Bureau of Justice Statistics

 U.S. Department of Justice

 Office of Justice Programs 

Characteristics of Drivers

Stopped by Police, 1999 

43,800,000 contacts with police, 1999

19,277,000 drivers stopped 24,550,400 nontraffic contacts

3,990,300 more than once

9,889,100 for speeding

1,272,300 searched

Involving force

139,300 traffic stops 282,400 nontraffic contacts

100,000 considered excessive 221,100 considered excessive
 

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

810 Seventh Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20531

John Ashcroft

Attorney General

Office of Justice Programs

Deborah J. Daniels

Assistant Attorney General

World Wide Web site:

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Lawrence A. Greenfeld

Acting Director

World Wide Web site:

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

For information contact:

BJS Clearinghouse

1-800-732-3277
 

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Characteristics of Drivers

Stopped by Police, 1999 

Erica Leah Schmitt

Patrick A. Langan, Ph.D. 

Matthew R. Durose 

BJS Statisticians

March 2002, NCJ 191548
U.S. Department of Justice

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Lawrence A. Greenfeld 

Acting Director

BJS statisticians Erica Leah Schmitt, Patrick A. Langan,

and Matthew R. Durose wrote this report. Tom Hester

edited and produced the report.

Numerous people made possible the development and

administration of the Police-Public Contact Survey. Staff

from the U.S. Census Bureau facilitated the final

construction of the questionnaire, managed the field

aspect of the data collection, processed the data, and

provided the estimation specifications. 

In addition, a panel of the American Statistical Association met to review and discuss the survey procedures 

and questionnaire and subsequently issued a report on 

its recommendations. Assembled by Mark Cohen,

Vanderbilt University, the advisory group included the

following scholars: James Lynch, American University

Professor of Justice, Law and Society; James Fyfe,

Temple University Professor of Criminal Justice; Dennis

Kenney, Director of Research at the Police Executive

Research Forum; Stephen Mastrofski, George Mason

University Professor of Administration of Justice; and Joel

Garner, Director of the Joint Center for Justice Studies. 

At the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Lee Giesbrecht

and David Banks advised BJS analysts in use of the 1995

Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey.

The International Association of Chiefs of Police, as well

as other law enforcement executives and scholars,

provided comments on the survey procedures and

questionnaire.

Data presented in this report can be obtained from the

National Archive of Criminal Justice Data at the University

of Michigan, 1-800-999-0960. Data in the archive can be

accessed through the BJS website. 

Electronic versions of this and other reports are available

from the BJS Internet site:

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

Contents

Foreword iii

Highlights 1

Characteristics of drivers 

stopped by police 2

Likelihood of drivers being stopped 3

Driver opinion on being stopped 5

Reason for traffic stop 7

Police searches 10

Police use of force 14

Appendix 17

Methodology 19

Questionnaire

 

ii Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 
The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of

1994 mandates an annual report on the topic of police

use of excessive force. In partial response to the

mandate, the Bureau of Justice Statistics initiated the

Survey of Police-Public Contact in 1999. 

In the national study U.S. residents age 16 or older were

asked about any face-to-face contacts they may have had

with police during 1999. The survey was carried out to

document how many residents have such contacts, what

the nature of these contacts was, whether police used

force at any time during the contact, and (if so) whether

the resident considered the force to be "excessive."

Based on interviews with a sample of 80,543 persons

(representing just over 209 million residents nationwide),

the survey found that 1 in 5 Americans had a face-to-face

contact with police in 1999. Many of these contacts

occurred when people went to police to report a crime, 

to get help, or to let police know about a problem in their

neighborhood.

Among the different reasons why residents had contact

with police, the most frequent one was traffic stops. This

report examines in some detail the incidence and prevalence of traffic stops and the role of traffic stops in understanding use of force contacts between citizens and law

enforcement officers. 

Traffic stops accounted for fully 52% of all police contacts

in 1999. An estimated 19.3 million residents — or about

1 in 10 licensed drivers — were pulled over by police

while driving a motor vehicle. Just over half of all traffic

stops were for speeding.

Of all the drivers stopped, 54% were ticketed, 6.6% were

searched, 3% were arrested, seven-tenths of 1% (an

estimated 139,300 stopped drivers) had some type of

force used against them by police, and one-half of 1% (an

estimated 100,000 stopped drivers) had "excessive" force

used against them.

In addition to traffic stops, the survey also asked respondents about any police use of force which they experienced in other, non-traffic contacts with police. According

to the survey, police had used some type of force against

an estimated 421,700 persons. The 421,700 consisted of

139,300 against whom the force occurred during a traffic

stop (33% of the total), plus 282,400 against whom the

force occurred during some other type of contact (such

as reporting a crime to police, being a witness to or

involved in a crime, and so forth). 

Police had used "excessive" force against 321,000

persons, as estimated from survey results. The 321,000

consisted of 100,000 against whom the "excessive" force

occurred during a traffic stop (31% of the total), plus

221,000 against whom the force occurred during some

other type of face-to-face contact.

Lawrence A. Greenfeld

Acting Director

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Foreword

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 iii
General characteristics of drivers

stopped by police in 1999

• The 1999 U.S. population totaled

209.4 million persons age 16 or older.

An estimated 89% of the population, or

186.3 million, were licensed drivers.

Also in 1999, 19.3 million drivers age

16 or older, or 10.3% of all licensed

drivers, were stopped by police.

• Among drivers age 16-24, blacks

(17.1%) did not differ significantly from

either whites (20.1%) or Hispanics

(15.5%) in the probability of being

stopped. White drivers age 16-24 were

somewhat more likely than their

Hispanic counterparts to be pulled over.

• The average number of stops was

greater for young black males (2.7)

than young white males (1.7) and

marginally greater than for young

Hispanic males (1.8).

Drivers' opinions of the legitimacy 

of the stops

• Both blacks (74.0%) and Hispanics

(81.6%) were less likely than whites

(86.0%) to feel they were stopped by

police for a legitimate reason.

• Of drivers stopped more than once,

whites (84.4%) were more likely than

both blacks (70.2%) and Hispanics

(70%) to feel the stop was legitimate.

• Among male drivers age 16-24,

blacks (75.7%) were not significantly

less likely than whites (83.2%) or

Hispanics (76.0%) to feel the stops

were legitimate.

Reason for traffic stop

• Few drivers were not informed of the

reason for being stopped by police. 

No significant differences were found

between white (1.5%), black (2.0%), or

Hispanic (1.2%) drivers in the likelihood

of being informed by the officer of the

reason for the traffic stop.

• Males stopped for speeding were

more likely to be ticketed (70.3%) than

females (66.5%). 

• Drivers age 16-24 who were stopped

for speeding were ticketed (73.6%)

more often than drivers over 24

(66.8%).

• Among drivers stopped for speeding,

blacks (75.7%) and Hispanics (79.4%)

were more likely than whites (66.6%) to

be ticketed.

Searches conducted by police

during traffic stops

• In 1999, 6.6% of traffic stops involved

a search of the driver, the vehicle, or

both.

• Police were more likely to conduct a

search of the vehicle and/or driver in

traffic stops involving black male

drivers (15.9%) or Hispanic male

drivers (14.2%), compared to white

male drivers (7.9%).

• Of the nearly 1.3 million searches 

of vehicles and/or drivers conducted

following traffic stops in 1999, 37%

were accompanied by an arrest of the

driver. 

Police use of force in traffic stops

and in other situations

• Approximately 422,000 persons age

16 or older said the police used or

threatened to use force against them 

at least once during 1999. 

• Traffic stops accounted for 139,000

police use of force incidents, 33% of

the 422,000 incident total.

• Of the 139,000 force contacts that

occurred during a traffic stop, the

majority involved a male driver (98.2%

of those contacts). Males accounted

for 81.4% of the remaining 282,00 force

contacts that occurred at times other

than a traffic stop.

• Persons under 25 were involved in

just over half of all force contacts with

police in 1999.

• Most (76.1%) of the 422,000 people

involved in a police use of force

incident said the force was excessive.

 

Highlights

 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 1
The 1999 U.S. population totaled 209.4

million persons age 16 or older (see

Appendix A). An estimated 89% of the

population, or 186.3 million, were

licensed drivers (table 1).

Also in 1999, 19.3 million drivers age

16 or older were stopped by police.

Driver gender

The 186.3 million licensed drivers were

almost evenly split among males

(50.4%) and females (49.6%).

By contrast, of the 19.3 million drivers

stopped in 1999, 60.8% were male and

39.2% were female.

Driver age

Persons over 24 years of age were the

majority of licensed drivers (85.5%), as

well as the majority involved in a traffic

stop (73.5%).

Driver race/ethnicity

Whites were 76.7% of licensed drivers

and 77% of drivers stopped by police in

1999. Blacks were 9.8% of licensed

drivers, but 11.6% of stopped drivers,

while Hispanics accounted for 9.9% of

licensed drivers and 8.4% of stopped

drivers. An additional 3.6% of licensed

drivers were persons of other races,

who were also 3% of drivers stopped

by police.

Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Young white males (those age 16-24)

were 5.2% of licensed drivers and

12.3% of the 19.3 million drivers pulled

over by police (table 2). Young black

males accounted for 0.8% of licensed

drivers and 1.6% of traffic stops, while

young Hispanic males were 1.1% of

licensed drivers and 2% of stopped

drivers. Young males of other races

formed 0.4% of persons with a license

and 0.6% of drivers involved in a traffic

stop. 

Characteristics of drivers stopped by police

2 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Sources: Data on licensed drivers in the U.S. are estimated from the U.S. Department of 

Transportation’s 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey; all other data are from 

the BJS 1999 Police-Public Contact Survey.

 Other race 583,999 3.0 6,708,204 3.6

 Hispanic 1,615,088 8.4 18,298,101 9.9

 Black 2,231,801 11.6 18,134,397 9.8

 White 14,846,114 77.0% 142,767,917 76.7%

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 14,163,197 73.5 159,313,319 85.5

 16-24 5,113,805 26.5% 27,081,987 14.5%

Age

 75 or older 212,046 1.1 9,715,425 5.2

 70-74 242,294 1.3 7,153,913 3.9

 65-69 352,208 1.8 7,946,495 4.3

 60-64 495,099 2.6 9,219,126 5.0

 55-59 872,848 4.5 11,829,563 6.4

 50-54 1,220,709 6.3 15,475,569 8.3

 45-49 1,593,418 8.3 18,586,382 10.0

 40-44 2,171,066 11.3 21,032,615 11.3

 35-39 2,275,797 11.8 21,493,378 11.6

 30-34 2,249,807 11.7 18,658,151 10.0

 25-29 2,477,904 12.8 16,924,648 9.1

 20-24 3,082,015 16.0 16,115,497 8.7

 16-19 2,031,789 10.5% 11,177,552 6.0%

Age

 Female 7,555,194 39.2 92,210,068 49.6

 Male 11,721,808 60.8% 93,807,374 50.4%

Gender

Total 19,277,002 100.0% 186,322,014 100.0%

race/ethnicity Number Percent Number Percent

Licensed drivers in the

United States

Drivers age 16 or older

stopped by police in 1999

Gender, 

age, and

Table 1. Characteristics of stopped drivers compared to characteristics of

licensed drivers, 1999: Gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Sources: See table 1.

 Other race 161,237 0.8 2,840,768 1.5

 Hispanic 326,616 1.7 6,045,510 3.2

 Black 677,957 3.5 7,749,022 4.2

 White 4,463,955 23.2 62,841,061 33.7

Females age 25 or older 5,629,764 29.2% 79,545,810 42.7%

 Other race 52,322 0.3 632,085 0.3

 Hispanic 193,881 1.0 1,757,112 0.9

 Black 226,148 1.2 1,564,859 0.8

 White 1,453,078 7.5 9,307,657 5.0

Females age 16-24 1,925,429 10.0% 13,299,365 7.1%

 Other race 245,378 1.3 2,990,658 1.6

 Hispanic 704,852 3.7 7,070,674 3.8

 Black 1,025,076 5.3 7,440,523 4.0

 White 6,558,127 34.0 61,407,387 33.0

Males age 25 or older 8,533,433 44.3% 79,455,735 42.6%

 Other race 125,062 0.6 709,722 0.4

 Hispanic 389,739 2.0 1,994,316 1.1

 Black 302,620 1.6 1,522,862 0.8

 White 2,370,955 12.3 9,752,869 5.2

Males age 16-24 3,188,375 16.5% 13,956,728 7.5%

 Total 19,277,002 100.0% 186,322,014 100.0%

Number Percent Number Percent

Licensed drivers 

in the United States

Drivers age 16 or older 

Gender, age, stopped by police in 1999

and race/ethnicity

Table 2. Characteristics of stopped drivers compared to characteristics of

licensed drivers, 1999: Combined categories of gender, age, and race/ethnicity
Nationwide, 19.3 million drivers —

10.3% of the 186.3 million licensed

drivers — were pulled over by police at

least one time in 1999 while driving a

motor vehicle (table 3). Of the 19.3

million drivers stopped by police in

1999, approximately 4 million were

pulled over 2 or more times. These 4

million drivers made up 2.1% of the

total number of licensed drivers in the

United States.

Driver gender

Males (12.5%) were more likely than

females (8.2%) to be stopped at least

once, and males (2.9%) were also

more likely than females (1.4%) to be

stopped more than once.

Driver age

Compared to drivers over age 24

(8.9%), those 16 to 24 (18.9%) had a

greater overall likelihood of being pulled

over by police and a greater likelihood

of being stopped more than once (6%

of drivers age 16-24 versus 1.5% of

those over 24).

Driver race/ethnicity

Black drivers were somewhat more

likely than white drivers to be stopped

at least once (12.3% of blacks versus

10.4% of whites). Blacks were significantly more likely than both Hispanics

(8.8%) and drivers of other races

(8.7%) to be stopped at least once.

There was also some indication that

black drivers (3.0%) were more likely

than both white drivers (2.1%) and

Hispanic drivers (2%) to be stopped

more than once.

Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Among persons age 16-24 — 

• blacks (17.1%) did not differ significantly from either whites (20.1%) or

Hispanics (15.5%) in the probability of

being stopped (table 4)

• whites (20.1%) were somewhat more

likely than Hispanics (15.5%) to be

pulled over

• no significant differences by race

were found in the probability of being

stopped more than once.

Among persons over age 24 —

• blacks (11.2%) were significantly

more likely than whites (8.9%) to be

pulled over and somewhat more likely

than Hispanics (7.8%)(table 4)

• blacks (2.2%) were significantly more

likely than Hispanics (1.3%) and

somewhat more likely than whites

(1.5%) to be stopped more than once

by police. 

Likelihood of drivers being stopped

 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 3

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Sources: See table 1.

 Other race 6,708,204 583,999 8.7 87,016 1.3

 Hispanic 18,298,101 1,615,088 8.8 366,625 2.0

 Black 18,134,397 2,231,801 12.3 546,791 3.0

 White 142,767,917 14,846,114 10.4% 2,984,069 2.1%

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 159,313,319 14,163,197 8.9 2,351,091 1.5

 16-24 27,081,987 5,113,805 18.9% 1,631,304 6.0%

Age

 Female 92,210,068 7,555,194 8.2 1,276,828 1.4

 Male 93,807,374 11,721,808 12.5% 2,707,738 2.9%

Gender

 Total 186,322,014 19,277,002 10.3% 3,990,339 2.1%

Number Percent Number Percent

Drivers stopped

more than once in 1999

Drivers stopped

at least once in 1999

Number

with driver's

license

Gender, 

age, and

race/ethnicity

Table 3. Of all licensed drivers, percent stopped at least once and more than

once, 1999: Gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Sources: See table 1.

 Other race 5,923,112 406,615 6.9 46,354 0.8

 Hispanic 13,208,655 1,031,468 7.8 170,192 1.3

 Black 15,144,107 1,703,033 11.2 340,607 2.2

 White 123,710,589 11,022,082 8.9% 1,796,599 1.5%

25 or older

 Other race 1,332,156 177,384 13.3 40,621 3.0

 Hispanic 3,775,546 583,620 15.5 195,513 5.2

 Black 3,096,493 528,768 17.1 206,220 6.7

 White 19,057,926 3,824,033 20.1% 1,189,274 6.2%

16 to 24

 Total 186,322,014 19,277,002 10.3% 3,990,339 2.1%

Number Percent Number Percent

Drivers stopped

more than once in 1999

Drivers stopped

at least once in 1999

Number

with driver's

license

Age and

race/ethnicity

Table 4. Of all licensed drivers, percent stopped at least once and more than

once, 1999: Combined categories of race/ethnicity and age

Racial differences in traffic stops

may not signal racial profiling

To form evidence of racial profiling,

the survey would have to show (all

other things being equal) — 

Blacks and/or Hispanics were no

more likely than whites to violate

traffic laws, 

and

Police pulled over blacks and/or

Hispanics at a higher rate than

whites.

Because the survey has information

only on how often persons of difference races are stopped, not on how

often they actually break traffic laws,

analysis of data from the 1999

Police-Public Contact Survey cannot

determine whether or to what extent

racial profiling exists.
Among male drivers over age 24 —

• blacks (13.8%) were more likely than

whites (10.7%) and Hispanics (10%) to

be stopped by police in 1999 (table 5) 

• blacks (3.2%) were more likely than

whites (2%) and somewhat more likely

than Hispanic (1.8%) to be stopped

more than one time.

Among female drivers over age 24—

• whites (7.1%) and blacks (8.7%)

were more likely than Hispanics (5.4%)

to be pulled over at least once 

• blacks (8.7%) were more likely to be

stopped than whites (7.1%)

• the likelihood of being stopped more

than once during 1999 did not differ

significantly between the races.

Average number of traffic stops

Police stopped an estimated 19.3

million drivers at least once in 1999,

and some of the 19.3 million were

stopped more than once. The 19.3

million drivers experienced altogether

27 million traffic stops during the year

(table 6). On average, 1.4 traffic stops

per stopped driver occurred in 1999.

The average number of stops was —

• greater for males (1.5) than females

• greater for 16-24 year-olds (1.7)

• greater for young black males (2.7)

than young white males (1.7)

• marginally greater for young black

males (2.7) than young Hispanic 

males (1.8) (table 7). 

4 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding. *Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Sources: See table 1.

 Other race 2,840,768 161,237 5.7 17,252* 0.6*

 Hispanic 6,045,510 326,616 5.4 40,174 0.7

 Black 7,749,022 677,957 8.7 100,338 1.3

 White 62,841,061 4,463,955 7.1 580,314 0.9

Females age 25 or older 79,545,810 5,629,764 7.1% 737,499 0.9%

 Other race 632,085 52,322 8.3 7,011* 1.1*

 Hispanic 1,757,112 193,881 11.0 52,736 3.0

 Black 1,564,859 226,148 14.5 50,657 3.2

 White 9,307,657 1,453,078 15.6 433,017 4.7

Females age 16 to 24 13,299,365 1,925,429 14.5% 542,971 4.1%

 Other race 2,990,658 245,378 8.2 29,200 1.0

 Hispanic 7,070,674 704,852 10.0 130,398 1.8

 Black 7,440,523 1,025,076 13.8 239,868 3.2

 White 61,407,387 6,558,127 10.7 1,219,812 2.0

Males age 25 or older 79,455,735 8,533,433 10.7% 1,621,352 2.0%

 Other race 709,722 125,062 17.6 33,642* 4.7*

 Hispanic 1,994,316 389,739 19.5 142,644 7.2

 Black 1,522,862 302,620 19.9 156,455 10.3

 White 9,752,869 2,370,955 24.3 756,335 7.8

Males age 16 to 24 13,956,728 3,188,375 22.8% 1,087,236 7.8%

 Total 186,322,014 19,277,002 10.3% 3,990,339 2.1%

Number Percent Number Percent

Drivers stopped

more than once in 1999

Drivers stopped

at least once in 1999

Number

with driver's

license

Gender, age, 

and race/ethnicity

Table 5. Of all licensed drivers, percent stopped at least once and more than

once, 1999: Combined categories of gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

 Other race 161,237 0.2 1.1

 Hispanic 326,616 0.4 1.2

 Black 677,957 0.9 1.3

 White 4,463,955 5.4 1.2

Females age 25 or older 5,629,764 6.8 1.2

 Other race 52,322 0.1 1.3

 Hispanic 193,881 0.3 1.4

 Black 226,148 0.3 1.4

 White 1,453,078 2.2 1.5

Females age 16 to 24 1,925,429 2.9 1.5

 Other race 245,378 0.3 1.2

 Hispanic 704,852 0.9 1.3

 Black 1,025,076 1.5 1.5

 White 6,558,127 8.5 1.3

Males age 25 or older 8,533,433 11.9 1.4

 Other race 125,062 0.2 1.5

 Hispanic 389,739 0.7 1.8

 Black 302,620 0.8 2.7

 White 2,370,955 4.0 1.7

Males age 16 to 24 3,188,375 5.7 1.8

 Total 19,277,002 27.0 1.4

Average number

of stops per

driver

Traffic stops

(in millions)

Drivers age 16 

or older stopped

by police

Gender, age, 

and race/ethnicity

Number in 1999

Table 7. Traffic stops, 1999: Combined categories 

of gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

 Other race 583,999 0.7 1.2

 Hispanic 1,615,088 2.2 1.4

 Black 2,231,801 3.5 1.6

 White 14,846,114 20.7 1.4

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 14,163,197 18.4 1.3

 16-24 5,113,805 8.7 1.7

Age

 Female 7,555,194 9.8 1.3

 Male 11,721,808 17.6 1.5

Gender

 Total 19,277,002 27.0 1.4

number 

of stops

per driver

Traffic stops 

(in millions)

Drivers age 16 

or older stopped

by police

Gender, age,

and race/ethnicity

Number in 1999 Average

Table 6. Traffic stops, 1999: Gender, age, 

and race/ethnicity

(1.3)
An estimated 84% of drivers stopped

by police, or 16.2 million drivers, felt

they were pulled over for a legitimate

reason (table 8). While the majority of

drivers felt the police were justified in

stopping them, opinion was not uniform

across different segments of the

population.

Driver gender 

Males (82.3%) were less likely than

females (87.3%) to feel the stop was

for a legitimate reason.

Males who were stopped once (83.7%)

were more likely to feel the stop was

legitimate than males stopped more

than one time during 1999 (78.2%).

Driver opinion on being stopped did not

differ significantly for females stopped

once (87.2%) and females stopped

more than once (87.7%).

Driver age

The percentage of drivers who felt they

were stopped for a legitimate reason

did not differ significantly between

those 16-to-24 years of age (83.5%)

and those over 24 (84.6%).

Drivers under age 25 and stopped

multiple times (78.2%) were less likely

than drivers over 24 (83.5%) to feel the

stop was legitimate.

Among persons age 16-24 —

• drivers stopped once (86.2%) were

more likely to feel the stop was legitimate than those stopped more than

one time (78.2%).

Among persons over age 24 — 

• the opinion of drivers stopped once

(84.8%) did not differ significantly from

those stopped two or more times

(83.5%).

Driver race/ethnicity

Both blacks (74.0%) and Hispanics

(81.6%) were less likely than whites

(86%) to feel they were stopped by

police for a legitimate reason. Drivers

of other races (84.6%) were not less

likely than whites to feel the stop was

legitimate.

There was no significant difference in

driver opinion between blacks stopped

once (75.1%) and blacks stopped more

than once (70.2%). 

Of drivers stopped one time —

• blacks (75.1%) were less likely than

whites (86.5%), Hispanics (84.9%) and

drivers of other races (85%) to report

feeling that the stop was legitimate.

Of drivers stopped more than once —

• whites (84.4%) were more likely than

both blacks (70.2%) and Hispanics

(70%) to feel the stop was legitimate

• drivers of other races (84.4%) were

somewhat more likely to report that the

stop was legitimate than black (70.2%)

drivers.

Driver opinion on being stopped

 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 5

 Other race 84.6 85.0 84.4

 Hispanic 81.6 84.9 70.0

 Black 74.0 75.1 70.2

 White 86.0% 86.5% 84.4%

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 84.6 84.8 83.5

 16-24 83.5% 86.2% 78.2%

Age

 Female 87.3 87.2 87.7

 Male 82.3% 83.7% 78.2%

Gender

 Total 84.3% 85.1% 81.3%

Drivers stopped 

two or more times

Drivers stopped 

one time

All drivers 

stopped 

Gender, age,

and race/ethnicity

Percent of stopped drivers who felt they had been stopped 

in 1999 for a legitimate reason

Table 8. Driver opinion on being stopped, 1999: Gender, age, and race/ethnicity
Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Among male drivers age 16-24 —

• blacks (75.7%) were not significantly

less likely than whites (83.2%) or

Hispanics (76.0%) to feel the stop was

legitimate (table 9)

• a marginally greater percentage of

whites (83.2%) felt the stop was legitimate than Hispanics (76%)

• Hispanics stopped more than one

time (62.7%) were somewhat less likely

to feel the stop was legitimate than

whites (78.7%).

Among male drivers over age 24 —

• the opinions of blacks (73.1%) did not

differ significantly from Hispanics

(79.4%)

• whites (84.3%) were significantly

more likely to feel the stop was legitimate than blacks (73.1%)

• whites (84.3%) had a somewhat

better opinion of the traffic stop than

Hispanics (79.4%)

• black (68%) and Hispanic (65.3%)

drivers stopped two or more times were

less likely to feel the stop was legitimate than white drivers (83.5%)

stopped two or more times. 

6 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

 Other race 88.1 88.1 100.0*

 Hispanic 89.0 88.1 95.2

 Black 75.5 73.6 85.5

 White 89.3 88.9 91.8

Females age 25 or older 87.6% 87.1% 91.3%

 Other race 83.1 87.5 43.4*

 Hispanic 87.1 90.3 78.4

 Black 71.0 77.1 42.0*

 White 88.3 88.7 87.0

Females age 16 to 24 86.2% 87.4% 82.7%

 Other race 81.4 80.9 85.5*

 Hispanic 79.4 82.5 65.3

 Black 73.1 74.4 68.0

 White 84.3 84.5 83.5

Males age 25 or older 82.5% 83.1% 79.8%

 Other race 86.5 88.4 81.5*

 Hispanic 76.0 83.4 62.7

 Black 75.7 81.6 70.4

 White 83.2 85.9 78.7

Males age 16 to 24 81.8% 85.4% 75.9%

 Total 84.3% 85.1% 81.3%

Drivers stopped 

two or more times

Drivers stopped 

one time

All drivers 

stopped

Gender, age, and

race/ethnicity

Percent of stopped drivers who felt they had been 

stopped in 1999 for a legitimate reason

Table 9. Driver opinion on being stopped, 1999: Combined categories 

of gender, age, and race/ethnicity
Drivers not informed of reason 

for traffic stop

A relatively small percentage of

stopped drivers (1.6%) said that police

did not give them a reason for pulling

them over (table 10). 

Driver gender

The percentage of males and females

(1.6% each) who were not given a

reason for the traffic stop did not differ.

Driver age

A slightly larger percentage of drivers

age 25 or older (1.7%) were not

informed of the reason for the stop than

drivers under 25 (1.2%).

Driver race/ethnicity

No significant differences were found

between white (1.5%), black (2.0%) or

Hispanic (1.2%) drivers in the likelihood

of being informed of the reason for the

traffic stop. 

Reason for traffic stop

 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 7

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

 Other race 583,999 13,313* 2.3*

 Hispanic 1,615,088 18,926* 1.2*

 Black 2,231,801 45,213 2.0

 White 14,846,114 229,512 1.5%

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 14,163,197 243,889 1.7

 16-24 5,113,805 63,084 1.2%

Age

 Female 7,555,194 117,545 1.6

 Male 11,721,808 189,349 1.6%

Gender

 Total 19,277,002 306,901 1.6%

Number Percent

Drivers not given a reason 

for the traffic stop

Drivers age 16 or older

stopped by police in

1999

Gender, age

and race/

ethnicity

Table 10. Of drivers stopped, percent not given a reason 

for the traffic stop, 1999: Gender, age, and race/ethnicity 

Driver opinion and reason 

for traffic stop 

In the 1999 survey, stopped drivers

were asked whether, in their opinion,

they had been stopped for a legitimate

reason. Survey results indicate that

driver opinion on the legitimacy of the

traffic stop often depended on the

reason the police gave for stopping 

the vehicle. 

Drivers stopped for speeding (51.2%

of all stopped drivers) and drivers

pulled over for a record/roadside

check (11.5% of stopped drivers) were

more likely to say they felt the traffic

stop was legitimate (89.7% and

89.1%, respectively) than drivers

stopped for other reasons. 

Drivers stopped for a vehicle defect

(11.4% of traffic stops) were less likely

to feel the stop was legitimate (84.4%)

than those stopped for speeding or a

record/roadside check.

Persons pulled over for some other

traffic offense (seat belt violation,

illegal turn, running a red light, etc.)

constituted 22.7% of drivers stopped.

These drivers were less likely (73.1%)

than those stopped for speeding, a

record/roadside check, or a vehicle

defect to hold the opinion that the stop

was legitimate.

Relatively few drivers (3.2%) reported

“Other” as the reason for the stop,

which includes those who stated that

police were providing a service, police

were investigating a crime, they were

being harassed by police, and other

miscellaneous reasons. A smaller

percentage of drivers in this category

(57.5%) felt the traffic stop was legitimate. 

Other 3.2 57.5

Other traffic offense 22.7 73.1

Vehicle defect 11.4 84.4

Roadside/record check 11.5 89.1

Speeding 51.2% 89.7%

Total 100.0% 84.3%

Percent

Drivers who felt

traffic stop was

legitimate

Reason police gave for

traffic stop
Speeding

The majority of drivers (51.2%)

reported speeding as the reason they

were stopped by police in 1999 (table

11). These 9.9 million drivers constitute 5.3% of the 186.3 million licensed

drivers in the United States. 

Of the 9.9 million drivers stopped for

speeding —

y males constituted 58.6% of stopped

speeders, and females were 41.4%

y drivers age 16-24 were 27.9% of

stopped speeders, and those over 

age 24, the remaining 72.1% 

y white drivers accounted for 80.5% 

of persons stopped for speeding;

blacks, 9.8%; and Hispanics, 6.9%.

(These findings are not shown in a

table.)

Driver gender 

Of the Nation’s 93.8 million male

drivers, 6.2% were stopped for speeding. That percentage is greater than

the 4.4% of the Nation’s 92.2 million

female drivers. 

Female drivers pulled over by police

were more likely to report that speeding

was the reason for the traffic stop than

stopped male drivers. Of the 7.5

million female drivers stopped by

police, more than half (54.1%) said

speeding was the reason. This

percentage is greater than the figure 

for the 11.7 million male drivers

stopped by police (49.4% or 5.8

million).

Driver age 

Of the 27.1 million licensed drivers

between ages 16 and 24, 10.2% were

stopped for speeding. That percentage

is greater than the 4.5% of the 159.3

million licensed drivers age 25 or older.

Younger drivers were more likely to

report being stopped for speeding than

drivers over 24. Of the 27.1 million

drivers under 25, 5.1 million were

pulled over by police in 1999. Of the

5.1 million stopped drivers, 53.9% (2.8 

million) said speeding was the reason.

This percentage is greater than the

comparable figure for stopped drivers

over age 24 (50.3% of the 14.2 million

stopped drivers, or 7.1 million).

Driver race/ethnicity

Of the 18.3 million licensed drivers who

are Hispanic, 3.7% were stopped for

speeding. That percentage is less than

the 5.6% of the 142.8 million licensed

white drivers and the 5.3% of the 18.1

million licensed black drivers in the

United States.

Of the 14.8 million white drivers

stopped by police, 53.7% gave “speeding” as the reason. That percentage is

greater than the 43.4% of the 2.2

million black drivers stopped, and

marginally greater than the 42.1% 

of the 1.6 million Hispanic drivers

stopped.

Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Among drivers age 16-24 —

• Of the 9.8 million younger white male

drivers, 12.6% were stopped for

speeding. That percentage does differ

significantly from the 9.8% of the 9.3

million younger white female drivers

stopped for speeding.

• White female drivers stopped by

police (62.5%) were more likely to

report being stopped for speeding than

stopped white male drivers (51.7%)

• White male drivers (12.6%) had a

greater likelihood of being stopped for

speeding than Hispanic male drivers

(7.9%). This difference also exists for

white female drivers (9.8%) compared

to Hispanic female drivers (5.3%)

• White male (51.7%) and white female

(62.5%) drivers stopped by police were

more likely than their respective

Hispanic male (40.3%) and Hispanic

female (48.1%) counterparts to report

speeding as the reason for being

stopped.

8 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

 Other race 266,304 583,999 45.6 6,708,204 4.0

 Hispanic 679,952 1,615,088 42.1 18,298,101 3.7

 Black 968,602 2,231,801 43.4 18,134,397 5.3

 White 7,957,517 14,846,114 53.7% 142,767,917 5.6%

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 7,124,088 14,163,197 50.3 159,313,319 4.5

 16-24 2,756,341 5,113,805 53.9% 27,081,987 10.2%

Age

 Female 4,087,360 7,555,194 54.1 92,210,068 4.4

 Male 5,790,573 11,721,808 49.4% 93,807,374 6.2%

Gender

 Total 9,889,102 19,277,002 51.2% 186,322,014 5.3%

Percent of

licensed

drivers

stopped for

speeding

Number with

driver’s license

Percent of

drivers

stopped for

speeding

Drivers age

16 or older

stopped by

police in 1999

Speeding

reported as

reason for

traffic stop

Gender, age 

and race/

ethnicity

Table 11. Drivers who reported speeding as reason for traffic stop,

1999: Gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Hispanic 48.1 5.3

Black 64.7 9.4

White 62.5% 9.8%

Females 

Hispanic 40.3 7.9

Black 50.6 10.1

White 51.7% 12.6%

Males 

All licensed

drivers

All drivers

stopped 

age 16-24

stopped for

speeding

Drivers Percent of —
Drivers stopped for speeding 

who were ticketed

Overall, 54.2% of stopped drivers were

issued a ticket. Among drivers stopped

for speeding, the percentage ticketed

was greater: 68.7% (table 12). This

percentage does not necessarily

indicate that speeders who were

ticketed were actually ticketed for

speeding. The 1999 Police-Public

Contact Survey did not ask respondents who were ticketed to identify the

specific reason for receiving the ticket.

A driver could have been stopped for

speeding, yet was ticketed for a different reason, such as a broken headlight

or failure to wear a seat belt. The

analysis can only determine the reason

a ticketed driver was pulled over, not

the reason the police had for issuing

the ticket.

Driver gender 

Males (70.3%) stopped for speeding

were more likely to be ticketed than

females (66.5%).

Driver age 

Drivers age 16-24 (73.6%) who were

stopped for speeding were ticketed

more often than drivers over 24

(66.8%).

Driver race/ethnicity 

Black (75.7%) and Hispanic (79.4%)

drivers stopped for speeding were

more likely than white (66.6%) speeders to be ticketed.

Put another way: Blacks were 9.8% of

drivers stopped for speeding but 10.8%

of ticketed speeders. Hispanics were

6.9% of those pulled over for speeding

but 7.9% of ticketed speeders. Whites

were 80.5% of drivers stopped for

speeding and 78.0% of ticketed speeders. (These findings are not shown in a

table.)

 

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 9

Issuing tickets to young male 

and young female drivers

Overall, male drivers stopped for

speeding were more likely to receive a

traffic ticket from police than female

speeders. However, among drivers

age 16 to 24 stopped for speeding,

males were not more likely than

females to be ticketed.

Among drivers age 16-24 —

• White male speeders (71.2%) were

not more likely than white female

speeders (72.5%) to be ticketed

• Black male speeders (81.5%) were

not more likely than black female

speeders (79.9%) to be issued a

ticket.

• Hispanic male drivers (92.4%)

stopped for speeding were more likely

to be ticketed than Hispanic female

speeders (69.1%).

 Hispanic 69.1

 Black 79.9

 White 72.5%

Females 

 Hispanic 92.4

 Black 81.5

 White 71.2%

Males

Percent who 

were ticketed

Drivers age

16-24 stopped

for speeding

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

 Other race 266,304 211,445 79.4

 Hispanic 679,952 539,882 79.4

 Black 968,602 733,231 75.7

 White 7,957,517 5,299,706 66.6%

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 7,124,088 4,758,891 66.8

 16-24 2,756,341 2,028,667 73.6%

Age

 Female 4,087,360 2,718,094 66.5

 Male 5,790,573 4,070,773 70.3%

Gender

 Total 9,889,102 6,793,813 68.7%

Number Percent

Drivers stopped for speeding

who were also ticketed

Number of

drivers stopped

for speeding

Gender, age,

and race/ethnicity

Table 12. Of drivers stopped for speeding, percent who

were ticketed, 1999: Gender, age, and race/ethnicity
During a traffic stop, the police

sometimes conduct a search of the

vehicle, the driver, or both the vehicle

and the driver. In 1999, 6.6% 

of traffic stops involved a search of the

driver, the vehicle, or both (table 13).

Of the nearly 1.3 million drivers

searched, 35% experienced a search

of the vehicle only, 20% experienced a

search of the driver only, and the

remaining 45% experienced a search

of both the vehicle and the driver.

Searching the driver, vehicle, 

or both

Driver gender

Stopped male drivers (9.4%) were

more likely to undergo a vehicle and/or

personal search than stopped females

(2.3%).

Driver age

Drivers age 16-24 (10.8%) stopped by

police were more likely to have their

vehicle and/or person searched than

stopped drivers over age 24 (5.1%).

Driver race/ethnicity

Stopped black (11%) and stopped

Hispanic (11.3%) drivers were more

likely to undergo one or both forms 

of search than stopped white (5.4%)

drivers or drivers of other races (6.5%).

Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Police were more likely to conduct a

search of the vehicle and/or driver in

traffic stops involving male drivers who

were black (15.9%) or of Hispanic

origin (14.2%), compared to white male

drivers (7.9%). (Not shown in a table.)

Among male drivers age 16-24—

• the percentage of stopped blacks

(17.2%) who had their vehicle and/or

person searched did not differ significantly from either whites (13.7%) or

Hispanics (19.7%) (table 14)

• Hispanic drivers (19.7%) stopped by

police were somewhat more likely to

undergo one or both forms of search

than whites (13.7%).

Among male drivers over age 24 —

• both stopped blacks (15.5%) and

stopped Hispanics (11.1%) were more

likely to be searched than stopped

whites (5.8%)

• black and Hispanic drivers were 5.3%

and 3.7%, respectively, of all drivers

stopped by police and accounted for

12.5% and 6.1%, respectively, of

drivers who had their vehicle and/or

person searched

• white drivers were 34% of stopped

drivers and 29.9% of those searched.

Searching the driver

Driver gender

Males (6.4%) were more likely than

females (1.2%) to be physically

searched during a traffic stop (table

13).

Police searches

10 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

 Other race 2.7* 0.0* 2.7*

 Hispanic 4.1* 2.1* 3.3*

 Black 3.4* 1.9* 2.2*

 White 1.2 0.4* 1.1

Females age 25 or older 1.7% 0.7% 1.4%

 Other race 10.0* 5.2* 10.0*

 Hispanic 7.3* 2.8* 7.3*

 Black 4.6* 4.6* 4.6*

 White 3.3 2.1* 2.4

Females age 16 to 24 4.1% 2.5% 3.3%

 Other race 4.0* 1.1* 2.9*

 Hispanic 11.1 5.8 8.8

 Black 15.5 11.4 12.4

 White 5.8 4.0 4.4

Males age 25 or older 7.4% 5.0% 5.7%

 Other race 14.9* 10.8* 12.0*

 Hispanic 19.7 15.5 18.1

 Black 17.2 12.8 11.8

 White 13.7 8.8 11.5

Males age 16 to 24 14.8% 10.1% 12.3%

 Total 6.6% 4.3% 5.3%

Driver Vehicle

Driver or

vehicle

Type of search

Gender, age, 

and race/ethnicity

Table 14. Of drivers stopped, percent who experienced a search, 1999: 

Combined categories of gender, age, and race/ethnicity

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample

 Other race 6.5 3.2* 5.4

 Hispanic 11.3 7.0 9.7

 Black 11.0 8.0 8.5

 White 5.4% 3.5% 4.3%

Race/ethnicity

 

 25 or older 5.1 3.3 4.0

 16-24 10.8% 7.2% 8.9%

Age

 Female 2.3 1.2 1.9

 Male 9.4% 6.4% 7.5%

Gender

 Total 6.6% 4.3% 5.3%

Driver Vehicle

Driver or

vehicle

Gender, Type of search

age, and

race/ethnicity

Table 13. Of drivers stopped, percent

who experienced a search, 1999: 

Gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Hispanic 3.7 6.1

Black 5.3 12.5

White 34.0% 29.9%

Males 

All driver

or vehicle

searches

All drivers

stopped by

police in 1999

Drivers

over age

24 

Percent of—
Driver age

Drivers age 25 or older stopped by

police (3.3%) were less likely to experience a personal search than stopped

drivers under 25 years old (7.2%).

Driver race/ethnicity

Stopped whites (3.5%) were less likely

to be personally searched than either

blacks (8%) or Hispanics (7%).

Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Stopped white male drivers were less

likely than their black and Hispanic

counterparts to be physically searched

during a traffic stop.

Among male drivers age 16-24—

• Stopped Hispanics (15.5%) were

significantly more likely to experience a

physical search by police than whites

(8.8%) (table 14)

• Stopped blacks (12.8%) did not differ

significantly from whites (8.8%) or

Hispanics (15.5%) in the likelihood of

experiencing a personal search

• Stopped Hispanics were 2% of

stopped motorists but 7.3% of those

who experienced personal searches.

Among male drivers over age 24—

• black drivers (11.4%) were more

likely to be personally searched during

a traffic stop than either white (4.0%) or

Hispanic (5.8%) motorists

• blacks in this age category were

5.3% of all traffic stops and experienced 13.9% of all physical searches;

whites were 34% of stopped drivers

and 31.8% of those searched.

Searching the vehicle

Driver gender

Stopped females (1.9%) were less

likely to have their vehicle searched

than males (7.5%) (table 13).

Driver age

Stopped drivers between the ages of

16 and 24 (8.9%) were more likely to

experience a vehicle search than

drivers over the age of 24 (4%).

Driver race/ethnicity

Stopped blacks (8.5%) and Hispanics

(9.7%) were more likely to have their

vehicle searched than stopped whites

(4.3%). Hispanics were also more

likely than drivers of other races (5.4%)

to experience a vehicle search.

Driver gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Stopped Hispanic drivers between ages

16 and 24 (14.5%) were more likely

than young white drivers (8%) and

somewhat more likely than young black

drivers (8.8%) to experience a vehicle

search.

Among stopped male drivers 

age 16-24—

• Hispanics (18.1%) were more likely

to have their vehicle searched than

whites (11.5%)

• no significant differences in the

prevalence of vehicle searches were

found between white (11.5%) and black

(11.8%), nor between Hispanic (18.1%)

and black (11.8%) drivers.

Both black (8.4%) and Hispanic (7%)

drivers over age 24 were more likely

than white (3.1%) drivers over 24 to

have their vehicle searched.

Among stopped male drivers 

over age 24 —

• white drivers (4.4%) had their

vehicles searched less frequently than

both black (12.4%) and Hispanic

(8.8%) motorists

• black and Hispanic drivers were 5.3%

and 3.7%, respectively, of drivers

pulled over by police, and accounted

for 12.5% and 6.0% of vehicle

searches.

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 11

Hispanic 2.0 7.3

Black 1.6 4.7

White 12.3% 25.0%

Males 

All 

driver

searches

All drivers

stopped by

police in 1999

Drivers 

age 16- 24

Percent of—

Hispanic 3.7 4.9

Black 5.3 13.9

White 34.0% 31.8%

Males 

All 

driver

searches

All drivers

stopped by

police in 1999

Drivers 

over age 24

Percent of—

Hispanic 3.7 6.0

Black 5.3 12.5

White 34.0% 28.1%

Males

All 

vehicle

searches

All drivers

stopped by

police in 1999

Drivers 

over age 24

Percent of—
Searches in connection 

with an arrest

Of the nearly 1.3 million searches

conducted in 1999, 37% were done in

connection with an arrest (table 15).

Whether the search preceded the

arrest or followed it cannot be determined from the survey.

Driver gender

Stopped males who were searched

(37.5%) were not more likely than

stopped females (32.6%) to be

arrested.

Driver age

Stopped drivers age 25 or older

(42.5%) who were searched were

significantly more likely to be arrested

than their younger counterparts

(29.4%).

Driver race/ethnicity

Of all drivers searched during a traffic

stop, the chance of arrest did not differ

significantly between white (37.3%),

black (41.5%) and Hispanic (30.8%)

drivers (table 16).

Among searched male drivers —

• blacks (42.7%) were somewhat more

likely than Hispanics (28.8%) to be

searched and arrested

• whites (38.0%) who were stopped

and searched were not significantly

less likely to be arrested than blacks

(42.7%) or Hispanics (28.8%).

Searches of arrested and 

nonarrested drivers

In many jurisdictions, police officers are

required to search the vehicle, the

driver, or both when making an arrest

during a traffic stop. Consequently,

drivers who were arrested may have

experienced a vehicle and/or personal

search as a procedural step during the

arrest process.

Of all drivers arrested during a traffic

stop, 82.7% experienced a vehicle

and/or a personal search (table 17). 

By contrast, 4.3% of nonarrested

drivers were searched by police.

Driver gender

Stopped male drivers, both arrested

and nonarrested (88.0% and 6.1%),

were more likely to be searched than

stopped females (56.6% and 1.5%).

Driver age

Arrested and nonarrested drivers age

25 or older (78.8% and 3.0%) were less

likely to be searched than stopped

drivers under 25 (91.3% and 7.8%).

12 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999

 25 or older 722,323 306,987 42.5

 16-24 552,291 162,374 29.4%

Age

 Female 173,769 56,649 32.6

 Male 1,101,850 413,194 37.5%

Gender

 Total 1,272,282 469,472 36.9%

Number Percent

Drivers who were

searched and

arrested

Total

number of

searches

Gender 

and age 

of driver

Table 15. Of the total number 

of persons searched, percent 

of searches in connection with an

arrest, 1999: Gender and age

Note: Zero represents no cases in sample.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

 Female 9,397* 0* 0.0*

 Male 28,524* 10,173* 35.6*

Other race 37,960 10,173* 26.8

 Female 27,586 11,614* 42.1*

 Male 155,432 44,764 28.8

Hispanic 182,505 56,212 30.8%

 Female 33,452* 11,374* 34.0*

 Male 211,104 90,141 42.7

Black 245,498 101,882 41.5%

 Female 100,590 32,792 32.6

 Male 705,397 268,051 38.0

White 801,690 299,030 37.3%

 Total 1,272,282 469,472 36.9%

Number Percent

Drivers who were

Total number searched and arrested

of searches

Race/ethnicity

and gender

Table 16. Of the number of persons searched, percent of searches in 

connection with an arrest, 1999: Combined categories of race/ethnicity and

gender 

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

 Other race 12,264* 100.0* 571,735 4.9

 Hispanic 67,834 85.6 1,547,254 8.2

 Black 116,054 87.6 2,115,747 6.8

 White 385,999 80.1% 14,460,115 3.5%

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 396,570 78.8 13,766,627 3.0

 16-24 184,097 91.3% 4,929,708 7.8%

Age

 Female 98,218 56.6 7,456,976 1.5

 Male 480,594 88.0% 11,241,214 6.1%

Gender

 Total 578,310 82.7% 18,698,692 4.3%

Driver or

Number vehicle search

Driver or 

Number vehicle search Gender, age, andrace/ethnicity

Arrested drivers Nonarrested drivers

Table 17. Of drivers stopped, percent who experienced a search, comparing

arrested and nonarrested drivers, 1999: Gender, age, and race/ethnicity
Driver race/ethnicity

Among arrested motorists —

• whites (80.1%), blacks (87.6%) and

Hispanics (85.6%) did not differ significantly in their likelihood of being

searched.

Among nonarrested motorists —

• whites (3.5%) were less likely to

undergo a search than blacks (6.8%)

and Hispanics (8.2%)

• black males (9.9%) and Hispanic

males (10.6%) were more likely to be

searched than white males (5.1%)

(table 18)

• the likelihood of a black female being

searched (2.5%) did not differ significantly from the likelihoods for both

white and Hispanic females (1.1% and

3.2%, respectively). 

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 13

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

 Other race 1,922* 0.0* 211,637 4.4*

 Hispanic 15,615* 73.6* 504,882 3.2*

 Black 15,370* 72.1* 888,735 2.5*

 White 65,087 48.7% 5,851,946 1.1%

Female

 Other race 10,372* 100.0* 360,068 5.2*

 Hispanic 52,540 89.5 1,042,051 10.6

 Black 100,905 90.0 1,226,791 9.9

 White 321,447 86.7% 8,607,635 5.1%

Male

578,310

 Total 82.7% 18,698,692 4.3%

Driver or 

Number vehicle search

Driver or 

Number vehicle search

Gender and

race/ethnicity

Arrested drivers Nonarrested drivers

Table 18. Of drivers stopped, percent who experienced a search,

comparing arrested and nonarrested drivers, 1999: 

Combined categories of race/ethnicity and gender

Likelihood of finding criminal evidence 

in a traffic stop search

During a traffic stop, it is common practice for police to

search the driver, vehicle or both when making an arrest.

However, few searches uncover criminal evidence, such

as illegal weapons or drugs.

Of the nearly 1.3 million drivers searched during a traffic

stop, 37% (470,000) were also arrested.

Of the 470,000 drivers who were searched and arrested,

criminal evidence was found in 21.5% of the searches

conducted.

A significantly smaller percentage (8.6%) of the remaining

800,000 searched drivers who were not arrested said that

criminal evidence was found during a vehicle and/or

personal search.

368,536 78.5 733,768 91.4

No evidence

found

Evidence found 100,936 21.5% 69,042 8.6%

Total 469,472 100.0% 802,810 100.0%

Number Percent Number Percent

Arrested drivers Nonarrested drivers

Drivers who were searched

Criminal

evidence
In addition to gathering information on

contacts between the police and the

public during motor vehicle stops, the

1999 Police-Public Contact Survey also

gathered data regarding other face-toface contacts with police. Other faceto-face contacts include situations in

which both the respondent contacted

the police and the police contacted the

respondent. A respondent may have

contacted the police to report a crime

or to ask for assistance, among other

reasons. The police may have initiated

contact with a respondent to investigate

a crime, serve a warrant, or disseminate crime prevention information,

among other reasons.

Based on survey findings, nearly 44

million people had some type of faceto-face contact with police during 1999

(table 19). Of that 44 million, 19.3

million were drivers in a traffic stop, and

24.5 million were involved in other

forms of contact with police. (Those

who had both types of contact were

counted as stopped drivers in this

report.) 

One purpose of the survey was to

gather information about police use of

force during both traffic stops and other

face-to-face contacts between the

police and the public. Specifically,

respondents were asked whether the

police officer(s) used or threatened to

use force against them. Of the nearly

44 million people who had a face-toface contact with police, approximately

1% said that police used force during

the encounter (hereafter, “use of force”

includes force and threat of force).*

A smaller percentage of persons who

were drivers involved in a traffic stop

reported that police used force against

them than persons involved in other

face-to-face contacts with police. Of

the 19.3 million drivers involved in a

traffic stop, 0.7% said police used force

against them, compared to a larger

percentage (1.2%) of the 24.5 million

persons who had other face-to-face

contacts with police.

Approximately 422,000 persons age 16

or older said the police used or threatened to use force against them at least

once during 1999 (table 20). Force

involving a driver during a traffic stop

accounted for 33% of all police use of

force incidents; force occurring during

other (nondriver) face-to-face encounters accounted for the rest (67%).

Use of force during traffic stops

Driver gender

Of the 422,000 force contacts, 367,000

involved males. Of the total number 

of males who said that force was 

used against them, more than a third

(37.3%) said the incident occurred

during a traffic stop. Traffic stops

accounted for a much smaller percentage (4.6%) of the 55,000 force contacts

involving females.

Driver age

Of the estimated 189,000 persons age

25 or older who said force was used

against them in 1999 during a contact

with police, 38% said the incident

occurred during a traffic stop. Traffic

stops accounted for 29% of the

233,000 force contacts involving

younger drivers (ages 16 to 24). The

difference between the two age 

categories is not significant. 

Police use of force

14 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999

Other 24,550,417 282,387 1.2

Traffic stop 19,277,002 139,327 0.7

 Total 43,827,419 421,714 1.0%

Number Percent

Force by police

used or threatened

Total faceto-face

contacts

with police

Type of 

contact

with police

Table 19. Of all face-to-face contacts

with police, percent reporting that

force was used or threatened during

the contact, 1999

*1 in 5 force encounters involved a threat only.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding. 

Zero represents no cases in sample.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

 Other race 12,205 0* 0.0* 12,205* 100.0*

 Hispanic 65,530 21,954* 33.5* 43,576 66.5

 Black 95,440 32,186* 33.7* 63,254 66.3

 White 248,539 85,187 34.3% 163,352 65.7%

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 188,582 71,645 38.0 116,937 62.0

 16-24 233,132 67,682 29.0% 165,450 71.0%

Age

 Female 55,181 2,522* 4.6* 52,659 95.4

 Male 366,533 136,805 37.3% 229,728 62.7%

Gender

 Total 421,714 139,327 33.0% 282,387 67.0%

Percent of

Number all contacts

Percent of 

Number all contacts

with police

involving force

Other face-to-face

Gender, All contacts Drivers in traffic stops contacts with police

age, and

race/ethnicity

Force used or threatened by police

Table 20. Force used or threatened by police, comparing traffic stops to other

face-to-face contacts with police, 1999: Gender, age, and race/ethnicity
Driver race/ethnicity

Approximately a third (34.3%) of the

249,000 force contacts involving whites

took place during a traffic stop, based

on when respondents were drivers.

This does not differ significantly from

the percentage for blacks (33.7% of the

95,000 force contacts involving blacks

occurred during a traffic stop) or for

Hispanics (33.5% of the 66,000 force

contacts involving Hispanics occurred

during a traffic stop).

Use of force during traffic stops 

and other face-to-face contacts

Based on respondent reports, police

used or threatened force against

approximately 139,000 drivers during 

a traffic stop in 1999 (table 21). 

An additional 282,000 persons are

estimated to have experienced force

during other types of face-to-face

contacts with police.

Driver gender

Males made up 53% of all those with at

least one face-to-face contact with

police in 1999. That same year 87% of

all police use-of-force incidents also

involved a male. Of the 139,000 force

contacts against a driver estimated to

have occurred during a traffic stop, the

majority involved a male driver (98.2%).

Males accounted for 81.4% of the

282,000 cases of force occurring

outside of traffic stops. 

Driver age

Of the 139,000 drivers estimated to

have had force used against them

during a traffic stop, 48.6% involved

persons under age 25. Similarly, the

same age group accounted for 58.6%

of the 282,000 force contacts which

occurred during other face-to-face

contacts with police. 

Overall, younger persons age 16-24

were approximately a quarter of all

persons estimated to have face-to-face

contact with police in 1999. However,

younger persons were about half of all

contacts with police involving force.

Persons age 25 or older were neither

more nor less likely to be involved in

force incident when stopped by police

than during a nontraffic contact. This

age group accounted for 51.4% of the

force contacts involving drivers during a

traffic stop and 41.4% of persons in

incidents of force occurring during other

contacts with police in 1999. 

Driver race/ethnicity

White drivers were involved in 61.1% 

of the 139,000 force contacts which

occurred during a traffic stop. Whites

also accounted for 57.8% of the

282,000 force contacts which occurred

during other contacts with police. In

total, whites were 78.2% of persons

who had a face-to-face contact with

police in 1999 and were 58.9% of those

persons who experienced force.

Black persons were 10.6% of all

contacts with police in 1999 and

accounted for 22.4% of all persons who

indicated that police used force against

them. Just over 8% of police-public

contacts involved a person of Hispanic

origin, and these same persons were

involved in 15.5% of all force contacts

with police in 1999. Of both blacks and

Hispanics who experienced force, the

force was not more likely to occur

during a traffic stop than during other

types of contact with police. 

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 15

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding. 

Zero represents no cases in sample.

*Estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases.

Estimated number 43,827,419 421,714 139,327 282,387

 Other race 3.1 2.9 0.0* 4.3*

 Hispanic 8.1 15.5 15.8* 15.4

 Black 10.6 22.6 23.1* 22.4

 White 78.2% 58.9% 61.1% 57.8%

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 76.5 44.7 51.4 41.4

 16-24 23.5% 55.3% 48.6% 58.6%

Age

 Female 47.2 13.1 1.8* 18.6

 Male 52.8% 86.9% 98.2% 81.4%

Gender

 Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Percent of force lice use of force police use of force 

Percent of 

persons with

nontraffic contact experiencing

Percent 

of drivers 

in traffic stops 

experiencing poPercent of 

all persons 

experiencing Gender, age, and police use race/ethnicity

Persons having face-to-face contact with police in 1999

Table 21. Force used or threatened by police, 1999: Gender, age, 

and race/ethnicity
Use of excessive force

In the 1999 survey, persons who said

they had a contact with police in which

force was used were asked whether, 

in their opinion, the force used was

“excessive.” Of the estimated 43.8

million persons who had a face-to-face

contact with police, 0.7% said that

police had used what they felt was

excessive force (table 22). About half 

of 1% of the 19.3 million drivers

involved in a traffic stop in 1999 felt

they had excessive force used against

them. The likelihood of experiencing a

force contact which was considered

"excessive" was higher for persons

involved in other types of face-to-face

contact with police (0.9%).

Of the estimated 422,000 persons

involved in a force contact, most

(76.1%) said the force was excessive

(table 23). Of the estimated 139,000

drivers who had force used against

them during a traffic stop, 71.7% said

the force was excessive. Of the

remaining 282,000 force contacts that

occurred during other contacts with

police, 78.3% reported that the force

used was excessive. 

16 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 

Other 24,550,417 221,072 0.9

Traffic stop 19,277,002 99,956 0.5

 Total 43,827,419 321,028 0.7%

Number Percent

Persons reporting

force by police was

excessive

Total faceto-face

contacts

with police

Type of 

contact

with police

Table 22. Of all face-to-face contacts

with police, percent reporting that

police used excessive force, 1999

Other 282,387 221,072 78.3

Traffic stop 139,327 99,956 71.7

 Total 421,714 321,028 76.1%

Number Percent

Persons reporting force

was excessive

Number of

persons

with force

Type of 

contact with police

Table 23. Force used or threatened by police was excessive, 

comparing traffic stops to other face-to-face contacts with police, 1999
Appendix

Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 17

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Sources: See table 1.

 Other race 8,385,255 80 6,708,204

 Hispanic 21,276,862 86 18,298,101

 Black 24,505,942 74 18,134,397

 White 155,182,518 92% 142,767,917

Race/ethnicity

 25 or older 175,069,581 91 159,313,319

 16-24 34,280,996 79% 27,081,987

Age

 75 or older 14,720,341 66 9,715,425

 70-74 8,619,172 83 7,153,913

 65-69 9,240,111 86 7,946,495

 60-64 10,358,569 89 9,219,126

 55-59 12,858,221 92 11,829,563

 50-54 16,463,371 94 15,475,569

 45-49 19,564,613 95 18,586,382

 40-44 22,375,122 94 21,032,615

 35-39 22,624,608 95 21,493,378

 30-34 19,849,097 94 18,658,151

 25-29 18,396,356 92 16,924,648

 20-24 18,313,065 88 16,115,497

 16-19 15,967,931 70% 11,177,552

Age

 Female 108,482,433 85 92,210,068

 Male 100,868,144 93% 93,807,374

Gender

Total 209,350,577 89% 186,322,014

Number with

driver’s license

Percent with

driver’s license

U.S. population

age 16 or older

Gender, age, and

race/ethnicity

Appendix A. Of the U.S. population, the percent 

and number of licensed drivers, 1999: 

Gender, age, and race/ethnicity

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Sources: See table 1.

 Female 4,338,812 81 3,514,438

 Male 4,046,444 92% 3,722,728

Other race

 Female 10,657,868 74 7,886,822

 Male 10,618,994 87% 9,238,525

Hispanic

 Female 13,479,458 69 9,300,826

 Male 11,026,484 81% 8,931,452

Black

 Female 80,006,295 90 72,005,666

 Male 75,176,222 95% 71,417,411

White

Total 209,350,577 89% 186,322,014

Number with

driver’s license

Percent with

driver’s license

U.S. population

age 16 or older

Race/ethnicty

and gender

Appendix C. Of the United States population, the percent

and number of licensed drivers, 1999: Combined 

categories of race/ethnicity and gender

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Sources: See table 1.

 Other race 6,655,182 89 5,923,112

 Hispanic 15,724,589 84 13,208,655

 Black 19,667,671 77 15,144,107

 White 133,022,139 93% 123,710,589

25 or older

 Other race 1,730,073 77 1,332,156

 Hispanic 5,552,273 68 3,775,546

 Black 4,838,271 64 3,096,493

 White 22,160,379 86% 19,057,926

16 to 24

Total 209,350,577 89% 186,322,014

Number with

driver’s license

Percent with

driver’s license

U.S. population

age 16 or older 

Age and

race/ethnicity

Appendix B. Of the United States population, the percent

and number of licensed drivers, 1999: Combined 

categories of race/ethnicity and age
 

18 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Sources: See table 1.

 25 or older 91,431,965 87 79,545,810

 16-24 17,050,468 78% 13,299,365

Female

 25 or older 83,637,616 95 79,455,735

 16-24 17,230,528 81% 13,956,728

Male

 Total 209,350,577 89% 186,322,014

Number with driver’s

license

Percent with

driver’s license

U.S. population

age 16 or older 

Gender 

and age

Appendix D. Of the United States population, the percent and

number of licensed drivers, 1999: Combined categories of age

and gender

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Sources: See table 1.

 Other race 3,507,121 81 2,840,768

 Hispanic 7,954,618 76 6,045,510

 Black 10,914,115 71 7,749,022

 White 69,056,111 91% 62,841,061

Females age 25 or older

 Other race 831,691 76 632,085

 Hispanic 2,703,249 65 1,757,112

 Black 2,565,343 61 1,564,859

 White 10,950,185 85% 9,307,657

Females age 16-24

 Other race 3,148,061 95 2,990,658

 Hispanic 7,769,971 91 7,070,674

 Black 8,753,556 85 7,440,523

 White 63,966,028 96% 61,407,387

Males age 25 or older

 Other race 898,382 79 709,722

 Hispanic 2,849,023 70 1,994,316

 Black 2,272,928 67 1,522,862

 White 11,210,194 87% 9,752,869

Males age 16-24

Total 209,350,577 89% 186,322,01

Number with

driver’s license

Percent with

driver’s license

U.S. population

age 16 or older

Gender, age, and

race/ethnicity

Appendix E. Of the U.S. population, the percent and number of

licensed drivers, 1999: Combined categories of gender, age,

and race/ethnicity
Sampling

In 1999 the PPCS respondents

included all NCVS respondents age 16

or older, with the questionnaire 

administered following the NCVS

screener and incident forms. 

During the last 6 months of 1999 in

which interviews were conducted, the

NCVS sample consisted of 94,717

individuals age 16 or older. Of these,

10,424, or 11%, were NCVS

non-interviews, though someone else in

the household was interviewed. In

addition to those not interviewed for the

NCVS, 986 persons either refused to

participate in the PPCS or said they

were not available for the interview or

the interviewer failed to indicate the

specific reason for non-interview. 

By far the largest reason for not

completing the PPCS in 1999, accounting for 2,764 respondents, was the

exclusion of the proxy interviews

conducted for the NCVS when a person

was unable, for physical, mental, or

other reasons, to participate. BJS staff

determined that caregivers and other

proxy interviewees would have difficulty

describing the details of any contacts

between police and the sampled

respondent.

The PPCS failed to interview 14,174

persons and interviewed 80,543; this

translates into an 85% response rate

for the PPCS, compared to an overall

response rate of 89% for the NCVS.

Among the PPCS interviews

conducted, 24,829 (31%) were in

person and 55,672 (69%) were by

telephone. 

The PPCS national sample, after

adjustment for non-response, weights

to a national estimate of 209,350,600

persons age 16 or older. Distributions

by gender, race, ethnicity, and age

parallel the resident population projections (middle-series) published by the

Census Bureau (http://www.census.gov

/population/projections/nation/detail

/d1999_00.pdf) reflecting the accuracy

of the case-level adjustments to the

weights:

 Resident population 

Charac- Census Bureau PPCS

teristic projection sample 

Gender

Male 48.2% 48.2%

Female 51.8 51.8

Race/ethnicity

White 74.1% 74.1%

Black 11.4 11.7

Hispanic 10.2 10.2

White 9.3 9.8

Black 0.6 0.2

Other* 0.3 0.1

Other 4.3 4.0

Age

16-17 3.8% 3.9%

18-19 3.8 3.8 

20-24 8.6 8.7

25-29 8.7 8.8

30-34 9.4 9.5

35-39 10.7 10.8

40-49 19.8 20.0

50 or older 35.3 34.5

Total 210,604,000 209,350,600

*Other includes Asians, Pacific Islanders, Native Hawaiians, American

Indians, and Alaska Natives.

Other information on survey 

methodology

Unless indicated otherwise, differences

documented in this report were significant at the .05-level. Certain differences were not significant at the .05-

level but were significant at the .10-

level. The terms "somewhat" and

“marginally” refer to differences significant at the .10-level.

Regarding racial designations given in

the report, "white" refers to nonHispanic whites, "black" refers to nonHispanic blacks, and "other races"

refers to non-Hispanics in the "other

races" category. White Hispanics,

black Hispanics, and Hispanics of

"other races" are categorized in the

report under the heading "Hispanic."

Due to small samples and concerns

about confidentiality, the report does

not provide separate statistics on each

of the racial categories that make up

"other races" (Asians, Pacific Islanders,

American Indians, Native Hawaiians,

and Alaska Natives).

Related reading

Data used in this report were previously

used in the BJS report (Contacts

between Police and the Public:

Findings from the 1999 National

Survey, NCJ 184957, February 2001).

Methodology

 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999 19
20 Characteristics of Drivers Stopped by Police, 1999