MIT,RENCE. COPY 

Do Not Remove from the Library 

U. S. Fish I \ and Wildlife Service 

FWSlOBS-82/11.7 "''u' .- ~acnnrrh cc?ntf?r 

October 1983 700 Cajun Dome Boule\tard TR EL.82.4 

Lofayette, Louisiana 70506 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and 

Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes 

and Invertebrates (North Atlantic) 

WHITE PERCH 

Coastal Ecology Group 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 
FWS/OBS-82/11.7 

TR EL-82-4 

October 1983 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements 

of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates .(North At1 antic) 

WHITE PERCH 

Jon G. Stan1 ey 

and 

Dwight S. Danie 

Maine Cooperative Fi shery Research Uni t 

313 Murray Hal 1 

Uni versi ty of Maine 

Orono, ME 04469 

Project Manager 

Larry Shanks 

Project Officer 

Norman Benson 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Slidell, LA 70458 

This study was conducted 

in cooperation with 

Coastal Ecology Group 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

Waterways Experiment Station 

Performed for 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

Di vi si on of Bi 01 ogi cal Services 

Fi sh and Wi 1 dl i fe Serivce 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Washi ngton, DC 20240 
CONVERSION FACTORS 

Metric -- to U.S. Customary 

Mu1 tiply ATo Obtain 

mi ll imeters (mm) 

centimeters (cm) 

meters (m) 

kilometers (km) 

inches 

inches 

feet 

mi 1 es 

square meters (m') 

square ki 1 ometers (km') 

hectares (ha) 

square feet 

square miles 

acres 

1 iters (1) 

cubic meters (m3) 

cubic meters 

gal 1 ons 

cubic feet 

acre-feet 

mi 1 1 i grams (mg) 

grams (gm) 

ki 1 ograms (kg) 

metric tons (mt) 

metric tons (mt) 

kilocalories (kcal ) 

ounces 

ounces 

pounds 

pounds 

short tons 

BTU 

Cel si us degrees Fahrenheit degrees 

U.S. Customary Metric 

inches 

inches 

feet (ft) 

fathoms 

miles (mi) 

nautical miles (nmi) 

mi 11 imeters 

centimeters 

meters 

meters 

ki lometers 

kilometers 

square feet (ft2). 

acres 

square miles (mi') 

square meters 

hectares 

square ki lometers 

gal 1 ons (gal ) 

cubic feet (ft3) 

acre-feet 

1 i ters 

cubic meters 

cubic meters 

ounces (02) 

pounds (Ib) 

short tons (ton) 

BTU 

grams 

k i 1 ograms 

metric tons 

kil ocalories 

Fahrenheit degrees Cel si us degrees 
CONTENTS 

Page 

CONVERSIONTABLE ................................ ii 

PREFACE .................................... iv 

NOMENCLATllRE/TAXONOMY/RANGE .......................... 1 

MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS ......................... 3 

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES ......................... 3 

LIFE HISTORY .................................. 3 

Spawning ................................... 3 

FecundityandEggs .............................. 4 

Larvae .................................... 5 

Juveniles and Adults ............................. 5 

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS ............................. 6 

COMMERCIAL/SPORT FISHERY ............................ 6 

ECOLOGICAL ROLE ................................ 8 

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS ........................... 8 

Temperature ................................. 8 

Salinity ................................... 9 

Habitat ................................... 9 

Other Environmental Factors ......................... 9 

LITERATURE CITED ................................ 10 
PREFACE 

This species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms, 

principally fish, .of sport, commercial, or ecological importance. The profiles 

are designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists with a brief 

comprehensive sketch of the bi 01 ogical characteristics and envi ronmental requi rements of the species and to describe how populations of the species may be 

expected to react to environmental changes caused by coastal development. Each 

profile has sections on taxonomy, 1 i fe history, ecological role, environmental 

requi rements, and economic importance, if appl icabl e. A three-ring binder is 

used for this series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared. 

This project is jointly planned and financed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to: 

Information Transfer Special ist 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

NASA-Slidell Computer Complex 

1010 Gause Boul evard 

Sl idel 1, LA 70458 

U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station 

Attention: WESER 

Post Office Box 631 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 

This series should be referenced as fol lows: 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Species profiles: life histories and 

envi ronmental requi rements of coastal fishes and invertebrates. 11.S. Fish 

and Wi Id1 i fe Service, Division of Biological Services, FWS/OBS-82/11. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 

This profile should be cited as follows: 

Stanley, J.G., and D.S. Danie. 1983. Species profiles: life histories and 

environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (North 

Atlantic -- white perch. U.S. Fish and Wild1 ife Service, Division of 

Biological Services, FWS/OBS-82/11.7. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL82-4. 12 pp. 
Figure 1. White perch. 

WHITE PERCH 

Scientific name . . . Morone americana 

(Gmel in) 

Former scientific name . . . . Roccus 

ameri canus Jordon and Gi 1 bert 

Preferred common name . . . White 

perch (Figure 1) 

Other common names . . Narrow-mouthed 

bass, silver perch, perch, sea 

perch, bay perch, bl ue-nosed perch, 

grey perch, black perch, gatte. 

French common name: - bar-peche. 

Cl ass . . . . . . . . . . Osteichthyes 

Order . . . . . . . . . . Perciformes 

Fami ly . . . . . . . . Perci chthyidae 

Geographic range: Coastal areas from 

New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and 

Prince Edward Island south to 

South Carolina. Largest populations in coastal waters of New 

Jersey, Delaware, Mary1 and, and 

Vi rgi ni a, throughout Chesapeake 

Bay and Delaware canals (Hardy 

1978). Principal estuarine fishery areas for white perch in the 

North Atlantic region are noted 

in Figure 2. Introduced to lakes 

and ponds in New England, Nebraska (Hergenrader and Bliss 1980), 

and the Great Lakes (Busch et al. 

1977; Scott and Christie 1963). 
I 

I 

1 

1 

L 

A TL A N TIC OCEAN 

MILES 

0 50 100 

0 5 0 100 

KILOMETERS 

Principal estuarine 

f isheries 

Figure 2. Principal rivers and bays in the North Atlantic region that 

support white perch fisheries. 
MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS 

Morphology (from Hardy 1978): D. 1 

VII-XI; D.2 I, 11-13; A. 111, 9-10; C. 

17; P. 10-18; V. I, 5; scales in lateral line, 44 to 55, in transverse 

series 20, above 6-10, below lateral 

line 9-14, around caudal peduncle 18- 

24; vertebrae 11-14; gill rakers 4 + 

13-17, branchi ostegal s 7. Proporti on 

as percent SL: body depth 28-41 (lacustrine perch may have conspicuously 

more el ongate bodies than estuarine 

perch), HL 30-39, head depth 20-30. 

Proportions as percent of TL: depth 

24.4-29.0, HL 26.3-29.7. Proportions 

as percent of HL; eye diameter 18.9- 

28.6, snout 28.6-30.9. Proportions as 

times in HL: interorbital width 4.2- 

5.2. Longest dorsal spine ca. 0.5. 

Body obl ong, ovate, compressed ; 

head depressed above eyes; snout 

pointed, mouth oblique, terminal, lower jaw sl ightly projected, posterior 

end of upper jaw beneath front of eye. 

Teeth small , pointed, and in bands on 

jaws, vomer, and palatines; no teeth 

on base of tongue, but small teeth 

at distal periphery of tongue. Gill 

rakers long. Opercle ends in two flat 

points ; p r e - o p e r c l e margin serrate. 

Scales extending onto base of ventral 

fins and forward on head to nostrils. 

The two dorsal fins barely connected, 

with their base lengths about equal ; 

origin of D.l just anterior to midpoint of body; C. forked. Maximum body 

length: 495 mm (19.5 inches). 

Pigmentation: Silvery, greenish 

gray, si 1 very gray, 01 i vaceous, dark 

green, or nearly black above, sometimes brassy. Large individuals with 

bluish luster on head. Sides paler 

with silvery or brassy cast and sometimes indistinct lateral stripes. 

Be1 ly s-i 1 very white, immaculate. 

Underside of mandible bluish purple or 

pink, particularly during spawning 

season. Melanophores on rays and membranes of all fins ; dorsals dusky, but 

with pi gnient of D. 2 concentrated on 

interradial membranes of outer half of 

fin; anal sometimes rose colored at 

base; spines of A.l and A.2 darkest 

di stal ly ; caudal darkest on posterior 

2/3; pectorals essentially colorless, 

pel vi cs sometimes plain, sometimes 

with rose-colored bases. 

White perch differ from the 

striped bass (Morone saxati 1 is) and 

the white bass (Morone -1 in a 

number of ways.Thedorsa1 fins of 

white perch are slightly joined at 

base by a membrane. Anal spines are 

stout, not graduated in length; the 

second and thi rd spines are subequal . Teeth are absent on base of tongue. 

Lateral stripes absent on body. These 

other Morone spp. have dorsal fins entirely separated at the base; anal 

spines graduated in length; fine teeth 

at base of tongue; and 4 to 7 lateral 

stripes. White perch have fewer rows 

of scales between gill cover and base 

of tail, about 48 compared to 60 in 

the striped bass. 

Eggs, larvae, and young-of-theyear of white perch can be distingui shed based on morphology (Mansueti 

1964). Starch gel electrophoresis bi ochemical ly di sti ngui shes the 1 arval 

stages of these two species (Morgan 

1975; Side11 and Otto 1978). 

REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES 

White perch are widespread, abundant, and subject to various degrees 

of fishing pressure throughout their 

range. They have social and economic 

significance in fresh and brackish 

waters which are subject to varied 

habitat a1 terations. They are imp.ortant on several trophic 1 eve1 s--as 

prey and predator--and fill many 

envi ronmental niches. 

LIFE HISTORY 

Spawni ng 

White perch spawn in estuaries, 

rivers, 1 akes, and marshes. Spawning 

is usually in freshwater, but may 

occur in brackish water at salinities 

up to 4.2 ppt (Hardy 1978). Preferred 

spawning habitats are waters that are 

tidal and nontidal, clear or turbid, 
fast or slow (Wang and Kernehan 1979). 

Spawning is in water less than 7 m (23 

ft) deep; 0.9 to 6.1 m (3 to 20 ft) in 

estuaries, and 0 to 1.5 m (0 to 5 ft) 

in lakes (Hardy 1978). Mansueti (1964) 

stated that spawning was at similar 

depths in estuaries and lakes. Scott 

and Crossman (1 973) reported spawning 

at depths of 0 to 3.7 m (0 to 12 ft) 

in marshes. Substrate may be clay, 

sand, pul veri zed she1 1 s, or gravel . Rising temperatures stimulate 

spawning (Mansueti 1961). Northern 

populations begin spawning in 1 ate 

March to early Apri 1 , whereas southern 

populations spawn slightly 1 ater 

(Hardy 1978). Freshwater populations 

spawn from April through May; estuarine stocks spawn from May through 

July. Wang and Kernehan (1979) recorded spawni ng from Apri 1 through 

June for estuarine populations. Holsapple and Foster (1975) stated that 

spawning was most intense during June 

for freshwater white perch. 

White perch may spawn in the same 

body of water where resident or migrate l ong di stances. Migration to 

fresh or brackish water is required 

for marine populations. Migrations up 

to 90 km (56 mi) were recorded for the 

Yatuxent River, Mary1 and (Mansueti 

1961), and 104 km (65 mi) through 

Albemarle Sound in North Carolina 

(Kearson 1969). The ripe adults 

assemble in 1 arge groups containing 

hundreds of individual s. Wang and 

Kernehan (1979) descri be ripe ma1 es 

preceding females to the spawning 

grounds in March. 

Individual females are surrounded 

by several males, and eggs and sperm 

are spread randomly. The eggs attach 

immediately to substrate. With i ntensive spawning, eggs adhere to each 

other and may drift freely downstream 

where incubation is semi pelagic. Egg 

release may span 10 to 21 days, with 

peaks at dusk (Hardy 1978) and after 

rai nfal 1 (Wang and Kernehan 1979). 

Mansueti (1964) noted that eggs ripen 

progressively and may be released during two or three separate spawnings. 

It was estimated that only 10% of the 

eggs were ripe at the height of the 

season. 

Fecundity and Eggs 

White perch are fecund compared 

to similar-sized fish. The large numbers of eggs enable the white perch to 

propagate rapidly in introduced areas, 

outcompeting other species and becoming overpopulated. Fecundity estimates 

of 5,210 to 321,000 (mean of 40,000) 

were reported by Hardy (1978), and 

20,000 to 300,000 by Scott and Crossman (1973). A single spawning by a 3- 

year-old fish had 20,676 eggs, whereas 

a 9-year-old fish had 124,289 eggs 

(Hol sappl e and Foster 1975). AuCl ai r 

(1956) estimated the release of 56,200 

eggs/kg of fi sh during one spawning. 

Fecundity depends on size and age, 

exempl i fi ed by the fecundity of white 

perch from Lake Ontario (Table 1). 

Ovarian eggs exist in two size 

groups in the South and three size 

groups in the North (Hardy 1978), suggesting two or three periods of egg 

deposition. The eggs are comparatively 

small , spherical, and trans1 ucent. Unfertilized eggs are soft (Hardy 1978), 

and 0.70 to 0.89 mml in diameter (Mansueti 1964; Scott and Crossman 1973). 

Fertilized eggs are 0.65 to 1.09 mm in 

Table 1. Fecundity of fork length 

(FL) classes of white perch in Lake 

Ontario (Sheri and Power 1968). 

Size class Average 

fecundity 

FL (mm) (numbers ) 

1 25.4 mm = 1 inch. 
diameter, yellow-brown, and have a 

f 1 at attachment di sc (Hardy 1978). 

Mansueti (1964) stated that fertilized 

eggs range from 0.75 to 1.09 mm in 

diameter; Wang and Kernehan (1979) 

recorded a range of 0.8 to 1.0 mm. 

When shed, eggs are demersal and usually attach singly to detritus, although thin sheets are possible. 

At maturity, eggs are slightly 

ye1 lowish, granular, and translucent, 

with a large oil globule (Leim and 

Scott 1966). The eggs hatch in 30 hr 

at 20°C (68°F) (Thoits and Mullan 

1973), 44 to 50 hr at 18°C (64°F) 

(Hardy 1978), and 60 to 72 hr (Schubel 

and Wang 1973) or 96 to 108 hr at 15°C 

(59°F) (Thoits and Mullan 1973). 

Egg survival appears to be unaffected by silt levels; eggs tolerate 

500-mg/l concentrati ons of parti cul ate 

matter (Schubel and Wang 1973). 

AuClai r (1960) stated that temperature drops of 4" to 5°C (7" to 

9°F) were lethal. Hardy (1978) found 

that sudden drops of 2" to 3°C (4" to 

5°F) induced mortality; a minimum 

summer temperature of 7°C (45°F) was 

1 ethal . Extensive mortal i ty 0ccllrred 

at 10°C (50°F). 

Eggs are most sensitive to handling or disturbances during the first 

few minutes after spawning. Water 

hardening is complete within 15 to 

20 min at 18°C (65°F) (Hardy 1978). 

Larvae 

Newly hatched prolarvae remain in 

the general spawning area during the 

first 4 to 13 days, growing from an 

initial size of 1.7 to 3.0 mm to a 

length of 3 to 4 mm (Mansueti 1964; 

Hardy 1978). Prolarvae have unpi gmented eyes and limited mobil ity. As the 

1 arvae grow, they a1 ternati vely swim 

vertically or sink (Mansueti 1964; 

Wang and Kernehan 1979), resul ti ng in 

downstream drift in rivers or planktonic drift in estuaries or lakes ' (Hardy 1978). Wang and Kernehan (1979) 

found prolarvae throughout the water 

column of streams, but suggested an 

increasingly demersal perference as 

size and age increase. Hardy (1978) 

described juveniles in lakes in depths 

of 2.4 to 3.6 m (8 to 12 ft). 

Mansueti (1964) noted that pro1 arvae transformed to post1 arvae when 

mouths and pigmented eyes developed at 

about 3.8 mm total length (TL). Postlarvae transformed to juveniles at 7 

to 9 mm TL and developed fins. Temperature requi rements of larvae are 

similar to that of the eggs; sudden 

drops may be fatal. Salinities up to 3 

to 5 ppt are tolerated and 8 ppt may 

be lethal. 

Juveni 1 es and Adults 

Wang and Kernehan (1979) suggested that inshore zones of estuaries and 

creeks are nurseries. Juveni 1 es stay 

in these areas up to 1 year, until 20 

to 30 mm in length. They inhabit waters with silt, mud, and plant substrate (Hardy 1978). Mansueti (1964) 

suggested that fry prefer a demersal 

habitat, although they often are found 

at depths of 2.4 to 3.6 m (8 to 12 

ft). Hardy (1978) described large 

school s of fry moving downstream 

through brackish waters to beach and 

shoal areas. The school s occasi onal ly 

venture to offshore waters during daylight, but return to protected beach 

and shoal areas tt night and during 

rough water. In August, with decreasing temperatures, juveniles return to 

brackish waters to overwinter either 

in deep pools of tidal creeks and 

tributaries or deep waters of rivers 

and bays (Wang and Kernehan 1979). 

Adults show simil ar seasonal 

movements, catalyzed by temperature 

(Mansueti 1964; Markle 1976; Hardy 

1978). When temperatures increase in 

spring, white perch begin thei r spawning migration. They move shoreward and 

generally upstream, sometimes in large 

schools to shallow areas in tidal 

creeks and freshwater areas. After 

spawning, they may seek deeper water. 

Summer movements are local and random, 

rarely covering more than 19 km (12 

mi ) (Mansueti 1964; Hardy 1978). 
Hardy (1978) stated that most 

nales and females mature at 2 years, 

some females at 3, and a1 1 by 4. Holsapple and Foster (1975) stated that 

at age I1 20% of the males and none of 

the females were mature; by age I11 

all males and 75% of the females were 

mature. Mansueti (1964) be1 ieved that 

length was the .determining factor for 

maturity with males maturing at 80 mm 

and females at 90 mm. Length at first 

maturity of 72 mm for males and 98 mm 

for females was given by Hardy (1978). 

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS 

Scott and Crossman (1973) stated 

that the growth rates of white perch 

depended on the region and habitat. 

Land1 ocked popul ati ons in small 01 i gotrophi c 1 akes al ong coastal regions 

have a slower growth rate than newly 

expanding populations such as those in 

Lake Ontario. Growth is usually faster 

in newly established populations, and 

can continue for long periods, as Taub 

(1966) found in Quabbi n Reservoi r, 

Massachusetts. According to Bryant 

(1972), white perch grow re1 ati vely 

slowly and tend to stunt throughout 

their range. Mansueti (1961) compared 

a population in the upper Patuxent 

estuary (Maryl and) that was stunted, 

with a fast-growing population in the 

lower Patuxent. Growth was affected by 

temperature, food supply, and popul ati on density. The greatest increment 

in length was during the first year of 

life. He believed that this increment 

a1 one woul d best i n d i c a t e e c o l o g i c a l 

effects on growth. The number of days 

in spring with water temperatures between 10" and 15°C (50" and 5g°F), and 

the amount of solar radiation both 

were positively correlated with 

growth. Increased spring rainfall 

(which affects sal i ni ty) and popul ati on density both inversely correlate 

to growth. Hines (1981) suggested that 

stunted populations are often associ - 

ated with eutrophic waters. 

COMMERCIAL/SPORT FISHERY 

Significant commerci a1 harvests 

of white perch are made from Massachusetts to North Carolina with the bulk 

of the 1 andi ngs originating from the 

estuarine waters of the Chesapeake 

Bay. The total harvest in 1979 was 563 

metric tons, with Maryland .leading a1 1 

other States in commerci a1 harvests 

(Table 2). There is no commercial 

catch at the northern and southern 

extremes of the range. 

Ttie greatest landings were made 

at the turn of the century; afterwards, production decreased. In 1897 

Del aware recorded 1 andi ngs of 180 

Table 2. The commercial catch of white 

perch in the United States during 1979 

(from various issues of Current Fishery Statistics, Nati onalDceanicand 

Atmospheric Administration). 

St ate Pounds Val ue 

Maine 0 0 

New Hampshire no data 

Massachusetts 3,698 $ 1,601 

Rhode Island 145 3 9 

New York 3,861 15,468 

New Jersey 38,220 11,667 

Del aware no data 

Mary1 and 687,371 185,072 

Vi rgi ni a 147,095 40,795 

North Carolina 361,032 94,557 

South Carolina 0 0 

Georgia 0 0 

Total 1,241,422 $ 349,199 = 563 metric tons 

tons; by 1940 they were down to 7 

tons. Temporary upsurges in abundance 

peri odi cal ly occur because of good 

year cl asses (McHugh 1981). Between 

1960 and 1980 the commercial landings 

in the United States ranged from 272 

to 1,412 metric tons (Table 3). The 

landings since 1973 were about half of 

those during the 1960's. Tables 2 and 

3 do not agree for the catch in 1979. 

White perch are caught year-round 

with largest catches in spring. Fishing is by trawl , haul seines, and 
drift gill nets in Chesapeake Bay. 

1 White perch are marketed as bay perch 

and sold fresh. The roe is occasionally sold for human consumption during 

winter and early spring (Mansueti 

1964). 

Table 3. The catch (in metric tons) of 

white perch in the United States between 1960 and 1980. The recreational 

catch is for saltwater only for years 

in which surveys are made (from McHugh 

1977 and Food and Agriculture Organization 1981*). 

Year Commerci a1 Recreati onal 

White perch, although common in 

1 akes throughout northern New Engl and, 

New Brunwick, and Nova Scotia, occur 

in few estuaries north of Cape Cod. 

White perch have no commercial or recreational importance in the Gulf of 

Mai ne (Bi gel ow and Schroeder 1953). 

Mai ne recently proposed comrnerci a1 

fishing of freshwater populations for 

1 obster bait. 

Recreational fishing is important 

for both marine and freshwater populations. According to the Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey 

(1980) the total nu~liber of white perch 

caught by marine recreational anglers 

was 5,494,000 fish in 1979, 96% of 

which were from the mid-Atlanti c 

States. Of the North At1 antic States, 

New Hampshire had none, Maine and 

Rhode Island each had less than 

30,000, Massachusetts had 103,000 (72% 

of the North Atlantic catch), and 

Connecticut had 30,000 (21%). 

Freshwater recreational f i shi ng 

occurs throughout the range of the 

white perch, but is most important in 

the North. In a winter creel census in 

the Patuxent Ri ver, Mary1 and, white 

perch dominated the catch during all 

months sampled (Moore and Frisbie 

1972). Jordan (1981) reported an 

average standing crop of white perch 

in Maine at 60,175,000 individual s 

(10,590,800 lb), most of which were in 

inland lakes and ponds. The annual 

catch was about 3.5 mil lion fish, 

which was only 6% of the standing 

crop. The recreational catch in New 

Hampshire was estimated to be 664,000 

fish (New Hampshire Fish and Game 

Department 1978). 

Mansueti (1961) computed annual 

mortality for white perch in the Patuxent River to range from 0.37 to 

0.59 for age groups IV and older. The 

average for males was about 0.50 and 

for females, about 0.56. These mortal - 

ities are similar to those reported by 

Cooper (1941) in surveys of lakes and 

ponds of the Androscoggin and Kennebec 

Rivers in Maine. Wal lace (1971) 

calculated mortality of white perch in 

the Delaware River to range from 0.49 

to 0.59 for males and 0.53 to 0.65 for 

females. St. Pierre and Davis (1972) 

cal cul ated the mortal i ty for white 

perch in the York River to be 0.59 for 

males and 0.57 for females. Wallace 

(1971) and Mansueti (1961) believed 

that the mortality rates for males 

were lower because females grew faster 

than males up to year V and entered 

the desirable size category for 

harvest at an earlier age. 
ECOLOGICAL ROLE 

The trophic niche of the white 

perch is broad. This species may be 

pl anktivorous, benthoti vorous, or pi - 

scivorous depending on season, age, 

competition, and available food. White 

perch frequently play an important 

role in aquatic systems because of 

predacious and opportunistic feeding. 

They feed on zooplankton as fry and 

larger prey as juveniles. In freshwater, adults feed mainly on aquatic 

insects, but also take crustaceans and 

fishes, i ncl l~di ng thei r own young 

(Scott and Crossman 1973; Zuerlein 

1981). Seasonality and food avai 1 - 

ability influence feeding habits 

(Hi nes 1981). Zooplankton and insects 

are eaten in spring and early summer; 

when these populations decrease, 

white perch eat fish fry, crustaceans, 

and detritus (El rod et a1 . 1981). 

White perch also eat amphipods, 

snails, crayfish, and a variety of 

eggs. In estuaries, white perch eat 

shrimp, squid, crabs, and fish eggs. 

After white perch are 22 cm (9 

inches, they eat fish almost exclusively. 

As prey, white perch are consumed 

by larger predatory fish, such as 

Atlantic salmon, brook trout, chain 

pi ckerel , smal lmouth and 1 argemouth 

bass, and other piscivorous fish 

(Smith and Kernehan 1981). Terrestrial 

vertebrates also prey heavily on 

schooling white perch. The fry of 

white perch may be preyed on by 

copepods. 

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 

Temperature 

White perch live in waters with 

temperatures of 2.0°C to 32.5"C (36" 

to 90°F). They are found in Maine 

1 akes where temperatures seldom rise 

above 15.5"C (60°F), and in Massachusetts lakes where summer water temperatures seldom go below 27°C (81°F). In 

other popul ati ons mortal i ty may occur 

if the temperature attains 27°C (81°F) 

for several days (Hardy 1978). 

Interactions of temperature, 

season, and physi 01 ogy i nf 1 uence 

spawning. Spawning begins at 12" to 

14°C (54" to 57°F) in the Chesapeake 

Bay (Morgan and Rasin 1982). Spawning 

temperatures ranged between 10" and 

19°C (50" to 66°F) in the Oelaware 

River Estuary and spawning began at 

12.5"C (54°F) in North Carolina (Hardy 

1978). The temperature must remain at 

18" to 21°C (64" to 70°F) in Maine 

lakes for several days prior to 

spawning (AuC1 air 1956). In York 

River, Virginia, spawni ng peaked at 

11" to 16°C (52" to 61°F) (Hardy 

1978). 

Hatching occurs in 24 hr at 16' to 

20°C (61" to 68°F) and in 144 hr at 

11" to 16°C (52" to 61°F) (Hardy 1978). 

Morgan and Rasin (1982) found that the 

optimum ha tchi ng temperature was 14°C 

(57°F) at a salinity of 0.0 ppt. The 

opti mum ha tchi ng temperature was 

determined by highest point on the 

graph of: 

where H is the percent hatch at a 

given temperature T ("C). The size of 

the newly hatched larvae was related 

to temperature; the maximum length 

occurred at 16" to 1g0C (61" to 64°F) 

at all salinities (0 to 10 ppt). 

Adults acclimated to 18°C (64°F) 

lost equilibrium at 34°C (93°F) and 

fish acclimated to 27°C (81°F) functi oned unti 1 35.5'C (96°F) (Dorfman 

1970). The upper lethal (LD50) depends 

on the season (McErlean and Brinkley 

1971). Fish collected in March at 

2.9"C (37"F), then acclimated to 10°C 

(50°F), had an LO50 of 26°C (79°F). 

Fish collected in September at 24.5OC 

(76"F), then acclimated to 28.5OC 

(83"F), had an LD50 of 33°C (91°F). 

Preferred temperatures are equal to or 

higher than those to which the fish 

are acclimated, ranging from 5" to 

32°C (41" to 90°F); fish acclimated to 

cold preferred a cool temperature and 

fish acclimated to a warm temperature 

preferred hot water. 
Sal i ni ty 

White perch live in waters ranging in salinity from zero to fullstrength seawater. They spawn in 

nature general ly at salinities 1 ess 

than 4.2 ppt (Hardy 1978), but fish 

have been observed spawning at salinities up to 30 ppt. Salinity affects 

the water balan,ce of deposited eggs. 

Morgan and Rasin (1982) observed that 

egg diameter in freshwater was 0.86 

mm and in brackish water, 0.80 mm. 

Eggs tolerate sal inities higher than 

those in which they normally occur, up 

to 10 ppt, in tests (higher salinities 

were not tested) (Morgan and Rasin 

1982). Larvae are usually in waters 

with salinities of 0 to 8 ppt, although they have been found at 13 ppt. 

Juveniles are found from 3 to 8 ppt, 

rarely to 13 ppt. The normal salinities for adults are between 5 and 18 

ppt (Hardy 1978). 

Habitat 

White perch are ubiquitous in 

estuaries and freshwater ecosystems ' between South Carolina and the 

Canadian Mari times. 'rhi s species was 

essenti a1 ly estuarine in its original 

range. They exhi bit semianadromous 

migrations in tidewater and spawning 

runs in lakes and ponds. White perch 

to1 erate a wide range of sal i ni ti es ; 

hence they become easily acclimated in 

freshwater ponds and other impoundments. 'They have extended their range 

northward in historical times and into 

the Great Lakes more recently (Busch 

et a1 . 1977). They were inadvertently 

introduced and established in Nebraska 

and the Missouri River system (Hergenrader and Bliss 1980; Zuerlein 1981). 

White perch prefer areas with 

fai rly level bottoms composed of compact silt. Mud, sand, and clay are 

a1 so preferred substrates. Soft muck, 

decomposing organic substrate, or 

gravel and rocks were found by AuClai r 

(1956) to be less utilized by white 

perch. In shallow water they spawn 

with no preference for bottom type 

(Scott and Crossman 1973). White perch 

do not depend on vegetation, rocks, 

debris, or manmade structures for 

shelter, since they are commonly found 

in open water. Water depth may provide 

daytime shelter, in both estuarine and 

freshwater habitats. Daily vertical 

migrations from shall ow water (0.9 to 

1.2 m or 3 to 4 ft) at night, to deeper water (4.0 to 9.0 m or 13 to 30 ft) 

during daylight in the summer have 

been observed. White perch overwi nter 

at depths to 40 m (131 ft), but 

usually at 12.2 to 18.3 m or 40 to 60 

ft (AuClai r 1956; Sheri and Power 

1969). Similar movements in marine 

envi ronments, onshore at night and 

offshore at dawn, occur. 

Other Envi ronmental Factors 

Neumann et al. (1981) calculated 

that the oxygen consumption rate of a 

50-9 white perch was 17.6 mg/hr when 

swimming at 8.6 cm/sec, and 25.5 mg/hr 

at 31.7 cm/sec. The rate for a 150-9 

white perch was 23.5 mg/hr when swimming at 8.6 cm/sec and 39.0 mg/hr at 

31.7 cm/sec. They concluded that white 

perch are better adapted for swimming 

efficiently at low speeds, which reflects a more sedentary existence in 

estuaries. 

White perch adults tolerate pH's 

between 6.0 and 9.0 in freshwater. 

Turbidity has little effect during any 

life stage, but may limit food producti on and thus secondari ly restrict 

popul at i ons (Hardy 1978). 
LITERATURE CITED 

AuClair, R.P. 1956. The white perch 

Morone americana (Gmel in) , ~ebasticook Lake, Maine. M.S. Thesis. 

University of Maine, Orono. 84 

PP 

AuClair, R.P. 1960. White perch in 

Maine. Maine Department of In1 and 

Fisheries and Game, Augusta. 16 

PP 

Bigelow, H.B., and W.C. Schroeder. 

1953. Fishes of the Gulf of 

Maine. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. 

Fish. Bull. 53. 577 pp. 

Bryant, M.D. 1972. Growth characteristics, population dynamics, and 

angler harvest of white perch in 

South Branch Lake. M.S. Thesis. 

University of Maine, Orono. 47 

PP 

Busch, W.D.N., D.H. Davies, and S.J. 

Nepszy. 1977. Establishment of 

white perch, Morone americana, in 

Lake Erie. msh. Res. Board 

Can. 34(7) : 1039-1041. 

Cooper, G.P. 1941. A biological survey of lakes and ponds of the 

Androscoggi n and Kennebec River 

drainage systems in Maine. Maine 

Department of In1 and F i s h e r i es 

and Game, Fish Survey Rep. No. 4. 

238 pp. 

Dorfman, D. 1970. Responses of some 

anadromous fishes to varied oxygen concentrations and increased 

temperatures. Ph.D. Thesis. Rutgers University, Brunswi ch, N. J. 

114 pp. 

El rod, J.H., W.D. N. Busch, B.L. Griswold, C.P. Schneider, and D.R. 

Wolfert. 1981. Food of white 

perch, rock bass and yellow perch 

in eastern Lake Ontario. N.Y. 

Fish Game J. 28(2) : 191-201. 

Food and Agriculture Organization 

(FAO). 1981. 1980 Yearbook of 

fishery statistics--catches and 

landings, Vol . 40. United Nations. 

Hardy, J.D., Jr. 1978. Development 

of fi shes of the mid-Atlantic 

Bight--an atlas of egg, larval, 

and juvenile stages. Vol. 111. 

Aphredoderidae through Rachycentridae. U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, Biological Services 

Program, FWS/OBS-78/12. 

Hergenrader, G.L., and Q. B1 i ss. 

1980. Current di stri bu ti on and 

potential for di spersal of white 

perch in Nebraska and adjacent 

water. Pm. Mdl. Nat. 103(2): 

404-406. 

Hines, R. 1981. The ecological significance of a stunted white perch 

population in a eutrophic Maine 

pond. M.S. Thesis. University of 

Maine, Orono. 45 pp. 

Hol sapple, J.G., and L.E. Foster. 

1975. Reproduction of white perch 

in the lower Hudson River. N.Y. 

Fish Game J. 22(2): 122-127. 

Jordan, R.M. 1981. White perch 

management pl an. Pl anni ng for 

Maine's inland fish and wildilfe. 

Vol . 11, Part 1. Maine Department 

of Inland Fisheries and Wi ldl i fey 

Augusta. 

Kearson, L.L. 1969. Effects of stored 

pulp-mill wastes release upon 

Chowan River fishes. North Carolina Wildl. Res. Corn., Annu. 

Prog. Rep. Job IX-B. 18 pp. 

Leim, A.H., and W.B. Scott. 1966. 

Fishes of the Atlantic coast of 

Canada. Bull. Fish. Res. Board. 

Can. 53. 484 pp. 
Mansueti, R.J. 1961. Movements, reproduction and mortality of the 

white perch, Roccus americanus, 

in the Patuxent Estuary, Mary1 and. Chesapeake Sci . 2: 142-205. 

Mansueti, R. J. 1964. Eggs, 1 arvae and 

young of the white perch, Roccus 

americanus,, with comments on its 

ecology in the estuary. Chesapeake Sci. 5: 3-45. 

Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics 

Survey, Atlantic and Gulf States 

1979. 1980. Current f i shi ng 

statistics. No. 8063. U. S. 

Department of Commerce. Nat i onal 

Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C. 

Mark1 e, D.F. 1976. The seasonabil ity 

of avai labi 1 i ty and movements of 

fishes in the channel of the York 

River, Virginia. Chesapeake Sci . 17 (1): 50-55. 

McErlean, A.J., and J.J. Brinkley. 

1971. Temperature tolerance and 

thyroid activity of the white 

perch Roccus (=Morone) american- 

- us. J.iTfiBio-97-114. 

McHugh, J.L. 1977. Fisheries and fishery resources of New York Bight. 

U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Tech. 

Rep. Ci rc. 401. 23-24. 

McHugh, J.L. 1981. Marine fisheries of 

Delaware. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. 

Serv. Fish. Bull. 79(4) : 575-600. 

Moore, C.J., and C.M. Frisbie. 1972. 

A winter sport fishing survey in 

a warm water di'scharge of a steam 

electric station on the Patuxent 

Ri ver, Mary1 and. Chesapeake Sci . 13(2) : 110-115. 

Morgan, R.P., 11. 1975. Distinguishing larval white perch and striped bass by electrophoresis. Chesapeake Sci. 16(1):68-70. 

Morgan, R.P., 11, and V. Rasin, Jr. 

1982. Influence of temperature 

and salinity on development of 

white perch eggs. Trans. Am. 

Fish. Soc. 111(3):396-398. 

Neumann, D.A., J.M. O'Connor, and J.A. 

Sherk, Jr. 1981. Oxygen consumption of white ~erch. Morone americana, striped bass,~oronesax8tilis, and spot, Leiostomus xan- . - 

thurus; Comp. Biochem. Physi0'l.A 

Comp.Physio1. 69(3) :467-478. 

New Hampshire Fish and Game 

Department. 1978. Hunting and 

fishing in New Hampshire. Inland 

and Marine Fisheries Division, 

New Hampshire Fish and Game 

Department, Concord. 149 pp. 

Schubel, J.R., and J.C.S. Wang. 1973. 

The effects of suspended sediment 

on the hatching success of Perca 

f 1 avescens (ye1 l ow perch), MKiiE 

americana (white ~erchl. 

saxati 1 is '(striped bak;) , and 

11 osa pseudoharengus (a1 ewi fe) 

eggs. Chesapeake Bay Institute, 

Johns Hopki ns University , Bal ti - 

more, Ref. No. 73-3. 77 p. 

Scott, W. B., and W. J. Christie. 

1963. The invasion of the lower 

Great Lakes by the white perch, 

Roccus americanus. J. Fish. Res. 

-Can. 20: 1189-1195. 

Scott, W.B., and E.J. Crossman. 1973. 

Freshwater fishes of Canada. 

Bull. Fish. Res. Board Can. 184. 

996 p. 

Sheri, A.N., and G. Power. 1968. Reproduction of white ~erch. Roccus 

americana, in the ~a~ of *~uinte, 

Lake Ontario. J. Fish. Res. Board 

Can. 25(10) : 2225-2231. 

Sheri, A. N., and G. Power. 1969. 

Vertical distribution of white 

perch, Roccus ameri canus, modi - 

fied by-KjlX. Can. I-ield-Nat. 

83(2): 160-161. 

Sidell, B.D., and R.G. Otto. 1973. A 

biochemical method for distinction of striped bass and white 

perch larvae. Copeia 1978(2): 

34-343. 

Smith, R.E., and R.J. Kernehan. 1981. 

Predation by the free living 

copepod, Cyclops bi cuspi datus 
(Thomasi), on larvae of the 

stri~ed bass. Morone saxatil is. 

and white perch, Morone 

americana. Estuaries 4(1) :- 

St. Pierre, R.A., and J. Davis. 1972. 

Age, growth, and mortality of the 

white perch, Morone americana, in 

the James and York Rivers, 

Vi rginia. Chesapeake Sci . 13: 272- 

281. 

Taub, S.H. 1966. Some aspects of the 

life history of the white Derch, 

Roccus ameki canus (he1 i n) , in 

Wn Reservoi r, Massachusetts. 

M.S. Thesis. University of Massachusetts. 63 pp. 

Thoits, C.F., and J.W. Mu1 lan. 1973. A 

compendium of the life history 

and ecology of the white perch, 

Morone arneri cana (Gmel i n). Mass. 

Div. Fish. Game. Fish. Bull. 

(24) : 1-16. 

Wallace, D.C. 1971. Age, growth, year 

class strength, and survival 

rates of the white perch, Morone 

americana (Gmel in), in themware River in the vicinity of 

Artificial Is1 and. Chesapeake 

Sci . 12(4) : 205-218. 

Wang, J.C.S., and R. J. Kernehan. 

1979. Fishes of the Delaware 

es tuaries--a guide to early li fe 

hi stories. Copyri ght by the 

authors. Towson, F?d. 410 pp. 

Zuerlein, G. 1981. The white perch in 

Nebraska. Nebr. Game Parks Comm. 

Tech. Ser. 8. 108 pp. 
Abstract (Limit: 200 words) 

Species profiles are 1 i terature summaries on the taxonomy, morphology, range, 1 ife history 

and environmental requirements of coastal and anadromous species. They are designed to 

assist in environmental impact assessment. The white perch, Morone americana, is a major 

sport and commercial species in Chesapeake Bay and a major sport fish in New England. It 

occurs between South Carolina and the Canadian Maritimes, and inhabits water that is salt 

or fresh, clear or turbid, fast or still. Spawning takes place in freshwater in spring. 

Juvenile nurseries are inshore areas of lakes, estuaries, or creeks. High reproductive 

potential and scarcity of predators often lead to stunted populations. Adults are 

important predators and young serve as forage for economically important species. 

3. Recipient's Accession NO. 

5. Report Date 

October 1983 6. 

8. Performing Organization Rept. NO. 

10. Proiect/Task/Work Unit No. 

-- 

11. Contract(C) or Grant(G) No. 

(c) 

(G) 

50272 -101 

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address of Report & Period Covered 

lVa tional Coastal Ecosys tems Team U. S. Army Corps of Engineers 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

17. Document Analysis a. Descriptors 

Estuaries 

Fishes 

Growth 

., Feeding 

REPORT DOCUMENTATION I. REPORT NO. 

L- PAGE 1 FWS/oBS-82/11.7* 

U.S. Department of the Interior P.O. Box 631 

Washington, DC 20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180 

/ b. Idenlifiers/Open.Ended Terms 

White perch Sal i n i t y requirements 

Morone americana Temperature requirements 

Fishery Habitat requirements 

I Life history Spawning 

2. 

14. 

4. Title and Subtitle 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements 

of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (North Atlantic) -- White 

Perch -. 

7. Author(s) 

- Jon G. Stanley and Dwight S. Danie 9. Performing Organization Name and Address 

Maine Cooperative Fishery Research Unit 

313 Murray Hal 1 

University of Maine 

Orono, Maine 04469 

15. Supplementary Notes 

*U.S. Army Corps of Engineers report No. TR EL-82-4. 

L. 1 Unclassified I 

<-jr?e ANSI-239.18) OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77) 

(Formerly NTIS-35) 

Department of Commerce 

I Unlimited 

19. Security Class (This Report) 

Unclassified 

20. Security Class (This Page) 

21. No. of Pages 

----- 12 22. Price 
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