or brackish water can adversely 

affect embryonic development and 1 ead 

to high egg mortality. In incubation 

tests, salinities of 12 to 14 ppt were 

fatal to eggs. Path01 ogical changes 

were also observed in the eggs of a 

closely re1 ated species, Osmerus 

eperl anus, at sal i ni ties greater than 

13 ppt by Unanian and Soin (1963). 

They found that in addition to causing 

increased egg mortal i ty , high 

sal i ni ty (>26 ppt) can prevent 

fertilization. 

Any activity that increases sal i ni ty 

i n spawning areas could have severe1 y 

deleterious effects on reproductive 

success. 

Contami nants 

The effects of chlorination on smelt 

were studied by Seegert and Brooks 

(1978). They reported that at 10 OC 

the 30 min LCs0 was 1.27 mg of 

chlorine per liter. Mortality was 

slight at 0.72 mg/l and nearly 

complete at 2.0 mg/l. Effects of 

other contaminants on smelt have not 

been reported. 

Disease and Parasites 

Several diseases are common among 

smel t populations. Piscine erythrocytic necrosis (PEN), a viral disease, 

infects smelt populations from the 

Canadian provi nces to Massachusetts, 

but occurs at low levels in individual 

fish (Sherburne and Bean 1979). 

Supporting this, Jimenez et al. (1982) 

in a study on the occurrence of PEN in 

smelt from Massachusetts coastal 

rivers found a high incidence of 

infection (61% to 97%) within populations, though less than 1% of the 

erythrocytes of individual fish were 

infected. Deleterious effects of PEN 

on smelt have not been described, 

a1 though Evelyn and Traxler (1978) 

found severe anemia in two species of 

salmon infected with the disease. 

Jimenez et al. (1982) speculated that 

PEN acting synergistically with other 

factors may be debilitating and 

ultimately cause mortal ity. 

The microsporidian Gl ygea hertwigi 

has been found in marine and freshwater populations, and is another 

cause of debilitation and mortality in 

smelt (Haley 1953; Nepszy and Dechtiar 

1972; Chen and Power 1972; Jimenez et 

al. 1982). Jimenez et al. (1982) 

reported a mean infection rate of 

13.4% (range 0-18%) in Massachusetts 

coastal rivers ; Hal ey (1953), working 

in Great Bay, New Hampshire, reported 

a 23.3% infection rate. The debilitati ng effects of this parasite have 

been documented in several studies. 

Jimenez et al. (1982) found that 

weight and total length were significantly different between infected and 

noninfected fish. Chen and Power 

(1972) exami ned smelt populations in 

Lake Ontario and Lake Erie and found 

the incidence of microsporidian infection was 5.2% and 62.7%, respectively. 

Because the infection causes ovarian 

tissue to be replaced with parasitic 

cysts, the Lake Erie population 

suffered a decrease in fecundity. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Argyle, R. L. 1982. Alewives and 

rainbow smelt in Lake Huron: 

midwater and bottom aggregations and 

estimates of standing stock. Trans. 

Am. Fish. Soc. lll(3): 267-285. 

Bailey, M.M. 1964. Age, growth, 

maturity. and sex com~osition of the 

~merican' smelt, ~sme'rus mordax, of 

western Lake Su~erior. Trans. Am. 

Fish. Soc. 93(4)1382-395. 

Barker, S.L., D.W. Townsend, and J.S. 

Hacunda. 1981. Mortal ities of 

Atlantic herring, Clupea harengus, 

smooth f 1 ounder, Liopsetta putnami , and rainbow smelt, Osmerus mordax, 

larvae exposed to acute thermal 

shock. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Ser. 

Fish. Bull. 79(1): 198-200. 

Belyanina, T.N. 1969. Synopsis of 

biological data on smelt, Osmerus 

eperl anus (Li nnaeus) 1758. FA0 

Fish. Synop. , Ser. No. 78. 57 pp. 

Bigelow, H. B. , and W. C. Schroeder. 

1953. Fishes of the Gulf of Maine. 

U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull. 

53: 1-577. 

Bigelow, H.B., and W.C. Schroeder. 

1963. Family Osmeridae. Fishes of 

the western North Atlantic. Mem. 

Sears Found. Mar. Res. (1) Part 

3: 553-597. 

Burbidge, R.G. 1969. Age, growth, 

length-weight relationship, sex 

ratio, and food habits of American 

smelt, Osmerus mordax (Mitchi 11 ) 

from Gull Lake, Michigan. Trans. 

Am. Fish. Soc. 98(4): 631-640. 

Burr, B.M., and R. L. Maydew. 1980. 

Dispersal of rainbow smel t, Osmerus 

mordax, into the upper Mississippi 

River. Am. Midl. Nat. 104(1): 

198- 201. 

Chen, M., and G. Power. 1972. Infection of American smelt in Lake 

Ontario and Lake Erie with 

microsporidian parasite Gl ugea 

hertwigi (Weissenburg). Can. J. 

Zool . 50: 1183-1188. 

Clayton, G. R. 1976. Reproduction, 

first year growth, and distribution 

of anadromous rainbow smelt, Osmerus 

mordax, in the Parker River and Plum 

Island Sound Estuary, Massachusetts. 

M.S. Thesis. University of 

Massachusetts, Amherst. 102 pp. 

Clayton, G.R., C. F. Cole, S.A. 

Murawski, and J.D. Parrish. 1978. 

Common marine fishes of coastal 

Massachusetts. Univ. Mass. Inst. 

Environ. Publ. R-76-16. 

Cooper, J. E. 1978. Identification of 

eqqs, larvae, and juveniles of 

rainbow smel ti ~smerus- mordax, with 

com~arisons to larval alewife. 

~loksa pseudoharengus, and gizzard 

shad, Dorosoma cepedi anum. Trans. 

Am. Fish. Soc. 107(1): 56-62. 

Crestin, D. S. 1973. Some aspects of 

the biology of adults and early life 

stages of the rainbow smelt, Osmerus 

mordax, from the Weweantic River 

Estuary, Wareham-Mari on, Massachusetts. M. S. Thesis. University 

of Massachusetts, Amherst. 108 pp. 

Delise, C.E. 1969. Bimonthly progress of non-lethal infection by 

Glugea hertwigi in young-of-the-year 

smelt, Osmerus mordax. Can. J. 

Zool . 47: 871-876. 
Dyrnond, J. R. 1944. Spread of the 

smelt (Osmerus rnordax) in the 

Canadian waters of the Great Lakes. 

Can. Field Nat. 58(1):12-14. 

Evelyn, T. P.T. , and G.S. Traxler. 

1978. Viral erythrocytic necrosis: 

natural occurrence in Pacific salmon 

and experimental transrni ssion. J. 

Fish. Res. Board Can. 35:903-907. 

Fol tz, J.W. , and C. R. Norden. 1977. 

Food habits and feeding chronology 

of rainbow srnel t (Osrnerus rnordax) in 

Lake Michigan. Natl. ~Sish. 

Serv. Fish. Bull. 75(3):637-640. 

Frechet, A., J.J. Dodson, and H. 

Powles. 1983. Use of variation in 

biological characters for the 

classification of anadrornous rainbow 

srnel t (Osrnerus rnordax) groups. Can. 

J. Fish. Aquat. Sci . 40(6): 718-727. 

Gordon, W.G. 1961. Food of the 

American smelt in Saginaw Bay, Lake 

Huron. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 90:439- 

443. 

Haley, A. J. 1953. Microsporidian 

parasite, Gl ugea hertwigi , in 

American srnel t from Great Bay 

Region, New Hampshire. Trans. ~m: 

Fish. Soc. 83:84-90. 

Hulbert, P. J. 1974. Factors 

affecting spawning site selection 

and hatching success in anadrornous 

srnel t, 0smerus rnordax, (Mi tchi 11 ). 

M.S. Thesis. Universitv of Maine. 

Orono. 43 pp. 

Jilek, R., B. Cassell, D. Peace, Y. 

Garza, L. Riley, and T. Siewart. 

1979. Spawning population dynamics 

of smelt, Osrnerus rnordax. J. Fish 

Biol. 15(1): 31-35. 

Jirnenez, D. , J. E. Pelczarski, and H. R. 

Iwanowicz. 1982. Incidence of 

pi sci ne erythrocytic necrosis (PEN) 

and Glugea hertwigi (Weissenberg) in 

rai nbow srnel t (Osrnerus rnordax) in 

selected Massachusetts streams. 

Estuaries 5(2): 145-149. 

Kendall, W.C. 1927. The smelts. 

Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 42:217-375. 

Langlois, T.H. 1935. Notes on the 

spawning habits of Atlantic srnel t. 

Copeia 1935: 141-142. 

Lee, D.S., C. R. Gilbert, C. H. Hocutt, 

R.E. Jenkins, D.E. McAllister, and 

J.R. Stauffer, Jr. 1980. Atlas of 

North American freshwater fishes. 

North Carol i na Biological Survey 

Pub1 ication No. 1980-12. North 

Carolina State Museum of Natural 

History. 

McAllister, D.E. 1963. A revision of 

the smelt family Osmeridae. Natl. 

Mus. Can. Bull. 191. 53 pp. 

PlcKenzie, R.A. 1964. Srnel t life 

history and fishery in the Mirarnichi 

River, New Brunswick. Bull. Fish. 

Res. Board Can. 144. 77 pp. 

Murawski, S. A. 1976. Population 

dynamics and movement patterns of 

anadrornous rainbow smelt, Osrnerus 

rnordax, in the Parker River estuary. 

M.S. Thesis. University of 

Massachusetts, Amherst. 125 pp. 

Muraws ki , S. A. , and C. F. Cole. 1978. 

Po~ulation dvnamics of anadrornous 

rainbow smelt", Osrnerus mordax, in a 

Massachusetts river svstern. Trans. 

Am. Fish. Soc. 107(4):>35-542. 

Murawski, S. A. , G. Clayton, R. J. Reed, 

and C.F. Cole. 1980. Movement of 

spawni ng rai nbow srnel t , Osmerus 

rnordax, in a Massachusetts estuary. 

Estuaries 3(4): 308-314. 

Nepszy, S. J., and A.O. Dechtiar. 

1972. Occurrence of Glugea hertwigi 

in Lake Erie rainbow smelt (Osrnerus 

mordax) and associated mortal i ty of 

adult smelt. J. Fish. Res. Board 

Can. 29: 1639-1641. 

Rogers, H. M. 1939. The estuary as a 

biological habitat, with special 
reference to the smelt, Osmerus 

mo rdax. Ph.D. Dissertation. 

University of Toronto, Canada. 127 

Rothschild, B. J. 1961. Production 

and survival of eaas of the American 

smelt, Osmerus mordax (Mitchill), in 

Maine. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 

Rupp, R. S. 1965. Shore-spawni ng and 

survival of eggs of the American 

smelt. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 

94(2) : 160-168. 

Rupp, R.S. 1968. Life history and 

ecology of the smelt (Osmerus 

mordax) in the inland waters of 

Maine. Final Rep., Fed. Aid Fish. 

Proj. F-10-R, Maine Dep. Inland Fish 

Game. 36 pp. 

Scott, W.B., and E. J. Crossman. 1973. 

Freshwater Fishes of Canada. Bull. 

Fish. Res. Board Can. 184. 866 pp. 

Seegert, G. L., and A.S. Brooks. 1978. 

The effects of intermittent chlorination on coho salmon, alewife, 

spottail shiner, and rainbow smelt. 

Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 107(2): 

346-353. 

Sherburne, S. W. , and L. L. Bean. 1979. 

Incidence and distribution of 

piscine erythrocytic necrosis and 

the microsporidian Gl ugea hertwigi 

in rainbow smelt, Osmerus mordax, 

from Massachusetts to the Canadian 

Maritimes. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. 

Serv. Fish. Bull. 77(2): 503-509. 

Smith, W.G. , and A. We1 1s. 1977. 

Biological and fisheries data on 

striped bass. Sandy Hook Lab. Tech. 

Ser. Rep. No. 4. 42 pp. 

Stewart, D. J., J. Kitchell, and L. 

Crowder. 1981. Forage fishes and 

their salmonid predators in Lake 

Michigan. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 

llO(6): 751-763. 

Sutter, F. C. 1980. Reproductive 

biology of anadromous rainbow smelt, 

Osmerus mordax, in the Ipswich Bay 

Area, Massachusetts. M. S. Thesis. 

University o f Massachusetts, 

Amherst. 

Unanian, I.M. , and S.G. Soin. 1963. 

On reproduction and development of 

the White Sea smelt. Vesh. Mosk. 

Gos. Univ. (6)4: 25-36. 

U. S. Department of Commerce. 1980. 

Fishery statistics of the United 

States, 1976. Stat. Dig. No. 70. 

Van Oosten, J. 1937. The dispersal 

of smelt, Osmerus mordax, in the 

Great Lakes region. A preliminary 

report. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 

66: 160-171. 

Warfel , H. E., T. P. Frost, and W. H. 

Jones. 1943. The smelt, Osmerus 

mordax, in Great Bay, New Hampshire. 

Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 72:257-262. 
4. Title and Subtitla I 5. Ram* Date 

Species Profiles: Life Hi stories and Environmental Requirements 1 August 1989 

of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (North Atlantic)--Rainbow Smelt 

REPORT DOCUMENTATION 1. REPORT NO. 2. 

PAGE ~i Ological sport 82(11.106)*~ 3. Rec~p~ent'a Acceasaon NO. 

I 

-- 

15. Supplementary Notas 

I *U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Report No. TR EL-82-4 

7. Author(,) 

Jack Buckley 

9. Petforming Organization Name and Address 

Massachusetts Cooperative Fishery Research Unit 

Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management 

University of Massachusetts 

Amherst, MA 01003 

16. Abstract (Limit: 200 words) 

8. Petfonning Organization Rept. NO. 

10. PmiectlTaakIWork unit No. 

11. Contract(C) or Grant(C) NO. 

(c) 

Species profiles are literature summaries of the taxonomy, life history, and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and aquatic invertebrates. They are designed to 

assist with envi ronmental impact assessments. The rainbow smelt is an abundant forage 

fish for commercially and recreationally valuable fishes such as striped bass and 

bluefish on the east coast and several species of salmon and trout in the Great Lakes. 

The rainbow smelt also supports an important sportfishery throughout most of its range. 

In 1976, the total smelt harvest in the coastal waters of New England was 105,000 lb. 

Coastal rainbow smelt are anadromous, spawning in freshwater and maturing in sal ine 

water. Spawning peaks in spring. Salinities above 12 ppt were fatal to eggs. Reported 

fecundities are 7,000 to 44,000 eggs per female. Smelt are always found in shallow water 

(<6 m deep) and within 2 km of the shore. Larval and juvenile smelt along the coast feed 

on planktonic crustaceans. Larger juveniles and adults feed on euphausi ids, amphi pods, 

polychaetes, and fish. Smelt move locally to search for optimum water temperatures. 

( 17. Document Analysis a. Oescripton 

12. Swnsorlng Oraanlx8tlon Name and Address 

U.S. Department of the Interior Coastal Ecology Group 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

Research and Development U. S. Army Corps of Engineers 

National Wetlands Research center P.O. Box 631 

Washington, DC 20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180 

Estuaries Fishes Salinity 

Fisheries Life cycles Contaminants 

Feeding habits Temperature 

(G) 

13. TYP~ of Rew* a Period Covered 

14. 

I b. Identltienl0pn-Ended Terms 

Rainbow smelt Environmental requirements 

-- Osmerus mordax Ecological role 

c. COSATl FieldlGroup 

21. No. of Pages 

11 

22. Price 

18. Avadability Statement 

Unlimited release 

(See ANSI-239.18) OCTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77) 

(Formerly NTIS-35) 

Department of Commerce 

19. Securgty Class (This Repor0 

Unclassified 

20. Security Class (This Page) 

Unclassified 
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of 

the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned 

public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the 

wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish 

and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our 

national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses 

our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their 

development is in the best interests of all our people. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation 

communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S. 

administration. 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

FlSH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 

TAKE PRIDE 

in America 

UNITED STATES 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

FlSH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 

National Wetlands Research Center 

NASA-Slidell Computer Complex 

101 0 Gause Boulevard 

Slidell, LA 70458 

##ITME A18 FEES PAID 

Us DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

IW43 

OFFICIAL BUSINESS 

PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE, $300