NOT YET SCHEDULED FOR ORAL ARGUMENT 

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UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS 

FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT 

CITIZENS FOR RESPONSIBILITY AND 

ETHICS IN WASHINGTON and 

MELANIE T. SLOAN, 

Appellees, 

v. 

FEDERAL ELECTION COMMISSION, 

Appellee, 

AMERICAN ACTION NETWORK, 

Appellant. 

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No. 18-5136 

 

APPELLANT AMERICAN ACTION NETWORK’S 

MOTION FOR SUMMARY REVERSAL AND VACATUR 

 American Action Network respectfully moves for summary reversal and 

vacatur of the district court’s March 20, 2018 and September 19, 2016 summary 

judgment opinions and orders. They contain several substantive flaws, but one is 

foundational, in direct odds with recent Circuit precedent, and, when corrected, 

will end this longstanding dispute. 

Specifically, the district court held that it could review a decision by the 

Federal Election Commission to dismiss an enforcement complaint even though 

the Commission relied on its prosecutorial discretion. See Citizens for 

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Responsibility & Ethics in Washington v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 209 F. Supp. 3d 

77, 88 n.7 (D.D.C. 2016). This Court recently held the exact opposite. In a case 

involving the same administrative complainant, this Court held that Federal 

Election Commission decisions to dismiss enforcement complaints based on 

prosecutorial discretion are “not subject to judicial review.” Citizens for 

Responsibility & Ethics in Washington v. Fed. Election Comm’n, No. 17-5049, 

2018 WL 2993249, at *5 (D.C. Cir. June 15, 2018). This is true even where the 

Commission separately articulated a substantive reason for dismissing the matter. 

Id. Because there is a “firmly-established principle” against “carving reviewable 

legal rulings out from the middle of non-reviewable actions,” a plaintiff like 

“CREW is not entitled to have the court evaluate . . . the individual considerations 

the controlling Commissioners gave in support of their vote not to initiate 

enforcement proceedings.” Id. (collecting authority). 

The district court’s error has already caused years of unwarranted litigation 

over allegations from 2010 that the Federal Election Commission chose not to 

pursue in 2014. The Court should, therefore, correct the district court’s error at 

this early stage, stemming the continued waste of judicial and party resources on 

litigation that should never have been brought.1



1

 In accordance with Federal Rule of Appellate Procedure 27(a)(2)(B)(iii) and 

Circuit Rule 27(g)(2), the district court’s March 20, 2018 and September 19, 2016 

opinions and orders are attached as Exhibits 1 and 2, and the Statements of 

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I. BACKGROUND 

This dispute began in 2012 when Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in 

Washington and its then-executive director, Melanie Sloan (collectively, 

“CREW”), filed an administrative complaint at the Federal Election Commission 

alleging that American Action Network violated the Federal Election Campaign 

Act of 1971, as amended (“FECA”) during the 2010 election cycle. See CREW, 

209 F. Supp. 3d at 83. CREW’s allegations focused on twenty issue 

advertisements that American Action Network funded in 2010. Id. CREW argued 

that they all demonstrated that American Action Network had the “major purpose” 

to nominate or elect candidates and that they collectively established that American 

Action Network was an unregistered political committee during the 2010 election 

cycle. Id. American Action Network, an incorporated not-for-profit social welfare 

organization, disputed CREW’s charges, detailing its issue-centric purpose and 

relying on caselaw that has long protected issue advocacy groups from political 

committee regulation. See, e.g., Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 79 (1976); Fed. 

Election Comm’n v. Mass. Citizens for Life, Inc., 479 U.S. 238, 252 n.6 (1986). 

In June 2014, the Commission voted on whether to open an investigation 

into CREW’s allegations. CREW, 209 F. Supp. 3d at 83. Three Commissioners 



Reasons issued by the Federal Election Commission on July 30, 2014 and October 

19, 2016 are attached as Exhibits 3 and 4. 

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found there was “reason to believe” the allegations and voted to investigate them, 

and three Commissioners disagreed. Id. This deadlock “meant that the 

Commission could not proceed: under FECA, the Commission may pursue 

enforcement only upon ‘an affirmative vote of 4 of its members.’” CREW, 2018 

WL 2993249, at *1 (citing 52 U.S.C. § 30109(a)(2), (a)(4)(A)(i), (a)(6)(A)). As a 

result, and in accordance with Circuit precedent, the three Commissioners who 

voted against proceeding with an investigation—the so-called “controlling 

Commissioners”—supplied a Statement of Reasons to explain the Commission’s 

decision. See Statement of Reasons of Chairman Lee E. Goodman and

Commissioners Caroline C. Hunter and Matthew S. Petersen, Matter Under 

Review 6589 (July 30, 2014). 

The Commissioners provided two interrelated reasons for the decision: 

(1) they did not think the charges were supported by fact or precedent, and (2) they 

thought this was an appropriate case for an exercise of prosecutorial discretion. 

See, e.g., id. at 23-24, 27. They explained, for example, that proceeding would be 

in direct tension with a recent decision from the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 

Seventh Circuit, which invalidated a law on First Amendment grounds because it 

imposed similar registration and reporting requirements based on similar 

advertisements. Id. at 23 (citing Wis. Right to Life, Inc. v. Barland, 751 F.3d 804 

(7th Cir. 2014)). Proceeding with enforcement under a theory that is broader than 

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existing caselaw, the Commissioners explained, would raise “grave constitutional 

doubt,” particularly given the Seventh Circuit’s conclusion that it is “‘fatally vague 

and overbroad’” and imposes “‘a serious chill on debate about political issues’” to 

regulate an entity because it has funded advertisements like American Action 

Network’s. Id. (quoting Barland, 751 F.3d at 835, 837); id. at 23 n.137. These 

“constitutional doubts,” the Commissioners concluded, “militate in favor of 

cautious exercise of our prosecutorial discretion.” Id. at 24 (quoting Heckler v. 

Chaney, 470 U.S. 821, 831 (1985)). As a result, the Commission dismissed the 

enforcement matter because they did not think current law justified the charges and 

because they chose to “exercise . . . prosecutorial discretion.” Id. at 27. 

CREW challenged the Commission’s decision pursuant to the judicial 

review provision in FECA, 52 U.S.C. § 30109(a)(8)(A). In September 2016, the 

district court entered summary judgment for CREW. CREW, 209 F. Supp. 3d at 

95. The district court acknowledged that the Commission’s dismissal was 

consistent with Seventh Circuit precedent, but found the dismissal “contrary to 

law” because, in the district court’s view, the Seventh Circuit was “out of step with 

the legal consensus.” Id. at 90, 92. 

The Federal Election Commission had argued that its exercise of 

prosecutorial discretion was lawful and precluded review. See Mot. for S.J. at 49-

50, No. 14-1419 (D.D.C. Mar. 1, 2016) (Dkt. 36); Reply at 24-25, No. 14-1419 

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(D.D.C. May 23, 2016) (Dkt. 42). But the district court shrugged off the 

Commission’s decision to exercise its prosecutorial discretion in a footnote. 

CREW, 209 F. Supp. 3d at 88 n.7. It found that the Commission’s reliance on its 

prosecutorial discretion was irrelevant, stating: 

“[A]n agency’s decision not to take enforcement action . . . is only 

presumptively unreviewable,” and that “presumption may be rebutted 

[by the relevant] substantive statute.” Heckler v. Chaney, 470 U.S. 

821, 832 (1985). Here, FECA’s express provision for the judicial 

review of the FEC’s dismissal decisions, as well as a particular 

standard governing that review, 52 U.S.C. § 30109(a)(8)(C), is just 

such a rebuttal. The Court will therefore apply the contrary-to-law 

standard, as Congress has instructed it to. 

Id. As explained in more detail below, this is the reasoning that was just rejected 

by this Court in another case where CREW challenged a dismissal by the Federal 

Election Commission. See CREW, 2018 WL 2993249, at *3. 

The district court’s decision generated a series of additional regulatory and 

judicial proceedings about enforcement allegations that the Commission had 

previously declined to pursue as a matter of prosecutorial discretion. First, on 

remand in late 2016, the Commission reconsidered the record using the new 

standard devised by the district court, and voted a second time against proceeding 

with the enforcement matter in a deadlocked vote. See Statement of Reasons of 

Chairman Matthew S. Petersen and Commissioners Caroline C. Hunter and Lee E. 

Goodman, Matter Under Review 6589 (Oct. 19, 2016). The controlling 

Commissioners explained that their fact-specific review of American Action 

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Network’s advertisements, using the district court’s new standard, still led them to 

conclude that American Action Network was not a political committee during the 

2010 election cycle. Id.

Second, in early 2017 when CREW and American Action Network had 

cross-appealed the district court’s order, this Court granted the Federal Election 

Commission’s motion to dismiss, concluding that the cross-appeals were 

premature. See Order, Case Nos. 16-5300, 16-5343 (D.C. Cir. Apr. 4, 2017) (Dkt. 

1669311). By then, the Commission had again dismissed the enforcement matter 

and CREW had filed a second lawsuit in the district court challenging that second 

dismissal. The Federal Election Commission’s motion to dismiss asked the Court 

to postpone review until it could also review (if necessary) a decision from the 

district court regarding the second dismissal decision. See, e.g., Mot. to Dismiss 

at 2, 12, Nos. 16-5300, 16-5343 (D.C. Cir. Dec. 8, 2016) (Dkt. 1650065). 

Third, in March 2018, the district court entered summary judgment in favor 

of CREW in its second lawsuit. See CREW v. Fed. Election Comm’n, 299 

F. Supp. 3d 83 (D.D.C. 2018). The district court found that the Commission’s 

second dismissal decision was consistent with its prior decision, but was “contrary 

to law” for a new reason. Id. The district court directed the Commission to 

conform with its new declaration of law “within 30 days” and stated that “[i]f the 

[Federal Election Commission] does not timely conform with the Court’s 

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declaration, CREW may bring ‘a civil action to remedy the violation involved in 

the original complaint.’” Id. at 101 (quoting 52 U.S.C. § 30109(a)(8)(C)). 

Fourth, in April 2018, Federal Election Commission Vice Chair Weintraub 

issued a public statement announcing that she had decided to prevent the 

Commission from conforming with the district court’s order so that CREW could 

sue American Action Network directly. See Statement of Vice Chair Weintraub 

(Apr. 19, 2018), available at https://www.fec.gov/resources/cmscontent/ 

documents/2018-04-19-ELW-statement.pdf. Vice Chair Weintraub had voted on 

each of the prior two occasions to proceed with the enforcement matter, but saw an 

opportunity in the two vacancies now at the Commission: as one of four sitting 

Commissioners, she could prevent the Commission from taking further 

enforcement action by abstaining because that would deprive the Commission of 

the legally necessary fourth vote to proceed. Vice Chair Weintraub explained that 

her vote would bring an end to Commission action and enable CREW to “pursue 

its complaint directly against American Action Network” “unimpeded by [the] 

commissioners” who previously had voted to dismiss. Id. Vice Chair Weintraub’s 

recalcitrance also appears to have prevented the Commission from appealing the 

district court’s decisions. See Statement of Chair Hunter and Commissioner 

Petersen at 1, 14 (Apr. 26, 2018), available at https://www.fec.gov/resources/cmscontent/documents/3117_001_v2.pdf. 

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Fifth, following Vice Chair Weintraub’s invitation and the effective end of 

any further enforcement proceedings at the Federal Election Commission, CREW 

filed its own complaint directly against American Action Network. See Compl., 

CREW v. American Action Network, No. 18-945 (D.D.C. Apr. 23, 2018) (Dkt. 1). 

CREW relies on the “citizen suit” provision of the FECA which states that certain 

private parties may seek to “remedy the violation involved in the original 

[administrative] complaint” in limited circumstances. 52 U.S.C. § 30109(a)(8)(C). 

Those circumstances, however, do not include cases, like this one, where the 

Federal Election Commission dismissed the alleged violation in reliance on its 

prosecutorial discretion. See CREW, 2018 WL 2993249, at *4. 

Finally, American Action Network filed its Notice of Appeal, having learned 

from Vice Chair Weintraub’s statement that she had done what was necessary to 

finalize the case between CREW and the Federal Election Commission in order to 

hand the Commission’s enforcement authority to CREW. American Action 

Network then moved the district court to stay CREW’s citizen suit, arguing that 

this appeal should eliminate any basis for it. See Mot. to Stay, No. 18-945 (D.D.C. 

June 1, 2018) (Dkt. 11). CREW has opposed that stay, seeking to press ahead with 

allegations of a supposed violation that the Federal Election Commission, in its 

prosecutorial discretion, chose not to pursue. See Opp’n to Mot. to Stay, No. 18-

945 (D.D.C. June 22, 2018) (Dkt. 12). 

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II. ARGUMENT 

This Court should summarily reverse and vacate the Court’s prior orders 

because they are irreconcilable with Circuit precedent that prohibits judicial review 

of dismissal decisions that include an exercise of the Federal Election 

Commission’s “unreviewable prosecutorial discretion.” See CREW, 2018 WL

2993249, at *2. Correcting this threshold flaw will save the Court, the district 

court, and the parties substantial time and effort. And CREW will not be 

prejudiced by the summary ruling, as it already fully briefed and argued the issue 

in the case that now precludes this one. 

Summary reversal is appropriate where “the merits of [the] case are so clear 

that expedited action is justified.” Taxpayers Watchdog, Inc. v. Stanley, 819 F.2d 

294, 297 (D.C. Cir. 1987); see also Miller v. Albright, No. 98-5511, 1998 WL 

846653 (D.C. Cir. 1998) (granting summary reversal). That is this case. The 

conflict with Circuit precedent is patent and straightforward. This Court held that 

the district court cannot review Federal Election Commission decisions to dismiss 

that include an exercise of prosecutorial discretion. CREW, 2018 WL 2993249, at 

*4. The district court below found the exact opposite, CREW, 209 F. Supp. 3d at 

88 n.7. The district court then subjected the Federal Election Commission’s 

decision to judicial review, and required a series of additional unwarranted 

regulatory and judicial proceedings. 

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The conflict between the district court’s decision and this Court’s precedent 

is particularly striking in each court’s discussion of Chaney, 470 U.S. 821 (1985). 

The Supreme Court in Chaney reaffirmed the longstanding principle “that an 

agency’s decision not to prosecute or enforce, whether through civil or criminal 

process, is a decision generally committed to an agency’s absolute discretion.” Id.

at 831. But the Court provided one “caveat,” stating that “[a]n agency’s decision 

not to undertake enforcement ‘is only presumptively unreviewable; the 

presumption may be rebutted where the substantive statute has provided guidelines 

for the agency to follow in exercising its enforcement powers.’” CREW, 2018 WL 

2993249, at *3 (quoting Chaney, 470 U.S. at 832-33). 

The district court, like this Court, considered whether the Chaney 

presumption against judicial review was overcome by FECA. This Court held that 

“[n]othing in the substantive statute overcomes the presumption against judicial 

review.” Id. The district court found instead that “FECA’s express provision for 

the judicial review of the FEC’s dismissal decisions . . . is just such a rebuttal.” 

CREW, 209 F. Supp. 3d at 88 n.7. 

This stark word-for-word conflict with Circuit precedent justifies a summary 

reversal. See Taxpayers Watchdog, 819 F.2d at 297. But it is not the only reason 

to grant a summary reversal here. Summary reversal is also warranted because 

CREW already briefed and argued this case-dispositive issue before this Court. As 

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party to the case recently decided, CREW argued, for example, that the Court 

should find that Chaney’s presumption “that agency failures to enforce were

nonreviewable” was overcome because “Congress did exactly that in the FECA.” 

See Br. of Appellants at 36, No. 17-5049 (D.C. Cir. June 27, 2017) (Dkt. 1681549). 

CREW also acknowledged that the Court’s decision would apply equally to 

this litigation, describing the district court’s decision in this case as having 

“rejected” the argument that was “adopted” and on appeal in that case. Reply Br. 

at 7, No. 17-5049 (D.C. Cir. Aug. 10, 2017) (Dkt. 1688161) (citing CREW, 209 

F. Supp. at 93). CREW, therefore, cannot point to any “benefit [to] be gained from 

further briefing and argument” on the same issue. Taxpayers Watchdog, Inc., 819 

F.2d at 298. Indeed, this Court found that summary reversal was “dictated” where 

the issue was previously resolved in an appeal “concerning the same litigants and 

resolving the same legal issues.” Vietnam Veterans Against the War v. Morton, 

506 F.2d 53, 56 (D.C. Cir. 1974). 

Granting summary reversal and vacatur will also result in “a major savings 

of time, effort, and resources for the parties, counsel, and the Court.” D.C. Circuit 

Handbook at 28. Without such an order, the parties will need to brief numerous 

issues before this Court, including disputes over the standard of review, the proper 

application of agency deference, the limitations of the First Amendment, and the 

due process implications of CREW’s effort to penalize American Action Network 

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for its 2010 issue advocacy based on standards announced years later in this 

litigation. Absent an order summarily reversing and vacating the district court’s 

decisions, American Action Network would also remain embroiled in CREW’s 

“citizen suit” over contested allegations that the Federal Election Commission, in 

reliance on prosecutorial discretion, chose not to pursue. 

The Court can properly eliminate all further proceedings here and in district 

court with an order that corrects this one foundational error by the district court. 

Doing so will respect the Federal Election Commission’s prosecutorial authority, 

will serve the Court’s interest in efficiency, and will respect the “most fundamental 

principle of constitutional adjudication[, which] is not to face constitutional 

questions but to avoid them, if at all possible.” City of El Paso, v. S.E. Reynolds, 

887 F.2d 1103, 1106 (D.C. Cir. 1989) (internal quotation mark and citation 

omitted). 

III. CONCLUSION 

Circuit precedent establishes that the district court did not have authority to 

review the Federal Election Commission’s decision to dismiss CREW’s allegations 

against American Action Network because the Commission did so in reliance on 

its prosecutorial discretion. CREW, 2018 WL 2993249, at *4. In direct conflict 

with this precedent, the district court inappropriately subjected the Federal Election 

Commission’s decision to judicial review and required additional regulatory and 

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judicial proceedings. This Court should finally cut off judicial review of an 

unreviewable agency decision by summarily reversing and vacating the district 

court’s March 20, 2018 and September 19, 2016 opinions and orders. 

 Respectfully submitted, 

/s/ Claire J. Evans 

Claire J. Evans 

Jan Witold Baran 

Caleb P. Burns 

Wiley Rein LLP 

1776 K Street NW 

Washington, DC 20006 

Tel.: 202.719.7000 

Fax: 202.719.7049 

June 25, 2018 Counsel for American Action Network

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CERTIFICATE OF COMPLIANCE WITH TYPE-VOLUME LIMIT, 

TYPEFACE REQUIREMENTS, AND TYPE-STYLE REQUIREMENTS 

I hereby certify, on this 25th day of June, 2018, that: 

1. This document complies with the word limit of Fed. R. App. P. 

27(d)(2)(A) because, excluding the parts of the document exempted by Fed. R. 

App. 32(f), this document contains 2,884 words. 

2. This document complies with the typeface requirements of Fed. R. 

App. P. 32(a)(5) and the type-style requirements of Fed. R. App. 32(a)(6) because 

this document was prepared in a proportionally spaced typeface using Microsoft 

Word 2016 in a 14-point Times New Roman font. 

/s/ Claire J. Evans 

Claire J. Evans 

 

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CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE 

I hereby certify that on June 25, 2018, I electronically filed the foregoing 

document with the Clerk of Court for the United States Court of Appeals for the 

District of Columbia Circuit by using the appellate CM/ECF system, thereby 

serving all persons required to be served. 

/s/ Claire J. Evans 

Claire J. Evans 

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EXHIBIT 1 

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UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

CITIZENS FOR RESPONSIBILITY AND

ETHICS IN WASHINGTON, et al.,

Plaintiffs, 

v. 

FEDERAL ELECTION COMMISSION,

Defendant, 

AMERICAN ACTION NETWORK, INC.,

Intervenor Defendant.

 

Case No. 16-cv-2255 (CRC)

MEMORANDUM OPINION

This is the second in a series of cases involving the Federal Election Commission and its 

(non)regulation of American Action Network, Inc. (“AAN”), a self-described “issue-oriented 

action tank” that ran nearly $18 million in television advertisements just before the 2010 federal 

midterm elections. Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington—a watchdog group

known as “CREW”—contends that AAN’s spending on these ads rendered it a “political 

committee” as defined in the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971. And, according to 

CREW, because AAN did not register as a political committee during the relevant time period, it 

evaded the Act’s recordkeeping and disclosure requirements that apply to those groups. 

In 2012, CREW filed an administrative complaint with the Commission to that effect. By 

an evenly divided vote, the Commission dismissed CREW’s complaint because a majority of the 

Commissioners did not find “reason to believe” that AAN violated the Act. 52 U.S.C. § 

30109(a)(2). Specifically, the three controlling Commissioners concluded that AAN did not 

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qualify as a political committee because it lacked a “major purpose” of nominating or electing a 

candidate for federal office, Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 79 (1976). This Court in a previous

decision held that dismissal “contrary to law” because it rested on an erroneous premise 

regarding Buckley’s “major purpose” requirement. On remand, the Commission again dismissed 

CREW’s complaint in a deadlocked decision. 

CREW then filed this suit challenging the Commission’s second dismissal as contrary to 

law. Because the Court finds that the Commission’s analysis was inconsistent with the 

governing statutes, it will grant summary judgment in favor of CREW and remand this matter to 

the Commission.

I. Background

A. Legal Background

The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 (“FECA”), as substantially amended in 

1974, regulates federal elections in two key ways. First, the law sets monetary limits on

contributions to political parties and candidates. See 52 U.S.C. § 30116. Second, it imposes

disclosure requirements on entities that spend money for the purpose of influencing elections, 

even when that spending does not go directly to a candidate’s coffers. See id. § 30104.

This case is about FECA’s disclosure requirements—specifically, those triggered by 

spending on political advertisements. In broad terms, these disclosure requirements serve “three 

important interests: providing the electorate with relevant information about the candidates and 

their supporters; deterring actual corruption and discouraging the use of money for improper 

purposes; and facilitating enforcement of the prohibitions in the Act.” McConnell v. FEC, 540 

U.S. 93, 121 (2003) (controlling opinion of Stevens & O’Connor, J.J.).

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Some of FECA’s disclosure requirements are triggered by certain types of 

communications. For example, an entity that makes “independent expenditures”—that is, a 

communication “expressly advocating the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate,” 52 

U.S.C. § 30101(17)—of over $250 in a calendar year must file a report with the Commission 

containing information about itself and its contributors, id. § 30104(c). 

FECA also imposes more pervasive disclosure requirements on entities based on their 

campaign-related spending patterns. As relevant here, “political committees”—commonly

referred to as “political action committees” or “PACs”—are subject to extensive, ongoing

disclosure requirements. They must appoint a treasurer, keep records with the names and 

addresses of contributors, and file regular reports during a general election year with accounting 

information, including the amounts spent on contributions and expenditures. Id. §§ 30102–04. 

They must also register with the Federal Election Commission or face penalties. Id. §§ 

30104(a)–(b), 30109(d)(1).

An entity qualifies as a political committee when it satisfies two separate conditions. The 

first was imposed by Congress in the text of FECA: the entity must receive or spend more than 

$1,000 in a calendar year for the purpose of influencing a federal election. Id. § 30101(4)(A), 

(8)(A)(i), (9)(A)(i).

1

 The second condition was imposed by the Supreme Court in Buckley v. 

Valeo as a narrowing construction of the statutory definition. Under Buckley, political 

committees are limited to those “organizations that are under the control of a candidate or the 

 1 More precisely, FECA defines “political committee” as “any committee, club, 

association, or other group of persons which receives contributions aggregating in excess of 

$1,000 during a calendar year or which makes expenditures aggregating in excess of $1,000 

during a calendar year.” 52 U.S.C. § 30101(4)(A). “Contributions” and “expenditures” are both 

restricted to payments made “for the purpose of influencing any election for Federal office.” Id.

§ 30101(8)(A)(i), (9)(A)(i).

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major purpose of which is the nomination or election of a candidate.” 424 U.S. at 79 (emphasis 

added). A broader definition of “political committee,” the Court explained, could raise problems 

of vagueness under the First Amendment by threatening the speech of “groups engaged purely in 

issue discussion” and not just those engaged in “campaign related” activity. Id.

Several decades after Buckley, Congress in the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 

(“BCRA”) amended FECA to add important new disclosure requirements. BCRA was aimed, 

among other targets, at the post-Buckley rise of corporate and union spending on ads that were

nominally related to political issues but were clearly intended to sway voters in upcoming federal 

elections. See McConnell, 540 U.S. at 126–32. To capture these “so-called issue ads,” id. at 

126, Congress created a new category of communications called “electioneering 

communications”—television advertisements that air within 60 days of a federal election, clearly 

identify a candidate running for federal office, and target the relevant electorate. 52 U.S.C. § 

30104(f)(3)(A)(i). Corporations spending over $10,000 on those communications in a calendar 

year must file a statement with the Commission that discloses information about the entity, the 

candidates identified in the communications, the recipients of any disbursements, and any donors 

who gave over $1,000 toward electioneering communications since the beginning of the 

preceding calendar year. Id. § 30104(f)(2); 11 C.F.R. § 104.20(c)(9).

2

 Ads that qualify as 

electioneering communications must also include disclaimers with information like the name of 

 2 More specifically, FECA requires electioneering communication reports to contain “the 

names and addresses of all contributors who contributed an aggregate amount of $1,000 or more 

to the person making the disbursement during the period beginning on the first day of the 

preceding calendar year and ending on the disclosure date.” 52 U.S.C. § 30104(f)(2)(F). With 

respect to corporations like AAN, the Commission by regulation has interpreted the statute’s 

reference to such contributors as limited to donations “made for the purpose of furthering 

electioneering communications.” 11 C.F.R. § 104.20(c)(9) (emphasis added). The D.C. Circuit 

has upheld this “purpose requirement” against challenge under the Administrative Procedure 

Act. Van Hollen, Jr. v. FEC, 811 F.3d 486, 489–90 (D.C. Cir. 2016).

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the entity that paid for the ad and whether the ad was authorized by a candidate. 52 U.S.C. § 

30120(a); see 11 C.F.R. § 100.11(c)(3). 

The Federal Election Commission (“FEC”), an independent agency with six 

Commissioners, is responsible for enforcing FECA’s disclosure requirements. See 52 U.S.C. § 

30106(b)(1). The Commission has not adopted a rule that further clarifies the meaning of

Buckley’s “major purpose” limitation. Rather, it has taken a case-by-case approach by deciding 

whether particular entities have a major purpose of nominating or electing a candidate. See

Shays v. FEC, 511 F. Supp. 2d 19, 30 (D.D.C. 2006). This approach was ultimately upheld by a 

fellow judge in this District against challenge under the Administrative Procedure Act. See id.

Any person or entity may file a complaint with the Commission asserting a FECA 

violation. 52 U.S.C. § 30109(a)(1). If four or more Commissioners find “reason to believe” that 

FECA was or will soon be violated, then the Commission must investigate. Id. § 30109(a)(2). 

Otherwise, the complaint is dismissed. See id. § 30106(c). In the event of dismissal, the 

controlling group of Commissioners—here, those voting against enforcement—must provide a 

statement of reasons explaining the dismissal decision. See FEC v. Nat’l Republican Senatorial 

Comm. (“NRSC”), 966 F.2d 1471, 1476 (D.C. Cir. 1992). “Any party aggrieved” by an FEC 

dismissal decision may petition for this Court’s review. 52 U.S.C. § 30109(a)(8)(A). If the 

Court finds the statement of reasons to be contrary to law, it can direct the FEC to take action 

within 30 days that “conforms with” the Court’s ruling. Id. § 30109(a)(8)(C).

B. Factual and Procedural Background

1. The FEC’s First Dismissal

American Action Network (“AAN”) is a tax-exempt § 501(c)(4) civic organization. Joint 

Appendix (“J.A.”) 1490–91 (ECF No. 46). The group’s stated mission is to “create, encourage 

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and promote center-right policies based on the principles of freedom, limited government, 

American exceptionalism, and strong national security.” J.A. 1490. To advance that mission, 

AAN has sponsored educational activities and grassroots events. But the majority of its 

spending throughout the period at issue in this case—July 23, 2009 through June 30, 20113—was 

on political advertisements. Of its $27.1 million in total spending over that period, just over $4 

million was devoted to independent expenditures—i.e., ads expressly advocating for or against a 

federal candidate. J.A. 1765. An additional $13.7 million was devoted to electioneering 

communications—i.e., ads run near an election that identify a candidate and target the relevant 

electorate. Id.

In June 2012, CREW and its then–executive director filed a complaint with the FEC 

alleging that AAN’s spending near the 2010 midterms rendered it an unregistered political 

committee. J.A. 1480–88. The FEC’s Office of General Counsel reviewed the complaint and

recommended that the Commission investigate it because there was reason to believe that AAN 

was indeed a political committee. Id. at 1659. Nevertheless, in June 2014, the Commissioners 

deadlocked three-to-three on whether to commence an investigation and, accordingly, the 

Commission dismissed CREW’s complaint. Id. at 1689. 

The three controlling Commissioners—those voting against investigation—issued a 

Statement of Reasons explaining that AAN was not a political committee because it did not have 

a major purpose of nominating or electing a federal candidate. J.A. 1690–723. The 

Commissioners first explained that, based on AAN’s organizational documents, its official 

public statements, and its tax-exempt status, AAN appeared to have a “central organizational 

 3 This timespan covers AAN’s spending as reported in two of its tax returns: one return 

covering July 23, 2009 through June 30, 2010; and the other covering July 1, 2010 through June 

30, 2011. J.A. 1490, 1518.

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purpose” that was “issue-centric” and not focused on electing candidates. Id. at 1706–07. They

then turned to the heart of CREW’s complaint: that AAN’s spending on advertisements rendered 

it a political committee. Id. at 1708. In this part of their analysis, the Commissioners relied on a 

rigid distinction between “express advocacy” for a candidate—which properly counted toward 

an electoral major purpose—and “issue advocacy”—which categorically did not. See id. at 

1709–10. In the Commissioners’ view, the Supreme Court had interpreted the First Amendment 

to require such a categorical distinction—first in Buckley and more recently in FEC v. 

Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. (“WRTL II”), 551 U.S. 449 (2007), which held that a statute 

prohibiting corporations from funding electioneering communications could not, consistent with 

the First Amendment, be applied to forbid the funding of “genuine issue ads” that are not “the 

functional equivalent of express advocacy,” id. at 480–81.4 See J.A. 1704–05, 1709.

Relying on the dichotomy between express and issue advocacy from WRTL II, the 

Commissioners characterized all of AAN’s ads that did not expressly advocate for a candidate

(i.e., its electioneering communications) as “genuine issue advertisements,” the $13.7 million 

cost of which could not be counted toward an election-related major purpose. J.A. 1709–10. 

They made this determination wholesale, without discussing the content of any individual ad. Id. 

The Commissioners also considered AAN’s spending over its lifetime—mid-2009 to mid2011—instead of year-to-year and, in total, found that only the $4.1 million that AAN spent on 

express advocacy between 2009 and 2011 was aimed to elect a candidate. Id. at 1709. In their 

view, because that spending accounted for only 15% of AAN’s total expenses during that period, 

 4 A few years after WRTL II, the Supreme Court in Citizens United, 558 U.S. 310 

(2010), “pulled the plug on this ban once and for all, ruling unconstitutional the prohibition on 

corporate- and union-funded ‘express advocacy.’” Van Hollen Jr., 811 F.3d at 490 n.1.

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the group necessarily lacked a major purpose of nominating or electing a candidate. Id. at 1709–

10, 1716.

CREW filed suit in this Court challenging the FEC’s dismissal of the complaint against

AAN, as well as the dismissal of a similar complaint against another organization, Americans for 

Job Security (“AJS”). CREW v. FEC, 209 F. Supp. 3d 77, 80–81 (D.D.C. 2016). CREW 

alleged that both dismissals violated FECA.5 AAN and AJS intervened as additional defendants

and the parties filed cross-motions for summary judgment. Id. at 85. 

In a September 2016 decision, this Court held that both dismissals were contrary to law

and remanded them to the Commission for reconsideration. Id. at 95. As the Court explained,

the FEC’s reliance on a hard distinction between express advocacy and issue advocacy depended

on an erroneous premise: that the First Amendment required it to exclude from its consideration 

all non-express advocacy in the context of disclosure requirements. Id. at 93. While the 

Supreme Court in WRTL II had concededly drawn such a distinction in evaluating a ban on 

corporate-sponsored electioneering communications, in McConnell and Citizens United v. FEC, 

558 U.S. 310 (2010), it had expressly declined to take that approach in evaluating disclosure 

requirements triggered by those communications. Id. at 89–90 (quoting Citizens United, 558 

U.S. at 369). And in the wake of those cases, “federal appellate courts ha[d] resoundingly 

concluded that WRTL II’s constitutional division between express advocacy and issue speech is 

simply inapposite in the disclosure context.” Id. at 90.

 5 CREW initially brought a claim under the Administrative Procedure Act (“APA”). This 

Court dismissed that claim on the ground that FECA provided CREW with an “adequate 

remedy” and therefore precluded review of the FEC’s determination under the APA. CREW v. 

FEC, 164 F. Supp. 3d 113, 120 (D.D.C. 2015).

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This Court nevertheless declined to adopt CREW’s proposed rule that, to comply with 

FECA, the Commission must treat all electioneering communications as indicative of an 

election-related major purpose. As the Court explained:

CREW’s citations to legislative history, past FEC precedent, and court precedent 

certainly support the conclusion that many or even most electioneering 

communications indicate a campaign-related purpose. Indeed, it blinks reality to 

conclude that many of the ads considered by the Commissioners in this case were 

not designed to influence the election or defeat of a particular candidate in an 

ongoing race. However, particularly given the FEC’s judicially approved case-bycase approach to adjudicating political committee status, the Court will refrain from 

replacing the Commissioners’ bright-line rule with one of its own.

Id. at 93 (citations omitted).

2. The FEC’s Second Dismissal

On remand, the FEC again divided three-to-three and dismissed CREW’s complaint 

against AAN. J.A. 1763. The controlling Commissioners’ Statement of Reasons acknowledged 

that, in light of this Court’s decision, it could no longer categorically exclude AAN’s 

electioneering communications from its major-purpose calculation. Id. at 1767–68. Rather, the 

Commissioners explained that they would proceed ad-by-ad and weigh several factors in 

deciding whether each electioneering communication should count toward an election-related

major purpose. These factors included (1) the extent to which the ad’s language focuses on 

“elections, voting, political parties,” and the like; (2) “the extent to which the ad focuses on 

issues important to the group or merely the candidates referenced in the ad”; (3) the context of 

the ad (but “only to the extent necessary . . . to understand better the message being conveyed”); 

and (4) whether the ad “contains a call to action and, if so, whether the call relates to the . . . 

issue agenda or, rather, to the election or defeat of federal candidates.” Id. at 1768. 

Before they turned to each ad, the Commissioners explained that all of the ads ran in a

time period that—while admittedly near the federal midterm elections—also preceded an 

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anticipated “lame duck” congressional session. J.A. 1768–70. During that session, Congress 

was expected to “consider several pieces of major legislation, many involving policy issues of 

great importance to AAN” like “Bush-era tax cuts, federal spending, health care, and energy.” 

Id. at 1769. And, as the Commission noted, Congress did ultimately convene a lame duck 

session in December 2010 and considered some of those issues. Id. at 1769–70.

“With that context in mind,” the controlling Commissioners then evaluated AAN’s

twenty electioneering communications. J.A. 1770. They concluded that four of the ads indicated

an election-related major purpose: those titled “Bucket,”6 “New Hampshire,” 7 “Order,” 8 and 

“Extreme.” 9 Id. at 1779. “Order” and “Extreme,” for example, sought to criticize two 

Democratic congressional candidates—Mike Oliverio and Annie Kuster, respectively—by 

linking them with Nancy Pelosi in unfavorable ways. Id. at 1778. As the Commissioners

 6 “We send tax money to Washington and what does Russ Feingold do with it? Eight 

hundred billion dollars for the jobless stimulus. Two point five million for a healthcare plan that 

hurts seniors. A budget that forces us to borrow nine million dollars. And when he had a chance 

at reform, he voted against the Balanced Budget Amendment. Russ Feingold and our money. 

What a mess. [Superimposed text: Russ Feingold, What a mess.]” J.A. 1773.

7 “Winter’s here soon. Guess Congressman Hodes has never spent nights sleepless, 

unable to pay utility bills. Why else would he vote for the cap-and-trade tax? Raise electric 

rates by ninety percent? Increase gas to four dollars? Cost us another two million jobs? Kelly 

Ayotte would stop the cap-and-trade tax. Cold.” J.A. 1777.

8 “[On screen text:] If Nancy Pelosi gave an order . . . would you follow it? Mike 

Oliverio would. Oliverio says he would support Pelosi in Washington. After all, Oliverio voted 

himself a 33% pay raise. Oliverio voted for higher taxes. Even on gas. And Oliverio won't 

repeal Obama’s $500 billion Medicare cuts. So what will Mike Oliverio do in Washington? 

Whatever Nancy Pelosi tells him to.” J.A. 1778.

9 “[On screen text:] Nancy Pelosi is not extreme. Compared to Annie Kuster. Kuster 

supported the trillion dollar government Healthcare takeover. But says it didn’t go far enough. 

$525 billion in new taxes for government Healthcare. Now, Kuster wants $700 billion in higher 

taxes on families and businesses. And $846 billion in job killing taxes for cap and trade. Nancy 

Pelosi is not extreme. Compared to Annie Kuster.” J.A. 1778.

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explained, “[n]either ad contains a call to action, nor do they focus on changing the voting 

behavior or policy stances of the named individuals.” Id. Thus, in their view, those ads were 

best understood as aiming to defeat reelection of the named representatives. 

On the other hand, the Commissioners found that AAN’s sixteen other electioneering 

communications did not evince an election-related purpose. Conceding that these ads were 

critical of the incumbent representatives they identified, the Commissioners focused on the fact 

that each ad instructed viewers to call the representative and urge him to change his vote on a 

political issue, if not an actual pending bill. See id. at 1770–79. For example, the 

Commissioners declined to count the cost of an ad titled “Quit Critz,” which accused thenPennsylvania representative Mark Critz of supporting “the Obama-Pelosi agenda that’s left us 

fourteen trillion in debt.” J.A. 1770. The ad concluded with an exhortation to “[t]ell 

Congressman Critz that Pennsylvania families need tax relief this November, not more 

government,” and it superimposed text that instructed viewers to call Representative Critz and 

tell him to vote “Yes on H.R. 4746,” the House tax-cut bill introduced earlier that year. Id. In 

evaluating that ad and several similar to it,10 the Commissioners explained that the ads’

references to “November” were “best understood as a reference to the time period in which the 

 10 For example, another tax-related ad titled “Wallpaper”: 

Congressman Kurt Schrader is wallpapering Washington with our tax money. 

Schrader spent nearly eight hundred billion on the wasteful stimulus that created 

few jobs but allowed big executive bonuses. He threw nearly a trillion at Pelosi’s 

health care takeover and voted to raise the national debt to over fourteen trillion. 

Now Congress wants to raise taxes. Call Congressman Schrader. Tell him to vote 

for a tax cut this November to stop wallpapering Washington with our tax dollars. 

[Superimposed text: “Call Congressman Schrader this November. Vote to cut 

taxes. Yes on H.R. 4746. (202) 224–3121.”]

J.A. 1771.

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lame-duck session would commence” instead of a reference to the November midterm election,

and that “the express point of [their] criticism” was “to marshal public sentiment to persuade the 

officeholders to alter their voting stances.” J.A. 1772.

Combining AAN’s spending on the four election-related ads with the $4.1 million it spent 

on express advocacy yielded a sum of $5.97 million, or 22% of AAN’s total spending between 

mid-2009 and mid-2011. J.A. 1779. The Commissioners ran an alternative calculation by

adding the cost of an ad called “Read This”11—which they considered issue-focused but close to 

the line—and by counting AAN’s spending over only the most recent year in question (mid-2010 

to mid-2011). Id. Under that approach, “the amount of spending that indicate[d] a purpose to 

nominate or elect federal candidates would constitute less than 28% of [AAN’s] total spending in 

that time period.” Id. As a result, the Commissioners concluded that AAN did not have the 

requisite major purpose of nominating or electing a candidate, and they therefore voted to 

dismiss CREW’s complaint against AAN.

12 Id. at 1779–80.

Soon thereafter, CREW filed a motion for an order to show cause why the FEC’s 

dismissal on remand did not contravene this Court’s prior decision. Pls.’ Mot. Show Cause, No. 

14-cv-1419 (Nov. 14, 2016) (ECF No. 57). The Court denied the motion. Memo. Op. & Order, 

id. (Apr. 6, 2017) (ECF No. 74). To the extent that CREW’s motion relied on new legal 

 11 “[On screen text:] Rick Boucher wants to keep you in the dark. About his Washington 

Cap and Trade deal. Boucher sided with Nancy Pelosi. For billions in new energy taxes. That 

will kill thousands of Virginia jobs. But Rick Boucher didn’t just vote for Cap and Trade. The 

Siena Club called Boucher the “linchpin” of the entire deal. Call Rick Boucher. [Phone number 

at top of screen.] Tell him no more deals.” J.A. 1777.

12 The three Commissioners who voted to investigate AAN issued their own statement of 

reasons, in which they excoriated the controlling Commissioners for “ignor[ing] the court’s 

ruling and the plain language of the ads that objectively criticized candidates in the weeks 

preceding the 2010 elections.” J.A. 1785.

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arguments—for example, that the Commissioners relied on a misreading of McConnell—the 

Court explained that those new arguments were “properly taken up in a separate suit.” Id. at 5. 

The Court further found that nothing in the Commissioners’ dismissal violated the letter of its 

prior decision: 

[T]he Court never ordered the FEC to reach a particular result, or to consider any 

particular ad—or any proportion of electioneering communications—electionrelated. Instead, the Court directed the FEC to reconsider its decision without 

“exclud[ing] from its [major purpose] consideration all non-express advocacy.” 

The FEC did just that.

Id. at 6 (citation omitted).

CREW then filed this suit against the FEC. AAN and AJS again intervened as 

defendants. The parties stipulated to dismissal of the claims against AJS, and thus all that 

remains is the allegation that the FEC’s dismissal of the complaint against AAN was contrary to 

law. The parties’ cross-motions for summary judgment are now ripe.

II. Legal Standards

Where a party challenges an FEC dismissal decision, this Court will grant summary 

judgment to the challenger only if the agency’s decision was “contrary to law,” 52 U.S.C. 

§ 30109(a)(8)(C), meaning either that “the FEC dismissed the complaint as a result of an 

impermissible interpretation of [FECA],” or that “the FEC’s dismissal of the complaint, under a 

permissible interpretation of the statute, was arbitrary or capricious, or an abuse of discretion.” 

Orloski v. FEC, 795 F.2d 156, 161 (D.C. Cir. 1986). This same standard of review applies to all 

FEC decisions, whether they be unanimous or determined by tie vote. In re Sealed Case, 223 

F.3d 775, 779 (D.C. Cir. 2000). This is because the Commissioners voting for dismissal 

“constitute a controlling group for purposes of the decision,” and so their statement of reasons 

“necessarily states the agency’s reasons for acting as it did.” NRSC, 966 F.2d at 1476.

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In evaluating whether a group has an election-related major purpose, the Commission is 

construing the term “political committee” as it appears in FECA—a statute that the Commission 

is charged with enforcing. The Court thus reviews the Commission’s determination of whether 

an entity is a political committee using the framework set forth in Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Natural 

Resources Defense Council, 467 U.S. 837 (1984). See, e.g., Orloski, 795 F.2d at 161–62. Under 

Chevron, the Court at “Step 1” must use “traditional tools of statutory interpretation” to decide 

“whether Congress has directly spoken to the precise question at issue.” 467 U.S. at 842–43 & 

n.9; see also Pharm. Research & Mfrs. Of Am. v. Thompson, 251 F.3d 219, 224 (D.C. Cir. 2001) 

(examining “text, structure, purpose, and legislative history”). If so, then Congress’s resolution 

must be given legal effect no matter what the agency says to the contrary. Chevron, 467 U.S. at 

843. If, on the other hand, the statute is silent or ambiguous on an issue, the Court proceeds to 

“Step 2” and decides whether the agency’s resolution of the issue was “a reasonable policy 

choice for the agency to make.” Id. at 845. While the Court’s review at Step 1 is plenary, at 

Step 2 it is “highly deferential.” Nat’l Rifle Ass’n of Am., Inc. v. Reno, 216 F.3d 122, 137 (D.C. 

Cir. 2000).

This Court also reviews whether the FEC’s dismissal was “arbitrary or capricious, or an 

abuse of discretion.” Orloski, 795 F.2d at 161. This standard largely overlaps with Chevron

Step 2; the same core question is whether the agency analyzed the problem reasonably. See

Pharm. Research & Mfrs. of Am. v. FTC, 790 F.3d 198, 209 (D.C. Cir. 2015). The Court will 

hold an FEC decision unlawful if it “entirely failed to consider an important aspect of the

problem,” it “offered an explanation for its decision that runs counter to the evidence before [it],” 

or “is so implausible that it could not be ascribed to a difference in view or the product of agency 

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expertise.” Motor Vehicle Mfrs. Ass’n of U.S., Inc. v. State Farm Mut. Autom. Ins. Co., 463 

U.S. 29, 43 (1983).

III. Analysis

CREW contends that the controlling Commissioners’ analysis on remand rested on legal 

errors—some repeated and some new. It first claims that the Commissioners “fabricated” a 

multifactor test that allowed it to disregard nearly all of AAN’s electioneering advertisements, in 

violation of this Court’s prior decision. Pls.’ Mot. Summ J. at 22. More fundamentally, says 

CREW, the Commission’s dismissal rested on a misinterpretation of Buckley and McConnell

because it invoked those cases as a reason to exclude electioneering communications from its 

major purpose analysis. Id. at 28–33. In CREW’s view, those cases require just the opposite

“because every electioneering communication, by reason of its being an electioneering 

communication, is ‘specifically intended to affect election results.’” Pls.’ Reply at 13–14 

(quoting McConnell, 540 U.S. at 127). Finally, CREW argues that the Commission’s analysis 

was arbitrary and capricious because it ignored contextual evidence highly relevant to the ads’ 

purpose and instead “cherry picked information” in order to “excus[e] AAN from political 

reporting.” Pls.’ Mot. Summ. J. at 41.

As the Court explained in denying CREW’s motion for a show-cause order, the 

controlling Commissioners did not repeat their mistake of drawing a bright line between express 

and issue advocacy. The Court nevertheless finds legal error in the Commission’s approach to 

analyzing AAN’s status as a political committee. While the controlling Commissioners did not 

categorically refuse to count AAN’s electioneering advertisements as indicative of an electionrelated major purpose, the Commissioners used a multifactor test that started from a blank slate 

in considering the content of each ad, with no apparent regard for the highly relevant fact that 

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each ad fell cleanly within Congress’s definition of an “electioneering communication.” In the 

Court’s view, that approach violates the unambiguous directive of Congress—made clear in the 

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002—that electioneering communications presumptively

have an election-related purpose. In turn, to the extent that the Commission considers an entity’s 

spending in assessing its major purpose, it must presumptively treat spending on electioneering 

ads as indicating a purpose of nominating or electing a candidate.

A. In FECA and BCRA, Congress Made Clear that Electioneering Ads Presumptively 

Have a Purpose of Nominating or Electing a Federal Candidate

To understand the Court’s conclusion, begin with the plain text of FECA. Its definition 

of “political committee” is unambiguously broad: it covers any entity that receives or spends

over $1,000 within one calendar year for the purpose of influencing an election. If this is all the 

Court had to go on—and if it could disregard Buckley’s constitutional concerns—it would 

conclude that AAN is a political committee under the clear terms of FECA, and therefore that the 

Commission was bound to determine as much. See Akins v. FEC, 101 F.3d 731, 740 (D.C. Cir. 

1996) (en banc) (with respect to the definition of “political committee,” “it cannot be[] 

contended that the statutory language itself is ambiguous” (emphasis added)), vacated on other 

grounds, 524 U.S. 11 (1998). 

Of course, after Buckley the Commission is not free to rely on this broad statutory 

definition alone. The question, then, is how the Supreme Court’s imposition of the major 

purpose requirement changes things. Here, the context of Buckley’s holding is important. The

Buckley Court faced a wide-ranging constitutional challenge to FECA after it was amended in 

1974. Before reaching the Act’s disclosure requirements, the Court first confronted the Act’s 

$1,000 annual limit on expenditures “relative to a clearly identified candidate during a calendar 

year.” 424 U.S. at 39. The Court attempted to narrow this language to avoid vagueness 

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problems under the First Amendment by construing it “to apply only to expenditures for 

communications that in express terms advocate the election or defeat of a clearly identified 

candidate for federal office.” Id. at 44. Even with that narrowing construction, however, the 

Court found the provision invalid because the government’s purported interest “in preventing 

corruption and the appearance of corruption” did not support such a broad speech restriction. Id.

at 45. 

By contrast, the Court upheld several of FECA’s disclosure requirements. But it imposed 

narrowing constructions on those requirements to avoid problems of vagueness and overbreadth 

under the First Amendment. For the disclosure requirements triggered by independent 

expenditures, the Court worried that the Act’s definition of “expenditure”—which required only 

a purpose of “influencing” an election or nomination—could be read to cover “both issue 

discussion and advocacy of a political result.” Id. at 79. So “[t]o insure that the reach of the 

[provision] is not impermissibly broad,” the Court construed the term “expenditure” “to reach 

only funds used for communications that expressly advocate the election or defeat of a clearly 

identified candidate.” Id. at 80. This meant that, to trigger the Act’s disclosure requirements, a 

communication would need to contain “express words of advocacy of election or defeat, such as 

‘vote for,’ ‘elect,’ ‘support,’ ‘cast your ballot for,’ ‘Smith for Congress,’ ‘vote against,’ ‘defeat,’ 

[or] ‘reject,’” Id. at 44 n.52; see id. at 80 & n.108. These expressions have since been called 

Buckley’s “magic words.” McConnell, 540 U.S. at 126.

The Buckley Court then reached a similar conclusion with respect to disclosure 

requirements triggered by “political committee” status. As the Court explained:

The general requirement that “political committees” and candidates disclose their 

expenditures could raise similar vagueness problems, for “political committee” is 

defined only in terms of amount of annual “contributions” and “expenditures,” and 

could be interpreted to reach groups engaged purely in issue discussion. The lower 

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courts have construed the words “political committee” more narrowly. To fulfill 

the purposes of the Act they need only encompass organizations that are under the 

control of a candidate or the major purpose of which is the nomination or election 

of a candidate.

424 U.S. at 79. Thus, the “major purpose” requirement was born.

Absent any congressional action in the decades since Buckley, this Court might find it 

unclear whether ads (1) mentioning candidates and (2) airing near elections but (3) not using

Buckley’s “magic words” should count toward an election-related major purpose. But in passing 

the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (“BCRA”), Congress unambiguously expressed its 

will on this issue and foreclosed the approach that the Commission took here. 

In BCRA, Congress sought to mitigate two perceived problems with federal election 

financing that were prompted (at least in part) by Buckley. Title I of the Act was “Congress’

effort to plug the soft-money loophole”—that is, the ability to have money contributed to state 

and local political parties effectively channeled to national parties while evading FECA’s 

contribution limits and disclosure requirements. McConnell, 540 U.S. at 133. Title II, the 

provision relevant here, aimed to stem the tide of advertisements nominally targeted at issues but 

airing near elections—a tide that swelled after Buckley. Id. at 122. Specifically, “[a]s a result of 

[Buckley’s] strict reading of the statute, the use or omission of ‘magic words’ such as ‘Elect John 

Smith’ or ‘Vote Against Jane Doe’ marked a bright statutory line separating ‘express advocacy’ 

from ‘issue advocacy.’” Id. at 126. Yet, in Congress’s view, those “two categories of 

advertisements proved functionally identical in important respects. Both were used to advocate 

the election or defeat of clearly identified federal candidates, even though the so-called issue ads 

eschewed the use of magic words.” Id. And, far more than a theoretical problem, the collapsed 

distinction between express advocacy and issue advocacy allowed entities—mostly corporations 

and unions—to spend “hundreds of millions of dollars” on ads leading up to elections that “were 

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unregulated under FECA.” Id. at 127–28. “Moreover, though ostensibly independent of the 

candidates, the ads were often actually coordinated with, and controlled by, the campaigns.” Id.

at 131. The Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs conducted “an extensive investigation 

into the campaign practices in the 1996 federal elections” and—while divided along party lines 

regarding some of these practices—agreed that the proliferation of so-called issue ads was a 

serious problem. Id. at 129.

In response, BCRA created a new category of political communications called 

“electioneering communications.” The statute’s definition of these communications “replace[d] 

the narrowing construction of FECA’s disclosure provisions adopted by this Court in Buckley”

by providing three clear criteria that triggered regulation. Id. at 189. Instead of covering only 

“communications expressly advocating the election or defeat of particular candidates,” the new 

disclosure requirements covered ads that (1) referenced to a candidate for federal office, (2) ran 

within 60 days of a federal election, and (3) targeted the relevant electorate. And the Act 

imposed disclosure requirements on entities who funded those communications. Id. at 190–91.

This legislative history leaves little doubt that Congress saw electioneering 

communications as generally aimed at swaying voters. The Supreme Court relied heavily on this 

history in McConnell, where it upheld BCRA’s disclosure requirements against First 

Amendment challenge. 540 U.S. at 189–202 (controlling opinion of Stevens & O’Connor, JJ.). 

The Court’s reasons for doing so further suggest that electioneering communications

presumptively have an electioneering purpose. In rejecting the argument that BCRA’s definition 

of “electioneering communications” was unconstitutionally vague and overbroad, the Court 

explained that Buckley’s distinction between express and issue advocacy “was the product of 

statutory interpretation rather than a constitutional command.” Id. at 192. In the Court’s view, 

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BCRA’s definition of electioneering communications created no similar issues of vagueness or 

overbreadth—its requirements were “easily understood and objectively determinable.” Id. at 

194. Moreover, putting aside Buckley and starting from first principles, the Court explained that

the notion of “a rigid barrier between express advocacy and so-called issue advocacy” could not 

be “squared with [its] longstanding recognition that the presence or absence of magic words [i.e., 

“vote for Jane Doe” or “vote Jane Doe out of office”] cannot meaningfully distinguish 

electioneering speech from a true issue ad.” Id. at 193. As evidenced by their timing, their 

identification of a specific candidate, and their targeting of the relevant electorate, it was clear 

that electioneering communications—magic words or not—“were specifically intended to affect 

election results.” Id. at 127. In short, the Supreme Court’s reading of BCRA corroborates that 

Congress deemed electioneering communications as paradigmatically aimed at swaying voters.13 

Even ignoring all of this legislative history and Supreme Court analysis, Congress’s

intent regarding these ads is manifest in its very choice of labelling them “electioneering 

communications.” Instead of using a neutral term like “communications made near federal

elections,” Congress chose a label that by its plain meaning deems the ads to “take part actively 

and energetically in a campaign to be elected to public office.” Electioneer, Oxford Dictionary

of English 565 (3d ed. 2010); see also Electioneer, American Heritage Dictionary (5th ed. 2018) 

(“To work actively for a candidate or political party.”). Congress’s terms, like its statutory 

 13 While McConnell was a fractured decision, a majority of the Justices voted to uphold 

the disclosure requirements for the reasons stated in the controlling opinion written by Justices 

Stevens and O’Connor. See 540 U.S. at 201 (opinion of Stevens & O’Connor, J.J., joined by 

Souter, Ginsburg & Breyer, J.J.); see also id. at 286 n.*, 321 (opinion of Kennedy, J., joined by 

Rehnquist, C.J., and Scalia, J.) (voting to uphold the relevant disclosure provisions). And all but 

one of the Justices in Citizens United relied on the same rationale in rejecting a challenge to 

BCRA’s electioneering-related disclosure requirements as applied to certain political ads. 558 

U.S. at 368–69; id. at 396 (Stevens, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). 

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headings, surely “supply clues” about its intent. Yates v. United States, 135 S. Ct. 1074, 1083 

(2015); see also, e.g., Trainmen v. Baltimore & Ohio R.R. Co., 331 U.S. 519, 528–29 (1947) 

(explaining that “the title of a statute and the heading of a section” are “tools available for the 

resolution of a doubt”). Here, the clue is hardly subtle: Why would Congress call something an 

“electioneering communication” if that thing did not generally have a “purpose to nominate or 

elect a candidate,” in the sense meant by Buckley? 

It is true that BCRA did not touch the text of FECA’s definition of “political committee.”

But a later congressional act can inform the meaning of an earlier one and, importantly here, can 

clarify existing ambiguities. “At the time a statute is enacted, it may have a range of plausible 

meanings,” but “subsequent acts can shape or focus those meanings. . . . This is particularly so 

where the scope of the earlier statute is broad but the subsequent statutes more specifically 

address the topic at hand.” FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp., 529 U.S. 120, 143 

(2000); see also United States v. Estate of Romani, 523 U.S. 517, 530–31 (1998) (“[A] specific 

policy embodied in a later federal statute should control our construction of the priority statute, 

even though it had not been expressly amended.”). Here, by declaring that (by and large)

electioneering communications have an inherent purpose of influencing a federal election, 

Congress has clarified that the broad term “political committee”—even after Buckley—should 

presumptively include organizations that are primarily in the business of funding electioneering 

communications.

Why only “presumptively”? Despite the foregoing evidence of Congress’s intent 

regarding electioneering ads, the Court is not convinced that Congress intended to categorically

foreclose the Commission from declining to treat a particular electioneering ad as supporting an 

election-related major purpose. In rejecting a facial challenge to BCRA’s electioneering 

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restrictions, McConnell recognized that some ads falling within BCRA’s definition of 

“electioneering advertisements” may not have a true “electioneering purpose,” even if “the vast 

majority of ads clearly had such a purpose.” 540 U.S. at 206 (“The precise percentage of issue 

ads that clearly identified a candidate and were aired during those relatively brief preelection 

timespans but had no electioneering purpose is a matter of dispute between the parties and 

among the judges on the District Court [below].”). 

In other words, Congress seems to have left open a small interpretive gap after BCRA: 

one that allows the Commission, using its case-by-case approach, to deem an extraordinary 

“electioneering communication” as lacking an election-related purpose. The following ad, for 

example, would seem to fall within the letter of BCRA’s definition: It runs 60 days before a 

midterm election; it does not mention the election or even indirectly reference it (e.g., by 

cabining the message’s timeframe to “this November”); the meat of the ad discusses the 

substance of a proposed bill; the ad urges the viewer to call a named incumbent representative

and request that she vote for the bill; but it does not make any reference to the incumbent’s prior 

voting history or otherwise criticize her. See 52 U.S.C. § 30104(f)(3)(A). That might be the sort 

of electioneering communication that could, under the Commission’s case-by-case approach, 

properly be deemed lacking an election-related purpose under Buckley despite meeting BCRA’s 

definition of “electioneering communication.”

But the Court expects such an ad to be a rare exception. Congress has made a judgment 

that run-of-the-mill electioneering communications have the purpose of influencing an election; 

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an ad meeting the statutory definition of an electioneering communication generally indicates a 

purpose of nominating or electing a candidate.

B. The Commission’s Analysis Did Not Give Effect to Congress’s Clear Intent

The controlling Commissioners’ multifactor analysis ignores Congress’s expressed intent 

regarding electioneering advertisements. The very first sentence of their multifactor test speaks 

volumes: “In evaluating major purpose, our starting point is the language of the communication 

itself.” J.A. 1767. Starting with the language of a political ad might be justifiable if the ad aired 

nowhere near a federal election, or if it did not mention a candidate. But, as just explained, when 

it comes to electioneering communications Congress has already determined that they are 

presumptively designed to influence elections. The remainder of the Commission’s test in no 

way accounts for that fact:

[W]e look at the ad’s specific language for references to candidacies, elections, 

voting, political parties, or other indicia that the costs of the ad should be counted 

towards a determination that the organization’s major purpose is to nominate or 

elect candidates. We also examine the extent to which the ad focuses on issues 

important to the group or merely on the candidates referenced in the ad. 

Additionally, we consider information beyond the content of the ad only to the 

extent necessary to provide context to understand better the message being 

conveyed. Finally, we ascertain whether the communication contains a call to 

action and, if so, whether the call relates to the speaker's issue agenda or, rather, to 

the election or defeat of federal candidates.

J.A. 1767–68. The Commission may be permitted to use these or similar factors in assessing 

whether an electioneering ad overcomes the presumption that it is aimed to elect a candidate. 

But engaging in a holistic, de novo review of the ad based on those factors allows the 

Commission to treat run-of-the-mill electioneering ads—those highly critical of a candidate’s 

positions but lacking the “magic words” directing viewers to vote him out of office—as not 

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indicating an electioneering purpose. That framework cannot be squared with Congress’s views 

on the issue.

Indeed, the controlling Commissioners’ analysis of AAN’s ads in this case is strong 

evidence that their multifactor approach, if anything, builds in a presumption that runs in the 

opposite direction of what Congress intended—i.e., that it tilts the balance in favor of finding 

that electioneering communications do not have an electioneering purpose. Take the ad titled 

“Skype,” which identified Congresswoman Dina Titus, a Democrat from Nevada who was 

narrowly defeated in her 2010 reelection bid:

Person l: Hey, what’s up?

Person 2: Hey. You have to check out the article I just sent you. Apparently 

convicted rapists can get Viagra paid for by the new health care bill.

Person 1: Are you serious?

Person 2: Yep. I mean, Viagra for rapists? With my tax dollars? And 

Congresswoman Titus voted for it.

Person 1: Titus voted for it?

Person 2: Yep. I mean, what is going on in Washington?

Person 1: In November, we need to tell Titus to repeal it. [Superimposed text: 

“Tell Congresswoman Titus to vote for repeal in November. Vote Yes on H.R.

4903. (202) 225-3252.”]

J.A. 1776.

The controlling Commissioners did not find that this ad (nor any others mentioning

healthcare) had an election-related purpose. “The criticisms contained in the ads,” they 

explained, “are couched in terms of past votes taken by the named officeholder and are 

accompanied by calls to action designed to influence the officeholders’ votes in the lame-duck 

session.” J.A. 1776. Seriously? Is it really plausible that the attack on Titus’s past vote for the 

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Affordable Care Act—for supplying “Viagra to rapists” no less—was designed to mobilize 

Titus’s constituents to change her view on the Obama Administration’s signature legislative 

initiative, rather than to oust her from office for casting that vote? And would a sophisticated 

organization like AAN conceivably invest millions of dollars on ads in an effort to get the 

Democratic-controlled House that had just passed the Act to turn around and repeal it only 

months later? Perhaps the ad could be charitably read as having a dual purpose—maybe some 

viewers would indeed be motivated to call Titus and tell her to vote for a healthcare repeal bill if 

it came up in the anticipated lame-duck session. (That turned out to be a big “if”—the

Commission cites no evidence, and the Court is aware of none, that the House actually

considered a repeal bill during the December lame-duck session.) But surely the primary 

purpose of this ad was to convince viewers to vote against Titus. Indeed, the ad is awfully close 

to the hypothetical posed by the Supreme Court in McConnell to highlight the illusory distinction 

between express advocacy and issue advocacy: An ad that, instead of urging viewers to “vote 

against Jane Doe,” “condemned Jane Doe’s record on a particular issue before exhorting viewers 

to ‘call Jane Doe and tell her what you think.’” 540 U.S. at 127 (quoting 251 F. Supp. 2d 176,

304 (D.D.C. 2003) (Henderson, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part)). 

That the Commissioners readily characterized “Skype” and similar ads as unrelated to elections 

demonstrates the mismatch between their framework and Congress’s understanding of 

electioneering ads. Their approach in fact flirts with a reverse “magic words” test: 

electioneering communications that harangue a candidate are exempt so long as they instruct the 

viewer to “call” her representative rather than to “vote against” him.

None of the Commission’s arguments in favor of its approach are availing. As it did 

when justifying its first dismissal, the Commission cites WRTL II, which (again) found that 

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spending on electioneering communications could be restricted only if the ads were, as an 

objective matter, “the functional equivalent of express advocacy,” id. at 469. Relying on that 

case, the Commission insists that even if it may not apply a categorical rule that turns on whether 

the ad contains express advocacy (or the functional equivalent), it may consider whether the ad 

resembles express advocacy in deciding whether it has an election-related purpose. FEC’s Mot. 

Summ. J. at 40 (“[The Court’s] determination did not preclude Commissioners from analyzing 

AAN’s communications by reference to their content, consistent with the Supreme Court’s 

analysis in WRTL, when considering whether the ads were electoral in nature.”). That’s true so 

far as it goes: the Commission is not outright forbidden from considering the content of an 

electioneering communication. But because of BCRA, that consideration must follow a strong 

presumption that an electioneering communication indicates a purpose of electing a candidate.

More fundamentally, the Commission continues to overread WRTL II for the idea that 

the primary goal in evaluating AAN’s ads should be to determine whether the ads’ content bears

“indicia of express advocacy.” FEC’s Mot. Summ. J. at 39 (quoting WRTL II, 551 U.S. at 470).

WRTL II focused narrowly on an electioneering communication’s content, to the exclusion of 

“contextual factors” like the ad’s timing, for a particular reason: the First Amendment demanded

an objective, narrowly tailored standard for bans on speech. 551 U.S. at 473; see id. at 469–70 

(examining whether ad’s content had “indicia of express advocacy”). But, again, McConnell and 

Citizens United v. FEC—the latter of which came after WRTL II—foreclose any argument that

in the disclosure setting the First Amendment requires that a regulated communication contain

the functional equivalent of express advocacy. See also Independence Institute v. FEC, 216 F. 

Supp. 3d 176, 193 (D.D.C. 2016) (Millett, J.) (in rejecting a constitutional challenge to the donor 

disclosure requirement as applied to a particular electioneering communication, explaining that 

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the challenger’s “proposed constitutional exception for ‘genuine’ issue advocacy is entirely 

unworkable as a constitutional rule”). In other words, the Supreme Court has seen no problem 

with disclosure requirements triggered solely by an electioneering communication’s context: its 

timing, its reference to a candidate, and its viewership. And Congress’s view, made plain in 

BCRA, is that the presence of those contextual factors inherently suggests an election-related

purpose.

The Commission falls back on Buckley. In the Commission’s view, the fact that Buckley

read FECA to avoid regulating “groups engaged purely in issue discussion,” 424 U.S. at 79,

means that the Commission must evaluate the content of an entity’s political ads to determine 

whether the ads are, in fact, “issue discussion.” But again, Congress in BCRA cabined some of 

the Commission’s discretion by defining a subset of political ads—electioneering 

communications—that by definition are related to federal elections. After BCRA, the 

Commission cannot review electioneering communications de novo to determine whether they 

qualify as pure issue discussion. The statute emphatically placed electioneering advertisements 

on the election-related side of Buckley’s line, and the Commission must pay heed to that 

placement when evaluating the major purpose of an entity that spends money on electioneering 

communications.

Finally, the Commission emphasizes this Court’s prior refusal to impose a bright-line 

rule—one that would require it to count all electioneering communications toward an electionrelated major purpose. According to the Commission, that refusal implicitly endorsed its 

approach to electioneering communications. FEC’s Mot. Summ. J. at 36. Not so. To be sure, 

the Court continues to believe that an inflexible rule would be incompatible with the FEC’s 

recognized power to resolve major-purpose questions on a case-by-case basis. Such a rule would 

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also conflict with the Supreme Court’s recognition in McConnell that some “issue ads” might

really be just that, even if run near elections. That does not mean, though, that the Commission 

has unfettered discretion to judge electioneering ads. Rather, FECA and BCRA make clear that

Congress intended to foreclose the Commission from applying a major-purpose framework that 

does not, at a minimum, presumptively consider spending on electioneering ads as indicating an 

election-related major purpose.14 The Commission may in special circumstances conclude that 

an electioneering ad does not have such a purpose. But given Congress’s recognition that the 

“vast majority” of electioneering ads have the purpose of electing a candidate, the Commission’s 

exclusion of electioneering ads from its major-purpose analysis should be the rare exception, not 

the rule. McConnell, 540 U.S. at 206; see also CREW, 209 F. Supp. 3d at 93 (“[I]t blinks reality 

to conclude that many of the ads considered by the Commissioners in this case were not designed 

to influence the election or defeat of a particular candidate in an ongoing race.”).

Having found a legal error in the Commissioners’ approach, the appropriate remedy here 

is to remand this matter to the Commission. The Court appreciates that the Commission may, on 

remand, yet again exclude from its analysis some of the ads that it previously excluded. But 

because the controlling Commissioners did not begin with a presumption that an electioneering 

ad evinces an election-related purpose, the Court is not so confident that they would reach the 

 14 This is not to say that spending on advertisements is the sole relevant factor in 

determining an entity’s major purpose. The point here is that to the extent that spending on 

advertising is relevant—and surely it is to some degree—the Commission must account for 

spending in a way that reflects an electioneering ad’s presumptive purpose of affecting an 

upcoming election.

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same outcome on remand to warrant affirming their decision under the principle of “harmless 

error.”15

IV. Conclusion

The Court recognizes that the Commission, like all executive agencies, must comply with 

directives from the two other branches of government—directives that sometimes push the 

agency in opposite directions. The problem here is that the FEC has equated two directives that 

are plainly unequal in their relevance to the issue at hand. Congress decades ago laid down a 

clear, broad definition of the term “political committee” in FECA that would obviously capture 

AAN; the Supreme Court in Buckley then cabined that definition in a way that requires the 

Commission to conduct a major purpose analysis. But Congress later clarified, through BCRA, 

that it viewed the vast majority of electioneering communications as corroborating a purpose of 

electing candidates to federal office. And while the Supreme Court in several cases has struck 

down other aspects of FECA and BCRA, it has never suggested that its constitutional concerns

apply in the realm of disclosure requirements. Indeed, the Supreme Court has now twice 

reaffirmed that there is no constitutional distinction between issue-based and express advocacy in 

the disclosure context. Absent such a distinction, FECA and BCRA require the agency to 

presume that spending on electioneering communications contributes to a “major purpose” of 

 15 Because the Administrative Procedure Act instructs courts to take “due account . . . of 

the rule of prejudicial error,” 5 U.S.C. § 706, courts reviewing agency action under that Act will 

not remand to the agency if “the agency’s mistake did not affect the outcome.” PDK Labs., Inc. 

v. DEA, 362 F.3d 786, 799 (D.C. Cir. 2004). Though FECA contains no express requirement of 

prejudice, courts have invoked the principle in reviewing an FEC decision. See, e.g., Level the 

Playing Field v. FEC, 232 F. Supp. 3d 130, 142–43 (D.D.C. 2017). The Court therefore assumes 

that, in theory, a harmless legal error would not require remanding this case to the Commission.

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nominating or electing a candidate for federal office, and, in turn, to presume that such spending 

supports designating an entity as a “political committee” under FECA.

Because the Commission failed to apply those presumptions, its dismissal of CREW’s 

complaints against AAN was “contrary to law.” The Court, accordingly, will grant CREW’s 

motion for summary judgment, deny the FEC’s and AAN’s cross-motions, and direct the 

Commission to conform with this declaration within 30 days. 52 U.S.C. § 30109(a)(8)(C). If the 

FEC does not timely conform with the Court’s declaration, CREW may bring “a civil action to 

remedy the violation involved in the original complaint.” Id. A separate Order accompanies this 

Memorandum Opinion. 

CHRISTOPHER R. COOPER

United States District Judge

Date: March 20, 2018

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UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

CITIZENS FOR RESPONSIBILITY AND

ETHICS IN WASHINGTON, et al.,

Plaintiffs, 

v. 

FEDERAL ELECTION COMMISSION,

Defendant, 

AMERICAN ACTION NETWORK, INC.,

Intervenor Defendant.

 

Case No. 16-cv-2255 (CRC)

ORDER

For the reasons stated in the accompanying Memorandum Opinion, it is hereby 

ORDERED that:

1. Defendant Federal Election Commission’s Motion for Summary Judgment (ECF No. 

28) is DENIED.

2. Intervenor-Defendant American Action Network’s Motion for Summary Judgment 

(ECF No. 30) is DENIED.

3. Plaintiffs’ Cross-Motion for Summary Judgment (ECF Nos. 31 & 32) is GRANTED.

4. Defendant Federal Election Commission shall conform with the Court’s declaration 

within 30 days, in accordance with 52 U.S.C. § 30109.

SO ORDERED.

CHRISTOPHER R. COOPER

United States District Judge

Date: March 20, 2018

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EXHIBIT 4 

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