Changes in Staff 

Distribution and Salaries 

of Full-Time Employees 

in Postsecondary 

Institutions: Fall 

1993–2003

Postsecondary Education

Descriptive Analysis Report

U.S. Department of Education

NCES 2006-152
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
U.S. Department of Education 

NCES 2006-152 

Changes in Staff 

Distribution and Salaries 

of Full-Time Employees 

in Postsecondary 

Institutions: Fall 

1993–2003 

Postsecondary Education 

Descriptive Analysis Report 

July 2006 

Xiaojie Li 

MPR Associates, Inc. 

C. Dennis Carroll 

Project Officer 

National Center for 

Education Statistics 
U.S. Department of Education

Margaret Spellings 

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences 

Grover J. Whitehurst 

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Mark Schneider 

 Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing, 

and reporting data related to education in the United States and other nations. It fulfills a congressional 

mandate to collect, collate, analyze, and report full and complete statistics on the condition of education 

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NCES activities are designed to address high-priority education data needs; provide consistent, reliable, 

complete, and accurate indicators of education status and trends; and report timely, useful, and highquality data to the U.S. Department of Education, the Congress, the states, other education policymakers, 

practitioners, data users, and the general public. Unless specifically noted, all information contained 

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report, we would like to hear from you. Please direct your comments to 

 National Center for Education Statistics 

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July 2006 

The NCES World Wide Web Home Page address is http://nces.ed.gov. 

The NCES World Wide Web Electronic Catalog is http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch. 

Suggested Citation 

Li, X. (2006). Changes in Staff Distribution and Salaries of Full-time Employees in Postsecondary Institutions: 

1993–2003 (NCES 2006-152). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for 

Education Statistics. 

For ordering information on this report, write to 

 U.S. Department of Education 

 ED Pubs 

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Content Contact

Aurora D’Amico 

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aurora.d’amico@ed.gov
iii 

Executive Summary 

Since the 1990s, accompanying the growth in 

student enrollment, college tuition and fees 

increased faster than both inflation and the median 

household income (U.S. General Accounting 

Office 1996, 1998; The College Board 2003), 

stirring up a public outcry about college 

affordability. Between 1970 and 2001, the share 

per student of total education and general revenue 

from government appropriations for public 

degree-granting institutions declined from 59 to 

46 percent, while the share from tuition and fees 

increased from 16 to 23 percent (U.S. Department 

of Education 2005a, indicator 40). The pressure 

on colleges and universities to contain costs (Burd 

2003; Johnsrud 2000; Nicklin 1997) has 

intensified even more recently as a result of the 

2001 economic recession following the record 

fiscal prosperity of the 1990s (Burd 2003; Zumeta 

2003, 2006). 

It is important to understand how these recent 

trends might have affected the staffing structure of 

the postsecondary workforce and employees’ 

salaries, which make up the largest share of 

overall institutional expenditure. The need for 

salary information on support staff is particularly 

important because they outnumber both faculty 

and administrators (48 vs. 37 and 6 percent, 

respectively, of the entire postsecondary 

workforce in fall 2003) (U.S. Department of 

Education 2005b, table 223). To date, scant 

information is available on the earnings of support 

staff, especially in direct comparison with that of 

faculty and administrators. Meanwhile, there are 

indications that support staff are dissatisfied with 

their pay at work (Smallwood 2003). 

This study examines the changes that occurred 

between fall 1993 and fall 2003 in the distribution 

of staff and average salaries of all full-time staff—

faculty, administrators, and support personnel—at 

postsecondary institutions. The data for this study 

come from two census surveys of postsecondary 

institutions conducted by the U.S. Department of 

Education’s National Center for Education 

Statistics (NCES) through its 1993 and 2003 

Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS) “Fall Staff Survey.” Because IPEDS is a 

census survey, all data presented in this report are 

based on actual survey data and are not subject to 

sampling errors. However, they are subject to 

nonsampling errors (e.g., due to imputation for 

nonresponses) as explained in more detail in 

appendix B. 

Institution Coverage and Key Data 

Issues 

To look at trends over a 10-year period, this 

study is based on 3,186 institutions that were 

surveyed in both 1993 and 2003.1 All of these 

institutions are located in the 50 states and the 

District of Columbia, are degree-granting, and are 

eligible to participate in federal financial aid 

programs.2 Almost all staff from these institutions 

were employed by institutions that remained 

unchanged in institutional characteristics between 

 

1 Although a subset of all U.S. postsecondary institutions 

surveyed (8,781 in 1993 and 3,920 in 2003), these institutions 

represented 93 to 96 percent of the entire workforce surveyed 

in both years (data not shown in tables). See appendix B for 

more details about the IPEDS surveys. 

2 As of 2003 (such information is not available for 1993). 
Executive Summary

iv 

1993 and 2003 (e.g., 96 percent of all staff were 

from institutions in the same Carnegie 

classifications in both years) (table 1-B). 

Therefore, trends in staffing and salaries observed 

by examining the 3,186 institutions reflect 

changes due to factors other than changes in the 

characteristics of the institutions (e.g., strategies 

adopted by institutions to contain costs). 

NCES divides postsecondary staff into the 

following eight categories based on their primary 

occupation activities: (1) executive, 

administrative, and managerial positions; (2) 

faculty staff; (3) instruction/research assistants; 

(4) professional support/service positions; (5) 

technical staff and paraprofessionals; (6) clerical 

and secretarial employees; (7) skilled crafts 

positions; and (8) service/maintenance personnel. 

While useful in conceptualizing the operational 

aspects of the postsecondary workforce, variations 

may exist within these broad categories due to 

factors other than primary occupation activities 

such as longevity of service, academic ranking 

among faculty or level of administration/ 

management for staff in executive, administrative, 

and managerial positions. These variations are not 

reflected in this study. 

Because the IPEDS “Fall Staff Survey” does 

not collect salary information on part-time 

employees, the salary portion of the study refers 

only to full-time staff. Average salaries (inflationadjusted3) reported in this study are computed by 

converting salary survey data reported in 

categories into a continuous version through a 

methodology routinely used with family income 

data from the Current Population Survey (e.g., 

Kaufman, Alt, and Chapman 2001; Kaufman et al. 

 

3 Using the Consumer Price Index adjustment factor for 2003 

of 1.273 for all urban dwellers (CPI-U) as provided by the 

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 

available at 

http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet. 

2000). Thus, caution should be observed when 

interpreting salary data presented in this study. 

Growth in the Total Number of Staff 

at Postsecondary Institutions 

The total number of staff employed at 

postsecondary institutions grew by 22 percent 

(from 2,545,920 to 3,108,301) between 1993 and 

2003, outpacing the growth of both the civilian 

labor force (13 percent) and student enrollment 

(16 percent) (figure A).4 

The growth in the total number of 

postsecondary staff was less at public 4-year (17 

percent) than at either private not-for-profit 4-year 

or public 2-year (25 percent for both) institutions 

(table 2).5 The rate of growth of part-time 

employees was twice that of full-time employees 

(34 vs. 17 percent), continuing the trend of the 

increased use of part-time employees on 

postsecondary campuses that had started in the 

1970s (Cahalan and Roey 1996). This trend was 

particularly evident among faculty whose parttime employment grew almost three times that of 

full-time faculty positions (44 vs. 15 percent). 

Given the growth of racial/ethnic minorities in 

the general U.S. population, it is not surprising 

that the increase in the total numbers of Hispanic, 

Asian, and American Indian staff at postsecondary 

institutions all outpaced that of White staff 

between 1993 and 2003 (61, 63, and 45 percent, 

 

4 The workforce grew even more (35 percent) between 1993 

and 2003 at institutions that changed from associate’s to 

bachelor’s or from bachelor’s to master’s or from master’s to 

doctoral institutions (figure 2). 

5 These statistics refer to institutions that remained in the 

same sectors between 1993 and 2003. The reason for this 

constraint is to avoid counting staff as one sector for 1993 but 

as another sector for 2003 when their institution’s sector had 

changed over time. Similar constraint applies elsewhere in 

this report when discussing patterns of change over time in 

relation to type of institutions. 
 Executive Summary 

v 

respectively, vs. 13 percent) (table 2). The 

increase for Black employees (14 percent), 

however, did not exceed considerably that of their 

White counterparts, and both were below the 

national average (22 percent). 

The total number of nonresident alien staff 

more than doubled (105 percent) between 1993 

and 2003 (table 2). This reflects, at least partly, 

the increasing enrollment in American colleges 

and universities of foreign graduate students (e.g., 

from 11 percent in 1990 to 13 percent in 2002) 

(U.S. Department of Education 2005b, table 206) 

who made up the majority of nonresident alien 

staff employed as instructors and research 

assistants in both years, though more so in 2003 

than in 1993 (60 vs. 54 percent) (tables 15-A and 

15-B). 

The growth in the total number of professional 

staff exceeded that of nonprofessional staff. While 

staff in all professional positions (professional 

support/service; instruction/research assistant; 

executive, administrative, and managerial; and 

faculty) increased at rates (45, 45, 28, and 26 

percent, respectively) higher than the national 

average (22 percent) between 1993 and 2003, the 

total number of their nonprofessional counterparts 

as a whole showed little growth (an increase of 1 

percent) (figure B). Staff in skilled crafts 

positions, as well as those in service/maintenance, 

actually decreased in number (by 2 percent for 

both). This pattern may reflect the cost-control 

strategy adopted by colleges and universities in 

the 1990s to outsource the services of 

nonprofessional support personnel, while 

Figure A.—Percentage increase in civilian labor force and in total enrollment and workforce in 

Figure A.—postsecondary institutions: 1993–2003 

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: For U.S. civilian labor force, U.S. Census Bureau (2005). Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2004–05 (124th ed.),

Nos. 2, 569. For enrollment and workforce at postsecondary institutions, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education

Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

13

16

22

0

10

20

30

40

50

U.S. civilian labor force Total enrollment at

postsecondary institutions

Total workforce at

postsecondary institutions

Percent
Executive Summary

vi 

protecting the academic core staff (i.e., faculty, 

executive, administrative, and managerial, and 

instruction/research assistant positions) (Johnsrud 

2000). 

The increase in the total number of 

postsecondary staff varied considerably among 

states. Five states—Alaska, Arizona, Louisiana, 

Nevada, and New Hampshire—topped all others 

Figure B.—Percentage change in total number of staff employed in postsecondary institutions, by primary

Figure B.—occupation: Fall 1993–2003

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

-2

-2

0

7

1

26

28

45

45

34

-10 0 10 20 30 40 50

Percent change

Professional

Nonprofessional

Service/maintenance

Skilled crafts

Total

Instruction/research 

assistant

Professional 

support/service

Executive/

administrative/

managerial

Faculty

Total

Technical/

paraprofessional

Clerical/

secretarial
 Executive Summary 

vii 

by increasing their postsecondary workforce by 

more than 50 percent (53–88 percent) (table 7-A). 

At the other end of the spectrum, there was a 

decrease of 24 percent in the District of Columbia, 

the only geographic entity with a decline in the 

total number of staff employed at postsecondary 

institutions between 1993 and 2003. The 

postsecondary workforce increased less than 10 

percent in four states: Alabama (5 percent), 

Michigan and New York (7 percent), and West 

Virginia (8 percent). 

Changes in the Distribution of Staff 

at Postsecondary Institutions 

Overall, the distribution of postsecondary 

staff—by either sector or Carnegie 

classification—remained fairly stable between fall 

1993 and fall 2003. For example, in both years, 

nearly all (97–98 percent) postsecondary staff 

were employed by the three major sectors of 

institutions: public 4-year (52 and 50 percent in 

1993 and 2003, respectively), private not-forprofit 4-year (29 percent in both years), and public 

2-year (18 percent in both years) (figure C).6 This 

high degree of concentration in the public and 

private not-for-profit sectors of the higher 

education workforce parallels student enrollment. 

In both years, 97 percent of all students were 

enrolled in these three sectors.7 

Likewise, despite varied growth rates in the 

total number of postsecondary staff at the state 

level, the geographic distribution of the 

postsecondary workforce in fall 1993 was 

 

6 The decrease in the proportion of postsecondary staff at 

public 4-year institutions is consistent with a decline of 

student enrollment by 2 percentage points during the period 

(from 42 to 40 percent) (data are based on the IPEDS 1993 

and 2003 “Fall Enrollment Survey” but are not shown in 

tables). 

7 Data are based on the IPEDS 1993 and 2003 “Fall 

Enrollment Survey” (not shown in tables). 

comparable to that in fall 2003. For instance, in 

both years, about one-third of all postsecondary 

staff were located in the top five states that 

constituted about 36 percent of either total fall 

enrollment or total resident population: California 

(9–10 percent), New York (8–9 percent), Texas (6 

percent), Pennsylvania (5 percent), and Illinois (5 

percent) (table 7-A).8

However, the postsecondary workforce in 2003 

consisted of proportionally more part-time 

employees than in 1993. The proportion of parttime staff increased from 31 to 35 percent (table 

7-A), continuing the well-established pattern of 

the increased use of such staff (Cahalan and Roey 

1996). Furthermore, this shift toward the use of 

part-time employees held across all types of 

institutions and racial/ethnic groups (except for 

Asian staff and staff with unknown race/ethnicity) 

and by gender (table 3). The increased use of parttime employees among faculty was particularly 

conspicuous. Except for instruction/research 

assistants—who are part time by definition—

faculty had the highest rates of part-time 

employment in both years: 40 percent in 1993, 

increasing to 46 percent in 2003 (figure D). In 

contrast, among staff in all other primary 

occupations, the proportion of part-time staff 

ranged from 4 to 22 percent in 1993 and from 3 to 

21 percent in 2003. 

With few exceptions, the increased use of parttime employees over time was observed at the 

state level as well. In all but seven states, there 

 

8 The only exception to this pattern is Florida, which ranked 

below Illinois and Pennsylvania in postsecondary workforce 

as shown in table 7-A but ranked higher than both states in 

resident population in 2003 (6 vs. 4 percent) and higher than 

Pennsylvania in total fall enrollment in 2003 (5 vs. 4 percent). 

(Fall enrollment data are recalculated from U.S. Department 

of Education [1996], table 186 and U.S. Department of 

Education [2005b], table 188; resident population figures are 

based on CPS data [data not shown in tables].) 
Executive Summary

viii 

Figure C.—Percentage distribution of staff in postsecondary institutions, by sector of institution: Fall 

Figure C.—1993 and 2003

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Included in the “other” category are staff at

institutions that had changed in sector between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed

sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

Fall 2003

 Other

(2%)

 Public 2-year (18%)

 Public 4-year (50%)

 Private not-for-profit 

4-year (29%)

Fall 1993

 Other

(1%)

 Private not-for-profit 

4-year (29%)

 Public 4-year (52%)

 Public 2-year (18%)
 Executive Summary 

ix 

was an increase in the proportion of staff 

employed in part-time positions, reaching almost 

one-half (48 percent) in Nevada in 2003 (table 7-

A). 

The rate at which female staff outnumbered 

male staff at postsecondary institutions increased 

only slightly, from 52 percent in 1993 to 53 

percent in 2003 (table 8-A). Nonetheless, during 

Figure D.—Percentage of staff in postsecondary institutions who were part time, by primary occupation: Fall 

Figure D.—1993 and 2003 

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

46

21

21

17

15

5

3

35

40

23

20

17

16

5

4

31

0 10 20 30 40 50

 Faculty

 Technical/

 para-

 professional

 Clerical/

secretarial

 Service/

maintenance

 Professional 

 support/

 service

 Skilled 

 crafts

 Executive/

 administrative/

 managerial

Total percent

 part time

Percent

1993

2003
Executive Summary

x 

this decade, the participation of women in the 

postsecondary workforce was particularly 

noticeable when looking at their distribution 

across states. The total number of states (including 

the District of Columbia) where the proportion of 

female staff rounded to at least 50 percent 

increased from 38 states in 1993 to 49 states in 

2003, with Utah and Idaho being the only 2 states 

where females made up less than half of the 

workforce on college and university campuses. 

With increases in staff from racial/ethnic 

minorities, the postsecondary workforce 

experienced gains in the proportion of staff other 

than White between 1993 and 2003 (table 14). 

Nevertheless, compared with the U.S. population 

in general, Whites were still somewhat 

overrepresented on postsecondary campuses in 

2003: 72 versus 68 percent in the U.S. resident 

population (U.S. Census Bureau 2005, No. 13). In 

contrast, in both years, Hispanics were 

proportionally underrepresented in the 

postsecondary workforce compared with the U.S. 

resident population: 4 versus 10 percent in 1993, 

and 5 versus 12 percent in 2003. 

Because the total number of professional staff 

grew more than that of nonprofessional staff, the 

postsecondary workforce was more professionally 

oriented in 2003 than in 1993. The proportion of 

the four professional staff groups (executive, 

administrative, and managerial; faculty; 

instruction/research assistant; and professional 

support/service) each increased, while the 

proportion of the four nonprofessional groups 

each decreased (tables 15-A and 15-B). Overall, 

between 1993 and 2003, there was a shift of 6 

percentage points (from 65 to 71 percent) toward 

professional staff on postsecondary campuses. 

Growth in the Average Salaries of 

Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and 

Salary Disparities 

After adjusting for inflation, the overall 

average salary of full-time postsecondary staff 

grew by 13 percent between 1993 and 2003 (from 

$41,700 to $46,900 in constant 2003 dollars) 

(table 18), slightly higher than the U.S. growth 

rate (11 percent) in annual salary for full-timeequivalent employees (U.S. Census Bureau 1996, 

No. 658 and U.S. Census Bureau 2006, table 627) 

but comparable to the rate of increase in the 

median family income (14 percent) (Broaddus and 

Sherman 2005). 

Full-time staff at public 2-year institutions 

experienced the lowest increase in average salary 

(4 percent, from $42,200 to $44,000), trailing their 

peers at both public 4-year (13 percent, from 

$42,000 to $47,400) and private not-for-profit 4-

year (16 percent, from $41,300 to $47,900) 

institutions (table 18). 

Full-time female staff as a whole had a slight 

edge over their male counterparts in terms of the 

growth in their average salaries between 1993 and 

2003: 14 versus 12 percent (from $36,100 to 

$41,100, and from $47,800 to $53,700, 

respectively) (table 22). Nonetheless, in 2003, 

full-time women in postsecondary institutions still 

earned, on average, 77 percent of what full-time 

men earned. However, the average salary of 

female clerical/secretary staff was almost equal to 

that of their male counterparts (99 and 98 percent 

in 1993 and 2003, respectively). 

Salary increases for postsecondary staff 

occurred at similar rates among racial/ethnic 

groups. As a result, the relative standings of 

average salary among various racial/ethnic groups 
 Executive Summary 

xi 

remained fairly stable on postsecondary campuses 

during the decade. On average, Asian 

postsecondary staff earned the highest salaries, 

followed by Whites, nonresident aliens, staff 

whose race/ethnicity was unknown, and American 

Indians and Hispanics. Blacks, on average, earned 

the lowest salary (tables 19-A and 19-B). 

Expressed as percentages of the average earnings 

for White staff ($45,300 in 1993 and $48,900 in 

2003), Asians averaged 109 percent; nonresident 

aliens, 93 percent; staff of unknown race/ 

ethnicity, 84 percent; American Indians and 

Hispanics, 79 to 81 percent; and Blacks, 73 to 74 

percent (figure E). 

Figure E.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time staff in various racial/ethnic groups as a

Figure E.—percentage of those for Whites in postsecondary institutions: Fall 1993 and 2003

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic 

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A 

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis

and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data

System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

73

80

81

84

93

109

100

74

79

80

84

93

109

100

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

 Black

 Hispanic

 American 

 Indian

Race/ethnicity 

 unknown

Nonresident alien

 Asian

 White

Percent

1993

2003

$48,900

$43,500
Executive Summary

xii 

However, the rate of salary growth fluctuated 

considerably among the primary occupation 

groups (figure F). While the average earnings for 

staff in executive, administrative, and managerial 

positions increased 17 percent (from $60,300 to 

$70,400), the increase was 13 percent for faculty 

(from $57,100 to $64,500), 9 percent each for 

skilled crafts staff (from $33,300 to $36,400) and 

technical staff and paraprofessionals (from 

$30,600 to $33,400), and 5 percent for both 

Figure F.—Percentage increase in annual salary (in constant 2003 dollars) per full-time-equivalent employee

Figure F.—in U.S. domestic industries and in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time staff in 

Figure F.—postsecondary institutions since fall 1993, by primary occupation: Fall 2003

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: For U.S. domestic industries, U.S. Census Bureau (1996). Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1996 (116th ed.), 

No. 658 and U.S. Census Bureau (2006). Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2006 (125th ed.), table 627. For full-time staff in

postsecondary institutions, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education

Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

3

5

5

9

9

13

17

13

11

0 10 20 30 40 50

 Service/ 

maintenance

 Professional

support/service

 Clerical/

secretarial

Skilled crafts

 Technical/

paraprofessional

 Faculty

 Executive/administrative/managerial

Total

Percent

Postsecondary institutions

U.S. domestic industries
 Executive Summary 

xiii 

clerical and secretarial staff (from $26,100 to 

$27,400) and professional support/service staff 

(from $42,800 to $44,800) (tables 20-A, 20-B, and 

20-C). At the very bottom were service/ 

maintenance employees whose average salary 

increased only 3 percent (from $22,600 to 

$23,300). Consequently, the gap in average salary 

between executive, administrative, and managerial 

staff—the highest earning positions—and staff in 

all other primary occupation groups increased 

over time (figure G). For example, relative to the 

average salary of executive, administrative, and 

Figure G.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time staff in various primary occupation 

Figure G.—groups as a percentage of those for executive/administrative/managerial in postsecondary 

Figure G.—institutions: Fall 1993 and 2003

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

33

39

47

52

64

92

100

37

43

51

55

71

95

100

0 20 40 60 80 100

Service/

maintenance

Clerical/

 secretarial

 Technical/

paraprofessional

Skilled crafts

Professional 

 support/

 service

Faculty

 Executive/

 admini-

 strative/

managerial

Percent

1993

2003

$60,400

$70,500
Executive Summary

xiv 

managerial staff, faculty earned, on average, 95 

percent in 1993, but 92 percent in 2003; likewise, 

clerical and secretarial staff earned 43 percent in 

1993, but 39 percent in 2003. 

Conclusions 

Between fall 1993 and fall 2003, the growth of 

the workforce at colleges and universities 

outpaced that of both the overall U.S. civilian 

labor force and student enrollment, thus 

continuing a pattern that began in the 1970s. The 

growth rate was higher for part-time employees 

than full-time employees, for female staff than 

male staff, and for professionals than 

nonprofessionals. These findings may reflect 

certain staffing strategies adopted by colleges and 

universities, such as the increased use of part-time 

staff and outsourcing campus services, while still 

meeting the increased demand for postsecondary 

education. During the decade studied, the 

increased use of part-time faculty was particularly 

evident, raising the proportion of faculty in parttime positions from 40 percent in 1993 to 46 

percent in 2003, a trend that started in the 1970s, 

persisted through the 1980s and 1990s, and 

continued into the early 2000s. Because it is likely 

that this pattern will continue into the future, some 

predict that part-time faculty will emerge as the 

majority among faculty on postsecondary 

campuses (Maitland and Rhoades 2005). 

Lending support to the argument that salary 

raises are not the major cause of the persistent 

increases in tuition that surpassed growth in 

median family income, the overall average salary 

(inflation-adjusted) of full-time postsecondary 

institution staff grew by 13 percent between 1993 

and 2003, fairly in pace with the growth of the 

median family income (14 percent). Although the 

average salaries of full-time employees increased 

for each primary occupation category, only the 

increases for executive, administrative, and 

managerial positions (17 percent) exceeded the 

overall increase in the U.S. median family income. 

Finally, readers should bear in mind that 

increases in college tuition and fees are the result 

of many complex processes beyond the scope of 

this study (e.g., funding, revenues, and costs). The 

purpose of the current report is to document major 

changes in staffing composition and average 

earnings of full-time staff that occurred between 

1993 and 2003. The findings are descriptive in 

nature and associations should not be interpreted 

as causal relationships. 
xv 

Foreword 

This study examines the changes between fall 1993 and fall 2003 in the distribution of staff 

and average salaries of full-time employees at postsecondary institutions. The data come from 

two surveys of postsecondary institutions conducted by the National Center for Education 

Statistics (NCES) through its Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 1993 

and 2003 “Fall Staff Survey.” The IPEDS “Fall Staff Survey” reports the number of staff at the 

institutional level by full- and part-time status, gender, race/ethnicity, and primary occupation. 

For full-time employees, the survey also reports the distribution of staff by salary class intervals. 

In addition to the 50 states and the District of Columbia, the “Fall Staff Survey” also covers 

outlying areas (i.e., American Samoa, the Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, the Marshall 

Islands, the Northern Marianas, Palau, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands). However, outlying 

areas are excluded from this study. 

The study is based on 3,186 institutions surveyed in both 1993 and 2003 that were degreegranting and Title IV eligible postsecondary institutions—a subset of all postsecondary 

institutions surveyed (9,035 in 1993 and 4,866 in 2003), yet representing 92 and 95 percent of the 

entire respective year’s postsecondary workforce. The study addresses two major questions. First, 

it discusses how staff on college campuses changed during this decade in terms of both the total 

number of employees and percentage distribution according to major institutional characteristics 

(i.e., type and Carnegie classification of institution) and employee characteristics (i.e., 

employment status, gender, race/ethnicity, and primary occupation). Changes are also examined 

at the state level. Next, the study focuses on changes in average salaries and salary disparities in 

relation to these institutional and employee characteristics for full-time employees. (Salary 

information is not collected for part-time employees in the IPEDS “Fall Staff Survey.”) Readers 

are encouraged to consult the glossary and technical appendix at the end of the report for more 

information about the surveys used and data accuracy issues. 
xvi 

Acknowledgments 

The author would like to thank C. Dennis Carroll, the NCES Project Monitor, and Laura 

Horn of MPR Associates for their valuable guidance and reviews at various stages. Other 

valuable contributions were made by Xianglei Chen, who originally conceived the study topic 

and provided guidance at the analysis plan stage, Barbara Kridl, who supervised the production 

of the report, Andrea Livingston, who edited it, and Annabelle Yang, who formatted the tables 

and prepared the figures. 

At NCES, Paula Knepper and Marilyn Seastrom, the chief statistician, reviewed the report 

at various stages and provided useful feedbacks. Thanks also go to members of the 

Postsecondary Education Descriptive Analysis Reports (PEDAR) Technical Review Panel who 

reviewed and commented on the analysis plan, preliminary findings, and draft report, including 

Michael Cohen of the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Ellie Greenberg of the University of 

Colorado Health Sciences Center, and Kent Phillippe of the American Association of 

Community Colleges. Last but not least, we are grateful to Duc-Le To of the Institute of 

Education Sciences who provided thoughtful comments by gathering and synthesizing comments 

from two anonymous external reviewers. 
xvii 

Contents 

Page 

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................. iii

Foreword ................................................................................................................................... xv

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... xvi

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ xix

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... xxiii

Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1 

Institution Coverage and Key Data Issues ............................................................................ 3 

Organization of the Report ................................................................................................... 10 

Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions .................................. 11

Type of Institution ................................................................................................................ 15 

Employment Status .............................................................................................................. 15 

Gender ................................................................................................................................... 18 

Race/Ethnicity ...................................................................................................................... 21 

Primary Occupation .............................................................................................................. 21 

States .................................................................................................................................... 37 

Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff .............................................................. 59 

Type of Institution ................................................................................................................ 59 

Employment Status .............................................................................................................. 62 

Gender ................................................................................................................................... 65 

Race/Ethnicity ...................................................................................................................... 65 

Primary Occupation .............................................................................................................. 70 

States .................................................................................................................................... 77 

Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary 

Differences ................................................................................................................................. 87

Variation in the Growth of Average Salaries ....................................................................... 93 

Salary Differences by Type of Institution ............................................................................. 106 

Salary Differences by Gender ............................................................................................... 115

Salary Differences by Race/Ethnicity ................................................................................... 119 

Salary Differences by Primary Occupation ........................................................................... 124 
Contents

xviii 

Page 

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 129

References ................................................................................................................................. 131

Appendix A—Glossary ............................................................................................................ A-1

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology .................................................................. B-1 
xix 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

Text 

1-A Distribution of postsecondary institutions covered in the study, by institutional 

characteristics in fall 1993 and 2003............................................................................... 5

1-B Distribution of postsecondary institutions covered in this study and distribution of 

their staff, by change in institutional characteristics between fall 1993 and 2003.......... 6

2 Number of employees in postsecondary institutions and percentage change since fall 

1993, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003.......................... 12 

3 Number of full-time and part-time employees in postsecondary institutions, 

percentage change since fall 1993, and percentage of part-time staff, by institution and 

employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003................................................................. 16 

4 Number of male and female employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage 

change since fall 1993, and percentage of female staff, by institution and employee 

characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003................................................................................. 19 

5-A Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by 

institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 ........................................................ 22 

5-B Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by 

institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003 ........................................................ 24 

5-C Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in postsecondary 

institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Fall 2003.......................................................................................................................... 26 

6-A Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupation group, 

by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 ................................................... 28 

6-B Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupation group, 

by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003 ................................................... 31 

6-C Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in postsecondary 

institutions in each primary occupation, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Fall 2003.......................................................................................................................... 34 
List of Tables

xx 

Table Page 

7-A Number of employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 

1993, percentage of part-time staff, and all employees as percentage of the total 

workforce, by employment status and state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003.............. 38 

7-B Number of employees in public postsecondary institutions, percentage change since 

fall 1993, percentage of part-time staff, and all employees as percentage of the total 

workforce, by employment status and state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003.............. 41 

8-A Number of male and female employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage 

change since fall 1993, and percentage of female staff, by state of institution: Fall 

1993 and 2003 ................................................................................................................. 45 

8-B Number of male and female employees in public postsecondary institutions, 

percentage change since fall 1993, and percentage of female staff, by state of 

institution: Fall 1993 and 2003 ....................................................................................... 47 

9-A Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by 

state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003........................................................................... 49 

9-B Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in postsecondary 

institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fall 2003 ...................... 52 

10-A Number of employees in public postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, 

by state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003...................................................................... 54 

10-B Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in public postsecondary 

institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fall 2003 ...................... 57 

11 Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions and change in 

percentage points since fall 1993, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 

1993 and 2003 ................................................................................................................. 60 

12 Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by employment 

status and change since fall 1993 in percentage of part-time staff, by institution and 

employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003................................................................. 63 

13 Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by gender and 

change since fall 1993 in percentage of female staff, by institution and employee 

characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003................................................................................. 66 

14 Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by race/ethnicity 

and institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003.................................. 68 

15-A Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by primary 

occupation and institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993............................... 71 
List of Tables 

xxi 

Table Page 

15-B Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by primary 

occupation and institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003............................... 74 

16-A Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by race/ethnicity 

and state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003 .................................................................... 79 

16-B Percentage distribution of employees in public postsecondary institutions by 

race/ethnicity and state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003 ............................................. 82 

17 Percentage distribution of full-time and part-time employees in postsecondary 

institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003................ 88 

18 Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary 

institutions and percentage change since fall 1993, by institution and employee 

characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003................................................................................. 90 

19-A Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary 

institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Fall 1993.......................................................................................................................... 94 

19-B Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary 

institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Fall 2003.......................................................................................................................... 96 

19-C Percentage change since fall 1993 in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of 

full-time employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by 

institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003 ........................................................ 98 

20-A Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary 

institutions in each primary occupation group, by institution and employee 

characteristics: Fall 1993................................................................................................. 100 

20-B Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary 

institutions in each primary occupation group, by institution and employee 

characteristics: Fall 2003................................................................................................. 102 

20-C Percentage change since fall 1993 in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of 

full-time employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupation group, 

by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003 ................................................... 104 

21-A Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time 

employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group: Fall 1993 ............ 107 

21-B Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time 

employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group: Fall 2003 ............ 109 
List of Tables

xxii 

Table Page 

21-C Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time 

employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupation group: 

Fall 1993.......................................................................................................................... 111 

21-D Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time 

employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupation group: 

Fall 2003.......................................................................................................................... 113 

22 Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of male and female full-time employees in 

postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 1993, and average salaries of 

females as percentage of those for males, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Fall 1993 and 2003.......................................................................................................... 116

23-A Racial/ethnic differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time 

employees in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Fall 1993.......................................................................................................................... 120 

23-B Racial/ethnic differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time 

employees in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Fall 2003.......................................................................................................................... 122 

24-A Occupational differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time 

employees in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Fall 1993.......................................................................................................................... 125 

24-B Occupational differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time 

employees in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Fall 2003.......................................................................................................................... 127 

Appendix A 

A-1 Aggregated Carnegie classification used in this study in relation to 1994 and 2000 

Carnegie classifications................................................................................................... A-3 

Appendix B 

B-1 Salary outlay and number of full-time staff by gender, percentage share of total by 

women in salary outlay and number of full-time staff, and average salaries of 

full-time staff by gender in postsecondary institutions, by primary occupation: 

Fall 1993 and 2003.......................................................................................................... B-5 
xxiii 

List of Figures 

Figure Page 

Executive Summary 

A Percentage increase in civilian labor force and in total enrollment and workforce in 

postsecondary institutions: 1993–2003 ........................................................................... v 

B Percentage change in total number of staff employed in postsecondary institutions, by 

primary occupation: Fall 1993–2003 .............................................................................. vi 

C Percentage distribution of staff in postsecondary institutions, by sector of institution: 

Fall 1993 and 2003.......................................................................................................... viii 

D Percentage of staff in postsecondary institutions who were part time, by primary 

occupation: Fall 1993 and 2003 ...................................................................................... ix 

E Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time staff in various racial/ethnic 

groups as a percentage of those for Whites in postsecondary institutions: Fall 1993 

and 2003 .......................................................................................................................... xi 

F Percentage increase in annual salary (in constant 2003 dollars) per full-timeequivalent employee in U.S. domestic industries and in average salaries (in constant 

2003 dollars) of full-time staff in postsecondary institutions since fall 1993, by 

primary occupation: Fall 2003 ........................................................................................ xii 

G Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time staff of various primary 

occupation groups as a percentage of those for executive/administrative/managerial in 

postsecondary institutions: Fall 1993 and 2003 .............................................................. xiii 

Text 

1 Annual percentage change in median salary (in nominal dollars) for administrators 

and in average salary (in nominal dollars) of faculty in postsecondary institutions, and 

consumer price index: 1993–94 through 2003–04.......................................................... 2 

2 Percentage change in total number of staff employed in postsecondary institutions, by 

change in institutional characteristics: Fall 1993–2003 .................................................. 14 
List of Figures 

xxiv 

Figure Page 

3 Percentage change in average salary (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time staff 

employed in postsecondary institutions, by change in institutional characteristics: 

Fall 1993–2003................................................................................................................ 92 
1 

Introduction 

In the 1990s, increases in college tuition and fees outpaced both inflation and growth in the 

median household income (U.S. General Accounting Office 1996, 1998), a trend that is 

continuing into the 21st century (The College Board 2003), stirring up a public outcry about 

college affordability and the increased financial burden on students and their families. Indeed, 

between 1970 and 2001, the share per student of total education and general revenue from 

government appropriations for public degree-granting institutions declined from 59 to 46 percent, 

while the share from tuition and fees increased from 16 to 23 percent (U.S. Department of 

Education 2005a, indicator 40). Colleges and universities have been under pressure to contain 

costs (Nicklin 1997; Burd 2003). In response to calls to cut spending and still meet the increased 

demand for higher education (U.S. Department of Education 2005b, table 171; Knapp et al. 

2005a, 2005c), postsecondary institutions have made structural changes in staffing (Johnsrud 

2000; Brainard 2003; Wechsler 2004). The need for such changes intensified after the 2001 

economic recession following the record prosperity in the 1990s (Zumeta 2003, 2006). As a 

result, institutions have adopted cost-cutting strategies such as increased use of part-time 

employees, particularly of part-time faculty (Allen 2004; Maitland and Rhoades 2005), and 

outsourcing of campus services (Nicklin 1997; Van Der Werf 1999; Johnsrud 2000; Gose 2005). 

Increasing faculty salaries are often cited as a major cause of the persistent rise in tuition 

(Ehrenberg 2004). Research indeed shows that average faculty salaries increased at rates 

outpacing inflation between 1993 and 2003 (Ehrenberg 2004;1 U.S. Department of Education 

2005b, table 236). The increase, however, was less than that for tuition (Ehrenberg 2004), and, 

for each year during this decade, the rate of increase in average faculty salaries was smaller than 

that in the median salaries of college administrators2 (figure 1). In fact, this period has been 

characterized as “the longest stretch” in which the median salary increases for college 

administrators surpassed inflation (Kellogg 2001). 

However, salary discussions of this kind often ignore support staff, who far outnumber 

faculty or administrators (e.g., 48 vs. 37 and 6 percent, respectively, of the entire workforce of 

colleges and universities in fall 2003—with instruction and research assistants constituting the 

 

1 Based on survey data collected and reported by the American Association of University Professors (AAUP). 

2 The rate of increase in administrators’ median salary was calculated from survey data collected and reported annually by the 

College and University Professional Association for Human Resources (CUPAHR) and released in the Chronicle of Higher 

Education. The CUPAHR survey coverage of institutions is not necessarily the same as that for the AAUP surveys. 
Introduction

2 

remaining 9 percent) (U.S. Department of Education 2005b, table 223). Trend data on support 

staff earnings are sparse at best, particularly in direct comparison with data on the earnings of 

nonsupport staff. Little has been reported about how support staff have fared over time in salary 

and salary growth. Nevertheless, the Chronicle of Higher Education reported that “the most 

notable strikes in 2003 involved university support-staff workers demanding higher wages and 

benefits” (Smallwood 2003). 

This study examines the average salaries of all postsecondary employees—support staff, 

faculty, and administrators—and reports salary changes that occurred in the decade between fall 

1993 and fall 2003 at postsecondary institutions. To put this salary information in context, the 

study begins by describing changes during this decade in terms of both the total number of 

employees and their distribution by major institutional characteristics (i.e., sector and Carnegie 

classification), employee characteristics (i.e., employment status, gender, race/ethnicity, and 

primary occupation), and state-level changes. 

Figure 1.—Annual percentage change in median salary (in nominal dollars) for administrators and in 

Figure 1.—average salary (in nominal dollars) of faculty in postsecondary institutions, and consumer

Figure 1.—price index: 1993–94 through 2003–04

NOTE: Data for administrators refer to median salary while those for faculty refer to average salary because this is how they were

reported in the cited studies.

SOURCE: For college and university administrators, data are from a series of annual articles published in The Chronicle of Higher

Education (see footnote #35 in the report text for detailed references); faculty and consumer price index data are from the 2004

American Association of University Professors (AAUP) annual report (Ehrenberg, R.G. (2004). Don’t Blame Faculty for High 

Tuition: The Annual Report on the Economic Status of the Profession 2003–04 ).

0

2

4

6

8

10

1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–2000 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04

Percent change Median salary of

administrators

Average faculty salary

Consumer price index
Introduction 

3 

Institution Coverage and Key Data Issues 

This report is limited to postsecondary institutions located in the 50 states and the District 

of Columbia; it uses 1993 and 2003 data from “Fall Staff,” one of the many components of the 

Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS). IPEDS is a core data collection 

system of the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 

consisting of institution-level data that can be used to describe trends in postsecondary education. 

The Fall Staff component is administered in odd-numbered years; it reports the number of 

institutional staff by salary class intervals, primary occupation activity, full-time and part-time 

status, gender, and race/ethnicity. Fall Staff does not include institutional characteristics (e.g., the 

sector and Carnegie classification of the institution and state where it is located). Rather, such 

information is collected separately through the annual Institutional Characteristics (IC) 

component. Therefore, the data from the IC 1993 and 2003 surveys are merged with Fall Staff 

data to obtain all institutional characteristics used in this report (but see “Carnegie Classification 

of Institution,” below for one exception). 

Institution Coverage 

Due to changes in the IPEDS data collection over time, the institutions covered in the 1993 

Fall Staff data collection are not directly comparable with those covered in the 2003 survey. For 

example, the 1993 survey collected information from all identified postsecondary institutions (a 

total of 8,781), while the 2003 survey focused only on the subset of Title IV institutions (i.e., 

institutions eligible to participate in federal financial aid programs) (a total of 3,920 

institutions).3 Additionally, changes could have occurred in individual institutions (e.g., openings 

and closings and changes in characteristics). Furthermore, changes were implemented by NCES 

in 1996 in how postsecondary institutions are classified.4 Consequently, it is not appropriate to 

examine trends of changes between 1993 and 2003 in the total number of staff employed at 

postsecondary institutions and average salaries of full-time staff by directly comparing the two 

full sets of institutions surveyed. 

Therefore, to make the comparisons between fall 1993 and fall 2003 comparable, this study 

focuses only on institutions that were surveyed in both fall 1993 and fall 2003, were degree-

 

3 These numbers exclude institutions located in outlying areas (based on U.S. Department of Education, National Center for 

Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System [IPEDS], 1993 and 2003 “Fall Staff” [data not shown in 

tables]). 

4 Before 1997, NCES reports on staff focused on postsecondary institutions accredited by an agency or organization that was 

recognized by the U.S. Department of Education (ED), or directly by the Secretary of Education. Since 1997, ED has no longer 

distinguished institutions based on accreditation level and now subdivides the postsecondary institution universe into schools 

that are eligible to receive Title IV federal financial aid and those that are not. 
Introduction

4 

granting, and eligible to participate in Title IV federal financial aid programs.5 In other words, 

the analysis is longitudinal in nature, limiting the total number of institutions covered in this 

study to 3,186, which made up 36 percent (of 8,781) in 1993 and 81 percent (of 3,920) in 2003 of 

all U.S. postsecondary institutions surveyed. Although only a subset, these institutions represent 

93 percent in 1993 and 96 percent in 2003 of all postsecondary staff employed at all institutions 

surveyed in the respective survey years.6

Change in Institutional Characteristics 

Over the decade between 1993 and 2003, some institutions changed in various ways. For 

example, they may have modified their operational activities (e.g., instructional curriculum and 

level of degree-offering), and that may have resulted in staff re-allocation and salary changes. 

Changes such as these would confound the current study, which seeks to examine changes in 

staffing structure and salary adjustments. Therefore, a preliminary examination of how and what 

institutions changed with respect to control, level, sector, and Carnegie Classification was 

undertaken. 

As shown in tables 1-A and 1-B, among the 3,186 institutions surveyed in both years, 113 

institutions (4 percent) were 2-year in 1993 but became 4-year in 2003. However, this 4 percent 

of institutions represented only 1 percent of the postsecondary workforce in the 3,186 institutions 

in both years. In contrast, 96 percent of the institutions changed neither control nor level between 

1993 and 2003, and represented almost all staff (99 percent) employed for both years. 

Likewise, the Carnegie classification (see section below for definitions specific to this 

study) was fairly stable among the 3,186 institutions under study.7 Ninety-two percent of these 

institutions remained unchanged between 1993 and 2003—that is, they stayed as doctoral, 

master’s, bachelor’s, associate’s, or specialized institutions. The representation of the workforce 

in these institutions accounted for 96 percent of all staff employed. Among those that did show 

Carnegie classification changes over time, the largest group (142) consists of institutions that 

moved upward (i.e., from associate’s to bachelor’s or from bachelor’s to master’s or from 

master’s to doctoral institutions). These institutions represent 5 percent of the 3,186 institutions 

and 3 percent of the corresponding workforce in both years. In contrast, 12 institutions (0.4 

 

5 As of 2003 (such information is not available for 1993). 

6 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), 1993 and 2003 “Fall Staff Survey” (data not shown in tables). 

7 Excluding the 220 institutions (7 percent of the total 3,186 institutions) that were unknown for their Carnegie classification in 

either 1993 or 2003, which accounted for only 2 percent of all staff employed in the 3,186 institutions for both years. See table 1-

A for details about how many of these institutions were unknown in Carnegie classification in 1 year or both years. 
Introduction 

5 

Table 1-A.—Distribution of postsecondary institutions covered in this study, by institutional characteristics

Table 1-A.—in fall 1993 and 2003

Institutional characteristics 

in 1993 Institutional characteristics in 2003

 Private not- Private

Control of institution Total Public for-profit for-profit

 Total 3,186 1,571 1,396 219

 Public 1,567 1,566 1 0

 Private not-for-profit 1,404 3 1,393 8

 Private for-profit 215 2 2 211

Level of institution Total 4-year 2-year

 Total 3,186 2,106 1,080

 4-year 1,994 1,993 1

 2-year 1,192 113 1,079

 Private Private not- Private

 Public for-profit for-profit Public for-profit for-profit 

Sector of institution Total 4-year 4-year 4-year 2-year 2-year 2-year 

 Total 3,186 638 1,338 130 933 58 89

 Public 4-year 616 615 1 0 0 0 0

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 1,307 2 1,297 8 0 0 0

 Private for-profit 4-year 71 1 1 68 0 0 1

 Public 2-year 951 19 0 0 932 0 0

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 97 0 39 0 1 57 0

 Private for-profit 2-year 144 1 0 54 0 1 88

Carnegie classification1 Total Doctoral Master’s Bachelor’s Associate’s Specialized Unclassified

 Total 3,186 255 592 563 1,091 544 141

 Doctoral 232 230 1 0 0 1 0

 Master’s 514 21 477 11 0 5 0

 Bachelor’s 596 0 92 494 0 9 1

 Associate’s 1,112 0 0 29 1,053 26 4

 Specialized 520 3 16 23 0 475 3

 Unclassified 212 1 6 6 38 28 133

1

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See 

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

Control in 2003

Carnegie classification in 20031

Level in 2003

Private notSector in 2003
Introduction

6 

percent) shifted downward in Carnegie classification by changing from doctoral to master’s (1 

institution) or from master’s to bachelor’s (11 institutions) during the decade. These institutions 

represented only 0.2 percent of the entire workforce of the study population of institutions in both 

1993 and 2003. 

Table 1-B.—Distribution of postsecondary institutions covered in this study and distribution of their staff, 

Table 1-B.—by change in institutional characteristics between fall 1993 and 2003

Change in institutional characteristics Percent of all

between 1993 and 2003 Number institutions 1993 2003

Control of institution

 Total 3,186 100.0 100.0 100.0

 Same control in both years 3,170 99.5 99.9 99.9

 Changed in control 16 0.5 0.1 0.1

Level of institution

 Total 3,186 100.0 100.0 100.0

 Same level in both years 3,072 96.4 99.1 98.9

 Changed from 2-year to 4-year 113 3.5 0.9 1.1

 Changed from 4-year to 2-year 1 # # #

Sector of institution

 Total 3,186 100.0 100.0 100.0

 Same sector in both years 3,057 96.0 99.0 98.9

 Changed sector 129 4.0 1.0 1.1

Carnegie classification1,2

 Total 2,966 100.0 100.0 100.0

 Same Carnegie in both years 2,729 92.0 95.9 95.5

 Changed upward in Carnegie3 142 4.8 2.9 3.3

 Changed downward in Carnegie4 12 0.4 0.2 0.2

 Changed to specialized5 41 1.4 0.3 0.3

 Changed to unspecialized6 42 1.4 0.7 0.7

# Rounds to zero.

1

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

2

Excluding institutions whose Carnegie classification was unknown in at least one of the two survey years. A total of 220 (see table 1-A

for details) institutions were not classified by the Carnegie system either in 1993 or 2003, representing 2 percent of all staff employed

for both years.

3

From associate’s to bachelor’s or from bachelor’s to master’s or from master’s to doctoral.

4

From doctoral to master’s or from master’s to bachelor’s.

5

From associate’s/bachelor’s/master’s/doctoral to specialized.

6

From specialized to bachelor’s/master’s/doctoral.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

Institutions

Staff (as percent

of all staff)
Introduction 

7 

Instead of changes in Carnegie classification by moving upward or downward in the level 

of degree offering as described above, some institutions experienced changes in their status as 

specialized or “specialty” institutions—that is, institutions that award the majority of their 

degrees to particular fields of study. There were 41 institutions (1 percent) that gained a specialty 

status during the decade by changing from nonspecialized in 1993 to specialized in 2003; they 

made up a small proportion (0.3 percent) of the workforce. In addition, 42 institutions that were 

specialized in 1993 were nonspecialized (as bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral) in 2003; they 

represented close to 1 percent of the entire staff workforce in the 3,186 institutions. 

Because these changes in the characteristics of the relatively small number of institutions 

resulted in virtually no change in the staffing structure overall, such institutions remained in the 

analysis. However, to illuminate how these institutions changed in staff structure and salaries, 

data are presented separately for the five groups of institutions that had changes in characteristics 

during the decade. 

Carnegie Classification of Institution 

As mentioned earlier, all institutional characteristics data used in this study came from the 

corresponding year’s IC component, with the exception of institutions surveyed in 1993 for 

which the 1994 Carnegie classification data as reported in the IC of fall 1994 were used. The 

Carnegie 1994 classification was developed based on institutional characteristics information for 

1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, and 1992.8 Therefore, any changes in the characterization of most 

institutions over 1 year should be minimal. 

Because of changes between the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classifications (e.g., federal 

funding was used to differentiate doctorate-granting institutions in the 1994 classification system, 

but not in the 2000 system, and the definition of “Baccalaureate liberal arts colleges” has 

changed slightly [McCormick 2000]), individual categories could not be directly compared 

between the two classifications. To make the two classifications comparable—and make 

comparisons between the two datasets more meaningful—this study collapsed certain categories 

from both classifications to create a more unified system. This aggregated version of the 

classification divides institutions into the following five broad categories: doctorate-granting 

universities, master’s universities and colleges, bachelor’s colleges, associate’s colleges, and 

specialized institutions (including tribal universities and colleges). Details about how this new 

 

8 From the documentation provided by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The book A Classification of 

Institutions of Higher Education, 1994 edition, with a foreword by Ernest L. Boyer, is available from California/Princeton 

Fulfillment Services, 1445 Lower Ferry Road, Ewing, NJ 08618. 
Introduction

8 

version relates to the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classifications are shown in table A-1 in appendix 

A. 

Classification of Staff by Primary Occupation 

The principal activity of a staff member as determined by the institution is referred to as the 

primary occupation in this study. NCES divides higher education employees into the following 

eight broad categories based on their primary occupation: 

• Executive, administrative, and managerial employees are defined as individuals 

whose assignments require management of the institution or a customarily recognized 

department or subdivision thereof. 

• Faculty9 (instructional/research/public service) are employees identified by the 

institution as those whose initial assignments are made for the purpose of conducting 

instruction, research, or public service as a principal activity (or activities). (Librarians 

and counselors are normally reported in the other professional category, defined below; 

however, some institutions treat them like faculty.) Faculty are appointed either full 

time or part time. Based on the length of their salary contracts, full-time faculty are 

further divided into three subgroups: less-than-9-month contract faculty; 9- to 10-

month contract faculty, three quarters, two trimesters, two 4-month sessions, or the 

equivalent; and 11- to 12-month contract faculty. 

• Instruction/research assistants are students employed on a part-time basis for the 

primary purpose of assisting in classroom or laboratory instruction or in the conduct of 

research (excluding students in the College Work Study Program). 

• Other professionals (support/service) are staff employed for the primary purpose of 

performing academic support, student service, and institutional support, whose 

assignments would require either a baccalaureate degree or higher or experience of 

such kind and amount as to provide a comparable background (e.g., job titles such as 

business operations specialists, financial examiners and counselors, and lawyers). 

• Technical staff and paraprofessionals are persons whose assignments require 

specialized knowledge or skills that may be acquired through experience, 

apprenticeship, on-the-job training, or academic work in occupationally specific 

programs that result in a 2-year degree or other certificate or diploma (e.g., job titles 

such as mathematical technicians, paralegals and legal assistants, and health 

technologists and technicians). 

 

9 “Faculty” as defined in the “Fall Staff Survey” is more inclusive than “instructional faculty,” the domain of most studies on 

faculty salaries. In the IPEDS “Faculty Survey,” the “instructional faculty” category is limited to faculty with instruction as their 

primary responsibility or as one component of their work activities, whereas the definition in the “Fall Staff Survey” does not

impose this limitation (e.g., librarians and counselors at some institutions are reported as faculty). Comparisons in the total

number of full-time faculty between these two IPEDS surveys for institutions covered in this study show that “instructional 

faculty” made up 82 percent of all “faculty” in 1993, and 83 percent in 2003. 
Introduction 

9 

• Clerical and secretarial staff are all persons whose assignments typically are 

associated with clerical activities or are specifically of a secretarial nature, including 

personnel who are responsible for internal and external communications and recording 

and retrieval of data (other than computer programmers) and/or information and other 

paperwork required in an office. 

• Skilled crafts staff are defined as persons whose assignments typically require special 

manual skills and a thorough and comprehensive knowledge of the processes involved 

in the work, acquired through on-the-job training and experience or through 

apprenticeship or other formal training programs (e.g., cabinetmakers and bench 

carpenters and medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians). 

• Service/maintenance refers to persons whose assignments require limited degrees of 

previously acquired skills and knowledge and in which workers perform duties that 

result in or contribute to the comfort, convenience, and hygiene of personnel and the 

student body or that contribute to the upkeep of the institutional property (e.g., job 

titles such as fire fighters, waiters and waitresses, and mechanics). 

While useful in conceptualizing the operational aspects of the postsecondary workforce, 

variations may exist within these broad categories due to factors other than primary occupation 

activities such as longevity of service, academic ranking among faculty or level of 

administration/management for staff in executive, administrative, and managerial positions. 

These variations are not reflected in this study. 

Computation of Average Salaries 

The IPEDS salary data are collected in the form of distributions by salary class intervals 

rather than by the actual salary dollar amount. These class intervals have changed over time, 

complicating year-by-year comparisons in staff salaries. For example, in 2003, the salaries of 

full-time staff in executive, administrative, and managerial positions were reported in terms of 

the number of staff whose salaries were in the following seven ranges: (1) less than $30,000; (2) 

$30,000–39,999; (3) $40,000–49,999; (4) $50,000–64,999; (5) $65,000–79,999; (6) $80,000–

99,999; and (7) $100,000 or more. In 1993, however, eight intervals for the same staff group 

were used, with different ranges: (1) less than $20,000; (2) $20,000–24,999; (3) $25,000–29,999; 

(4) $30,000–34,999; (5) $35,000–39,999; (6) $40,000–44,999; (7) $45,000–54,999; and (8) 

$55,000 or more. 

To enable comparisons over time, the categorical salary information was transformed into a 

continuous variable through a methodology that is used for analyzing categorically collected 

family income data in the Current Population Surveys (CPS) (e.g., Kaufman et al. 2000; 

Kaufman, Alt, and Chapman 2001). The transformation was accomplished by randomly 
Introduction

10 

assigning a salary value for each staff member from the salary interval to which his or her salary 

belonged. For intervals below the median, a rectangular probability density function was used; 

for those at or above the median, a Pareto probability density function was used. The rectangular 

distribution assumes that individuals are evenly distributed throughout the salary range. The 

Pareto distribution assumes a linear relationship between proportional increases in salary and 

proportional decreases in the number of individuals. Using this methodology, if the continuous 

salary variable was transformed back into a categorical variable, the value for each staff member 

would be identical to the original data. 

This approach was applied separately for each primary occupation group of postsecondary 

staff. Based on the derived continuous salary variable, the average salary was calculated for each 

salary class interval. All average salaries reported in this study were calculated from these 

starting point values. Readers should be aware of this data manipulation limitation when 

interpreting salary data reported in this study. Additionally, it is worth pointing out that since 

IPEDS surveys collect data at the institutional level rather than the individual level, average 

salaries are computed by dividing the salary outlay by the corresponding number of employees. 

Consequently, the total rows in average salaries tables as reported in this study do not necessarily 

match the arithmetic averages among corresponding subcategories as illustrated in table B-1 in 

appendix B. 

Organization of the Report 

This report consists of three sections. It begins by describing the changes that took place 

between 1993 and 2003 in the size of the postsecondary education workforce. The next section 

examines how postsecondary staff were distributed across types of institution and by employee 

characteristics. Focusing on full-time employees, the last section of the report describes the 

average salaries of staff on college and university campuses and changes over time, with 

particular attention to salary differences among various groups of staff (e.g., by gender and 

race/ethnicity). 
11 

Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary 

Institutions 

In fall 2003, some 3,108,300 staff were employed at 3,186 Title IV eligible, degreegranting postsecondary institutions in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. This represents 

an increase of 22 percent from its workforce in 1993 (2,545,900) (table 2), outpacing the growth 

in both the civilian labor force (13 percent) (U.S. Census Bureau 2005, No. 569) and the resident 

population (12 percent) (U.S. Census Bureau 2005, No. 2). The growth translates to an increase 

in the proportion of postsecondary staff in the civilian labor force from 1.8 percent in 1993 to 2.1 

percent in 2003 (U.S. Census Bureau 2005, No. 573).10 During this decade, the growth rate in the 

total number of postsecondary staff also outpaced that in total student enrollment (22 vs. 16 

percent),11 similar to the pattern observed between 1976 and 1993 (Cahalan and Roey 1996), and 

slightly decreasing the student-to-staff ratio.12

Figure 2 compares the overall growth rate in total number of staff employed among 

institutions by grouping them based on whether and how they had changed in institutional 

characteristics during the decade studied. Since almost all staff (99 percent) (table 1-B) were 

employed at institutions that had not changed in sector, the overall growth in size of the 

workforce for such institutions is 22 percent, the same as that when staff from all institutions are 

considered. Likewise, the workforce increased by 21 percent at institutions that had the same 

Carnegie classification in 1993 and 2003. 

On the other hand, staff at institutions that experienced changes in their institutional 

characteristics saw more growth in total numbers in general. Perhaps as one would expect, for 

institutions that were 2-year in 1993 but 4-year in 2003, their workforce increased by 37 percent 

during the decade (figure 2). Similarly, the growth in number of staff at institutions that moved 

upward in Carnegie classification (i.e., from associate’s to bachelor’s, from bachelor’s to 

master’s, or from master’s to doctoral) is also higher (35 percent). In contrast, the postsecondary 

workforce at the few (12) institutions that changed downward in Carnegie classification (from 

 

10 The civilian, noninstitutional labor force among those 16 years old and over was 129,920,000 in 1993 and 146,510,000 in 

2003. 

11 The rate of increase in total enrollment is based on the IPEDS 1993 and 2003 “Fall Enrollment Surveys” (data not shown in 

tables but available at http://nces.ed.gov/ipedspas/dct/inc/expire.asp). 

12 From 5.4 in 1993 to 5.1 in 2003 (data not shown in tables). Enrollment data source is as above. 
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

12 

Table 2.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions and percentage change since fall 1993, by 

Table 2.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003 

Percent change

Institution and employee characteristics 1993 2003 since 1993

 Total 2,545,920 3,108,301 22.1

Control of institution1

 Public 1,783,028 2,128,733 19.4

 Private not-for-profit 741,471 926,068 24.9

 Private for-profit 19,916 50,782 155.0

Level of institution2

 4-year 2,062,658 2,499,229 21.2

 2-year 459,312 576,299 25.5

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 1,320,877 1,549,681 17.3

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 731,029 913,026 24.9

 Private for-profit 4-year 9,518 34,031 257.5

 Public 2-year 449,119 561,894 25.1

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 4,722 5,627 19.2

 Private for-profit 2-year 5,417 8,689 60.4

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 1,204,409 1,447,057 20.1

 Master’s 372,756 475,206 27.5

 Bachelor’s 150,500 183,746 22.1

 Associate’s 463,240 582,711 25.8

 Specialized 202,556 217,632 7.4

Employment status 

 Full-time 1,744,550 2,034,352 16.6

 Part-time 801,370 1,073,949 34.0

 

Gender

 Male 1,229,449 1,459,992 18.8

 Female 1,316,471 1,648,309 25.2

Race/ethnicity6

 White 1,976,208 2,232,377 13.0

 Black 267,935 304,488 13.6

 Hispanic 99,632 160,500 61.1

 Asian 94,230 153,393 62.8

 American Indian 12,288 17,803 44.9

 Nonresident alien 69,857 143,016 104.7

 Race/ethnicity unknown 25,770 96,724 275.3

See notes at end of table.
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

13 

Table 2.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions and percentage change since fall 1993, by 

Table 2.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003—Continued

Percent change

Institution and employee characteristics 1993 2003 since 1993

Primary occupation 

 Professional (total) 1,650,319 2,205,055 33.6

 Executive/administrative/managerial 139,674 178,868 28.1

 Faculty 892,896 1,128,770 26.4

 Full-time 534,073 613,050 14.8

 9 to 10 months 378,841 438,592 15.8

 11 to 12 months 150,246 170,937 13.8

 Less than 9 months 4,986 3,521 -29.4

 Part-time 358,823 515,720 43.7

 Instruction/research assistant 201,996 292,783 44.9

 Professional support/service 415,753 604,634 45.4

 Nonprofessional (total) 895,601 903,246 0.9

 Technical/paraprofessional 180,049 192,353 6.8

 Clerical/secretarial 428,434 428,900 0.1

 Skilled crafts 62,928 61,382 -2.5

 Service/maintenance 224,190 220,611 -1.6

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this 

country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless 

specified.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

14 

master’s to bachelor’s or from doctoral to master’s) decreased by 4 percent between 1993 and 

2003. In fact, this is the only subgroup of institutions that saw their total number of staff decline 

during the decade.13 At the opposite end of the growth rate spectrum are institutions that changed 

from nonspecialized to specialized institutions over time; their workforce increased by 42 

 

13 It should be cautioned that this negative growth rate in total number of staff employed refers to only 12 institutions (as shown 

in table 1-B). 

Figure 2.—Percentage change in total number of staff employed in postsecondary institutions, by change in

Figure 2.—institutional characteristics: Fall 1993–2003 

Number of institutions

1 From associate’s to bachelor’s or from bachelor’s to master’s or from master’s to doctoral.

2 From doctoral to master’s or from master’s to bachelor’s.

3 From associate’s/bachelor’s/master’s/doctoral to specialized.

4 From specialized to bachelor’s/master’s/doctoral.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

25

42

-4

35

37

21

22

22

-10 0 10 20 30 40 50

Percent change

Changed downward in Carnegie2

Total

Sector not changed

Carnegie not changed

Changed from 2-year to

 4-year

Changed upward in Carnegie1

Changed to specialized3

Changed to nonspecialized4

3,057

3,186

2,729

113

142

12

41

42
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

15 

percent, in contrast to 25 percent at institutions that were specialized institutions in 1993 but 

nonspecialized in 2003. 

As described earlier (and shown in table 1-B), some institutions—albeit relatively few—

experienced changes in their institutional characteristics during the decade under study (e.g., 

from 2-year to 4-year). Therefore, when discussing patterns of growth in the total number of staff 

employed in relation to type of institution below, only institutions that remained unchanged in 

institutional characteristics were included. Otherwise, staff employed at institutions that had 

changed characteristics over time would be counted as one group of institutions in 1993 and as 

another group in 2003. 

Type of Institution 

Between 1993 and 2003, the rate of increase in total number of staff employed at 

postsecondary institutions that had not changed in characteristics over the 10-year period differed 

by type of institution. The growth was slower at public 4-year than at private not-for-profit 4-year 

or public 2-year institutions (17 percent for the former and 25 percent for the latter) (table 2). 

Examining changes by Carnegie classification, the increase in the number of staff employed was 

highest at master’s institutions (27 percent), followed closely by associate’s colleges (26 

percent), bachelor’s institutions (22 percent), and doctoral institutions (20 percent). However, 

specialized institutions as a whole had a much smaller growth rate; their total number of staff 

increased only by 7 percent between 1993 and 2003.14 

Employment Status 

While the total number of part-time staff at postsecondary institutions increased by 34 

percent between 1993 and 2003, full-time staff grew by 17 percent (table 3). This trend reflected 

the increased use of part-time employees on postsecondary campuses that started in the 1970s 

(Cahalan and Roey 1996). 

The increase in the total number of part-time staff was observed across all major 

institutional sectors. For example, part-time staff increased by 31 to 35 percent at 4-year (public 

and private not-for-profit) institutions, compared with an increase of 12 to 21 percent for fulltime staff (table 3). This pattern also occurred across Carnegie classifications. For example, the 

 

14 It should be pointed out that there are great variations in growth rates among different types of specialized institutions. For 

instance, while the postsecondary workforce at medical schools and medical centers decreased by 5 percent, it more than doubled

(102 percent) at institutions of business and management (data not shown in tables). 
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

16 

Table 3.—Number of full-time and part-time employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage change 

Table 3.—since fall 1993, and percentage of part-time staff, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Table 3.—Fall 1993 and 2003

Institution and employee Full- Partcharacteristics Full-time Part-time Full-time Part-time time time 1993 2003

 Total 1,744,550 801,370 2,034,352 1,073,949 16.6 34.0 31.5 34.6

Control of institution1

 Public 1,187,206 595,822 1,346,393 782,340 13.4 31.3 33.4 36.8

 Private not-for-profit 545,410 196,061 661,285 264,783 21.2 35.1 26.4 28.6

 Private for-profit 10,868 9,048 24,819 25,963 128.4 186.9 45.4 51.1

Level of institution2

 4-year 1,496,678 565,980 1,735,500 763,729 16.0 34.9 27.4 30.6

 2-year 233,888 225,424 281,457 294,842 20.3 30.8 49.1 51.2

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 953,220 367,657 1,066,880 482,801 11.9 31.3 27.8 31.2

 Private not-for-profit

 4-year 538,506 192,523 652,920 260,106 21.2 35.1 26.3 28.5

 Private for-profit 4-year 4,092 5,426 14,009 20,022 242.4 269.0 57.0 58.8

 Public 2-year 227,043 222,076 272,163 289,731 19.9 30.5 49.4 51.6

 Private not-for-profit

 2-year 3,199 1,523 3,645 1,982 13.9 30.1 32.3 35.2

 Private for-profit 2-year 3,593 1,824 5,573 3,116 55.1 70.8 33.7 35.9

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 857,570 346,839 995,196 451,861 16.0 30.3 28.8 31.2

 Master’s 274,688 98,068 326,353 148,853 18.8 51.8 26.3 31.3

 Bachelor’s 115,155 35,345 139,584 44,162 21.2 24.9 23.5 24.0

 Associate’s 234,536 228,704 282,482 300,229 20.4 31.3 49.4 51.5

 Specialized 157,096 45,460 165,429 52,203 5.3 14.8 22.4 24.0

Gender

 Male 836,141 393,308 941,520 518,472 12.6 31.8 32.0 35.5

 Female 908,409 408,062 1,092,832 555,477 20.3 36.1 31.0 33.7

Race/ethnicity6

 White 1,361,638 614,570 1,505,258 727,119 10.5 18.3 31.1 32.6

 Black 213,883 54,052 231,899 72,589 8.4 34.3 20.2 23.8

 Hispanic 72,934 26,698 114,820 45,680 57.4 71.1 26.8 28.5

 Asian 60,958 33,272 104,279 49,114 71.1 47.6 35.3 32.0

 American Indian 8,943 3,345 12,465 5,338 39.4 59.6 27.2 30.0

 Nonresident alien 23,591 46,266 43,585 99,431 84.8 114.9 66.2 69.5

 Race/ethnicity unknown 2,603 23,167 22,046 74,678 746.9 222.3 89.9 77.2

See notes at end of table.

Percent Percent of

change

since 1993

staff that are

1993 2003 part-time
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

17 

Table 3.—Number of full-time and part-time employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage change 

Table 3.—since fall 1993, and percentage of part-time staff, by institution and employee characteristics: 

Table 3.—Fall 1993 and 2003—Continued

Institution and employee Full- Partcharacteristics Full-time Part-time Full-time Part-time time time 1993 2003

Primary occupation

 Professional 1,015,552 634,767 1,302,352 902,703 28.2 42.2 38.5 40.9

 Executive/administrative/managerial 134,074 5,600 172,720 6,148 28.8 9.8 4.0 3.4

 Faculty 534,073 358,823 613,050 515,720 14.8 43.7 40.2 45.7

 Full-time 534,073 † 613,050 † 14.8 † † †

 9 to 10 months 378,841 † 438,592 † 15.8 † † †

 11 to 12 months 150,246 † 170,937 † 13.8 † † †

 Less than 9 months 4,986 † 3,521 † -29.4 † † †

 Part-time † 358,823 † 515,720 † 43.7 † †

 Instruction/research assistant † 201,996 † 292,783 † 44.9 † †

 Professional support/service 347,405 68,348 516,582 88,052 48.7 28.8 16.4 14.6

 Nonprofessional 728,998 166,603 732,000 171,246 0.4 2.8 18.6 19.0

 Technical/paraprofessional 139,599 40,450 151,444 40,909 8.5 1.1 22.5 21.3

 Clerical/secretarial 344,452 83,982 338,354 90,546 -1.8 7.8 19.6 21.1

 Skilled crafts 59,877 3,051 58,560 2,822 -2.2 -7.5 4.8 4.6

 Service/maintenance 185,070 39,120 183,642 36,969 -0.8 -5.5 17.4 16.8

† Not applicable.

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this 

country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless 

specified.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

Percent

1993 2003 since 1993 part-time

change

Percent of

staff that are
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

18 

use of part-time staff increased by 52 percent at master’s colleges and universities, compared 

with an increase of 19 percent for their full-time colleagues. 

While there was more growth in both male and female part-time staff than in full-time staff 

(32 vs. 13 percent increase among males and 36 vs. 20 percent among females), this part-time 

versus full-time differential was not true across all racial/ethnic groups. For Asians15 and staff 

whose race/ethnicity is unknown, there was actually more growth in the total number of full-time 

staff than of part-time staff (71 vs. 48 percent for Asian staff and 747 vs. 222 percent for staff 

whose race/ethnicity is unknown). 

The greater increase between 1993 and 2003 in part-time staff, relative to full-time staff, 

was not observed in all primary occupation categories, either. While the growth of part-time 

faculty outpaced that of their full-time counterparts (an increase of 44 vs. 15 percent), the 

opposite was observed for executive, administrative, and managerial staff and professional 

support/service staff (10 vs. 29 percent for the former and 29 vs. 49 percent for the latter). 

Gender 

The number of female staff on postsecondary campuses grew more than male staff (25 vs. 

19 percent), increasing the percentage of females in the workforce at higher education institutions 

from 52 percent in 1993 to 53 percent in 2003 (table 4). 

The growth of female staff outpaced that of male staff in all but two sectors16 and across 

most Carnegie classification groups.17 Furthermore, the total number of female staff increased at 

rates faster than those for male staff with regards to both part-time and full-time employment and 

across all racial/ethnic backgrounds. 

However, while the increase in female staff outpaced that of male staff among those in the 

three academic core categories (faculty; executive, administrative, and managerial; and 

instruction/research assistant) between 1993 and 2003, the opposite occurred among those in the 

three main support staff groups (professional support/service; technical and paraprofessional; and 

clerical and secretarial). In particular, while the female-dominated clerical/secretarial staff as a 

whole hardly increased (0.1 percent, table 2), the total number of female staff decreased by 2 

 

15 For ease of presentation, throughout this study, “Asian” stands for “Asian/Pacific Islander,” and “American Indian” stands for

“American Indian/Alaska Native.” Similarly, “White” refers to “White, non-Hispanic,” while “Black” refers to “Black, nonHispanic.” 

16 Except for the two for-profit sectors where male staff surpassed their female counterparts in percentage increase in numbers. 

17 Except for specialized institutions where female staff increased by 6 percent while their male counterparts increased by 9 

percent. 
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

19 

Table 4.—Number of male and female employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 

Table 4.—1993, and percentage of female staff, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and

Table 4.—2003

Institution and employee characteristics Male Female Male Female Male Female 1993 2003

 Total 1,229,449 1,316,471 1,459,992 1,648,309 18.8 25.2 51.7 53.0

Control of institution1

 Public 864,442 918,586 998,417 1,130,316 15.5 23.0 51.5 53.1

 Private not-for-profit 354,435 387,036 432,948 493,120 22.2 27.4 52.2 53.2

 Private for-profit 9,911 10,005 27,434 23,348 176.8 133.4 50.2 46.0

Level of institution2

 4-year 1,007,913 1,054,745 1,191,261 1,307,968 18.2 24.0 51.1 52.3

 2-year 210,629 248,683 253,069 323,230 20.1 30.0 54.1 56.1

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 652,532 668,345 743,762 805,919 14.0 20.6 50.6 52.0

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 349,681 381,348 427,008 486,018 22.1 27.4 52.2 53.2

 Private for-profit 4-year 5,119 4,399 19,392 14,639 278.8 232.8 46.2 43.0

 Public 2-year 206,226 242,893 246,663 315,231 19.6 29.8 54.1 56.1

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 2,056 2,666 2,369 3,258 15.2 22.2 56.5 57.9

 Private for-profit 2-year 2,315 3,102 3,997 4,692 72.7 51.3 57.3 54.0

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 603,473 600,936 705,940 741,117 17.0 23.3 49.9 51.2

 Master’s 185,587 187,169 223,076 252,130 20.2 34.7 50.2 53.1

 Bachelor’s 72,272 78,228 85,909 97,837 18.9 25.1 52.0 53.2

 Associate’s 212,839 250,401 257,321 325,390 20.9 29.9 54.1 55.8

 Specialized 83,968 118,588 91,820 125,812 9.4 6.1 58.5 57.8

Employment status

 Full-time 836,141 908,409 941,520 1,092,832 12.6 20.3 52.1 53.7

 Part-time 393,308 408,062 518,472 555,477 31.8 36.1 50.9 51.7

 

Race/ethnicity6

 White 959,184 1,017,024 1,048,489 1,183,888 9.3 16.4 51.5 53.0

 Black 103,641 164,294 116,111 188,377 12.0 14.7 61.3 61.9

 Hispanic 46,273 53,359 70,114 90,386 51.5 69.4 53.6 56.3

 Asian 52,133 42,097 78,233 75,160 50.1 78.5 44.7 49.0

 American Indian 5,570 6,718 7,719 10,084 38.6 50.1 54.7 56.6

 Nonresident alien 48,085 21,772 89,417 53,599 86.0 146.2 31.2 37.5

 Race/ethnicity unknown 14,563 11,207 49,909 46,815 242.7 317.7 43.5 48.4

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003 1993

change since

Percent

female

Percent
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

20 

Table 4.—Number of male and female employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 

Table 4.—1993, and percentage of female staff, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and

Table 4.—2003—Continued

Institution and employee characteristics Male Female Male Female Male Female 1993 2003

Primary occupation

 Professional 911,026 739,293 1,128,717 1,076,338 23.9 45.6 44.8 48.8

 Executive/administrative/managerial 80,526 59,148 88,297 90,571 9.7 53.1 42.3 50.6

 Faculty 547,808 345,088 639,734 489,036 16.8 41.7 38.6 43.3

 Full-time 356,025 178,048 372,616 240,434 4.7 35.0 33.3 39.2

 9 to 10 months 249,418 129,423 261,410 177,182 4.8 36.9 34.2 40.4

 11 to 12 months 103,728 46,518 109,314 61,623 5.4 32.5 31.0 36.1

 Less than 9 months 2,879 2,107 1,892 1,629 -34.3 -22.7 42.3 46.3

 Part-time 191,783 167,040 267,118 248,602 39.3 48.8 46.6 48.2

 Instruction/research assistant 119,895 82,101 157,276 135,507 31.2 65.0 40.6 46.3

 Professional support/service 162,797 252,956 243,410 361,224 49.5 42.8 60.8 59.7

 Nonprofessional 318,423 490,786 331,275 489,007 4.0 -0.4 60.7 59.6

 Technical/paraprofessional 71,734 108,315 78,191 114,162 9.0 5.4 60.2 59.4

 Clerical/secretarial 49,989 378,445 58,251 370,649 16.5 -2.1 88.3 86.4

 Skilled crafts 58,902 4,026 57,186 4,196 -2.9 4.2 6.4 6.8

 Service/maintenance 137,798 86,392 137,647 82,964 -0.1 -4.0 38.5 37.6

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this 

country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless 

specified.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

Percent

change since Percent

1993 2003 1993 female
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

21 

percent, compared with an increase of 17 percent in the total number of male employees in 

clerical and secretarial positions. 

Race/Ethnicity 

Given the increasing visibility of racial/ethnic minorities in the U.S. population, it is no 

surprise that the growth in the total numbers of Asian, Hispanic, and American Indian staff at 

postsecondary institutions all outpaced White staff between 1993 and 2003 (63, 61, and 45 

percent, respectively, vs. 13 percent) (tables 5-A, 5-B, and 5-C). Although the increase for Black 

employees also exceeded that for their White counterparts, the growth rate for both was below 

the national average (14 and 13 vs. 22 percent, respectively). 

The number of nonresident alien staff in postsecondary institutions totaled 143,016 in 2003, 

more than doubling their number (69,857) in 1993. This growth reflects, at least partly, the 

increasing enrollment of foreign graduate students on campuses (e.g., from 11 percent in 1990 to 

13 percent in 2002) (U.S. Department of Education 2005b, table 206). Foreign graduate students 

made up the majority of instruction/research assistant staff in both years, though more so in 2003 

than in 1993, as will be shown later. Staff whose racial/ethnic status is unknown more than 

tripled (275 percent) in number between 1993 and 2003. 

Primary Occupation 

The growth in the total number of professional staff was greater than that of 

nonprofessional staff between 1993 and 2003. While the numbers of staff in each professional 

group (professional support/service; instruction/research assistant; executive, administrative, and 

managerial; and faculty) increased at above-average rates (45, 45, 28, and 26 percent, 

respectively), the increase for their nonprofessional counterparts as a whole plateaued at about 

0.9 million during the decade for a 1 percent increase (tables 6-A, 6-B, and 6-C). Staff in skilled 

crafts positions, as well as those in service/maintenance, actually decreased in number (by about 

2 percent for both). This may reflect the cost-control strategy, adopted by colleges and 

universities in the 1990s, of outsourcing the services of nonprofessional support jobs, while 

protecting the positions of the academic core staff (i.e., faculty; executive, administrative, and 

managerial; and instruction/research assistant) (Johnsrud 2000). 

The increased dependence on technologies—especially those that are computer-based—in 

the workplace correspond to changes in the composition of the workforce (Hendrickson, 

Maitland, and Rhoades 1996). This may partially explain the top growth rate (45 percent) 
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

22 

Table 5-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary education institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by 

Table 5-A.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993

Non- Race/

Institution and employee American resident ethnicity

characteristics Total White Black Hispanic Asian Indian alien unknown

 Total 2,545,920 1,976,208 267,935 99,632 94,230 12,288 69,857 25,770

Control of institution1

 Public 1,783,028 1,384,049 180,991 71,281 65,075 10,416 54,536 16,680

 Private not-for-profit 741,471 574,583 85,470 27,348 28,502 1,804 15,278 8,486

 Private for-profit 19,916 16,265 1,397 951 613 49 39 602

Level of institution2

 4-year 2,062,658 1,582,224 224,563 76,675 83,962 8,661 69,238 17,335

 2-year 459,312 374,087 40,979 22,003 9,969 3,254 600 8,420

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 1,320,877 1,008,372 138,842 49,152 55,125 7,108 53,961 8,317

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 731,029 565,350 84,977 27,033 28,415 1,520 15,260 8,474

 Private for-profit 4-year 9,518 7,438 667 445 382 31 13 542

 Public 2-year 449,119 365,451 40,341 21,643 9,774 2,983 565 8,362

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 4,722 4,031 270 111 51 248 10 1

 Private for-profit 2-year 5,417 4,568 368 249 144 6 25 57

 Doctorate-granting 1,204,409 909,385 121,427 44,269 56,946 5,125 59,458 7,799

 Master’s 372,756 295,835 42,007 13,760 11,018 1,766 3,267 5,103

 Bachelor’s 150,500 127,409 14,732 3,037 2,769 313 776 1,464

 Associate’s 463,240 378,958 41,465 21,895 9,253 2,672 584 8,413

 Specialized 202,556 146,405 31,199 9,344 8,397 1,869 4,690 652

Employment status

 Full-time 1,744,550 1,361,638 213,883 72,934 60,958 8,943 23,591 2,603

 Part-time 801,370 614,570 54,052 26,698 33,272 3,345 46,266 23,167

 

Gender

 Male 1,229,449 959,184 103,641 46,273 52,133 5,570 48,085 14,563

 Female 1,316,471 1,017,024 164,294 53,359 42,097 6,718 21,772 11,207

See notes at end of table.

Carnegie classification of institution4,5
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

23 

Table 5-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary education institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by 

Table 5-A.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993—Continued

Non- Race/

Institution and employee American resident ethnicity

characteristics Total White Black Hispanic Asian Indian alien unknown

Primary occupation

 Professional 1,650,319 1,344,670 100,483 43,468 69,368 6,572 63,694 22,064

 Executive/administrative/

 managerial 139,674 120,337 12,272 3,584 2,347 715 276 143

 Faculty 892,896 759,467 43,720 22,011 34,605 3,263 14,789 15,041

 Full-time 534,073 458,769 24,945 11,934 24,888 1,882 10,769 886

 9 to 10 months 378,841 328,669 18,210 8,746 16,008 1,371 5,189 648

 11 to 12 months 150,246 126,005 6,475 3,045 8,663 457 5,380 221

 Less than 9 months 4,986 4,095 260 143 217 54 200 17

 Part-time 358,823 300,698 18,775 10,077 9,717 1,381 4,020 14,155

 Instruction/research assistant 201,996 130,639 7,448 5,229 14,792 676 37,639 5,573

 Professional support/service 415,753 334,227 37,043 12,644 17,624 1,918 10,990 1,307

 Nonprofessional 895,601 631,538 167,452 56,164 24,862 5,716 6,163 3,706

 Technical/paraprofessional 180,049 132,120 27,014 8,744 7,614 1,055 2,468 1,034

 Clerical/secretarial 428,434 319,873 65,951 24,829 11,752 2,483 1,994 1,552

 Skilled crafts 62,928 51,092 6,803 3,402 726 495 143 267

 Service/maintenance 224,190 128,453 67,684 19,189 4,770 1,683 1,558 853

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis

and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993.
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

24 

Table 5-B.—Number of employees in postsecondary education institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by 

Table 5-B.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Non- Race/

Institution and employee American resident ethnicity

characteristics Total White Black Hispanic Asian Indian alien unknown

 Total 3,108,301 2,232,377 304,488 160,500 153,393 17,803 143,016 96,724

Control of institution1

 Public 2,167,902 1,523,158 206,239 115,681 106,283 14,449 106,372 56,551

 Private not-for-profit 936,689 670,374 93,100 41,507 44,629 2,979 36,432 37,047

 Private for-profit 89,578 37,025 4,968 3,162 2,344 165 30 3,088

Level of institution2

 4-year 2,565,283 1,777,808 244,959 119,416 134,497 12,649 138,793 71,107

 2-year 628,886 432,338 56,004 36,328 18,263 4,813 3,892 24,661

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 1,574,691 1,092,204 149,418 76,066 88,171 9,748 102,192 31,882

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 929,260 659,403 92,405 41,144 44,462 2,623 36,405 36,584

 Private for-profit 4-year 61,332 24,535 2,971 2,071 1,738 99 14 2,603

 Public 2-year 593,211 421,428 54,548 35,618 17,827 4,463 3,876 24,134

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 7,429 4,641 368 140 107 288 8 75

 Private for-profit 2-year 28,246 6,232 1,084 557 325 31 8 452

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 1,500,038 1,000,246 126,311 67,151 88,646 7,201 122,313 35,189

 Master’s 529,079 352,339 50,666 25,214 18,778 2,654 6,898 18,657

 Bachelor’s 208,845 148,145 19,340 4,851 4,377 539 1,893 4,601

 Associate’s 626,573 436,121 56,741 39,376 17,591 3,872 3,860 25,150

 Specialized 237,326 144,321 31,005 13,995 15,636 2,698 4,811 5,166

Employment status

 Full-time 2,085,942 1,505,258 231,899 114,820 104,279 12,465 43,585 22,046

 Part-time 1,108,227 727,119 72,589 45,680 49,114 5,338 99,431 74,678

 

Gender

 Male 1,499,538 1,048,489 116,111 70,114 78,233 7,719 89,417 49,909

 Female 1,694,631 1,183,888 188,377 90,386 75,160 10,084 53,599 46,815

See notes at end of table.
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

25 

Table 5-B.—Number of employees in postsecondary education institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by 

Table 5-B.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003—Continued

Non- Race/

Institution and employee American resident ethnicity

characteristics Total White Black Hispanic Asian Indian alien unknown

Primary occupation

 Professional 2,205,055 1,633,479 146,697 80,125 119,283 10,698 133,616 81,157

 Executive/administrative/

 managerial 178,868 146,631 16,937 6,729 4,772 955 771 2,073

 Faculty 1,128,770 885,324 62,198 38,071 58,292 5,180 28,256 51,449

 Full-time 613,050 491,211 31,760 19,195 40,535 2,801 21,143 6,405

 9 to 10 months 438,592 358,201 23,303 14,125 25,457 2,212 11,071 4,223

 11 to 12 months 170,937 130,673 8,254 4,847 14,871 534 9,757 2,001

 Less than 9 months 3,521 2,337 203 223 207 55 315 181

 Part-time 515,720 394,113 30,438 18,876 17,757 2,379 7,113 45,044

 Instruction/research assistant 292,783 150,213 10,261 8,615 20,365 1,186 85,738 16,405

 Professional support/service 604,634 451,311 57,301 26,710 35,854 3,377 18,851 11,230

 Nonprofessional 903,246 598,898 157,791 80,375 34,110 7,105 9,400 15,567

 Technical/paraprofessional 192,353 132,822 26,968 13,574 10,649 1,439 3,147 3,754

 Clerical/secretarial 428,900 294,800 66,870 36,841 15,927 3,051 4,115 7,296

 Skilled crafts 61,382 48,001 6,789 4,217 1,074 639 129 533

 Service/maintenance 220,611 123,275 57,164 25,743 6,460 1,976 2,009 3,984

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis

and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 2003.
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

26 

Table 5-C.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in postsecondary institutions

Table 5-C.—in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Race/

Non- ethnicInstitution and employee American resident ity uncharacteristics Total White Black Hispanic Asian Indian alien known

 Total 22.1 13.0 13.6 61.1 62.8 44.9 104.7 275.3

Control of institution1

 Public 21.6 10.1 13.9 62.3 63.3 38.7 95.0 239.0

 Private not-for-profit 26.3 16.7 8.9 51.8 56.6 65.1 138.5 336.6

 Private for-profit 349.8 127.6 255.6 232.5 282.4 236.7 -23.1 413.0

Level of institution2

 4-year 24.4 12.4 9.1 55.7 60.2 46.0 100.5 310.2

 2-year 36.9 15.6 36.7 65.1 83.2 47.9 548.7 192.9

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 19.2 8.3 7.6 54.8 59.9 37.1 89.4 283.3

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 27.1 16.6 8.7 52.2 56.5 72.6 138.6 331.7

 Private for-profit 4-year 544.4 229.9 345.4 365.4 355.0 219.4 7.7 380.3

 Public 2-year 32.1 15.3 35.2 64.6 82.4 49.6 586.0 188.6

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 57.3 15.1 36.3 26.1 109.8 16.1 -20.0 7400.0

 Private for-profit 2-year 421.4 36.4 194.6 123.7 125.7 416.7 -68.0 693.0

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 24.5 10.0 4.0 51.7 55.7 40.5 105.7 351.2

 Master’s 41.9 19.1 20.6 83.2 70.4 50.3 111.1 265.6

 Bachelor’s 38.8 16.3 31.3 59.7 58.1 72.2 143.9 214.3

 Associate’s 35.3 15.1 36.8 79.8 90.1 44.9 561.0 198.9

 Specialized 17.2 -1.4 -0.6 49.8 86.2 44.4 2.6 692.3

Employment status

 Full-time 19.6 10.5 8.4 57.4 71.1 39.4 84.8 746.9

 Part-time 38.3 18.3 34.3 71.1 47.6 59.6 114.9 222.3

 

Gender

 Male 22.0 9.3 12.0 51.5 50.1 38.6 86.0 242.7

 Female 28.7 16.4 14.7 69.4 78.5 50.1 146.2 317.7

See notes at end of table.
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

27 

Table 5-C.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in postsecondary institutions

Table 5-C.—in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Table 5-C.——Continued

Race/

Non- ethnicInstitution and employee American resident ity uncharacteristics Total White Black Hispanic Asian Indian alien known

Primary occupation

 Professional 33.6 21.5 46.0 84.3 72.0 62.8 109.8 267.8

 Executive/administrative/managerial

28.1 21.9 38.0 87.8 103.3 33.6 179.3 1349.7

 Faculty 26.4 16.6 42.3 73.0 68.4 58.7 91.1 242.1

 Full-time 14.8 7.1 27.3 60.8 62.9 48.8 96.3 622.9

 9 to 10 months 15.8 9.0 28.0 61.5 59.0 61.3 113.4 551.7

 11 to 12 months 13.8 3.7 27.5 59.2 71.7 16.8 81.4 805.4

 Less than 9 months -29.4 -42.9 -21.9 55.9 -4.6 1.9 57.5 964.7

 Part-time 43.7 31.1 62.1 87.3 82.7 72.3 76.9 218.2

 Instruction/research assistant 44.9 15.0 37.8 64.8 37.7 75.4 127.8 194.4

 Professional support/service 45.4 35.0 54.7 111.2 103.4 76.1 71.5 759.2

 Nonprofessional 0.9 -5.2 -5.8 43.1 37.2 24.3 52.5 320.0

 Technical/paraprofessional 6.8 0.5 -0.2 55.2 39.9 36.4 27.5 263.1

 Clerical/secretarial 0.1 -7.8 1.4 48.4 35.5 22.9 106.4 370.1

 Skilled crafts -2.5 -6.0 -0.2 24.0 47.9 29.1 -9.8 99.6

 Service/maintenance -1.6 -4.0 -15.5 34.2 35.4 17.4 28.9 367.1

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary

basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data

System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.
Table 6-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupation group, by institution and employe

Table 6-A.—1993

Executive/ Full- Techadmini- Full- Full- time: Instruc- Profes- nical/

Institution and Profes- strative/ time: time: less tion/re- sional para- employee sional mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- search support/ profes- characteristics Total (total) gerial Total time months months months time assistant service Total sional  Total 2,545,920 1,650,319 139,674 892,896 534,073 378,841 150,246 4,986 358,823 201,996 415,753 895,601 180,049 

Control of institution1

 Public 1,783,028 1,173,656 79,935 637,046 376,589 272,909 100,628 3,052 260,457 173,283 283,392 609,372 129,465  Private not-for- profit 741,471 460,247 57,608 245,203 153,258 105,451 46,573 1,234 91,945 27,751 129,685 281,224 49,729 

 Private for- profit 19,916 15,353 2,002 9,875 3,763 326 2,822 615 6,112 956 2,520 4,563 716 Level of institution2

 4-year 2,062,658 1,309,456 116,380 616,640 435,196 297,462 134,117 3,617 181,444 199,059 377,377 753,202 148,344 

 2-year 459,312 324,494 21,755 264,094 93,465 77,913 14,381 1,171 170,629 2,809 35,836 134,818 30,650 

 Public  4-year 1,320,877 848,486 58,975 370,821 282,855 193,392 87,337 2,126 87,966 170,557 248,133 472,391 98,545 

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 731,029 452,956 56,604 240,390 150,728 103,812 45,746 1,170 89,662 27,708 128,254 278,073 49,410 

 Private for-profit 4-year 9,518 7,213 719 4,799 1,250 170 844 236 3,549 788 907 2,305 250  Public  2-year 449,119 316,891 20,481 259,333 90,968 77,162 12,898 908 168,365 2,685 34,392 132,228 30,163  Private not-for-profit 2-year 4,722 3,401 557 2,210 1,201 677 460 64 1,009 38 596 1,321 136  Private for-profit 2-year 5,417 4,153 705 2,525 1,270 62 1,009 199 1,255 86 837 1,264 351 

See notes at end of table.

Professional No

Faculty

Sector of institution3
Table 6-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupation group, by institution and employe

Table 6-A.—1993—Continued

Executive/ Full- Techadmini- Full- Full- time: Instruc- Profes- nical/

Institution and Profes- strative/ time: time: less tion/re- sional para- employee sional mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- search support/ profes- characteristics Total (total) gerial Total time months months months time assistant service Total sional Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate- granting 1,204,409 769,749 58,279 297,745 231,270 143,263 86,167 1,840 66,475 176,621 237,104 434,660 92,065  Master’s 372,756 242,194 24,051 160,195 103,076 94,146 8,218 712 57,119 9,546 48,402 130,562 18,731  Bachelor’s 150,500 93,122 12,955 57,999 39,623 34,305 4,862 456 18,376 1,387 20,781 57,378 6,136  Associate’s 463,240 327,231 21,736 266,816 94,276 78,622 14,589 1,065 172,540 2,804 35,875 136,009 30,738 

 Specialized 202,556 117,940 11,154 52,290 34,617 6,920 27,204 493 17,673 6,464 48,032 84,616 24,076 Employment status Full-time 1,744,550 1,015,552 134,074 534,073 534,073 378,841 150,246 4,986 0 0 347,405 728,998 139,599  Part-time 801,370 634,767 5,600 358,8230000 358,823 201,996 68,348 166,603 40,450 

Gender Male 1,229,449 911,026 80,526 547,808 356,025 249,418 103,728 2,879 191,783 119,895 162,797 318,423 71,734 

 Female 1,230,079 739,293 59,148 345,088 178,048 129,423 46,518 2,107 167,040 82,101 252,956 490,786 108,315 

See notes at end of table.

Professional No

Faculty
Table 6-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupation group, by institution and employe

Table 6-A.—1993—Continued

Executive/ Full- Techadmini- Full- Full- time: Instruc- Profes- nical/

Institution and Profes- strative/ time: time: less tion/re- sional para- employee sional mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- search support/ profes- characteristics Total (total) gerial Total time months months months time assistant service Total sional Race/ethnicity6

 White 1,976,208 1,344,670 120,337 759,467 458,769 328,669 126,005 4,095 300,698 130,639 334,227 631,538 132,120  Black 267,935 100,483 12,272 43,720 24,945 18,210 6,475 260 18,775 7,448 37,043 167,452 27,014 

 Hispanic 99,632 43,468 3,584 22,011 11,934 8,746 3,045 143 10,077 5,229 12,644 56,164 8,744 

 Asian 94,230 69,368 2,347 34,605 24,888 16,008 8,663 217 9,717 14,792 17,624 24,862 7,614  American  Indian 12,288 6,572 715 3,263 1,882 1,371 457 54 1,381 676 1,918 5,716 1,055  Nonresident  alien 69,857 63,694 276 14,789 10,769 5,189 5,380 200 4,020 37,639 10,990 6,163 2,468 

 Race/ethnicity unknown 25,770 22,064 143 15,041 886 648 221 17 14,155 5,573 1,307 3,706 1,034 

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska 

a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indeexclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993.

No

Faculty

Professional
Table 6-B.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutionsin each primary occupation group, by institution and employee 

Table 6-B.—Fall 2003

Executive/ Full- Tech

admini- Full- Full- time: Instruc- Profes- nical

Institution and strative/ time: time: less tion/re- sional paraemployee Profes- mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- search support/ profescharacteristics Total sional gerial Total time months months months time assistant service Total siona Total 3,108,301 2,205,055 178,868 1,128,770 613,050 438,592 170,937 3,521 515,720 292,783 604,634 903,246 192,353 

Control of institution1

 Public 2,128,733 1,512,229 93,829 772,275 417,448 308,165 106,635 2,648 354,827 240,986 405,139 616,504 139,81

 Private not- for-profit 926,068 647,374 81,169 325,361 189,001 129,967 58,226 808 136,360 51,592 189,252 278,694 51,177 

 Private for- profit 50,782 43,437 3,600 30,042 6,024 368 5,591 65 24,018 22 9,773 7,345 1,253 Level of institution2

 4-year 2,499,229 1,770,586 151,082 782,087 501,274 345,008 154,121 2,145 280,813 292,190 545,227 728,643 147,297 

 2-year 576,299 410,904 25,768 330,324 105,741 90,214 14,183 1,344 224,583 593 54,219 165,395 43,254 

 Public 4-year 1,549,681 1,101,356 69,100 440,239 312,429 216,644 94,480 1,305 127,810 240,410 351,607 448,325 95,768 

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 913,026 637,803 80,011 319,230 186,039 128,103 57,137 799 133,191 51,579 186,983 275,223 50,694  Private for-profit 4-year 34,031 29,594 1,750 21,638 2,295 169 2,085 41 19,343 18 6,188 4,437 724  Public 2-year 561,894 399,657 24,182 323,493 102,645 89,373 11,937 1,335 220,848 576 51,406 162,237 42,686  Private not-for-profit 2-year 5,627 4,242 592 2,689 1,288 773 507 8 1,401 13 948 1,385 16 Private for-profit 2-year 8,689 6,955 982 4,124 1,790 68 1,721 1 2,334 4 1,845 1,734 407 

See notes at end of table.

Professional No

Faculty

Sector of institution3
Table 6-B.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutionsin each primary occupation group, by institution and employee 

Table 6-B.—Fall 2003—Continued

Executive/ Full- Tech

admini- Full- Full- time: Instruc- Profes- nical

Institution and strative/ time: time: less tion/re- sional paraemployee Profes- mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- search support/ profescharacteristics Total sional gerial Total time months months months time assistant service Total sionaCarnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate- granting 1,447,057 1,036,599 74,128 363,276 269,217 167,825 100,406 986 94,059 258,941 340,254 410,458 91,340  Master’s 475,206 335,164 28,540 203,448 114,277 104,116 9,571 590 89,171 19,800 83,376 140,042 20,775 

 Bachelor’s 183,746 124,855 17,808 71,354 45,807 42,116 3,476 215 25,547 844 34,849 58,891 6,729 

 Associate’s 582,711 416,414 25,834 334,839 106,951 91,181 14,498 1,272 227,888 593 55,148 166,297 43,445 

 Specialized 217,632 144,024 18,213 66,291 40,914 8,407 32,219 288 25,377 5,990 53,530 73,608 21,194 

Employment status Full-time 2,034,352 1,302,352 172,720 613,050 613,050 438,592 170,937 3,521 0 0 516,582 732,000 151,444 

 Part-time 1,073,949 902,703 6,148 515,720 0 0 0 0 515,720 292,783 88,052 171,246 40,909 

Gender Male 1,459,992 1,128,717 88,297 639,734 372,616 261,410 109,314 1,892 267,118 157,276 243,410 331,275 78,19

 Female 1,565,345 1,076,338 90,571 489,036 240,434 177,182 61,623 1,629 248,602 135,507 361,224 489,007 114,162 

See notes at end of table.

Professional No

Faculty
Table 6-B.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutionsin each primary occupation group, by institution and employee 

Table 6-B.—Fall 2003—Continued

Executive/ Full- Tech

admini- Full- Full- time: Instruc- Profes- nical

Institution and strative/ time: time: less tion/re- sional paraemployee Profes- mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- search support/ profescharacteristics Total sional gerial Total time months months months time assistant service Total sionaRace/ethnicity6

 White 2,232,377 1,633,479 146,631 885,324 491,211 358,201 130,673 2,337 394,113 150,213 451,311 598,898 132,822 

 Black 304,488 146,697 16,937 62,198 31,760 23,303 8,254 203 30,438 10,261 57,301 157,791 26,968 

 Hispanic 160,500 80,125 6,729 38,071 19,195 14,125 4,847 223 18,876 8,615 26,710 80,375 13,574 

 Asian 153,393 119,283 4,772 58,292 40,535 25,457 14,871 207 17,757 20,365 35,854 34,110 10,649 

 American  Indian 17,803 10,698 955 5,180 2,801 2,212 534 55 2,379 1,186 3,377 7,105 1,439 

 Nonresident  alien 143,016 133,616 771 28,256 21,143 11,071 9,757 315 7,113 85,738 18,851 9,400 3,147 

 Race/ethnicity unknown 96,724 81,157 2,073 51,449 6,405 4,223 2,001 181 45,044 16,405 11,230 15,567 3,754 

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska 

a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indeexclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.

No

Faculty

Professional
Table 6-C.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupatio

Table 6-C.—employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Executive/ Full- Tec

admini- Full- Full- time: Instruc- Profes- nic

strative/ time: time: less tion/re- sional pa

Institution and employee Profes- mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- search support/ prof

characteristics Total sional gerial Total time months months months time assistant service Total sion Total 22.1 33.6 28.1 26.4 14.8 15.8 13.8 -29.4 43.7 44.9 45.4 0.9 6Control of institution1

 Public 19.4 28.8 17.4 21.2 10.8 12.9 6.0 -13.2 36.2 39.1 43.0 1.2  Private not-for-profit 24.9 40.7 40.9 32.7 23.3 23.2 25.0 -34.5 48.3 85.9 45.9 -0.9 2 Private for-profit 155.0 182.9 79.8 204.2 60.1 12.9 98.1 -89.4 293.0 -97.7 287.8 61.0 75

Level of institution2

 4-year 21.2 35.2 29.8 26.8 15.2 16.0 14.9 -40.7 54.8 46.8 44.5 -3.3 -0 2-year 25.5 26.6 18.4 25.1 13.1 15.8 -1.4 14.8 31.6 -78.9 51.3 22.7 4 Public 4-year 17.3 29.8 17.2 18.7 10.5 12.0 8.2 -38.6 45.3 41.0 41.7 -5.1 -2 Private not-for-profit 4-year 24.9 40.8 41.4 32.8 23.4 23.4 24.9 -31.7 48.5 86.2 45.8 -1.0 2 Private for-profit 4-year 257.5 310.3 143.4 350.9 83.6 -0.6 147.0 -82.6 445.0 -97.7 582.2 92.5 189 Public 2-year 25.1 26.1 18.1 24.7 12.8 15.8 -7.5 47.0 31.2 -78.5 49.5 22.7 4 Private not-for-profit 2-year 19.2 24.7 6.3 21.7 7.2 14.2 10.2 -87.5 38.9 -65.8 59.1 4.8 1 Private for-profit 2-year 60.4 67.5 39.3 63.3 40.9 9.7 70.6 -99.5 86.0 -95.3 120.4 37.2 16

See notes at end of table.

Professional N

Faculty

Sector of institution3
Table 6-C.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupatio

Table 6-C.—employee characteristics: Fall 2003—Continued

Executive/ Full- Tec

admini- Full- Full- time: Instruc- Profes- nic

strative/ time: time: less tion/re- sional pa

Institution and employee Profes- mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- search support/ prof

characteristics Total sional gerial Total time months months months time assistant service Total sionCarnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 20.1 34.7 27.2 22.0 16.4 17.1 16.5 -46.4 41.5 46.6 43.5 -5.6 -0 Master’s 27.5 38.4 18.7 27.0 10.9 10.6 16.5 -17.1 56.1 107.4 72.3 7.3 10 Bachelor’s 22.1 34.1 37.5 23.0 15.6 22.8 -28.5 -52.9 39.0 -39.1 67.7 2.6 9 Associate’s 25.8 27.3 18.9 25.5 13.4 16.0 -0.6 19.4 32.1 -78.9 53.7 22.3 4 Specialized 7.4 22.1 63.3 26.8 18.2 21.5 18.4 -41.6 43.6 -7.3 11.4 -13.0 -12Employment status Full-time 16.6 28.2 28.8 14.8 14.8 15.8 13.8 -29.4 † † 48.7 0.4 8 Part-time 34.0 42.2 9.8 43.7 † † † † 43.7 44.9 28.8 2.8 Gender Male 18.8 23.9 9.7 16.8 4.7 4.8 5.4 -34.3 39.3 31.2 49.5 4.0 9 Female 27.3 45.6 53.1 41.7 35.0 36.9 32.5 -22.7 48.8 65.0 42.8 -0.4 5

See notes at end of table.

Professional N

Faculty
Table 6-C.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary occupatio

Table 6-C.—employee characteristics: Fall 2003—Continued

Executive/ Full- Tec

admini- Full- Full- time: Instruc- Profes- nic

strative/ time: time: less tion/re- sional pa

Institution and employee Profes- mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- search support/ prof

characteristics Total sional gerial Total time months months months time assistant service Total sionRace/ethnicity6

 White 13.0 21.5 21.9 16.6 7.1 9.0 3.7 -42.9 31.1 15.0 35.0 -5.2 0 Black 13.6 46.0 38.0 42.3 27.3 28.0 27.5 -21.9 62.1 37.8 54.7 -5.8 -0 Hispanic 61.1 84.3 87.8 73.0 60.8 61.5 59.2 55.9 87.3 64.8 111.2 43.1 55

 Asian 62.8 72.0 103.3 68.4 62.9 59.0 71.7 -4.6 82.7 37.7 103.4 37.2 39

 American Indian 44.9 62.8 33.6 58.7 48.8 61.3 16.8 1.9 72.3 75.4 76.1 24.3 36 Nonresident alien 104.7 109.8 179.3 91.1 96.3 113.4 81.4 57.5 76.9 127.8 71.5 52.5 27

 Race/ethnicity unknown 275.3 267.8 1349.7 242.1 622.9 551.7 805.4 964.7 218.2 194.4 759.2 320.0 263

† Not applicable.

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska 

a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indeexclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.

Faculty

Professional N
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

37 

observed in the number of professional support/service staff, who include, among others, 

information scientists, computer support specialists, database administrators, and network and 

computer systems administrators. 

Even within faculty, sharp contrasts in the growth of the total number of employees were 

evident among subgroups between 1993 and 2003. Full-time faculty increased by 15 percent, 

compared with an increase of 44 percent in part-time faculty. This pattern conforms to the 

increased use of part-time faculty on college and university campuses that began in the 1970s 

(Allen 2004; Maitland and Rhoades 2005). The increased use of part-time faculty perhaps is 

partially reflective of cost-containing efforts by institutions (Vaughan 2005).18

States 

The growth in the total number of postsecondary staff varied considerably among states 

during the decade studied. Five states (Alaska, Arizona, Louisiana, Nevada, and New 

Hampshire) topped all others by increasing their postsecondary workforce by more than 50 

percent (an increase of 53–88 percent) (table 7-A). At the other end of the spectrum, the District 

of Columbia experienced a decrease of 24 percent in its postsecondary workforce. The District of 

Columbia was the only geographic entity with a decline in the total number of staff employed at 

its degree-granting institutions between 1993 and 2003. The growth rate was in single digits in 

four states: Alabama (5 percent), Michigan and New York (7 percent), and West Virginia (8 

percent). As one might expect, similar results are observed by examining public institutions 

alone (table 7-B), since the majority of all postsecondary staff was employed at public 

institutions in both years (e.g., 1.7 million out of 2.5 million in 1993) (tables 7-A and 7-B). 

However, because the staff workforce in the public sector as a whole grew less than that in the 

private sectors (both not-for-profit and for-profit) as shown in table 2 (19 vs. 25 and 155 percent, 

respectively), there are more states with single digit growth rates in total number of staff 

employed in their public postsecondary institutions, as opposed to the situation when all 

postsecondary institutions are combined. Besides Alabama, Michigan, New York, and West 

Virginia, there are nine other states where the workforce in public institutions grew less than 10 

percent between 1993 and 2003 (e.g., 4 percent in Illinois) (table 7-B). 

With few exceptions, the pattern of more growth in part-time than in full-time staff 

described earlier at the national level holds at the state level as well. All but seven states saw 

 

18 According to statistics reported in a Chronicle of Higher Education article (Hoeller 2005), the Washington State Board for 

Community and Technical Colleges data show that part-time faculty were 57 percent cheaper than full-time faculty in 2004 for 

the same load of teaching. 
Table 7-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 1993, percentage of part-time sta

Table 7-A.—as percentage of the total workforce, by employment status and state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003

Full- PartState Total Full-time Part-time Total Full-time Part-time Total time time 1993 

 Total 2,545,920 1,744,550 801,370 3,108,301 2,034,352 1,073,949 22.1 16.6 34.0 31.5 

Alabama 50,168 36,209 13,959 52,883 35,380 17,503 5.4 -2.3 25.4 27.8 Alaska 3,552 3,231 321 6,674 4,285 2,389 87.9 32.6 644.2 9.0 Arizona 32,952 21,513 11,439 56,890 30,160 26,730 72.6 40.2 133.7 34.7 Arkansas 19,968 16,163 3,805 22,620 17,128 5,492 13.3 6.0 44.3 19.1 California 236,262 152,338 83,924 308,775 195,173 113,602 30.7 28.1 35.4 35.5 Colorado 40,419 23,950 16,469 46,405 27,326 19,079 14.8 14.1 15.8 40.7 Connecticut 35,627 23,861 11,766 42,154 28,915 13,239 18.3 21.2 12.5 33.0 Delaware 6,990 4,909 2,081 9,315 5,799 3,516 33.3 18.1 69.0 29.8 District of Columbia 32,404 24,754 7,650 24,677 17,902 6,775 -23.8 -27.7 -11.4 23.6 Florida 91,374 60,571 30,803 123,940 73,938 50,002 35.6 22.1 62.3 33.7 Georgia 62,113 46,529 15,584 82,736 57,404 25,332 33.2 23.4 62.6 25.1 Hawaii 9,564 6,400 3,164 10,970 7,145 3,825 14.7 11.6 20.9 33.1 Idaho 9,017 6,670 2,347 10,746 7,773 2,973 19.2 16.5 26.7 26.0 Illinois 131,585 81,972 49,613 152,665 97,775 54,890 16.0 19.3 10.6 37.7 Iowa 62,549 41,607 20,942 72,212 49,012 23,200 15.4 17.8 10.8 33.5 Indiana 36,074 25,028 11,046 41,123 28,087 13,036 14.0 12.2 18.0 30.6 Kansas 29,512 19,172 10,340 33,347 20,697 12,650 13.0 8.0 22.3 35.0 Kentucky 32,056 23,776 8,280 37,157 26,024 11,133 15.9 9.5 34.5 25.8 Louisiana 27,042 22,418 4,624 42,626 33,016 9,610 57.6 47.3 107.8 17.1 Maine 9,963 7,579 2,384 12,387 8,839 3,548 24.3 16.6 48.8 23.9 

See notes at end of table.

percent of 

Part-ti

employee

Number of employees: 1993 Number of employees: 2003 since 1993

 Percent change 
Table 7-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 1993, percentage of part-time sta

Table 7-A.—as percentage of the total workforce, by employment status and state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003—Continue

Full- PartState Total Full-time Part-time Total Full-time Part-time Total time time 1993 

Maryland 48,863 33,250 15,613 65,340 41,671 23,669 33.7 25.3 51.6 32.0 Massachusetts 99,288 67,562 31,726 121,019 77,109 43,910 21.9 14.1 38.4 32.0 Michigan 92,091 58,224 33,867 98,610 62,122 36,488 7.1 6.7 7.7 36.8 Minnesota 43,649 28,926 14,723 52,436 33,803 18,633 20.1 16.9 26.6 33.7 Mississippi 23,284 18,443 4,841 33,379 25,746 7,633 43.4 39.6 57.7 20.8 Missouri 56,605 38,943 17,662 78,309 49,176 29,133 38.3 26.3 64.9 31.2 Montana 7,603 4,955 2,648 9,389 6,237 3,152 23.5 25.9 19.0 34.8 Nebraska 21,187 16,768 4,419 24,799 17,421 7,378 17.0 3.9 67.0 20.9 Nevada 7,469 4,648 2,821 12,925 6,721 6,204 73.0 44.6 119.9 37.8 New Hampshire 11,989 8,234 3,755 18,355 10,347 8,008 53.1 25.7 113.3 31.3 New Jersey 57,069 42,489 14,580 70,372 47,112 23,260 23.3 10.9 59.5 25.5 New Mexico 19,080 13,408 5,672 22,762 15,417 7,345 19.3 15.0 29.5 29.7 New York 227,542 151,612 75,930 244,235 155,380 88,855 7.3 2.5 17.0 33.4 North Carolina 90,543 63,484 27,059 121,459 85,421 36,038 34.1 34.6 33.2 29.9 North Dakota 8,429 6,443 1,986 9,385 6,995 2,390 11.3 8.6 20.3 23.6 Ohio 99,193 67,058 32,135 119,844 78,546 41,298 20.8 17.1 28.5 32.4 Oklahoma 28,689 20,347 8,342 35,978 24,710 11,268 25.4 21.4 35.1 29.1 Oregon 34,610 20,543 14,067 42,152 23,996 18,156 21.8 16.8 29.1 40.6 Pennsylvania 133,035 89,214 43,821 152,954 103,410 49,544 15.0 15.9 13.1 32.9 Rhode Island 13,408 10,216 3,192 16,075 11,407 4,668 19.9 11.7 46.2 23.8 

See notes at end of table.

Part-ti

 Percent change employee

Number of employees: 1993 Number of employees: 2003 since 1993 percent of 
Table 7-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 1993, percentage of part-time sta

Table 7-A.—as percentage of the total workforce, by employment status and state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003—Continue

Full- PartState Total Full-time Part-time Total Full-time Part-time Total time time 1993 

South Carolina 33,825 26,324 7,501 37,319 25,425 11,894 10.3 -3.4 58.6 22.2 South Dakota 6,084 4,699 1,385 7,235 5,157 2,078 18.9 9.7 50.0 22.8 Tennessee 48,178 35,628 12,550 62,721 47,257 15,464 30.2 32.6 23.2 26.0 Texas 163,074 109,584 53,490 199,922 131,921 68,001 22.6 20.4 27.1 32.8 Utah 21,798 15,317 6,481 29,494 19,401 10,093 35.3 26.7 55.7 29.7 Vermont 8,076 6,235 1,841 10,261 7,421 2,840 27.1 19.0 54.3 22.8 Virginia 53,925 48,716 5,209 70,697 47,487 23,210 31.1 -2.5 345.6 9.7 Washington 47,435 33,293 14,142 55,807 37,879 17,928 17.6 13.8 26.8 29.8 West Virginia 14,850 11,062 3,788 16,098 11,371 4,727 8.4 2.8 24.8 25.5 Wisconsin 60,319 36,379 23,940 72,527 42,318 30,209 20.2 16.3 26.2 39.7 Wyoming 5,539 3,896 1,643 6,141 4,190 1,951 10.9 7.5 18.7 29.7 

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 

Part-ti

 Percent change employee

Number of employees: 1993 Number of employees: 2003 since 1993 percent of 
Table 7-B.—Number of employees in public postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 1993, percentage of part-ti

Table 7-B.—employees as percentage of the total workforce, by employment status and state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003

Full- PartState Total Full-time Part-time Total Full-time Part-time Total time time 1993 

 Total 1,783,153 1,187,296 595,857 2,130,296 1,347,599 782,697 19.5 13.5 31.4 33.4 

Alabama 45,530 32,622 12,908 48,102 31,547 16,555 5.6 -3.3 28.3 28.4 Alaska 3,299 3,052 247 6,374 4,085 2,289 93.2 33.8 826.7 7.5 Arizona 30,772 20,259 10,513 43,091 24,484 18,607 40.0 20.9 77.0 34.2 Arkansas 17,812 14,446 3,366 20,040 15,032 5,008 12.5 4.1 48.8 18.9 California 182,351 112,282 70,069 221,728 142,735 78,993 21.6 27.1 12.7 38.4 Colorado 34,820 20,980 13,840 38,078 22,904 15,174 9.4 9.2 9.6 39.7 Connecticut 18,187 10,641 7,546 19,803 11,909 7,894 8.9 11.9 4.6 41.5 Delaware 6,191 4,410 1,781 7,909 5,159 2,750 27.7 17.0 54.4 28.8 District of Columbia 1,896 1,256 640 1,437 914 523 -24.2 -27.2 -18.3 33.8 Florida 69,749 44,220 25,529 93,888 52,025 41,863 34.6 17.7 64.0 36.6 Georgia 45,640 33,329 12,311 61,730 39,992 21,738 35.3 20.0 76.6 27.0 Hawaii 7,914 5,489 2,425 8,550 6,006 2,544 8.0 9.4 4.9 30.6 Idaho 7,617 5,515 2,102 9,049 6,387 2,662 18.8 15.8 26.6 27.6 Illinois 86,975 49,021 37,954 90,492 53,466 37,026 4.0 9.1 -2.4 43.6 Iowa 47,760 30,743 17,017 53,963 35,195 18,768 13.0 14.5 10.3 35.6 Indiana 26,993 18,090 8,903 30,866 20,124 10,742 14.3 11.2 20.7 33.0 Kansas 26,137 17,051 9,086 29,514 18,338 11,176 12.9 7.5 23.0 34.8 Kentucky 27,244 20,125 7,119 30,592 21,306 9,286 12.3 5.9 30.4 26.1 Louisiana 20,580 16,656 3,924 33,866 25,972 7,894 64.6 55.9 101.2 19.1 Maine 6,803 4,996 1,807 8,427 5,599 2,828 23.9 12.1 56.5 26.6 

See notes at end of table.

Part-tim

 Percent change employee

Number of employees: 1993 Number of employees: 2003 since 1993 percent of 
Table 7-B.—Number of employees in public postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 1993, percentage of part-ti

Table 7-B.—employees as percentage of the total workforce, by employment status and state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003—

Full- PartState Total Full-time Part-time Total Full-time Part-time Total time time 1993 

Maryland 34,395 22,000 12,395 47,216 28,059 19,157 37.3 27.5 54.6 36.0 Massachusetts 30,870 19,359 11,511 34,159 20,421 13,738 10.7 5.5 19.3 37.3 Michigan 78,447 51,103 27,344 85,079 53,769 31,310 8.5 5.2 14.5 34.9 Minnesota 33,221 21,376 11,845 38,783 24,064 14,719 16.7 12.6 24.3 35.7 Mississippi 21,715 17,097 4,618 31,379 24,076 7,303 44.5 40.8 58.1 21.3 Missouri 34,931 22,485 12,446 45,301 27,500 17,801 29.7 22.3 43.0 35.6 Montana 6,596 4,358 2,238 8,249 5,497 2,752 25.1 26.1 23.0 33.9 Nebraska 16,625 13,259 3,366 19,115 13,064 6,051 15.0 -1.5 79.8 20.2 Nevada 7,417 4,607 2,810 12,851 6,661 6,190 73.3 44.6 120.3 37.9 New Hampshire 5,543 3,771 1,772 9,718 4,251 5,467 75.3 12.7 208.5 32.0 New Jersey 42,464 32,198 10,266 54,194 36,137 18,057 27.6 12.2 75.9 24.2 New Mexico 18,427 13,053 5,374 21,337 14,808 6,529 15.8 13.4 21.5 29.2 New York 90,750 55,518 35,232 92,873 51,982 40,891 2.3 -6.4 16.1 38.8 North Carolina 61,984 38,661 23,323 77,227 48,050 29,177 24.6 24.3 25.1 37.6 North Dakota 7,828 5,928 1,900 8,443 6,309 2,134 7.9 6.4 12.3 24.3 Ohio 75,693 50,127 25,566 88,213 56,145 32,068 16.5 12.0 25.4 33.8 Oklahoma 24,124 17,144 6,980 31,048 20,967 10,081 28.7 22.3 44.4 28.9 Oregon 29,695 17,447 12,248 35,935 19,922 16,013 21.0 14.2 30.7 41.2 Pennsylvania 72,686 48,360 24,326 78,153 50,061 28,092 7.5 3.5 15.5 33.5 Rhode Island 4,683 3,848 835 5,013 3,776 1,237 7.0 -1.9 48.1 17.8 

See notes at end of table.

 Percent change employee

Part-tim

Number of employees: 1993 Number of employees: 2003 since 1993 percent of 
Table 7-B.—Number of employees in public postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 1993, percentage of part-ti

Table 7-B.—employees as percentage of the total workforce, by employment status and state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003—

Full- PartState Total Full-time Part-time Total Full-time Part-time Total time time 1993 

South Carolina 29,103 22,363 6,740 31,236 20,502 10,734 7.3 -8.3 59.3 23.2 South Dakota 4,857 3,795 1,062 5,515 4,017 1,498 13.5 5.8 41.1 21.9 Tennessee 28,203 19,180 9,023 35,396 24,687 10,709 25.5 28.7 18.7 32.0 Texas 136,781 90,387 46,394 168,456 107,571 60,885 23.2 19.0 31.2 33.9 Utah 16,703 11,224 5,479 22,025 14,763 7,262 31.9 31.5 32.5 32.8 Vermont 4,574 3,531 1,043 5,800 4,079 1,721 26.8 15.5 65.0 22.8 Virginia 42,216 39,561 2,655 54,844 35,785 19,059 29.9 -9.5 617.9 6.3 Washington 39,933 28,470 11,463 47,571 32,040 15,531 19.1 12.5 35.5 28.7 West Virginia 12,889 9,555 3,334 13,604 9,483 4,121 5.5 -0.8 23.6 25.9 Wisconsin 50,146 28,598 21,548 58,199 32,054 26,145 16.1 12.1 21.3 43.0 Wyoming 5,384 3,750 1,634 5,865 3,920 1,945 8.9 4.5 19.0 30.3 

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 

Part-tim

 Percent change employee

Number of employees: 1993 Number of employees: 2003 since 1993 percent of 
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

44 

their total number of part-time staff increase at a rate that outpaced that of full-time staff (e.g., 9 

vs. 36 percent in Alaska) (table 7-A). In fact, the part-time portion of the workforce at 

postsecondary institutions more than doubled in all of the five top-ranking states that had an 

overall growth rate of more than 50 percent: 644 percent in Alaska, 134 percent in Arizona, 108 

percent in Louisiana, 120 percent in Nevada, and 113 percent in New Hampshire. 

Likewise, the gender difference described earlier in the growth in total number of 

postsecondary employees generally held at the state level. However, there were eight states 

(including the District of Columbia) that had less growth in female staff than in male staff: 

Alabama, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Georgia, Nebraska, New York, South Carolina, 

and Virginia (table 8-A). Nonetheless, except for New York, the proportion of female staff in all 

these states was already 54–57 percent in 1993, higher than the national average (52 percent). 

Consequently, in fall 2003, only two states employed less than 50 percent women in the 

postsecondary workforce: Idaho (49 percent) and Utah (46 percent). Again, examining public 

institutions alone shows similar patterns of growth in the postsecondary workforce during the 

decade (table 8-B). For instance, 43 states (excluding the District of Columbia where the female 

workforce declined less than the male workforce) had higher growth rates in their female 

workforce than the male workforce in public institutions (e.g., 27 vs. 16 percent in California), 

increasing the total number of states where women outnumbered men in the postsecondary 

workforce from 36 in 1993 to 48 in 2003. 

The overall pattern described earlier of great variation in the growth rate of postsecondary 

staff among different racial/ethnic groups was observed at the state level as well (tables 9-A and 

9-B). Furthermore, even within racial/ethnic groups, the increases in total number of staff 

fluctuated considerably from state to state. For instance, although the national average growth 

rate for White staff was 13 percent between 1993 and 2003, it was more than 50 percent (53 to 

84 percent) in Alaska, Arizona, Louisiana, and Nevada, states with an overall growth rate 

exceeding 50 percent. In contrast, the total number of White staff in Hawaii decreased by 46 

percent. Coupled with this was a surge in the growth of Asian staff by 607 percent in Hawaii. As 

will be shown later, this growth rate differential considerably altered the racial/ethnic 

composition of staff in Hawaii, from a clear majority of White staff to Asian staff becoming the 

most dominant group in its postsecondary education workforce. In the public sector of 

postsecondary institutions in Hawaii, the contrast was even more remarkable between Asian and 

White staff in terms of how their numbers changed during the decade. While the total number of 

Asians skyrocketed from about 200 in 1993 to 4,500 in 2003, an increase of 2,429 percent, in 

public institutions in Hawaii, that of White staff decreased by more than one-half (56 percent) 

(tables 10-A and 10-B). 
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

45 

Table 8-A.—Number of male and female employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage change since

Table 8-A.—fall 1993, and percentage of female staff, by state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003

State Male Female Male Female Male Female 1993 2003

 Total 1,229,449 1,316,471 1,459,992 1,648,309 18.8 26.0 51.7 53.1

Alabama 21,543 28,625 23,110 29,773 7.3 4.0 57.1 56.3

Alaska 1,708 1,844 3,008 3,666 76.1 98.8 51.9 54.9

Arizona 16,890 16,062 28,258 28,632 67.3 78.3 48.7 50.3

Arkansas 8,889 11,079 10,005 12,615 12.6 13.9 55.5 55.8

California 117,140 119,122 148,928 159,847 27.1 34.2 50.4 51.8

Colorado 21,168 19,251 22,239 24,166 5.1 25.5 47.6 52.1

Connecticut 17,009 18,618 19,002 23,152 11.7 24.4 52.3 54.9

Delaware 3,153 3,837 4,262 5,053 35.2 31.7 54.9 54.2

District of Columbia 14,344 18,060 11,793 12,884 -17.8 -28.7 55.7 52.2

Florida 44,450 46,924 58,751 65,189 32.2 38.9 51.4 52.6

Georgia 28,504 33,609 38,140 44,596 33.8 32.7 54.1 53.9

Hawaii 5,016 4,548 5,506 5,464 9.8 20.1 47.6 49.8

Idaho 4,924 4,093 5,496 5,250 11.6 28.3 45.4 48.9

Illinois 62,601 68,984 68,896 83,769 10.1 21.4 52.4 54.9

Iowa 31,509 31,040 34,629 37,583 9.9 21.1 49.6 52.0

Indiana 17,884 18,190 19,278 21,845 7.8 20.1 50.4 53.1

Kansas 14,597 14,915 15,967 17,380 9.4 16.5 50.5 52.1

Kentucky 15,293 16,763 17,410 19,747 13.8 17.8 52.3 53.1

Louisiana 13,205 13,837 20,167 22,459 52.7 62.3 51.2 52.7

Maine 4,864 5,099 5,673 6,714 16.6 31.7 51.2 54.2

Maryland 23,937 24,926 29,671 35,669 24.0 43.1 51.0 54.6

Massachusetts 49,315 49,973 58,279 62,740 18.2 25.5 50.3 51.8

Michigan 43,974 48,117 46,212 52,398 5.1 8.9 52.2 53.1

Minnesota 20,984 22,665 24,969 27,467 19.0 21.2 51.9 52.4

Mississippi 10,611 12,673 14,076 19,303 32.7 52.3 54.4 57.8

Missouri 27,046 29,559 36,152 42,157 33.7 42.6 52.2 53.8

Montana 3,915 3,688 4,441 4,948 13.4 34.2 48.5 52.7

Nebraska 9,671 11,516 11,518 13,281 19.1 15.3 54.4 53.6

Nevada 3,904 3,565 6,480 6,445 66.0 80.8 47.7 49.9

New Hampshire 5,754 6,235 8,483 9,872 47.4 58.3 52.0 53.8

New Jersey 27,635 29,434 32,863 37,509 18.9 27.4 51.6 53.3

New Mexico 9,409 9,671 10,664 12,098 13.3 25.1 50.7 53.1

New York 110,429 117,113 118,830 125,405 7.6 7.1 51.5 51.3

North Carolina 40,861 49,682 51,849 69,610 26.9 40.1 54.9 57.3

North Dakota 4,313 4,116 4,591 4,794 6.4 16.5 48.8 51.1

See notes at end of table.

Number of employees: 

1993

Number of employees:

2003

Female employees

1993 (as percent of total)

Percent change since
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

46 

Table 8-A.—Number of male and female employees in postsecondary institutions, percentage change since

Table 8-A.—fall 1993, and percentage of female staff, by state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003—

Table 8-A.—Continued

State Male Female Male Female Male Female 1993 2003

Ohio 47,444 51,749 56,156 63,688 18.4 23.1 52.2 53.1

Oklahoma 13,946 14,743 16,682 19,296 19.6 30.9 51.4 53.6

Oregon 15,520 19,090 17,830 24,322 14.9 27.4 55.2 57.7

Pennsylvania 66,205 66,830 74,806 78,148 13.0 16.9 50.2 51.1

Rhode Island 6,922 6,486 7,795 8,280 12.6 27.7 48.4 51.5

South Carolina 15,381 18,444 17,402 19,917 13.1 8.0 54.5 53.4

South Dakota 3,080 3,004 3,462 3,773 12.4 25.6 49.4 52.1

Tennessee 22,146 26,032 27,159 35,562 22.6 36.6 54.0 56.7

Texas 79,580 83,494 93,332 106,590 17.3 27.7 51.2 53.3

Utah 12,016 9,782 15,885 13,609 32.2 39.1 44.9 46.1

Vermont 3,712 4,364 4,614 5,647 24.3 29.4 54.0 55.0

Virginia 24,052 29,873 34,334 36,363 42.7 21.7 55.4 51.4

Washington 22,154 25,281 25,624 30,183 15.7 19.4 53.3 54.1

West Virginia 7,683 7,167 8,003 8,095 4.2 12.9 48.3 50.3

Wisconsin 30,360 29,959 34,361 38,166 13.2 27.4 49.7 52.6

Wyoming 2,799 2,740 2,951 3,190 5.4 16.4 49.5 51.9

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

1993 2003 1993

Number of employees: Number of employees:

(as percent of total)

Percent change since Female employees
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

47 

Table 8-B.—Number of male and female employees in public postsecondary institutions, percentage change

Table 8-B.—since fall 1993, and percentage of female staff, by state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003

State Male Female Male Female Male Female 1993 2003

 Total 864,505 918,648 999,094 1,131,202 15.6 23.4 51.5 53.2

Alabama 19,342 26,188 20,912 27,190 8.1 3.8 57.5 56.5

Alaska 1,593 1,706 2,869 3,505 80.1 105.5 51.7 55.0

Arizona 15,819 14,953 20,566 22,525 30.0 50.6 48.6 52.3

Arkansas 7,829 9,983 8,708 11,332 11.2 13.5 56.0 56.5

California 90,701 91,650 105,125 116,603 15.9 27.2 50.3 52.6

Colorado 18,410 16,410 18,276 19,802 -0.7 20.7 47.1 52.0

Connecticut 8,673 9,514 8,731 11,072 0.7 16.4 52.3 55.9

Delaware 2,776 3,415 3,665 4,244 32.0 24.3 55.2 53.7

District of Columbia 989 907 715 722 -27.7 -20.4 47.8 50.2

Florida 34,098 35,651 44,976 48,912 31.9 37.2 51.1 52.1

Georgia 21,456 24,184 28,844 32,886 34.4 36.0 53.0 53.3

Hawaii 4,075 3,839 4,243 4,307 4.1 12.2 48.5 50.4

Idaho 4,109 3,508 4,485 4,564 9.2 30.1 46.1 50.4

Illinois 42,269 44,706 41,459 49,033 -1.9 9.7 51.4 54.2

Iowa 24,074 23,686 25,851 28,112 7.4 18.7 49.6 52.1

Indiana 13,735 13,258 14,649 16,217 6.7 22.3 49.1 52.5

Kansas 13,016 13,121 14,143 15,371 8.7 17.1 50.2 52.1

Kentucky 12,960 14,284 14,255 16,337 10.0 14.4 52.4 53.4

Louisiana 10,101 10,479 16,157 17,709 60.0 69.0 50.9 52.3

Maine 3,376 3,427 3,892 4,535 15.3 32.3 50.4 53.8

Maryland 17,586 16,809 22,164 25,052 26.0 49.0 48.9 53.1

Massachusetts 14,377 16,493 15,756 18,403 9.6 11.6 53.4 53.9

Michigan 37,337 41,110 39,901 45,178 6.9 9.9 52.4 53.1

Minnesota 15,984 17,237 18,675 20,108 16.8 16.7 51.9 51.8

Mississippi 9,907 11,808 13,162 18,217 32.9 54.3 54.4 58.1

Missouri 16,924 18,007 20,544 24,757 21.4 37.5 51.6 54.7

Montana 3,440 3,156 3,911 4,338 13.7 37.5 47.8 52.6

Nebraska 7,650 8,975 9,156 9,959 19.7 11.0 54.0 52.1

Nevada 3,880 3,537 6,440 6,411 66.0 81.3 47.7 49.9

New Hampshire 2,625 2,918 4,411 5,307 68.0 81.9 52.6 54.6

New Jersey 19,825 22,639 24,568 29,626 23.9 30.9 53.3 54.7

New Mexico 9,065 9,362 9,861 11,476 8.8 22.6 50.8 53.8

New York 44,866 45,884 45,702 47,171 1.9 2.8 50.6 50.8

North Carolina 29,323 32,661 34,624 42,603 18.1 30.4 52.7 55.2

North Dakota 4,055 3,773 4,191 4,252 3.4 12.7 48.2 50.4

See notes at end of table.

Percent change since Female employees

1993 2003 1993 (as percent of total)

Number of employees: Number of employees:
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

48 

Table 8-B.—Number of male and female employees in public postsecondary institutions, percentage change

Table 8-B.—since fall 1993, and percentage of female staff, by state of institution: Fall 1993 and 2003—

Table 8-B.—Continued

State Male Female Male Female Male Female 1993 2003

Ohio 36,324 39,369 41,058 47,155 13.0 19.8 52.0 53.5

Oklahoma 11,772 12,352 14,149 16,899 20.2 36.8 51.2 54.4

Oregon 13,089 16,606 14,850 21,085 13.5 27.0 55.9 58.7

Pennsylvania 35,519 37,167 38,256 39,897 7.7 7.3 51.1 51.0

Rhode Island 2,289 2,394 2,331 2,682 1.8 12.0 51.1 53.5

South Carolina 13,078 16,025 14,545 16,691 11.2 4.2 55.1 53.4

South Dakota 2,528 2,329 2,679 2,836 6.0 21.8 48.0 51.4

Tennessee 14,040 14,163 16,314 19,082 16.2 34.7 50.2 53.9

Texas 66,439 70,342 78,510 89,946 18.2 27.9 51.4 53.4

Utah 8,952 7,751 11,341 10,684 26.7 37.8 46.4 48.5

Vermont 2,110 2,464 2,564 3,236 21.5 31.3 53.9 55.8

Virginia 18,548 23,668 27,233 27,611 46.8 16.7 56.1 50.3

Washington 18,461 21,472 21,822 25,749 18.2 19.9 53.8 54.1

West Virginia 6,759 6,130 6,892 6,712 2.0 9.5 47.6 49.3

Wisconsin 25,663 24,483 28,224 29,975 10.0 22.4 48.8 51.5

Wyoming 2,689 2,695 2,739 3,126 1.9 16.0 50.1 53.3

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

1993 2003 1993.0 (as percent of total)

Number of employees: Number of employees: Percent change since Female employees
Table 9-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fall 1993 an

Non- Race/ 

Amer- resi- ethnic- 

His- ican dent ity un- His- 

State Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known Total White Black panic Asian  Total 2,545,920 1,976,208 267,935 99,632 94,230 12,288 69,857 25,770 3,108,301 2,232,377 304,488 160,500 153,393 

Alabama 50,168 34,923 12,469 275 1,298 174 831 198 52,883 35,519 12,776 371 1,378 Alaska 3,552 2,969 120 72 115 208 64 4 6,674 5,472 159 156 238 Arizona 32,952 24,941 834 3,352 747 796 1,683 599 56,890 39,764 1,926 5,695 1,734 Arkansas 19,968 16,586 2,837 146 257 87 51 4 22,620 18,061 2,775 217 627 California 236,262 164,662 17,071 22,628 23,293 1,710 5,476 1,422 308,775 190,345 19,807 36,473 37,142 

Colorado 40,419 33,367 1,195 2,734 1,211 316 473 1,123 46,405 33,700 1,122 3,298 1,377 Connecticut 35,627 28,296 2,710 906 883 56 1,507 1,269 42,154 30,986 3,440 1,542 1,445 Delaware 6,990 5,324 1,090 72 142 26 336 0 9,315 6,493 1,224 144 242 District of  Columbia 32,404 15,523 12,367 882 2,043 81 832 676 24,677 11,554 7,050 755 1,463 Florida 91,374 68,351 12,854 5,582 2,585 231 1,060 711 123,940 80,617 16,808 14,930 4,660 

Georgia 62,113 44,948 14,380 530 1,391 63 413 388 82,736 54,080 18,873 1,350 3,382 Hawaii 9,564 8,318 130 189 767 78 51 31 10,970 4,451 108 219 5,423 Idaho 9,017 7,827 29 75 131 35 146 774 10,746 9,516 65 194 211 Illinois 131,585 98,075 17,212 4,415 5,453 344 5,224 862 152,665 108,460 18,640 6,873 8,500 

Iowa 62,549 53,596 2,737 678 1,456 160 2,905 1,017 72,212 59,140 3,637 1,299 2,302 Indiana 36,074 31,443 752 349 536 88 2,677 229 41,123 34,544 830 548 918 Kansas 29,512 25,287 1,205 512 689 326 785 708 33,347 27,182 1,216 763 801 Kentucky 32,056 28,241 2,465 153 583 43 527 44 37,157 30,771 2,768 250 906 Louisiana 27,042 17,226 8,059 411 878 34 410 24 42,626 26,528 10,604 745 1,437 Maine 9,963 9,496 67 28 79 21 209 63 12,387 10,662 101 85 135 

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003
Table 9-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fall 1993 an

Table 9-A.—Continued

Non- Race/ 

Amer- resi- ethnic- 

His- ican dent ity un- His- 

State Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known Total White Black panic Asian Maryland 48,863 35,231 8,752 547 1,538 135 2,515 145 65,340 42,284 12,477 1,191 2,920 

Massachusetts 99,288 84,119 4,846 2,174 3,443 125 2,857 1,724 121,019 90,572 5,831 3,661 5,920 

Michigan 92,091 75,712 8,429 1,685 3,557 395 2,120 193 98,610 74,311 8,616 2,232 4,029 Minnesota 43,649 38,962 978 461 1,693 309 990 256 52,436 43,376 1,424 722 1,724 Mississippi 23,284 15,684 6,451 80 720 19 276 54 33,379 21,885 9,685 189 750 Missouri 56,605 47,079 4,687 499 1,255 209 1,931 945 78,309 59,614 6,248 955 2,351 Montana 7,603 6,743 16 50 91 358 123 222 9,389 7,886 20 65 93 Nebraska 21,187 19,269 816 286 331 105 373 7 24,799 20,969 780 532 649 Nevada 7,469 6,310 284 321 272 71 101 110 12,925 9,654 649 907 855 New  Hampshire 11,989 11,481 92 88 218 31 74 5 18,355 13,541 150 113 204 New Jersey 57,069 40,053 8,868 2,736 2,667 99 1,757 889 70,372 45,165 10,492 4,305 5,108 

New Mexico 19,080 12,723 312 4,753 276 482 482 52 22,762 13,406 385 5,733 505 New York 227,542 169,006 27,129 13,331 9,918 450 5,110 2,598 244,235 173,771 23,595 16,350 13,268 North Carolina 90,543 68,359 17,260 608 1,378 496 2,400 42 121,459 88,518 22,285 1,625 3,007 

North Dakota 8,429 7,513 27 46 165 356 299 23 9,385 7,822 59 54 125 Ohio 99,193 82,573 8,810 942 2,387 216 3,160 1,105 119,844 92,277 10,588 1,569 3,911 Oklahoma 28,689 24,030 1,531 414 572 1,176 777 189 35,978 28,603 2,015 664 928 Oregon 34,610 29,778 492 566 921 200 956 1,697 42,152 34,920 740 1,218 1,699 Pennsylvania 133,035 110,619 11,787 1,596 4,357 185 2,858 1,633 152,954 121,040 13,717 2,542 5,451 

Rhode Island 13,408 11,842 651 189 272 72 318 64 16,075 12,855 844 398 435 

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003
Table 9-A.—Number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fall 1993 an

Table 9-A.—Continued

Non- Race/ 

Amer- resi- ethnic- 

His- ican dent ity un- His- 

State Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known Total White Black panic Asian South Carolina 33,825 25,542 6,955 154 468 32 566 108 37,319 27,694 7,025 380 1,012 

South Dakota 6,084 5,587 38 42 170 172 75 0 7,235 6,231 37 56 249 Tennessee 48,178 37,279 8,056 349 989 84 897 524 62,721 47,556 9,772 659 1,694 Texas 163,074 112,534 15,637 20,576 5,641 550 7,533 603 199,922 124,074 18,699 32,707 10,623 

Utah 21,798 19,266 135 438 537 102 713 607 29,494 24,760 211 779 886 Vermont 8,076 7,118 73 72 139 19 57 598 10,261 8,849 114 100 212 Virginia 53,925 41,109 10,276 392 1,020 99 1,001 28 70,697 48,122 9,099 886 1,900 Washington 47,435 39,761 1,512 1,165 3,181 500 810 506 55,807 44,212 1,620 1,814 4,134 West Virginia 14,850 13,284 592 69 304 33 565 3 16,098 13,871 617 174 358 Wisconsin 60,319 53,311 1,829 808 1,165 297 2,215 694 72,527 61,550 2,729 1,809 4,023 Wyoming 5,539 4,932 31 206 48 34 288 0 6,141 5,144 36 204 49 

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and AmeNative. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does no

indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 

1993 2003
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

52 

Table 9-B.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each

Table 9-B.—racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fall 2003

Non- Race/

American resident ethnicity

State Total White Black Hispanic Asian Indian alien unknown

 Total 22.1 13.0 13.6 61.1 62.8 44.9 104.7 275.3

Alabama 5.4 1.7 2.5 34.9 6.2 17.2 183.8 39.9

Alaska 87.9 84.3 32.5 116.7 107.0 60.6 348.4 600.0

Arizona 72.6 59.4 130.9 69.9 132.1 31.9 72.1 538.6

Arkansas 13.3 8.9 -2.2 48.6 144.0 50.6 1127.5 4475.0

California 30.7 15.6 16.0 61.2 59.5 24.0 91.9 770.5

Colorado 14.8 1.0 -6.1 20.6 13.7 20.9 242.5 336.9

Connecticut 18.3 9.5 26.9 70.2 63.6 82.1 75.0 57.7

Delaware 33.3 22.0 12.3 100.0 70.4 50.0 116.1 † 

District of Columbia -23.8 -25.6 -43.0 -14.4 -28.4 -38.3 67.5 256.7

Florida 35.6 17.9 30.8 167.5 80.3 63.6 396.2 81.0

Georgia 33.2 20.3 31.2 154.7 143.1 228.6 799.0 191.5

Hawaii 14.7 -46.5 -16.9 15.9 607.0 -23.1 1290.2 -100.0

Idaho 19.2 21.6 124.1 158.7 61.1 137.1 128.8 -55.7

Illinois 16.0 10.6 8.3 55.7 55.9 12.2 35.7 215.0

Iowa 15.4 10.3 32.9 91.6 58.1 36.9 16.6 119.0

Indiana 14.0 9.9 10.4 57.0 71.3 63.6 23.5 263.8

Kansas 13.0 7.5 0.9 49.0 16.3 13.2 188.7 5.9

Kentucky 15.9 9.0 12.3 63.4 55.4 69.8 276.1 825.0

Louisiana 57.6 54.0 31.6 81.3 63.7 208.8 661.0 262.5

Maine 24.3 12.3 50.7 203.6 70.9 128.6 20.6 1652.4

Maryland 33.7 20.0 42.6 117.7 89.9 49.6 91.6 898.6

Massachusetts 21.9 7.7 20.3 68.4 71.9 97.6 187.0 282.1

Michigan 7.1 -1.9 2.2 32.5 13.3 25.3 181.8 1429.5

Minnesota 20.1 11.3 45.6 56.6 1.8 23.0 255.1 405.9

Mississippi 43.4 39.5 50.1 136.3 4.2 89.5 192.4 -50.0

Missouri 38.3 26.6 33.3 91.4 87.3 47.8 69.1 489.0

Montana 23.5 17.0 25.0 30.0 2.2 79.3 90.2 102.3

Nebraska 17.0 8.8 -4.4 86.0 96.1 9.5 247.5 6442.9

Nevada 73.0 53.0 128.5 182.6 214.3 77.5 214.9 278.2

New Hampshire 53.1 17.9 63.0 28.4 -6.4 90.3 840.5 71740.0

New Jersey 23.3 12.8 18.3 57.3 91.5 20.2 68.8 149.5

New Mexico 19.3 5.4 23.4 20.6 83.0 23.7 105.2 2107.7

New York 7.3 2.8 -13.0 22.6 33.8 56.4 130.0 84.5

North Carolina 34.1 29.5 29.1 167.3 118.2 49.0 78.4 2288.1

North Dakota 11.3 4.1 118.5 17.4 -24.2 62.6 110.7 404.3

See notes at end of table.
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

53 

Table 9-B.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in postsecondary institutions in each

Table 9-B.—racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fall 2003—Continued

Non- Race/

American resident ethnicity

State Total White Black Hispanic Asian Indian alien unknown

Ohio 20.8 11.8 20.2 66.6 63.8 66.2 91.0 361.8

Oklahoma 25.4 19.0 31.6 60.4 62.2 49.7 144.4 -42.9

Oregon 21.8 17.3 50.4 115.2 84.5 71.0 47.5 7.4

Pennsylvania 15.0 9.4 16.4 59.3 25.1 93.5 159.8 48.2

Rhode Island 19.9 8.6 29.6 110.6 59.9 27.8 129.6 1026.6

South Carolina 10.3 8.4 1.0 146.8 116.2 365.6 60.1 41.7

South Dakota 18.9 11.5 -2.6 33.3 46.5 165.7 58.7 † 

Tennessee 30.2 27.6 21.3 88.8 71.3 71.4 45.7 203.2

Texas 22.6 10.3 19.6 59.0 88.3 63.6 42.7 259.5

Utah 35.3 28.5 56.3 77.9 65.0 46.1 22.3 202.6

Vermont 27.1 24.3 56.2 38.9 52.5 31.6 359.6 16.9

Virginia 31.1 17.1 -11.5 126.0 86.3 30.3 248.3 25167.9

Washington 17.6 11.2 7.1 55.7 30.0 25.6 174.8 131.8

West Virginia 8.4 4.4 4.2 152.2 17.8 21.2 57.2 4900.0

Wisconsin 20.2 15.5 49.2 123.9 245.3 31.6 -90.4 161.1

Wyoming 10.9 4.3 16.1 -1.0 2.1 38.2 -9.0 † 

† Not applicable.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis

and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 2003.
Table 10-A.—Number of employees in public postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fal

Non- Race/ 

Amer- resi- ethnic- 

His- ican dent ity un- His- 

State Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known Total White Black panic Asia Total 1,784,153 1,384,150 181,000 71,287 65,084 10,416 54,536 17,680 2,130,296 1,524,198 206,349 115,791 106,37

Alabama 45,530 32,354 10,600 234 1,151 170 827 194 48,102 32,855 10,907 355 1,26Alaska 3,299 2,753 112 66 103 200 64 1 6,374 5,211 154 154 22Arizona 30,772 23,286 783 3,240 701 781 1,674 307 43,091 29,211 1,139 4,931 1,25Arkansas 17,812 14,773 2,551 104 249 85 47 3 20,040 15,756 2,555 208 61California 182,351 126,349 13,229 17,506 18,688 1,407 4,505 667 221,728 138,431 14,163 27,065 28,02Colorado 34,820 28,446 990 2,507 1,115 288 427 1,047 38,078 27,057 830 2,852 1,21Connecticut 18,187 14,890 1,154 569 471 43 705 355 19,803 14,776 1,369 888 71Delaware 6,191 4,612 1,025 69 127 22 336 0 7,909 5,636 1,126 134 22District of  Columbia 1,896 174 1,080 21 130 2 0 489 1,437 233 1,027 20 11Florida 69,749 53,593 10,429 2,573 2,134 204 695 121 93,888 62,219 13,134 9,596 3,79Georgia 45,640 34,154 9,583 309 1,129 58 387 20 61,730 41,381 12,521 925 2,38Hawaii 7,914 7,367 92 139 178 72 42 24 8,550 3,248 54 151 4,50Idaho 7,617 6,448 26 65 126 34 144 774 9,049 7,932 60 177 19Illinois 86,975 65,151 10,315 2,694 3,158 295 4,564 798 90,492 65,013 10,335 3,858 4,61Iowa 47,760 40,622 2,103 486 1,209 139 2,564 637 53,963 43,346 2,718 918 1,95Indiana 26,993 22,880 624 288 441 76 2,463 221 30,866 24,989 639 448 79Kansas 26,137 22,449 1,122 461 665 322 778 340 29,514 23,610 1,116 708 77Kentucky 27,244 23,649 2,303 143 543 38 524 44 30,592 24,752 2,512 227 85Louisiana 20,580 12,953 6,315 215 661 20 398 18 33,866 21,275 8,115 451 97Maine 6,803 6,476 27 15 48 18 191 28 8,427 6,936 41 47 7

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003
Table 10-A.—Number of employees in public postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fal

Table 10-A.—Continued

Non- Race/ 

Amer- resi- ethnic- 

His- ican dent ity un- His- 

State Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known Total White Black panic AsiaMaryland 34,395 23,838 6,903 402 1,093 88 1,943 128 47,216 29,480 9,898 970 1,99Massachusetts 30,870 26,883 1,325 693 1,113 58 145 653 34,159 26,451 1,503 1,016 1,56Michigan 78,447 64,513 7,015 1,338 3,263 372 1,806 140 85,079 63,288 7,478 1,937 3,75Minnesota 33,221 29,056 785 356 1,552 262 971 239 38,783 31,310 1,075 542 1,43Mississippi 21,715 14,656 5,998 72 677 19 273 20 31,379 20,546 9,105 178 71Missouri 34,931 29,679 2,839 295 640 163 1,266 49 45,301 36,736 3,587 573 1,20Montana 6,596 5,918 11 41 81 245 78 222 8,249 7,095 17 58 8Nebraska 16,625 15,007 671 244 235 94 367 7 19,115 15,932 542 387 46Nevada 7,417 6,265 284 316 270 71 101 110 12,851 9,590 648 899 85New  Hampshire 5,543 5,359 33 27 80 18 26 0 9,718 6,418 55 52 6New Jersey 42,464 28,238 7,531 2,292 2,034 82 1,525 762 54,194 33,056 9,012 3,671 4,26

New Mexico 18,427 12,210 299 4,645 271 474 482 46 21,337 12,592 339 5,453 48New York 90,750 68,324 11,111 4,526 3,110 234 2,119 1,326 92,873 67,084 10,096 6,077 4,15

North Carolina 61,984 47,774 10,579 442 917 444 1,822 6 77,227 57,673 13,103 1,068 1,55North Dakota 7,828 7,026 26 46 161 247 299 23 8,443 7,064 56 49 12Ohio 75,693 62,166 7,175 786 1,944 194 2,717 711 88,213 66,270 8,304 1,241 2,92Oklahoma 24,124 20,165 1,325 345 491 1,025 768 5 31,048 24,530 1,787 571 82Oregon 29,695 25,353 440 499 798 189 950 1,466 35,935 29,554 675 1,023 1,49Pennsylvania 72,686 58,855 7,102 888 1,924 125 2,386 1,406 78,153 61,633 7,401 1,302 2,79Rhode Island 4,683 4,292 167 47 113 44 20 0 5,013 3,970 162 87 15

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003
Table 10-A.—Number of employees in public postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fal

Table 10-A.—Continued

Non- Race/ 

Amer- resi- ethnic- 

His- ican dent ity un- His- 

State Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known Total White Black panic AsiaSouth Carolina 29,103 21,982 5,886 141 405 29 552 108 31,236 23,414 5,459 340 95South Dakota 4,857 4,380 35 37 161 170 74 0 5,515 4,740 32 46 23Tennessee 28,203 22,285 3,802 165 544 48 858 501 35,396 26,703 5,327 289 80Texas 136,781 92,846 13,646 18,251 4,630 483 6,403 522 168,456 103,069 15,688 29,045 8,96

Utah 16,703 14,491 127 371 462 93 602 557 22,025 18,029 193 659 67Vermont 4,574 3,788 38 38 100 17 43 550 5,800 4,692 61 57 14Virginia 42,216 32,039 8,036 289 838 92 922 0 54,844 36,253 6,213 659 1,55Washington 39,933 33,038 1,336 1,046 2,912 440 798 363 47,571 37,312 1,374 1,583 3,67West Virginia 12,889 11,409 563 63 272 32 550 0 13,604 11,580 558 116 32Wisconsin 50,146 44,147 1,421 685 918 256 2,047 672 58,199 49,383 2,052 1,537 3,51Wyoming 5,384 4,789 28 197 48 34 288 0 5,865 4,884 34 193 4

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and AmeNative. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does no

indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 

1993 2003
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions

57 

Table 10-B.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in public postsecondary institutions

Table 10-B.—in each racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fall 2003

Non- Race/

American resident ethnicity

State Total White Black Hispanic Asian Indian alien unknown

 Total 19.5 10.1 14.0 62.4 63.4 39.1 95.4 219.9

Alabama 3.4 1.5 2.9 51.7 9.7 17.6 177.6 -81.1

Alaska 93.2 89.3 37.5 133.3 119.4 57.0 348.4 2700.0

Arizona 40.0 25.4 45.5 52.2 79.2 27.3 71.6 775.6

Arkansas 12.5 6.7 0.2 100.0 145.8 43.5 1214.9 5533.3

California 21.6 9.6 7.1 54.6 50.0 25.2 67.5 610.3

Colorado 9.4 -4.9 -16.2 13.8 8.9 17.0 244.7 312.2

Connecticut 8.9 -0.8 18.6 56.1 52.4 30.2 53.5 157.5

Delaware 27.7 22.2 9.9 94.2 74.0 72.7 115.8 †

District of Columbia -24.2 33.9 -4.9 -4.8 -8.5 250.0 † -93.7

Florida 34.6 16.1 25.9 272.9 78.0 51.5 482.6 546.3

Georgia 35.3 21.2 30.7 199.4 111.3 153.4 831.5 3725.0

Hawaii 8.0 -55.9 -41.3 8.6 2428.7 -55.6 1242.9 -100.0

Idaho 18.8 23.0 130.8 172.3 54.0 144.1 131.3 -65.1

Illinois 4.0 -0.2 0.2 43.2 46.3 -0.7 25.8 -20.8

Iowa 13.0 6.7 29.2 88.9 61.4 36.0 21.4 171.3

Indiana 14.3 9.2 2.4 55.6 80.7 57.9 30.6 197.3

Kansas 12.9 5.2 -0.5 53.6 15.9 13.7 190.1 101.8

Kentucky 12.3 4.7 9.1 58.7 56.5 52.6 267.2 511.4

Louisiana 64.6 64.2 28.5 109.8 47.0 290.0 635.4 166.7

Maine 23.9 7.1 51.9 213.3 62.5 94.4 17.8 3703.6

Maryland 37.3 23.7 43.4 141.3 82.3 62.5 77.9 896.9

Massachusetts 10.7 -1.6 13.4 46.6 40.6 60.3 802.1 240.4

Michigan 8.5 -1.9 6.6 44.8 15.0 25.3 221.5 1580.0

Minnesota 16.7 7.8 36.9 52.2 -7.4 25.2 253.7 174.9

Mississippi 44.5 40.2 51.8 147.2 5.9 73.7 184.6 15.0

Missouri 29.7 23.8 26.3 94.2 88.6 45.4 79.4 1308.2

Montana 25.1 19.9 54.5 41.5 7.4 41.2 197.4 86.5

Nebraska 15.0 6.2 -19.2 58.6 96.6 5.3 248.0 5842.9

Nevada 73.3 53.1 128.2 184.5 216.3 77.5 214.9 278.2

New Hampshire 75.3 19.8 66.7 92.6 -20.0 5.6 1042.3 †

New Jersey 27.6 17.1 19.7 60.2 109.6 19.5 49.1 138.8

New Mexico 15.8 3.1 13.4 17.4 79.0 23.0 104.4 1856.5

New York 2.3 -1.8 -9.1 34.3 33.5 31.6 79.6 1.7

North Carolina 24.6 20.7 23.9 141.6 69.5 44.1 47.5 8250.0

North Dakota 7.9 0.5 115.4 6.5 -25.5 67.6 108.7 404.3

See notes at end of table.
Growth in the Total Number of Staff at Postsecondary Institutions 

58 

Table 10-B.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in number of employees in public postsecondary institutions

Table 10-B.—in each racial/ethnic group, by state of institution: Fall 2003—Continued

Non- Race/

American resident ethnicity

State Total White Black Hispanic Asian Indian alien unknown

Ohio 16.5 6.6 15.7 57.9 50.3 61.3 90.1 462.4

Oklahoma 28.7 21.6 34.9 65.5 67.6 49.7 129.2 760.0

Oregon 21.0 16.6 53.4 105.0 87.1 68.3 43.1 3.2

Pennsylvania 7.5 4.7 4.2 46.6 45.1 94.4 70.8 -49.7

Rhode Island 7.0 -7.5 -3.0 85.1 32.7 -4.5 750.0 †

South Carolina 7.3 6.5 -7.3 141.1 136.8 389.7 58.9 -58.3

South Dakota 13.5 8.2 -8.6 24.3 47.2 64.1 56.8 †

Tennessee 25.5 19.8 40.1 75.2 48.2 83.3 31.6 110.4

Texas 23.2 11.0 15.0 59.1 93.7 68.9 52.9 106.1

Utah 31.9 24.4 52.0 77.6 45.7 47.3 32.1 176.3

Vermont 26.8 23.9 60.5 50.0 48.0 29.4 446.5 6.4

Virginia 29.9 13.2 -22.7 128.0 85.6 26.1 262.4 †

Washington 19.1 12.9 2.8 51.3 26.0 27.0 172.6 147.4

West Virginia 5.5 1.5 -0.9 84.1 21.0 -3.1 58.4 †

Wisconsin 16.1 11.9 44.4 124.4 282.7 28.5 -99.1 103.3

Wyoming 8.9 2.0 21.4 -2.0 -4.2 38.2 -9.0 †

† Not applicable.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis

and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 2003.
59 

Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff 

The distribution of postsecondary staff by type of institution remained fairly stable from 

1993 to 2003. However, compared with 1993, the postsecondary workforce in 2003 consisted of 

more part-time and female employees and was more professionally oriented and more 

racially/ethnically diverse. 

Type of Institution19

Overall, the staffing structure—by either sector or Carnegie classification—remained fairly 

stable during the decade under study. For example, in both years, nearly all postsecondary staff 

(97–98 percent) were employed by the three major sectors of institutions: public 4-year (52 and 

50 percent in 1993 and 2003, respectively), private not-for-profit 4-year (29 percent in both 

years), and public 2-year (18 percent in both years) (table 11). The decrease in the proportion of 

staff employed by public 4-year institutions is consistent with the fact that student enrollment in 

these institutions declined by 2 percentage points during this period.20 The concentration of the 

postsecondary workforce in the public (both 4- and 2-year) and private not-for-profit sectors 

parallels student enrollment: in both years, 97 percent of total fall enrollment came from these 

three sectors.21 

The primary mission of public 2-year institutions (often also referred to as “community 

colleges”) emphasizes teaching, in contrast to 4-year institutions where research (including 

research by and related to graduate students) is essential to the day-to-day operations. 

Furthermore, students at public 2-year institutions are more likely than their peers at 4-year 

colleges and universities to attend part time while working full time (Horn and Nevill 2006), 

hence requiring fewer on-campus services such as housing, food service, and health care. 

Therefore, it is not unexpected that public 2-year institutions enrolled 36–37 percent of all 

 

19 This section is limited to institutions that remained unchanged in their institutional characteristics (e.g., in control, level, or 

sector), in order to avoid counting staff (whose institutions had changed in characteristics) for one type of institution in 1993 but 

for another type of institution in 2003. 

20 From 42 percent in 1993 to 40 percent in 2003, based on the IPEDS 1993 and 2003 “Fall Enrollment Survey” data available 

at http://nces.ed.gov/ipedspas/dct/inc/expire.asp (data not shown in tables). 

21 Based on the IPEDS 1993 and 2003 “Fall Enrollment Survey” data available at http://nces.ed.gov/ipedspas/dct/inc/expire.asp

(data not shown in tables). 
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

60 

Table 11.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions and change in percentage

Table 11.—points since fall 1993, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003

Change in percentage

points

Institution and employee characteristics 1993 2003 since 1993

 Total 100.0 100.0 0.0

Control of institution1

 Public 70.0 68.5 -1.5

 Private not-for-profit 29.1 29.8 0.7

 Private for-profit 0.8 1.6 0.9

Level of institution2

 4-year 81.0 80.4 -0.6

 2-year 18.0 18.5 0.5

 Public 4-year 51.9 49.9 -2.0

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 28.7 29.4 0.7

 Private for-profit 4-year 0.4 1.1 0.7

 Public 2-year 17.6 18.1 0.4

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 0.2 0.2 0.0

 Private for-profit 2-year 0.2 0.3 0.1

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 47.3 46.6 -0.8

 Master’s 14.6 15.3 0.6

 Bachelor’s 5.9 5.9 0.0

 Associate’s 18.2 18.7 0.6

 Specialized 8.0 7.0 -1.0

Employment status

 Full-time 68.5 65.4 -3.1

 Part-time 31.5 34.6 3.1

Gender

 Male 48.3 47.0 -1.3

 Female 51.7 53.0 1.3

Race/ethnicity6

 White 77.6 71.8 -5.8

 Black 10.5 9.8 -0.7

 Hispanic 3.9 5.2 1.3

 Asian 3.7 4.9 1.2

 American Indian 0.5 0.6 0.1

 Nonresident alien 2.7 4.6 1.9

 Race/ethnicity unknown 1.0 3.1 2.1

See notes at end of table.

Sector of institution3
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

61 

Table 11.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions and change in percentage

Table 11.—points since fall 1993, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003—

Table 11.—Continued

Change in percentage

points

Institution and employee characteristics 1993 2003 since 1993

Primary occupation

 Professional 64.8 70.9 6.1

 Executive/administrative/managerial 5.5 5.8 0.3

 Faculty 35.1 36.3 1.2

 Full-time 21.0 19.7 -1.3

 9 to 10 months 14.9 14.1 -0.8

 11 to 12 months 5.9 5.5 -0.4

 Less than 9 months 0.2 0.1 -0.1

 Part-time 14.1 16.6 2.5

 Instruction/research assistant 7.9 9.4 1.5

 Professional support/service 16.3 19.5 3.1

 Nonprofessional 35.2 29.1 -6.1

 Technical/paraprofessional 7.1 6.2 -0.9

 Clerical/secretarial 16.8 13.8 -3.0

 Skilled crafts 2.5 2.0 -0.5

 Service/maintenance 8.8 7.1 -1.7

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this 

country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless 

specified.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

62 

students in postsecondary institutions,22 even though they employed a much smaller proportion 

of the postsecondary workforce (18 percent in both 1993 and 2003) (table 11). In comparison, the 

percentage of students enrolled at 4-year colleges and universities was smaller than that of staff 

employed (e.g., 40–42 percent vs. 50–52 percent at public 4-year, and 19–20 percent vs. 29 

percent at private not-for-profit 4-year). 

This difference in student enrollment relative to workforce staffing between community 

colleges and their 4-year peers at public and private not-for-profit institutions is also reflected in 

the student-to-staff ratio. While in both years the ratio of students to staff at public 2-year 

institutions was about 11 to 1, it was 4 to 1 at 4-year (both public and private not-for-profit) 

institutions.23 

Despite differences among the various Carnegie classifications in the growth rate in total 

number of staff employed as discussed earlier (table 2), the percentage distribution of staff by 

Carnegie classification remained unchanged over the decade. In both 1993 and 2003, staff in 

doctoral institutions accounted for 47 percent of the total workforce in postsecondary institutions, 

followed in order by those in associate’s (18 percent), master’s (15 percent), specialized (7–8 

percent), and bachelor’s (6 percent) institutions.24 

Employment Status 

Because the total number of part-time staff at postsecondary institutions increased more 

than full-time staff, as shown earlier, the proportion of part-time staff increased from 31 percent 

in 1993 to 35 percent in 2003 (table 12), continuing the well-established pattern of increased use 

of part-time postsecondary staff (Cahalan and Roey 1996). Furthermore, this shift toward more 

part-time employment held across all types of institutions and racial /ethnic groups (except for 

Asian staff and staff with unknown race/ethnicity), and by gender. Excluding instruction/research 

assistants—who are all part-time employees by definition—faculty had the highest proportions of 

staff who were employed part time in both years: 40 percent in 1993, increasing to 46 percent in 

2003. In contrast, the proportion of part-time staff ranged from 4 to 22 percent in 1993 and from 

3 to 21 percent in 2003 for staff in all other primary occupations. 

However, there were notable variations in the rates of part-time employment across 

different types of institutions and by staff’s racial/ethnic background and primary occupation. For 

 

22 Based on the IPEDS 1993 and 2003 “Fall Enrollment Survey” data available at http://nces.ed.gov/ipedspas/dct/inc/expire.asp

(data not shown in tables). 

23 Ibid. 

24 The remaining 6–7 percent were accounted for by staff employed in institutions that have either changed in Carnegie 

classification over time or were not classified. 
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

63 

Table 12.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by employment status and

Table 12.—change since fall 1993 in percentage of part-time staff, by institution and employee

Table 12.—characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003

Change since

1993 in

percentage of

part-time

Institution and employee characteristics Full-time Part-time Full-time Part-time staff

 Total 68.5 31.5 65.4 34.6 3.1

Control of institution1

 Public 66.6 33.4 63.2 36.8 3.3

 Private not-for-profit 73.6 26.4 71.4 28.6 2.2

 Private for-profit 54.6 45.4 48.9 51.1 5.7

Level of institution2

 4-year 72.6 27.4 69.4 30.6 3.1

 2-year 50.9 49.1 48.8 51.2 2.1

 Public 4-year 72.2 27.8 68.8 31.2 3.3

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 73.7 26.3 71.5 28.5 2.2

 Private for-profit 4-year 43.0 57.0 41.2 58.8 1.8

 Public 2-year 50.6 49.4 48.4 51.6 2.1

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 67.7 32.3 64.8 35.2 3.0

 Private for-profit 2-year 66.3 33.7 64.1 35.9 2.2

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 71.2 28.8 68.8 31.2 2.4

 Master’s 73.7 26.3 68.7 31.3 5.0

 Bachelor’s 76.5 23.5 76.0 24.0 0.5

 Associate’s 50.6 49.4 48.5 51.5 2.2

 Specialized 77.6 22.4 76.0 24.0 1.5

Gender

 Male 68.0 32.0 64.5 35.5 3.5

 Female 69.0 31.0 66.3 33.7 2.7

Race/ethnicity6

 White 68.9 31.1 67.4 32.6 1.5

 Black 79.8 20.2 76.2 23.8 3.7

 Hispanic 73.2 26.8 71.5 28.5 1.7

 Asian 64.7 35.3 68.0 32.0 -3.3

 American Indian 72.8 27.2 70.0 30.0 2.8

 Nonresident alien 33.8 66.2 30.5 69.5 3.3

 Race/ethnicity unknown 10.1 89.9 22.8 77.2 -12.7

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003

Sector of institution3
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

64 

example, while only about one-quarter (23 to 24 percent) of staff at bachelor’s colleges were 

part-time employees in both years, the likelihood of their counterparts in associate’s colleges to 

be in part-time employment was 49 percent in 1993 and 51 percent in 2003 (table 12). Similarly, 

contrasting with a majority (66 to 90 percent) of nonresident alien staff and staff whose 

Table 12.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by employment status and

Table 12.—change since fall 1993 in percentage of part-time staff, by institution and employee

Table 12.—characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003—Continued

Change since

1993 in

percentage of

part-time

Institution and employee characteristics Full-time Part-time Full-time Part-time staff

Primary occupation7

 Professional 61.5 38.5 59.1 40.9 2.5

 Executive/administrative/managerial 96.0 4.0 96.6 3.4 -0.6

 Faculty 59.8 40.2 54.3 45.7 5.5

 Professional support/service 83.6 16.4 85.4 14.6 -1.9

 Nonprofessional 81.4 18.6 81.0 19.0 0.4

 Technical/paraprofessional 77.5 22.5 78.7 21.3 -1.2

 Clerical/secretarial 80.4 19.6 78.9 21.1 1.5

 Skilled crafts 95.2 4.8 95.4 4.6 -0.3

 Service/maintenance 82.6 17.4 83.2 16.8 -0.7

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this 

country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless 

specified.

7

Included in the totals but not shown separately are instruction/research assistant staff who by definition are all part-time.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

1993 2003
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

65 

race/ethnicity is unknown in part-time positions, the proportion of part-time employees was only 

20 to 35 percent among other racial/ethnic groups. 

Gender 

Between 1993 and 2003, the proportion of female staff increased slightly from 52 to 53 

percent (table 13). The increase in the proportion of female staff at postsecondary institutions 

was observed across all types of institutions—except for the private for-profit sectors and 

specialized institutions, for both part-time and full-time employment, and among all racial/ethnic 

groups. However, this gender gain occurred primarily among the academic core staff. The 

proportion of female staff among faculty, instruction/research assistant, and executive, 

administrative, and managerial staff increased from 5 to 8 percentage points, while the proportion 

remained mostly unchanged for skilled crafts staff (an increase of 0.4 percent) or decreased 

slightly (1–2 percent) among all other support personnel groups. 

As with the distribution by employment status, the proportion of female staff relative to 

male staff varied among institutions and by various individual and employment characteristics. 

Race/Ethnicity 

Consistent with the increasing racial/ethnic diversity in the overall U.S. population, the 

postsecondary workforce experienced gains in the proportion of staff who were in racial/ethnic 

groups other than White or Black between 1993 and 2003 (table 14). This pattern held across all 

types of institutions, regardless of employment status, individual characteristics, or primary 

occupation. 

Nevertheless, compared with the U.S. population in general, White staff were still 

somewhat overrepresented on postsecondary campuses in 2003 (72 percent vs. 68 percent in the 

U.S. resident population) (U.S. Census Bureau 2005, No. 13). By contrast, in both years, 

Hispanics were underrepresented in the postsecondary workforce compared with the U.S. 

resident population (4 vs. 10 percent in 1993 and 5 vs. 12 percent in 2003). 

In both 1993 and 2003, White staff were overrepresented in faculty and executive, 

administrative, and managerial positions but underrepresented as service/maintenance staff; they 

made up 78 to 86 percent of the former staff but only 56 to 57 percent of the latter, whereas they 

represented 72 to 77 percent of the entire workforce overall. By contrast, the reverse was 

observed for staff of Black or Hispanic origin. Black and Hispanic staff together constituted 14 to 

15 percent of the entire workforce at postsecondary institutions; however, they filled up 38 to 39 
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

66 

Table 13.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by gender and change since

Table 13.—fall 1993 in percentage of female staff, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and

Table 13.—2003

Change since

1993 in

percentage of

Institution and employee characteristics Male Female Male Female female staff

 Total 48.3 51.7 47.0 53.0 1.3

Control of institution1

 Public 48.5 51.5 46.9 53.1 1.6

 Private not-for-profit 47.8 52.2 46.8 53.2 1.1

 Private for-profit 49.8 50.2 54.0 46.0 -4.3

Level of institution2

 4-year 48.9 51.1 47.7 52.3 1.2

 2-year 45.9 54.1 43.9 56.1 1.9

 Public 4-year 49.4 50.6 48.0 52.0 1.4

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 47.8 52.2 46.8 53.2 1.1

 Private for-profit 4-year 53.8 46.2 57.0 43.0 -3.2

 Public 2-year 45.9 54.1 43.9 56.1 2.0

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 43.5 56.5 42.1 57.9 1.4

 Private for-profit 2-year 42.7 57.3 46.0 54.0 -3.3

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 50.1 49.9 48.8 51.2 1.3

 Master’s 49.8 50.2 46.9 53.1 2.8

 Bachelor’s 48.0 52.0 46.8 53.2 1.3

 Associate’s 45.9 54.1 44.2 55.8 1.8

 Specialized 41.5 58.5 42.2 57.8 -0.7

Employment status

 Full-time 47.9 52.1 46.3 53.7 1.6

 Part-time 49.1 50.9 48.3 51.7 0.8

Race/ethnicity6

 White 48.5 51.5 47.0 53.0 1.6

 Black 38.7 61.3 38.1 61.9 0.5

 Hispanic 46.4 53.6 43.7 56.3 2.8

 Asian 55.3 44.7 51.0 49.0 4.3

 American Indian 45.3 54.7 43.4 56.6 2.0

 Nonresident alien 68.8 31.2 62.5 37.5 6.3

 Race/ethnicity unknown 56.5 43.5 51.6 48.4 4.9

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003

Sector of institution3
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

67 

Table 13.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by gender and change since

Table 13.—fall 1993 in percentage of female staff, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and

Table 13.—2003—Continued

Change since

1993 in

percentage of

Institution and employee characteristics Male Female Male Female female staff

Primary occupation

 Professional 55.2 44.8 51.2 48.8 4.0

 Executive/administrative/managerial 57.7 42.3 49.4 50.6 8.3

 Faculty 61.4 38.6 56.7 43.3 4.7

 Full-time 66.7 33.3 60.8 39.2 5.9

 9 to 10 months 65.8 34.2 59.6 40.4 6.2

 11 to 12 months 69.0 31.0 63.9 36.1 5.1

 Less than 9 months 57.7 42.3 53.7 46.3 4.0

 Part-time 53.4 46.6 51.8 48.2 1.7

 Instruction/research assistant 59.4 40.6 53.7 46.3 5.6

 Professional support/service 39.2 60.8 40.3 59.7 -1.1

 Nonprofessional 39.3 60.7 40.4 59.6 -1.0

 Technical/paraprofessional 39.8 60.2 40.6 59.4 -0.8

 Clerical/secretarial 11.7 88.3 13.6 86.4 -1.9

 Skilled crafts 93.6 6.4 93.2 6.8 0.4

 Service/maintenance 61.5 38.5 62.4 37.6 -0.9

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this 

country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless 

specified.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

1993 2003
Table 14.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by race/ethnicity and institution and employee c

Table 14.—1993 and 2003

Non- Race/ 

Institution and employee His- American resident ethnicity His- Amcharacteristics White Black panic Asian Indian alien unknown White Black panic Asian  Total 77.6 10.5 3.9 3.7 0.5 2.7 1.0 71.8 9.8 5.2 4.9 Control of institution1

 Public 77.6 10.2 4.0 3.6 0.6 3.1 0.9 70.3 9.5 5.3 4.9  Private not-for-profit 77.5 11.5 3.7 3.8 0.2 2.1 1.1 71.6 9.9 4.4 4.8  Private for-profit 81.7 7.0 4.8 3.1 0.2 0.2 3.0 41.3 5.5 3.5 2.6 Level of institution2 4-year 76.7 10.9 3.7 4.1 0.4 3.4 0.8 69.3 9.5 4.7 5.2  2-year 81.4 8.9 4.8 2.2 0.7 0.1 1.8 68.7 8.9 5.8 2.9  Public 4-year 76.3 10.5 3.7 4.2 0.5 4.1 0.6 69.4 9.5 4.8 5.6  Private not-for-profit 4-year 77.3 11.6 3.7 3.9 0.2 2.1 1.2 71.0 9.9 4.4 4.8  Private for-profit 4-year 78.1 7.0 4.7 4.0 0.3 0.1 5.7 40.0 4.8 3.4 2.8  Public 2-year 81.4 9.0 4.8 2.2 0.7 0.1 1.9 71.0 9.2 6.0 3.0  Private not-for-profit 2-year 85.4 5.7 2.4 1.1 5.3 0.2 0.0 62.5 5.0 1.9 1.4  Private for-profit 2-year 84.3 6.8 4.6 2.7 0.1 0.5 1.1 22.1 3.8 2.0 1.2 Carnegie classification of institution4,5 Doctorate-granting 75.5 10.1 3.7 4.7 0.4 4.9 0.6 66.7 8.4 4.5 5.9  Master’s 79.4 11.3 3.7 3.0 0.5 0.9 1.4 66.6 9.6 4.8 3.5  Bachelor’s 84.7 9.8 2.0 1.8 0.2 0.5 1.0 70.9 9.3 2.3 2.1  Associate’s 81.8 9.0 4.7 2.0 0.6 0.1 1.8 69.6 9.1 6.3 2.8  Specialized 72.3 15.4 4.6 4.1 0.9 2.3 0.3 60.8 13.1 5.9 6.6 Employment status Full-time 78.1 12.3 4.2 3.5 0.5 1.4 0.1 72.2 11.1 5.5 5.0  Part-time 76.7 6.7 3.3 4.2 0.4 5.8 2.9 65.6 6.6 4.1 4.4 Gender Male 78.0 8.4 3.8 4.2 0.5 3.9 1.2 69.9 7.7 4.7 5.2  Female 77.3 12.5 4.1 3.2 0.5 1.7 0.9 69.9 11.1 5.3 4.4 

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003

Sector of institution3
Table 14.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by race/ethnicity and institution and employee c

Table 14.—1993 and 2003—Continued

Non- Race/ 

Institution and employee His- American resident ethnicity His- Amcharacteristics White Black panic Asian Indian alien unknown White Black panic Asian Primary occupation Professional 81.5 6.1 2.6 4.2 0.4 3.9 1.3 74.1 6.7 3.6 5.4  Executive/administrative/ managerial 86.2 8.8 2.6 1.7 0.5 0.2 0.1 82.0 9.5 3.8 2.7  Faculty 85.1 4.9 2.5 3.9 0.4 1.7 1.7 78.4 5.5 3.4 5.2  Full-time 85.9 4.7 2.2 4.7 0.4 2.0 0.2 80.1 5.2 3.1 6.6  9 to 10 months 86.8 4.8 2.3 4.2 0.4 1.4 0.2 81.7 5.3 3.2 5.8  11 to 12 months 83.9 4.3 2.0 5.8 0.3 3.6 0.1 76.4 4.8 2.8 8.7  Less than 9 months 82.1 5.2 2.9 4.4 1.1 4.0 0.3 66.4 5.8 6.3 5.9  Part-time 83.8 5.2 2.8 2.7 0.4 1.1 3.9 76.4 5.9 3.7 3.4  Instruction/research assistant 64.7 3.7 2.6 7.3 0.3 18.6 2.8 51.3 3.5 2.9 7.0  Professional support/service 80.4 8.9 3.0 4.2 0.5 2.6 0.3 74.6 9.5 4.4 5.9  Nonprofessional 70.5 18.7 6.3 2.8 0.6 0.7 0.4 66.3 17.5 8.9 3.8  Technical/paraprofessional 73.4 15.0 4.9 4.2 0.6 1.4 0.6 69.1 14.0 7.1 5.5  Clerical/secretarial 74.7 15.4 5.8 2.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 68.7 15.6 8.6 3.7  Skilled crafts 81.2 10.8 5.4 1.2 0.8 0.2 0.4 78.2 11.1 6.9 1.7  Service/maintenance 57.3 30.2 8.6 2.1 0.8 0.7 0.4 55.9 25.9 11.7 2.9 

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and AmeNative. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does no

indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 

1993 2003
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

70 

percent of all service/maintenance positions, compared with only 7 to 9 percent of faculty 

positions. 

A noticeable shift occurred between 1993 and 2003 in the racial/ethnic composition of 

instruction/research assistant staff. The percentage of White instruction/research assistant staff 

decreased from 65 to 51 percent, primarily due to increases in the proportion of nonresident alien 

employees in these positions (19 to 29 percent). 

Primary Occupation 

Because the total number of professional staff grew more than nonprofessional staff (see 

table 2), the workforce at postsecondary institutions increased proportionally more for employees 

in professional occupations between 1993 and 2003. The four professional staff groups (faculty, 

instruction/research assistant, professional support/service, and executive, administrative, and 

managerial) each increased by 0.3–3.1 percentage points, while that of the four nonprofessional 

groups each decreased by 0.5 to 3.0 percentage points (tables 15-A and 15-B). Overall, between 

1993 and 2003, there was a shift of 6 percentage points toward more professional staff on 

postsecondary campuses (65 to 71 percent). 

Although postsecondary faculty as a whole increased by 1 percentage point (from 35 to 36 

percent) between 1993 and 2003, the increase was primarily due to the growth in part-time 

faculty as discussed earlier (see table 3). Consequently, within faculty, the proportion of full-time 

positions decreased from 60 percent in 1993 to 54 percent in 2003, while that of part-time 

positions increased from 40 to 46 percent (tables 15-A and 15-B). Should this trend toward the 

increased use of part-time faculty continue, some predict that it would not be long before the 

majority of faculty in all postsecondary institutions is part time (Maitland and Rhoades 2005). 

This is currently the case in community colleges where part-time faculty made up 65 percent of 

faculty in 1993, and increased to 68 percent in 2003. 

Among faculty, men were less likely than their female peers to be in part-time positions 

(e.g., 42 vs. 51 percent in 2003); likewise, Asians and nonresident alien faculty were less likely 

than their peers of other known racial/ethnic backgrounds to be employed part time (25 to 30 vs. 

45 to 50 percent in 2003) (table 15-B). However, the most conspicuous staff are faculty whose 

race/ethnicity is unknown when it comes to the likelihood of being employed part time—88 to 94 

percent of them were part-time faculty. 

Consistent with teaching being the primary mission at public 2-year institutions (as 

opposed to research as an integrated part of goals served at 4-year institutions), faculty made up a 
Table 15-A.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by primary occupation and institution and em

Table 15-A.—Fall 1993

Executive/ Full- Instruc- Techadmini- Full- Full- time: tion/ Profes- nical/ 

strative/ time: time: less research sional para- 

Institution and employee mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- assis- support/ profes- characteristics Total gerial Faculty time months months months time tant service Total sional  Total 64.8 5.5 35.1 59.8 42.4 16.8 0.6 40.2 7.9 16.3 35.2 7.1 Control of institution1

 Public 65.8 4.5 35.7 59.1 42.8 15.8 0.5 40.9 9.7 15.9 34.2 7.3  Private not-for-profit 62.1 7.8 33.1 62.5 43.0 19.0 0.5 37.5 3.7 17.5 37.9 6.7  Private for-profit 77.1 10.1 49.6 38.1 3.3 28.6 6.2 61.9 4.8 12.7 22.9 3.6 Level of institution2 4-year 63.5 5.6 29.9 70.6 48.2 21.7 0.6 29.4 9.7 18.3 36.5 7.2  2-year 70.6 4.7 57.5 35.4 29.5 5.4 0.4 64.6 0.6 7.8 29.4 6.7  Public 4-year 64.2 4.5 28.1 76.3 52.2 23.6 0.6 23.7 12.9 18.8 35.8 7.5  Private not-for-profit  4-year 62.0 7.7 32.9 62.7 43.2 19.0 0.5 37.3 3.8 17.5 38.0 6.8  Private for-profit 4-year 75.8 7.6 50.4 26.0 3.5 17.6 4.9 74.0 8.3 9.5 24.2 2.6  Public 2-year 70.6 4.6 57.7 35.1 29.8 5.0 0.4 64.9 0.6 7.7 29.4 6.7  Private not-for-profit  2-year 72.0 11.8 46.8 54.3 30.6 20.8 2.9 45.7 0.8 12.6 28.0 2.9  Private for-profit 2-year 76.7 13.0 46.6 50.3 2.5 40.0 7.9 49.7 1.6 15.5 23.3 6.5 

See notes at end of table.

Professional No

Among faculty: percentage distribution

Sector of institution3
Table 15-A.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by primary occupation and institution and em

Table 15-A.—Fall 1993—Continued

Executive/ Full- Instruc- Techadmini- Full- Full- time: tion/ Profes- nical/ 

strative/ time: time: less research sional para- 

Institution and employee mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- assis- support/ profes- characteristics Total gerial Faculty time months months months time tant service Total sional Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 63.9 4.8 24.7 77.7 48.1 28.9 0.6 22.3 14.7 19.7 36.1 7.6  Master’s 65.0 6.5 43.0 64.3 58.8 5.1 0.4 35.7 2.6 13.0 35.0 5.0  Bachelor’s 61.9 8.6 38.5 68.3 59.1 8.4 0.8 31.7 0.9 13.8 38.1 4.1  Associate’s 70.6 4.7 57.6 35.3 29.5 5.5 0.4 64.7 0.6 7.7 29.4 6.6  Specialized 58.2 5.5 25.8 66.2 13.2 52.0 0.9 33.8 3.2 23.7 41.8 11.9 Employment status Full-time 58.2 7.7 30.6 100.0 70.9 28.1 0.9 0.0 0.0 19.9 41.8 8.0  Part-time 79.2 0.7 44.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 25.2 8.5 20.8 5.0 Gender Male 74.1 6.5 44.6 65.0 45.5 18.9 0.5 35.0 9.8 13.2 25.9 5.8  Female 60.1 4.8 28.1 51.6 37.5 13.5 0.6 48.4 6.7 20.6 39.9 8.8 

See notes at end of table.

No

Among faculty: percentage distribution

Professional
Table 15-A.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by primary occupation and institution and em

Table 15-A.—Fall 1993—Continued

Executive/ Full- Instruc- Techadmini- Full- Full- time: tion/ Profes- nical/ 

strative/ time: time: less research sional para- 

Institution and employee mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- assis- support/ profes- characteristics Total gerial Faculty time months months months time tant service Total sional Race/ethnicity6

 White 68.0 6.1 38.4 60.4 43.3 16.6 0.5 39.6 6.6 16.9 32.0 6.7  Black 37.5 4.6 16.3 57.1 41.7 14.8 0.6 42.9 2.8 13.8 62.5 10.1  Hispanic 43.6 3.6 22.1 54.2 39.7 13.8 0.6 45.8 5.2 12.7 56.4 8.8  Asian 73.6 2.5 36.7 71.9 46.3 25.0 0.6 28.1 15.7 18.7 26.4 8.1  American Indian 53.5 5.8 26.6 57.7 42.0 14.0 1.7 42.3 5.5 15.6 46.5 8.6  Nonresident alien 91.2 0.4 21.2 72.8 35.1 36.4 1.4 27.2 53.9 15.7 8.8 3.5  Race/ethnicity unknown 85.6 0.6 58.4 5.9 4.3 1.5 0.1 94.1 21.6 5.1 14.4 4.0 

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska 

a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indeexclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993.

Among faculty: percentage distribution

Professional No
Table 15-B.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by primary occupation and institution and em

Table 15-B.—Fall 2003

Executive/ Full- Instruc- Techadmini- Full- Full- time: tion/ Profes- nical/ 

strative/ time: time: less research sional para- 

Institution and employee mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- assis- support/ profes- characteristics Total gerial Faculty time months months months time tant service Total sional  Total 70.9 5.8 36.3 54.3 38.9 15.1 0.3 45.7 9.4 19.5 29.1 6.2 Control of institution1

 Public 71.0 4.4 36.3 54.1 39.9 13.8 0.3 45.9 11.3 19.0 29.0 6.6  Private not-for-profit 69.9 8.8 35.1 58.1 39.9 17.9 0.2 41.9 5.6 20.4 30.1 5.5  Private for-profit 85.5 7.1 59.2 20.1 1.2 18.6 0.2 79.9 0.0 19.2 14.5 2.5 Level of institution2 4-year 70.8 6.0 31.3 64.1 44.1 19.7 0.3 35.9 11.7 21.8 29.2 5.9  2-year 71.3 4.5 57.3 32.0 27.3 4.3 0.4 68.0 0.1 9.4 28.7 7.5  Public 4-year 71.1 4.5 28.4 71.0 49.2 21.5 0.3 29.0 15.5 22.7 28.9 6.2  Private not-for-profit  4-year 69.9 8.8 35.0 58.3 40.1 17.9 0.3 41.7 5.6 20.5 30.1 5.6  Private for-profit 4-year 87.0 5.1 63.6 10.6 0.8 9.6 0.2 89.4 0.1 18.2 13.0 2.1  Public 2-year 71.1 4.3 57.6 31.7 27.6 3.7 0.4 68.3 0.1 9.1 28.9 7.6  Private not-for-profit  2-year 75.4 10.5 47.8 47.9 28.7 18.9 0.3 52.1 0.2 16.8 24.6 2.9  Private for-profit 2-year 80.0 11.3 47.5 43.4 1.6 41.7 0.0 56.6 0.0 21.2 20.0 4.7 

See notes at end of table.

Professional No

Among faculty: percentage distribution

Sector of institution3
Table 15-B.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by primary occupation and institution and em

Table 15-B.—Fall 2003—Continued

Executive/ Full- Instruc- Techadmini- Full- Full- time: tion/ Profes- nical/ 

strative/ time: time: less research sional para- 

Institution and employee mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- assis- support/ profes- characteristics Total gerial Faculty time months months months time tant service Total sional Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 71.6 5.1 25.1 74.1 46.2 27.6 0.3 25.9 17.9 23.5 28.4 6.3  Master’s 70.5 6.0 42.8 56.2 51.2 4.7 0.3 43.8 4.2 17.5 29.5 4.4  Bachelor’s 67.9 9.7 38.8 64.2 59.0 4.9 0.3 35.8 0.5 19.0 32.1 3.7  Associate’s 71.5 4.4 57.5 31.9 27.2 4.3 0.4 68.1 0.1 9.5 28.5 7.5  Specialized 66.2 8.4 30.5 61.7 12.7 48.6 0.4 38.3 2.8 24.6 33.8 9.7 Employment status Full-time 64.0 8.5 30.1 100.0 71.5 27.9 0.6 0.0 0.0 25.4 36.0 7.4  Part-time 84.1 0.6 48.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 27.3 8.2 15.9 3.8 Gender Male 77.3 6.0 43.8 58.2 40.9 17.1 0.3 41.8 10.8 16.7 22.7 5.4  Female 68.8 5.8 31.2 49.2 36.2 12.6 0.3 50.8 8.7 23.1 31.2 7.3 

See notes at end of table.

Professional No

Among faculty: percentage distribution
Table 15-B.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by primary occupation and institution and em

Table 15-B.—Fall 2003—Continued

Executive/ Full- Instruc- Techadmini- Full- Full- time: tion/ Profes- nical/ 

strative/ time: time: less research sional para- 

Institution and employee mana- Full- 9 to 10 11 to 12 than 9 Part- assis- support/ profes- characteristics Total gerial Faculty time months months months time tant service Total sional Race/ethnicity6

 White 73.2 6.6 39.7 55.5 40.5 14.8 0.3 44.5 6.7 20.2 26.8 5.9  Black 48.2 5.6 20.4 51.1 37.5 13.3 0.3 48.9 3.4 18.8 51.8 8.9  Hispanic 49.9 4.2 23.7 50.4 37.1 12.7 0.6 49.6 5.4 16.6 50.1 8.5  Asian 77.8 3.1 38.0 69.5 43.7 25.5 0.4 30.5 13.3 23.4 22.2 6.9  American Indian 60.1 5.4 29.1 54.1 42.7 10.3 1.1 45.9 6.7 19.0 39.9 8.1  Nonresident alien 93.4 0.5 19.8 74.8 39.2 34.5 1.1 25.2 59.9 13.2 6.6 2.2  Race/ethnicity unknown 83.9 2.1 53.2 12.4 8.2 3.9 0.4 87.6 17.0 11.6 16.1 3.9 

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska 

a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indeexclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.

No

Among faculty: percentage distribution

Professional
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

77 

greater proportion of staff at public 2-year institutions than at 4-year institutions in both years. 

For example, in 2003, faculty made up 58 percent of all staff employed at community colleges, 

compared with 28 percent at public 4-year and 35 percent at private not-for-profit 4-year 

institutions. While instruction/research assistant positions were virtually nonexistent (0.1 

percent) at public 2-year institutions in 2003, they represented 6 to 16 percent of the workforce at 

4-year institutions. Reflecting their lower level of need for on-campus services, community 

colleges were staffed with a smaller proportion of support personnel (i.e., professional 

support/service staff and all nonprofessional staff) (37 to 38 percent) than at 4-year institutions 

(51 to 56 percent). 

States 

Despite varied growth rates in the total number of postsecondary staff at the state level, the 

geographic distribution of the postsecondary workforce remained fairly stable between 1993 and 

2003. In both years, about one-third of all postsecondary staff were located in the top five states 

constituting about 36 percent of the total U.S. fall enrollment of postsecondary students as well 

as the total resident population: California (9 to 10 percent), New York (8 to 9 percent), Texas (6 

percent), Pennsylvania (5 percent), and Illinois (5 percent) (table 7-A).25

The pattern of increased use of part-time staff was observed at the state level in general. All 

but seven states—Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Montana, North Carolina, and 

Tennessee—employed a higher proportion of part-time staff in 2003 than in 1993 (e.g., 36 vs. 9 

percent in Alaska) (table 7-A). The extended use of part-time staff was particularly noticeable in 

Nevada in 2003, when part-time employees made up almost one-half (48 percent) of the state’s 

entire postsecondary workforce. 

Female staff increased more than male staff at the state level, as described earlier. In 1993, 

there were 14 states where women did not make up at least one-half of the postsecondary 

workforce; by 2003, this was the case for just two states—Utah and Idaho (table 8-A). In 2003, 

the proportion of female staff was 46 percent in Utah and 49 percent in Idaho, despite greater 

increases for females than for males in both states. This situation occurred because both Idaho 

 

25 The corresponding fall student enrollment was 13–14 percent for California, 7 percent for New York and Texas, 5 percent for 

Illinois, and 4 percent for Pennsylvania; the corresponding population was 12 percent for California, 7–8 percent for New York 

and Texas, and 4–5 percent for Illinois and Pennsylvania (based on Current Population Survey data collected by the U.S. Census 

Bureau [data not shown in tables]). The only exception to this pattern is Florida, which ranked below Illinois and Pennsylvania

in postsecondary workforce as shown in table 7-A but ranked higher than both states in resident population in 2003 (6 vs. 4 

percent) and higher than Pennsylvania in total fall enrollment in 2003 (5 vs. 4 percent). Fall enrollment data are recalculated from 

U.S. Department of Education (1996), table 186 and U.S. Department of Education (2005b), table 188; resident population 

figures are based on CPS data (data not shown in tables). 
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

78 

and Utah had a predominance of males (55 percent) in their postsecondary workforce, topping all 

other states (43 to 52 percent) and the national average (48 percent) in 1993. 

The racial/ethnic distribution of the postsecondary workforce varied substantially among 

states. Some states experienced relatively large changes in the racial/ethnic composition of their 

postsecondary staff. In particular, Asian staff increased about sixfold in Hawaii as described 

earlier (table 9-B), making it the only state where a single racial minority group constituted 

almost one-half (49 percent) of the postsecondary education workforce (while the proportion of 

Whites decreased from 87 percent in 1993 to 41 percent in 2003, the lowest among all states) 

(table 16-A). Although the proportion of White staff in the District of Columbia was below 50 

percent in both 1993 (48 percent) and 2003 (47 percent), Blacks, the largest single racial/ethnic 

minority group, made up 38 percent of postsecondary staff in 1993 and 29 percent in 2003. The 

most striking reshuffling in the racial/ethnic make-up of the postsecondary workforce occurred in 

the public sector in Hawaii where the proportion of Whites decreased drastically from 93 percent 

in 1993 to 37 percent in 2003 while that of Asian staff increased from 2 percent to 53 percent 

(table 16-B). Nonetheless, it is worthy mentioning that even at this high level of representation in 

2003, Asians were still underrepresented in Hawaii’s higher education workforce compared with 

the general population, which is 62 percent Asian.26 

The six southern states with a high concentration of Black staff in their colleges and 

universities in 1993 remained this way in 2003. In both years, the proportion of Black staff was 

24 to 25 percent in Alabama, 23 to 24 percent in Georgia, 25 to 29 percent in Louisiana, 28 to 29 

percent in Mississippi, and about 20 percent in North Carolina and South Carolina, considerably 

higher than the national average of 10 to 11 percent (table 16-A). It is interesting to note that this 

stability over time in the representation of Blacks in the higher education workforce parallels 

their representation of the population at large in all of these states. However, this also means that 

even in these southern states Blacks in 2003 were still underrepresented on higher education 

institution campuses as they were in 1993. For example, Blacks accounted for 28 percent of the 

higher education workforce in Mississippi, compared with 37 percent of the state’s total 

population.27 In none of these states was more than 6 percent of the postsecondary workforce 

Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian combined. Blacks also dominated the postsecondary 

workforce in the District of Columbia in both years (38 and 29 percent, respectively); however, 

other racial/ethnic minority staff were also well represented there. The proportion of Hispanic, 

Asian, and American Indian staff combined was 9–10 percent in the District of Columbia, higher 

than that (2–6 percent) in any of the aforementioned six southern states. 

 

26 Data are based on the Current Population Survey (CPS) data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau (data not shown in tables). 

27 In 1993, Blacks constituted 26, 31, 29, 23, and 33 percent of the total state populations in Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, North 

Carolina, and South Carolina, respectively (these figures are based on CPS data but not shown in tables) 
Table 16-A.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by race/ethnicity and state of institution: Fall 

Race/ 

Amer- Non- ethnic- A

His- ican resident ity un- His- 

State White Black panic Asian Indian alien known White Black panic Asian I Total 77.6 10.5 3.9 3.7 0.5 2.7 1.0 71.8 9.8 5.2 4.9 Alabama 69.6 24.9 0.5 2.6 0.3 1.7 0.4 67.2 24.2 0.7 2.6 Alaska 83.6 3.4 2.0 3.2 5.9 1.8 0.1 82.0 2.4 2.3 3.6 Arizona 75.7 2.5 10.2 2.3 2.4 5.1 1.8 69.9 3.4 10.0 3.0 Arkansas 83.1 14.2 0.7 1.3 0.4 0.3 0.0 79.8 12.3 1.0 2.8 California 69.7 7.2 9.6 9.9 0.7 2.3 0.6 61.6 6.4 11.8 12.0 Colorado 82.6 3.0 6.8 3.0 0.8 1.2 2.8 72.6 2.4 7.1 3.0 Connecticut 79.4 7.6 2.5 2.5 0.2 4.2 3.6 73.5 8.2 3.7 3.4 Delaware 76.2 15.6 1.0 2.0 0.4 4.8 0.0 69.7 13.1 1.5 2.6 District of Columbia 47.9 38.2 2.7 6.3 0.2 2.6 2.1 46.8 28.6 3.1 5.9 Florida 74.8 14.1 6.1 2.8 0.3 1.2 0.8 65.0 13.6 12.0 3.8 Georgia 72.4 23.2 0.9 2.2 0.1 0.7 0.6 65.4 22.8 1.6 4.1 Hawaii 87.0 1.4 2.0 8.0 0.8 0.5 0.3 40.6 1.0 2.0 49.4 Idaho 86.8 0.3 0.8 1.5 0.4 1.6 8.6 88.6 0.6 1.8 2.0 Illinois 74.5 13.1 3.4 4.1 0.3 4.0 0.7 71.0 12.2 4.5 5.6 Iowa 85.7 4.4 1.1 2.3 0.3 4.6 1.6 81.9 5.0 1.8 3.2 Indiana 87.2 2.1 1.0 1.5 0.2 7.4 0.6 84.0 2.0 1.3 2.2 Kansas 85.7 4.1 1.7 2.3 1.1 2.7 2.4 81.5 3.6 2.3 2.4 Kentucky 88.1 7.7 0.5 1.8 0.1 1.6 0.1 82.8 7.4 0.7 2.4 Louisiana 63.7 29.8 1.5 3.2 0.1 1.5 0.1 62.2 24.9 1.7 3.4 Maine 95.3 0.7 0.3 0.8 0.2 2.1 0.6 86.1 0.8 0.7 1.1 

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003
Table 16-A.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by race/ethnicity and state of institution: Fall 

Table 16-A.—Continued

Race/ 

Amer- Non- ethnic- A

His- ican resident ity un- His- 

State White Black panic Asian Indian alien known White Black panic Asian IMaryland 72.1 17.9 1.1 3.1 0.3 5.1 0.3 64.7 19.1 1.8 4.5 Massachusetts 84.7 4.9 2.2 3.5 0.1 2.9 1.7 74.8 4.8 3.0 4.9 Michigan 82.2 9.2 1.8 3.9 0.4 2.3 0.2 75.4 8.7 2.3 4.1 Minnesota 89.3 2.2 1.1 3.9 0.7 2.3 0.6 82.7 2.7 1.4 3.3 Mississippi 67.4 27.7 0.3 3.1 0.1 1.2 0.2 65.6 29.0 0.6 2.2 Missouri 83.2 8.3 0.9 2.2 0.4 3.4 1.7 76.1 8.0 1.2 3.0 Montana 88.7 0.2 0.7 1.2 4.7 1.6 2.9 84.0 0.2 0.7 1.0 Nebraska 90.9 3.9 1.3 1.6 0.5 1.8 0.0 84.6 3.1 2.1 2.6 Nevada 84.5 3.8 4.3 3.6 1.0 1.4 1.5 74.7 5.0 7.0 6.6 New Hampshire 95.8 0.8 0.7 1.8 0.3 0.6 0.0 73.8 0.8 0.6 1.1 New Jersey 70.2 15.5 4.8 4.7 0.2 3.1 1.6 64.2 14.9 6.1 7.3 New Mexico 66.7 1.6 24.9 1.4 2.5 2.5 0.3 58.9 1.7 25.2 2.2 New York 74.3 11.9 5.9 4.4 0.2 2.2 1.1 71.1 9.7 6.7 5.4 North Carolina 75.5 19.1 0.7 1.5 0.5 2.7 0.0 72.9 18.3 1.3 2.5 North Dakota 89.1 0.3 0.5 2.0 4.2 3.5 0.3 83.3 0.6 0.6 1.3 Ohio 83.2 8.9 0.9 2.4 0.2 3.2 1.1 77.0 8.8 1.3 3.3 Oklahoma 83.8 5.3 1.4 2.0 4.1 2.7 0.7 79.5 5.6 1.8 2.6 Oregon 86.0 1.4 1.6 2.7 0.6 2.8 4.9 82.8 1.8 2.9 4.0 Pennsylvania 83.2 8.9 1.2 3.3 0.1 2.1 1.2 79.1 9.0 1.7 3.6 Rhode Island 88.3 4.9 1.4 2.0 0.5 2.4 0.5 80.0 5.3 2.5 2.7 

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003
Table 16-A.—Percentage distribution of employees in postsecondary institutions by race/ethnicity and state of institution: Fall 

Table 16-A.—Continued

Race/ 

Amer- Non- ethnic- A

His- ican resident ity un- His- 

State White Black panic Asian Indian alien known White Black panic Asian ISouth Carolina 75.5 20.6 0.5 1.4 0.1 1.7 0.3 74.2 18.8 1.0 2.7 South Dakota 91.8 0.6 0.7 2.8 2.8 1.2 0.0 86.1 0.5 0.8 3.4 Tennessee 77.4 16.7 0.7 2.1 0.2 1.9 1.1 75.8 15.6 1.1 2.7 Texas 69.0 9.6 12.6 3.5 0.3 4.6 0.4 62.1 9.4 16.4 5.3 Utah 88.4 0.6 2.0 2.5 0.5 3.3 2.8 83.9 0.7 2.6 3.0 Vermont 88.1 0.9 0.9 1.7 0.2 0.7 7.4 86.2 1.1 1.0 2.1 Virginia 76.2 19.1 0.7 1.9 0.2 1.9 0.1 68.1 12.9 1.3 2.7 Washington 83.8 3.2 2.5 6.7 1.1 1.7 1.1 79.2 2.9 3.3 7.4 West Virginia 89.5 4.0 0.5 2.0 0.2 3.8 0.0 86.2 3.8 1.1 2.2 Wisconsin 88.4 3.0 1.3 1.9 0.5 3.7 1.2 84.9 3.8 2.5 5.5 Wyoming 89.0 0.6 3.7 0.9 0.6 5.2 0.0 83.8 0.6 3.3 0.8 

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and AmeNative. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does no

indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 

1993 2003
Table 16-B.—Percentage distribution of employees in public postsecondary institutions by race/ethnicity and state of institution

Race/ 

Amer- Non- ethnic- A

His- ican resident ity un- His- 

State White Black panic Asian Indian alien known White Black panic Asian I Total 77.6 10.1 4.0 3.6 0.6 3.1 1.0 71.5 9.7 5.4 5.0 Alabama 71.1 23.3 0.5 2.5 0.4 1.8 0.4 68.3 22.7 0.7 2.6 Alaska 83.4 3.4 2.0 3.1 6.1 1.9 0.0 81.8 2.4 2.4 3.5 Arizona 75.7 2.5 10.5 2.3 2.5 5.4 1.0 67.8 2.6 11.4 2.9 Arkansas 82.9 14.3 0.6 1.4 0.5 0.3 0.0 78.6 12.7 1.0 3.1 California 69.3 7.3 9.6 10.2 0.8 2.5 0.4 62.4 6.4 12.2 12.6 Colorado 81.7 2.8 7.2 3.2 0.8 1.2 3.0 71.1 2.2 7.5 3.2 Connecticut 81.9 6.3 3.1 2.6 0.2 3.9 2.0 74.6 6.9 4.5 3.6 Delaware 74.5 16.6 1.1 2.1 0.4 5.4 0.0 71.3 14.2 1.7 2.8 District of Columbia 9.2 57.0 1.1 6.9 0.1 0.0 25.8 16.2 71.5 1.4 8.3 Florida 76.8 15.0 3.7 3.1 0.3 1.0 0.2 66.3 14.0 10.2 4.0 Georgia 74.8 21.0 0.7 2.5 0.1 0.8 0.0 67.0 20.3 1.5 3.9 Hawaii 93.1 1.2 1.8 2.2 0.9 0.5 0.3 38.0 0.6 1.8 52.6 Idaho 84.7 0.3 0.9 1.7 0.4 1.9 10.2 87.7 0.7 2.0 2.1 Illinois 74.9 11.9 3.1 3.6 0.3 5.2 0.9 71.8 11.4 4.3 5.1 Iowa 85.1 4.4 1.0 2.5 0.3 5.4 1.3 80.3 5.0 1.7 3.6 Indiana 84.8 2.3 1.1 1.6 0.3 9.1 0.8 81.0 2.1 1.5 2.6 Kansas 85.9 4.3 1.8 2.5 1.2 3.0 1.3 80.0 3.8 2.4 2.6 Kentucky 86.8 8.5 0.5 2.0 0.1 1.9 0.2 80.9 8.2 0.7 2.8 Louisiana 62.9 30.7 1.0 3.2 0.1 1.9 0.1 62.8 24.0 1.3 2.9 Maine 95.2 0.4 0.2 0.7 0.3 2.8 0.4 82.3 0.5 0.6 0.9 

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003
Table 16-B.—Percentage distribution of employees in public postsecondary institutions by race/ethnicity and state of institution

Table 16-A.——Continued

Race/ 

Amer- Non- ethnic- A

His- ican resident ity un- His- 

State White Black panic Asian Indian alien known White Black panic Asian IMaryland 69.3 20.1 1.2 3.2 0.3 5.6 0.4 62.4 21.0 2.1 4.2 Massachusetts 87.1 4.3 2.2 3.6 0.2 0.5 2.1 77.4 4.4 3.0 4.6 Michigan 82.2 8.9 1.7 4.2 0.5 2.3 0.2 74.4 8.8 2.3 4.4 Minnesota 87.5 2.4 1.1 4.7 0.8 2.9 0.7 80.7 2.8 1.4 3.7 Mississippi 67.5 27.6 0.3 3.1 0.1 1.3 0.1 65.5 29.0 0.6 2.3 Missouri 85.0 8.1 0.8 1.8 0.5 3.6 0.1 81.1 7.9 1.3 2.7 Montana 89.7 0.2 0.6 1.2 3.7 1.2 3.4 86.0 0.2 0.7 1.1 Nebraska 90.3 4.0 1.5 1.4 0.6 2.2 0.0 83.3 2.8 2.0 2.4 Nevada 84.5 3.8 4.3 3.6 1.0 1.4 1.5 74.6 5.0 7.0 6.6 New Hampshire 96.7 0.6 0.5 1.4 0.3 0.5 0.0 66.0 0.6 0.5 0.7 New Jersey 66.5 17.7 5.4 4.8 0.2 3.6 1.8 61.0 16.6 6.8 7.9 New Mexico 66.3 1.6 25.2 1.5 2.6 2.6 0.2 59.0 1.6 25.6 2.3 New York 75.3 12.2 5.0 3.4 0.3 2.3 1.5 72.2 10.9 6.5 4.5 North Carolina 77.1 17.1 0.7 1.5 0.7 2.9 0.0 74.7 17.0 1.4 2.0 North Dakota 89.8 0.3 0.6 2.1 3.2 3.8 0.3 83.7 0.7 0.6 1.4 Ohio 82.1 9.5 1.0 2.6 0.3 3.6 0.9 75.1 9.4 1.4 3.3 Oklahoma 83.6 5.5 1.4 2.0 4.2 3.2 0.0 79.0 5.8 1.8 2.7 Oregon 85.4 1.5 1.7 2.7 0.6 3.2 4.9 82.2 1.9 2.8 4.2 Pennsylvania 81.0 9.8 1.2 2.6 0.2 3.3 1.9 78.9 9.5 1.7 3.6 Rhode Island 91.7 3.6 1.0 2.4 0.9 0.4 0.0 79.2 3.2 1.7 3.0 

See notes at end of table.

1993 2003
Table 16-B.—Percentage distribution of employees in public postsecondary institutions by race/ethnicity and state of institution

Table 16-A.——Continued

Race/ 

Amer- Non- ethnic- A

His- ican resident ity un- His- 

State White Black panic Asian Indian alien known White Black panic Asian ISouth Carolina 75.5 20.2 0.5 1.4 0.1 1.9 0.4 75.0 17.5 1.1 3.1 South Dakota 90.2 0.7 0.8 3.3 3.5 1.5 0.0 85.9 0.6 0.8 4.3 Tennessee 79.0 13.5 0.6 1.9 0.2 3.0 1.8 75.4 15.0 0.8 2.3 Texas 67.9 10.0 13.3 3.4 0.4 4.7 0.4 61.2 9.3 17.2 5.3 Utah 86.8 0.8 2.2 2.8 0.6 3.6 3.3 81.9 0.9 3.0 3.1 Vermont 82.8 0.8 0.8 2.2 0.4 0.9 12.0 80.9 1.1 1.0 2.6 Virginia 75.9 19.0 0.7 2.0 0.2 2.2 0.0 66.1 11.3 1.2 2.8 Washington 82.7 3.3 2.6 7.3 1.1 2.0 0.9 78.4 2.9 3.3 7.7 West Virginia 88.5 4.4 0.5 2.1 0.2 4.3 0.0 85.1 4.1 0.9 2.4 Wisconsin 88.0 2.8 1.4 1.8 0.5 4.1 1.3 84.9 3.5 2.6 6.0 Wyoming 88.9 0.5 3.7 0.9 0.6 5.3 0.0 83.3 0.6 3.3 0.8 

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and AmeNative. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does no

indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 

1993 2003
Changes in the Distribution of Postsecondary Staff

85 

The geographic concentration of Hispanic staff at colleges and universities remained 

unchanged from 1993 to 2003. Perhaps as expected, in the four states that share physical 

boundaries with Mexico (California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas), the Hispanic proportion 

of the postsecondary workforce was 10 percent or more, compared with the national average of 

4–5 percent. The Hispanic representation in the higher education workforce was most 

conspicuous in New Mexico, where Hispanics made up one-quarter (25 percent) of all 

postsecondary employees in both years. However, like Asians and Blacks, Hispanics were still 

underrepresented even in these four states within the higher education workforce when compared 

with their representation in the states’ general population. For instance, Hispanics accounted for 

25 percent of New Mexico’s higher education workforce in 2003, whereas they made up 45 

percent of the state’s general population.28 

 

28 Based on the Current Population Survey (CPS) data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau (data not shown in tables). 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
87 

Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary 

Staff and Salary Differences 

The analysis of salary changes that follows is based entirely on full-time employees because 

salary information is collected only for full-time employees in the Integrated Postsecondary 

Education Data System (IPEDS) “Fall Staff Survey.”29 As was previously shown in table 3, the 

4-year (public and private not-for-profit) sector employed a lower proportion of part-time 

employees than did the public 2-year sector (26 to 31 vs. 49 to 52 percent). Thus, compared with 

2-year institutions, 4-year institutions are more represented in the salary analysis because it is 

limited to full-time employees (table 17). Similarly, the proportion of nonresident alien staff or 

faculty reported in the salary analysis is lower than their representation in the postsecondary 

workforce as a whole (as was shown in table 11). 

After adjusting for inflation,30 the overall average full-time postsecondary staff salary 

increased by 13 percent between 1993 and 2003 (from $41,700 to $46,900 in 2003 dollars) (table 

18). This increase is slightly higher than the rate of growth in the annual salary (11 percent31) of 

full-time-equivalent employees in U.S. domestic industries during the same time period but fairly 

comparable to the rate of increase in the median family income (14 percent32). 

Unlike the great fluctuations in growth rate in total number of staff as described earlier 

(figure 2), less variation was observed in the rate of growth in average salaries when examined by 

grouping institutions based on whether and how they changed in characteristics during the 

decade. While full-time staff at institutions that remained in the same sectors or Carnegie 

classifications saw their average earnings increase by 13 percent between fall 1993 and fall 2003, 

their counterparts at institutions that changed from 2-year to 4-year had an increase of 15 percent, 

which is only slightly higher than that (14 percent) for those at institutions that became 

nonspecialized over time (from specialized to bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral), which in turn is 

 

29 Except for full-time faculty on less-than-9-month contracts (whose salary information is not collected in the IPEDS “Fall Staff 

Survey”), who made up only 0.2–0.3 percent of all full-time employees at postsecondary institutions (data not shown in tables). 

30 Using the Consumer Price Index adjustment factor for 2003 of 1.273 for all urban dwellers (CPI-U) as provided by the U.S. 

Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

31 Annual salary per full-time-equivalent employee in 1993 was $37.400 (in constant 2003 dollars) (U.S. Census Bureau 1996, 

No. 658); in 2003, it was $41,400 (in current dollars) (U.S. Census Bureau 2006, table 627), yielding an inflation-adjusted 

increase of 11 percent. 

32 Median family income in 1993 was $46,333 (in constant 2003 dollars); in 2003, it was $52,680 (in current dollars) (Broaddus 

and Sherman 2005), yielding an inflation-adjusted increase of 14 percent. 
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

88 

Table 17.—Percentage distribution of full-time and part-time employees in postsecondary institutions, by 

Table 17.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003

Institution and employee characteristics 1993 2003 1993 2003

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Control of institution1

 Public 68.1 66.2 74.4 72.8

 Private not-for-profit 31.3 32.5 24.5 24.7

 Private for-profit 0.6 1.2 1.1 2.4

Level of institution2

 4-year 85.8 85.3 70.6 71.1

 2-year 13.4 13.8 28.1 27.5

 Public 4-year 54.6 52.4 45.9 45.0

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 30.9 32.1 24.0 24.2

 Private for-profit 4-year 0.2 0.7 0.7 1.9

 Public 2-year 13.0 13.4 27.7 27.0

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

 Private for-profit 2-year 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 49.2 48.9 43.3 42.1

 Master’s 15.7 16.0 12.2 13.9

 Bachelor’s 6.6 6.9 4.4 4.1

 Associate’s 13.4 13.9 28.5 28.0

 Specialized 9.0 8.1 5.7 4.9

Gender

 Male 47.9 46.3 49.1 48.3

 Female 52.1 53.7 50.9 51.7

Race/ethnicity6

 White 78.1 74.0 76.7 67.7

 Black 12.3 11.4 6.7 6.8

 Hispanic 4.2 5.6 3.3 4.3

 Asian 3.5 5.1 4.2 4.6

 American Indian 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5

 Nonresident alien 1.4 2.1 5.8 9.3

 Race/ethnicity unknown 0.1 1.1 2.9 7.0

See notes at end of table.

Full-time Part-time

Sector of institution3
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

89 

Table 17.—Percentage distribution of full-time and part-time employees in postsecondary institutions, by 

Table 17.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003—Continued

Institution and employee characteristics 1993 2003 1993 2003

Primary occupation

 Professional 58.2 64.0 79.2 84.1

 Executive/administrative/managerial 7.7 8.5 0.7 0.6

 Faculty 30.6 30.1 44.8 48.0

 Full-time 30.6 30.1 0.0 0.0

 9 to 10 months 21.7 21.6 0.0 0.0

 11 to 12 months 8.6 8.4 0.0 0.0

 Less than 9 months 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0

 Part-time 0.0 0.0 44.8 48.0

 Instruction/research assistant 0.0 0.0 25.2 27.3

 Professional support/service 19.9 25.4 8.5 8.2

 Nonprofessional 41.8 36.0 20.8 15.9

 Technical/paraprofessional 8.0 7.4 5.0 3.8

 Clerical/secretarial 19.7 16.6 10.5 8.4

 Skilled crafts 3.4 2.9 0.4 0.3

 Service/maintenance 10.6 9.0 4.9 3.4

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this 

country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless 

specified.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

Full-time Part-time
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

90 

Table 18.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary institutions

Table 18.—and percentage change since fall 1993, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993

Table 18.—and 2003

Percent change

Institution and employee characteristics 1993 2003 since 1993

 Total $41,713 $46,946 12.5

Control of institution1

 Public 42,001 46,647 11.1

 Private not-for-profit 41,220 47,803 16.0

 Private for-profit 34,647 40,332 16.4

Level of institution2

 4-year 41,744 47,518 13.8

 2-year 41,884 43,773 4.5

 Public 4-year 42,003 47,361 12.8

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 41,320 47,940 16.0

 Private for-profit 4-year 36,835 39,870 8.2

 Public 2-year 42,172 44,002 4.3

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 31,971 34,012 6.4

 Private for-profit 2-year 32,090 39,179 22.1

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 42,782 49,594 15.9

 Master’s 41,513 44,528 7.3

 Bachelor’s 37,626 41,013 9.0

 Associate’s 41,693 43,559 4.5

 Specialized 40,086 48,804 21.7

Gender

 Male 47,837 53,709 12.3

 Female 36,083 41,122 14.0

Race/ethnicity6

 White 43,463 48,949 12.6

 Black 31,891 36,454 14.3

 Hispanic 34,635 38,480 11.1

 Asian 47,339 53,357 12.7

 American Indian 35,126 38,992 11.0

 Nonresident alien 40,373 45,760 13.3

 Race/ethnicity unknown 36,593 41,154 12.5

See notes at end of table.

Sector of institution3
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

91 

marginally higher than that (13 percent) at institutions that changed in the opposite direction (i.e., 

from nonspecialized to specialized institutions) (figure 3). However, full-time staff at institutions 

that moved upward in Carnegie classification (from associate’s to bachelor’s, from bachelor’s to 

master’s, or from master’s to doctoral) experienced raises in average salary that are below the 

national average (9 vs. 13 percent). The smallest salary increase rate (5 percent) occurred at 

institutions that changed downward in Carnegie classification (primarily master’s in 1993 but 

Table 18.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary institutions

Table 18.—and percentage change since fall 1993, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993

Table 18.—and 2003—Continued

Percent change

Institution and employee characteristics 1993 2003 since 1993

Primary occupation

 Professional 52,588 57,436 9.2

 Executive/administrative/managerial 60,277 70,441 16.9

 Faculty 57,072 64,459 12.9

 9 to 10 months 55,929 61,074 9.2

 11 to 12 months 59,955 73,143 22.0

 Professional support/service 42,790 44,802 4.7

 Nonprofessional 26,638 28,333 6.4

 Technical/paraprofessional 30,583 33,425 9.3

 Clerical/secretarial 26,055 27,377 5.1

 Skilled crafts 33,328 36,396 9.2

 Service/maintenance 22,584 23,322 3.3

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire

workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and

American Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who

is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic 

origin unless specified.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

92 

changed to bachelor’s in 2003), the only subgroup of institutions with a negative growth rate in 

total number of staff employed (as shown in figure 2). However, it should be cautioned that this 

also happens to be the smallest group of institutions (12) as shown in table 1-B. 

Figure 3.—Percentage change in average salary (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time staff employed in 

Figure 3.—postsecondary insitutions, by change in institutional characteristics: Fall 1993–2003 

Number of institutions

1 From Specialized to Bachelor’s/Master’s/Doctoral.

2 From Associate’s/Bachelor’s/Master’s/Doctoral to Specialized.

3 From Associate’s to Bachelor’s or from Bachelor’s to Master’s or from Master’s to Doctoral.

4 From Doctoral to Master’s or from Master’s to Bachelor’s.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

5

9

13

14

15

13

13

13

0 10 20 30 40 50

Changed from 

2- to 4-year

Carnegie not changed

Sector not changed

Total

Percent change

Changed to nonspecialized1

Changed to specialized2

Changed upward in Carnegie3

Changed downward in

Carnegie4

3,057

3,186

2,729

113

42

41

142

12
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

93 

Variation in the Growth of Average Salaries 

Full-time staff at public 2-year institutions experienced the lowest increase in salary (4 

percent, from $42,100 to $44,000), trailing their peers at both public 4-year institutions (13 

percent, from $42,000 to $47,400) and private not-for-profit 4-year institutions (16 percent, from 

$41,300 to $47,900) (table 18). 

Full-time staff at specialized institutions as a whole experienced an increase of 22 percent 

(from $40,100 to $48,800) in average salary between 1993 and 2003, followed by their peers at 

doctorate-granting (16 percent, from $42,800 to $49,600), bachelor’s (9 percent, from $37,600 to 

$41,000), and master’s (7 percent, from $41,500 to $44,500) institutions. 

Female staff had a slight edge over their male counterparts in terms of growth in average 

salaries between 1993 and 2003: 14 versus 12 percent for male staff (from $36,100 to $41,100 

and from $47,800 to $53,700, respectively). 

Increases in salaries occurred at similar rates among staff in various racial/ethnic groups, 

ranging from 11 percent for Hispanics and American Indians, to 13 percent for Whites, Asians, 

and nonresident aliens, and to 14 percent for Blacks (tables 19-A, 19-B, and 19-C). 

However, the rate of average salary increase fluctuated considerably among different 

primary occupation groups, with professional staff as a whole benefiting from higher salary 

increases than all nonprofessional staff combined (9 vs. 6 percent) (tables 20-A, 20-B, and 20-C). 

While the average salary for professional staff in executive, administrative, and managerial 

positions increased 17 percent (from $60,300 to $70,400), salaries increased 13 percent for 

faculty (from $57,100 to $64,500), 9 percent each for skilled crafts (from $33,300 to $36,400) 

and technical/paraprofessional staff (from $30,600 to $33,400), 5 percent each for 

clerical/secretarial (from $26,100 to $27,400) and professional support/service staff (from 

$42,800 to $44,800), and 3 percent for service/maintenance staff (from $22,600 to $23,300). 

Other research studies have reported comparable rates of salary increases based on other 

survey data. According to survey data presented in a recent annual American Association of 

University Professors report (Ehrenberg 2004), the average salary (inflation-adjusted) for faculty 

increased by 8 percent between 1993 and 2003.33 Using data presented in a series of articles34 

 

33 The increase in average salary (inflation-adjusted) of full-time instructional faculty on 9- to 10-month contracts was reported 

to be 6 percent between 1993 and 2003 (Clery and Topper 2005), using the IPEDS “Salary” surveys. However, it should be 

cautioned that the IPEDS “Salary” survey defines “faculty” differently than does its “Fall Staff Survey” as explained in the 

“Classification of Staff by Primary Occupation” subsection of the “Introduction” in this report. 

34 Chronologically by Magner (1995), Cage (1996), Magner (1997), Haworth (1998), Basinger (1999), Lively (2000), Kellogg 

(2001), Williams (2002), June (2003), and Cessato (2004). 
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

94 

Table 19-A.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary institutions 

Table 19-A.—in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993

Race/ethNon- nicity

His- American resident unInstitution and employee characteristics Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known

 Total $41,713 $43,463 $31,891 $34,635 $47,339 $35,126 $40,373 $36,593

Control of institution1

 Public 42,001 43,750 31,933 34,704 48,029 35,779 40,789 37,654

 Private not-for-profit 41,220 42,993 31,828 34,622 46,130 31,888 39,627 33,859

 Private for-profit 34,647 35,283 30,466 29,756 37,709 30,158 32,607 39,673

Level of institution2

 4-year 41,744 43,625 31,334 34,067 47,568 35,164 40,423 36,700

 2-year 41,884 42,862 36,559 37,557 45,074 35,248 36,078 36,549

 Public 4-year 42,003 43,933 31,021 33,761 48,431 35,352 40,857 38,028

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 41,320 43,116 31,856 34,672 46,151 34,315 39,637 34,119

 Private for-profit 4-year 36,835 38,179 30,329 27,788 39,247 31,756 27,950 34,102

 Public 2-year 42,172 43,160 36,709 37,767 45,301 37,256 36,444 35,872

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 31,971 33,459 26,071 29,404 38,551 21,291 23,570 28,098

 Private for-profit 2-year 32,090 32,312 30,378 27,886 34,705 22,184 34,725 42,947

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 42,782 44,888 31,124 34,195 47,104 35,303 40,553 38,326

 Master’s 41,513 42,852 32,989 35,341 50,822 37,146 45,496 35,875

 Bachelor’s 37,626 38,566 30,143 33,852 42,596 32,963 39,549 33,951

 Associate’s 41,693 42,673 35,997 37,193 45,018 38,613 36,165 36,298

 Specialized 40,086 43,181 29,452 32,224 46,034 29,522 38,229 37,632

Gender

 Male 47,837 50,037 33,844 37,532 51,884 39,046 42,898 40,046

 Female 36,083 37,153 30,710 32,149 41,868 31,873 35,282 32,172

See notes at end of table.

Sector of institution3
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

95 

Table 19-A.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary institutions 

Table 19-A.—in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993—Continued

Race/ethNon- nicity

His- American resident unInstitution and employee characteristics Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known

Primary occupation

 Professional $52,588 $53,158 $48,255 $50,048 $55,237 $45,910 $42,914 $46,325

 Executive/administrative/managerial 60,277 60,639 57,637 57,617 62,287 52,156 58,076 65,672

 Faculty 57,072 57,373 53,214 55,774 59,951 51,294 49,543 49,214

 9 to 10 months 55,929 56,040 51,847 54,662 60,356 51,136 53,961 47,993

 11 to 12 months 59,955 60,848 57,059 58,967 59,203 51,770 45,282 52,795

 Professional support/service 42,790 43,149 41,050 41,453 46,510 37,280 34,734 36,985

 Nonprofessional 26,638 27,332 24,073 26,000 29,683 25,604 26,244 23,342

 Technical/paraprofessional 30,583 31,169 27,819 30,093 32,324 29,632 29,493 26,952

 Clerical/secretarial 26,055 26,043 25,608 26,232 29,583 25,084 25,091 21,699

 Skilled crafts 33,328 33,683 30,820 32,804 36,614 32,935 31,428 28,135

 Service/maintenance 22,584 23,751 20,420 22,804 24,854 21,484 19,303 20,040

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce

in both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire

workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among

all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire 

workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary

basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993.
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

96 

Table 19-B.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary institutions 

Table 19-B.—in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Race/ethNon- nicity

His- American resident unInstitution and employee characteristics Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known

 Total $46,946 $48,949 $36,454 $38,480 $53,357 $38,992 $45,760 $41,154

Control of institution1

 Public 46,647 48,538 36,461 38,454 53,544 39,414 44,539 42,295

 Private not-for-profit 47,803 50,051 36,427 38,770 53,247 38,579 47,633 40,416

 Private for-profit 40,332 41,589 36,842 35,078 45,113 34,247 36,883 30,818

Level of institution2

 4-year 47,518 49,698 36,101 38,246 54,011 39,473 45,852 41,191

 2-year 43,773 44,857 38,742 39,551 47,424 37,984 43,405 41,284

 Public 4-year 47,361 49,479 35,879 38,012 54,515 39,627 44,614 42,195

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 47,940 50,225 36,457 38,843 53,297 40,407 47,641 40,440

 Private for-profit 4-year 39,870 41,224 35,858 33,686 44,653 33,672 30,663 32,945

 Public 2-year 44,002 45,089 38,848 39,641 47,554 39,223 43,454 43,097

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 34,012 34,769 32,295 28,686 37,986 25,980 28,125 38,618

 Private for-profit 2-year 39,179 40,357 36,568 37,543 45,007 34,736 40,613 28,547

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 49,594 52,204 36,206 39,048 54,599 40,796 45,607 42,976

 Master’s 44,528 45,920 36,730 37,449 53,458 39,408 48,380 38,651

 Bachelor’s 41,013 41,885 34,950 36,974 46,838 35,619 44,623 36,059

 Associate’s 43,559 44,590 38,662 39,361 46,990 41,947 43,122 40,220

 Specialized 48,804 52,973 36,075 37,686 54,042 32,227 45,566 45,513

Gender

 Male 53,709 56,187 39,249 42,268 59,935 43,227 48,757 45,261

 Female 41,122 42,505 34,805 35,625 46,452 35,857 40,509 37,405

See notes at end of table.

Sector of institution3
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

97 

Table 19-B.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary institutions 

Table 19-B.—in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003—Continued

Race/ethNon- nicity

His- American resident unInstitution and employee characteristics Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known

Primary occupation

 Professional $57,436 $58,459 $51,295 $53,345 $61,132 $49,904 $48,196 $49,032

 Executive/administrative/managerial 70,441 71,396 65,024 65,799 71,653 62,034 64,147 65,118

 Faculty 64,459 64,828 59,570 62,698 70,887 56,830 56,534 53,843

 9 to 10 months 61,074 61,122 56,595 59,034 68,094 55,352 59,697 52,869

 11 to 12 months 73,143 74,988 67,969 73,375 75,668 62,951 52,945 55,898

 Professional support/service 44,802 45,621 41,559 42,276 47,288 39,639 37,019 40,056

 Nonprofessional 28,333 29,102 25,515 27,410 31,450 26,459 27,868 27,084

 Technical/paraprofessional 33,425 34,051 30,621 32,367 35,234 31,657 32,036 31,477

 Clerical/secretarial 27,377 27,279 26,948 27,745 31,093 25,730 27,443 26,524

 Skilled crafts 36,396 36,986 32,420 35,305 40,470 33,809 35,819 37,446

 Service/maintenance 23,322 24,624 20,789 23,212 24,710 21,392 20,692 21,782

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis

and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 2003.
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

98 

Table 19-C.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time 

Table 19-C.—employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and

Table 19-C.—employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Race/ethNon- nicity

His- American resident unInstitution and employee characteristics Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known

 Total 12.5 12.6 14.3 11.1 12.7 11.0 13.3 12.5

Control of institution1

 Public 11.1 10.9 14.2 10.8 11.5 10.2 9.2 12.3

 Private not-for-profit 16.0 16.4 14.5 12.0 15.4 21.0 20.2 19.4

 Private for-profit 16.4 17.9 20.9 17.9 19.6 13.6 13.1 -22.3

Level of institution2

 4-year 13.8 13.9 15.2 12.3 13.5 12.3 13.4 12.2

 2-year 4.5 4.7 6.0 5.3 5.2 7.8 20.3 13.0

 Public 4-year 12.8 12.6 15.7 12.6 12.6 12.1 9.2 11.0

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 16.0 16.5 14.4 12.0 15.5 17.8 20.2 18.5

 Private for-profit 4-year 8.2 8.0 18.2 21.2 13.8 6.0 9.7 -3.4

 Public 2-year 4.3 4.5 5.8 5.0 5.0 5.3 19.2 20.1

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 6.4 3.9 23.9 -2.4 -1.5 22.0 19.3 37.4

 Private for-profit 2-year 22.1 24.9 20.4 34.6 29.7 56.6 17.0 -33.5

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 15.9 16.3 16.3 14.2 15.9 15.6 12.5 12.1

 Master’s 7.3 7.2 11.3 6.0 5.2 6.1 6.3 7.7

 Bachelor’s 9.0 8.6 15.9 9.2 10.0 8.1 12.8 6.2

 Associate’s 4.5 4.5 7.4 5.8 4.4 8.6 19.2 10.8

 Specialized 21.7 22.7 22.5 16.9 17.4 9.2 19.2 20.9

Gender

 Male 12.3 12.3 16.0 12.6 15.5 10.7 13.7 13.0

 Female 14.0 14.4 13.3 10.8 10.9 12.5 14.8 16.3

See notes at end of table.

Sector of institution3
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

99 

Table 19-C.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time 

Table 19-C.—employees in postsecondary institutions in each racial/ethnic group, by institution and

Table 19-C.—employee characteristics: Fall 2003—Continued

Race/ethNon- nicity

His- American resident unInstitution and employee characteristics Total White Black panic Asian Indian alien known

Primary occupation

 Professional 9.2 10.0 6.3 6.6 10.7 8.7 12.3 5.8

 Executive/administrative/managerial 16.9 17.7 12.8 14.2 15.0 18.9 10.5 -0.8

 Faculty 12.9 13.0 11.9 12.4 18.2 10.8 14.1 9.4

 9 to 10 months 9.2 9.1 9.2 8.0 12.8 8.2 10.6 10.2

 11 to 12 months 22.0 23.2 19.1 24.4 27.8 21.6 16.9 5.9

 Professional support/service 4.7 5.7 1.2 2.0 1.7 6.3 6.6 8.3

 Nonprofessional 6.4 6.5 6.0 5.4 6.0 3.3 6.2 16.0

 Technical/paraprofessional 9.3 9.2 10.1 7.6 9.0 6.8 8.6 16.8

 Clerical/secretarial 5.1 4.7 5.2 5.8 5.1 2.6 9.4 22.2

 Skilled crafts 9.2 9.8 5.2 7.6 10.5 2.7 14.0 33.1

 Service/maintenance 3.3 3.7 1.8 1.8 -0.6 -0.4 7.2 8.7

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis

and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 2003.
Table 20-A.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary o

Table 20-A.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993

Executive/

admini- Profes- Technical/

strative/ sional para- Cler

Institution and employee Profes- mana- 9 to 10 11 to 12 support/ profes- scharacteristics Total sional gerial Total months months service Total sional t Total $41,794 $52,752 $60,385 $57,403 $56,249 $60,323 $42,765 $26,687 $30,534 $26

Control of institution1

 Public 42,001 53,100 63,188 57,329 56,256 60,237 43,154 26,664 30,285 26 Private not-for-profit 41,220 51,798 56,619 56,860 55,154 60,721 42,240 26,616 31,321 25

 Private for-profit 34,647 38,745 49,417 37,261 36,448 37,355 31,408 24,177 29,218 23

Level of institution2

 4-year 41,744 52,909 60,104 58,474 57,144 61,423 42,794 26,532 30,452 25 2-year 41,884 51,265 61,887 51,276 51,783 48,528 43,475 27,582 31,767 26 Public 4-year 42,003 53,472 63,381 59,230 58,093 61,748 43,037 26,468 30,005 26 Private not-for-profit 4-year 41,320 51,987 56,765 57,140 55,407 61,071 42,384 26,663 31,333 25 Private for-profit 4-year 36,835 43,626 51,180 45,554 39,046 46,865 34,321 24,085 28,415 23

 Public 2-year 42,172 51,804 62,882 51,711 51,948 50,293 44,174 27,687 31,815 26

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 31,971 36,867 46,818 35,915 34,975 37,299 28,011 20,996 26,841 22 Private for-profit 2-year 32,090 34,939 46,743 31,583 34,881 31,380 28,709 24,120 29,794 23

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 42,782 54,428 62,149 61,385 60,948 62,112 44,313 27,447 30,785 26 Master’s 41,513 52,176 59,489 55,503 55,306 57,752 39,352 25,253 30,672 24 Bachelor’s 37,626 47,222 54,201 50,639 50,501 51,607 34,069 23,462 28,260 22 Associate’s 41,693 51,038 61,447 51,199 51,753 48,215 42,981 27,270 31,232 26 Specialized 40,086 51,598 58,244 61,034 51,399 63,485 41,899 26,277 29,329 25

See notes at end of table.

Professional Nonprof

Sector of institution3

Faculty
Table 20-A.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary o

Table 20-A.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993—Continued

Executive/

admini- Profes- Technical/

strative/ sional para- Cler

Institution and employee Profes- mana- 9 to 10 11 to 12 support/ profes- scharacteristics Total sional gerial Total months months service Total sional tGender Male $47,837 $56,934 $64,168 $59,993 $59,016 $62,343 $45,124 $28,093 $32,357 $26

 Female 36,083 46,955 54,862 51,210 49,981 54,630 41,229 25,818 29,329 26Race/ethnicity6

 White 43,463 53,158 60,639 57,373 56,040 60,848 43,149 27,332 31,169 26 Black 31,891 48,255 57,637 53,214 51,847 57,059 41,050 24,073 27,819 25 Hispanic 34,635 50,048 57,617 55,774 54,662 58,967 41,453 26,000 30,093 26 Asian 47,339 55,237 62,287 59,951 60,356 59,203 46,510 29,683 32,324 29 American Indian 35,126 45,910 52,156 51,294 51,136 51,770 37,280 25,604 29,632 25 Nonresident alien 40,373 42,914 58,076 49,543 53,961 45,282 34,734 26,244 29,493 25 Race/ethnicity unknown 36,593 46,325 65,672 49,214 47,993 52,795 36,985 23,342 26,952 21

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska 

is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain inexclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993.

Faculty

Professional Nonprof
Table 20-B.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary o

Table 20-B.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Executive/

admini- Profes- Technical/

strative/ sional para- Cler

Institution and employee Profes- mana- 9 to 10 11 to 12 support/ profes- scharacteristics Total sional gerial Total months months service Total sional t Total $46,997 $57,528 $70,516 $64,622 $61,170 $73,549 $44,849 $28,346 $33,423 $27

Control of institution1

 Public 46,647 57,276 74,623 63,466 60,080 73,250 45,284 28,333 33,518 27 Private not-for-profit 47,803 58,321 66,027 67,225 63,517 75,503 44,246 28,366 33,234 27

 Private for-profit 40,332 44,564 61,939 46,043 31,043 47,030 36,876 27,238 31,914 26

Level of institution2

 4-year 47,518 58,223 70,731 67,024 63,280 75,407 45,066 28,098 32,930 27 2-year 43,773 52,945 69,261 53,136 53,102 53,350 42,304 29,726 35,554 27Sector of institution3 Public 4-year 47,361 58,229 76,256 66,783 62,986 75,490 45,601 27,920 32,789 26 Private not-for-profit 4-year 47,940 58,535 66,158 67,598 63,826 76,056 44,378 28,416 33,232 27 Private for-profit 4-year 39,870 44,885 62,930 52,711 27,637 54,743 36,783 27,094 30,708 26

 Public 2-year 44,002 53,457 70,044 53,599 53,290 55,917 42,785 29,836 35,612 28

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 34,012 38,752 53,246 36,450 33,921 40,307 32,121 21,198 27,996 21 Private for-profit 2-year 39,179 42,625 59,987 38,997 24,889 39,554 36,171 26,988 33,134 25

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 49,594 60,929 74,853 72,558 70,347 76,252 47,246 29,124 32,903 28 Master’s 44,528 54,329 69,631 58,524 57,701 67,473 41,396 26,472 33,164 25 Bachelor’s 41,013 49,991 60,766 54,750 54,779 54,389 35,580 24,213 30,944 23 Associate’s 43,559 52,602 68,855 52,929 52,884 53,211 41,797 29,438 35,310 27 Specialized 48,804 60,301 66,683 75,021 56,631 79,820 44,540 29,584 33,401 28

See notes at end of table.

Professional Nonprof

Faculty
Table 20-B.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary institutions in each primary o

Table 20-B.—institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003—Continued

Executive/

admini- Profes- Technical/

strative/ sional para- Cler

Institution and employee Profes- mana- 9 to 10 11 to 12 support/ profes- scharacteristics Total sional gerial Total months months service Total sional tGender Male $53,709 $63,213 $76,693 $68,809 $65,387 $76,990 $47,953 $30,293 $35,675 $27

 Female 41,122 51,312 64,261 57,706 54,711 66,319 42,612 27,178 31,842 27Race/ethnicity6

 White 48,949 58,459 71,396 64,828 61,122 74,988 45,621 29,102 34,051 27 Black 36,454 51,295 65,024 59,570 56,595 67,969 41,559 25,515 30,621 26 Hispanic 38,480 53,345 65,799 62,698 59,034 73,375 42,276 27,410 32,367 27 Asian 53,357 61,132 71,653 70,887 68,094 75,668 47,288 31,450 35,234 31 American Indian 38,992 49,904 62,034 56,830 55,352 62,951 39,639 26,459 31,657 25 Nonresident alien 45,760 48,196 64,147 56,534 59,697 52,945 37,019 27,868 32,036 27 Race/ethnicity unknown 41,154 49,032 65,118 53,843 52,869 55,898 40,056 27,084 31,477 26

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska 

is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain inexclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.

Faculty

Professional Nonprof
Table 20-C.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postseco

Table 20-C.—each primary occupation group, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Executive/

admini- Profes- Technical/

strative/ sional para- Cler

Institution and employee Profes- mana- 9 to 10 11 to 12 support/ profes- scharacteristics Total sional gerial Total months months service Total sional t Total 12.5 9.1 16.8 12.6 8.7 21.9 4.9 6.2 9.5 Control of institution1

 Public 11.1 7.9 18.1 10.7 6.8 21.6 4.9 6.3 10.7  Private not-for-profit 16.0 12.6 16.6 18.2 15.2 24.3 4.7 6.6 6.1  Private for-profit 16.4 15.0 25.3 23.6 -14.8 25.9 17.4 12.7 9.2 Level of institution2 4-year 13.8 10.0 17.7 14.6 10.7 22.8 5.3 5.9 8.1  2-year 4.5 3.3 11.9 3.6 2.5 9.9 -2.7 7.8 11.9 Sector of institution3 Public 4-year 12.8 8.9 20.3 12.8 8.4 22.3 6.0 5.5 9.3  Private not-for-profit 4-year 16.0 12.6 16.5 18.3 15.2 24.5 4.7 6.6 6.1  Private for-profit 4-year 8.2 2.9 23.0 15.7 -29.2 16.8 7.2 12.5 8.1  Public 2-year 4.3 3.2 11.4 3.7 2.6 11.2 -3.1 7.8 11.9  Private not-for-profit 2-year 6.4 5.1 13.7 1.5 -3.0 8.1 14.7 1.0 4.3  Private for-profit 2-year 22.1 22.0 28.3 23.5 -28.6 26.0 26.0 11.9 11.2 Carnegie classification of institution4,5 Doctorate-granting 15.9 11.9 20.4 18.2 15.4 22.8 6.6 6.1 6.9  Master’s 7.3 4.1 17.0 5.4 4.3 16.8 5.2 4.8 8.1  Bachelor’s 9.0 5.9 12.1 8.1 8.5 5.4 4.4 3.2 9.5  Associate’s 4.5 3.1 12.1 3.4 2.2 10.4 -2.8 7.9 13.1  Specialized 21.7 16.9 14.5 22.9 10.2 25.7 6.3 12.6 13.9 

See notes at end of table.

Professional Nonprof

Faculty
Table 20-C.—Percentage change since fall 1993 in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postseco

Table 20-C.—each primary occupation group, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003—Continued

Executive/

admini- Profes- Technical/

strative/ sional para- Cler

Institution and employee Profes- mana- 9 to 10 11 to 12 support/ profes- scharacteristics Total sional gerial Total months months service Total sional tGender Male 12.3 11.0 19.5 14.7 10.8 23.5 6.3 7.8 10.3  Female 14.0 9.3 17.1 12.7 9.5 21.4 3.4 5.3 8.6 Race/ethnicity6

 White 12.6 10.0 17.7 13.0 9.1 23.2 5.7 6.5 9.2  Black 14.3 6.3 12.8 11.9 9.2 19.1 1.2 6.0 10.1  Hispanic 11.1 6.6 14.2 12.4 8.0 24.4 2.0 5.4 7.6  Asian 12.7 10.7 15.0 18.2 12.8 27.8 1.7 6.0 9.0  American Indian 11.0 8.7 18.9 10.8 8.2 21.6 6.3 3.3 6.8  Nonresident alien 13.3 12.3 10.5 14.1 10.6 16.9 6.6 6.2 8.6  Race/ethnicity unknown 12.5 5.8 -0.8 9.4 10.2 5.9 8.3 16.0 16.8 

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska 

is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain inexclude Hispanic origin unless specified.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.

Faculty

Professional Nonprof
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

106 

published annually between 1995 and 2004 in the Chronicle of Higher Education, the median 

salary for university administrators increased by 18 percent between 1993 and 2003. 

Salary Differences by Type of Institution 

Although the overall average salary in 2003 of full-time staff at 2-year institutions was 8 

percent less (92 percent of what their peers earned at 4-year institutions), Black and Hispanic 

staff at 2-year colleges earned more, on average, than their peers at 4-year institutions (117 and 

110 percent of salaries by their peers in 1993 and 107 and 103 percent in 2003, respectively) 

(tables 21-A and 21-B). Similarly, the average salary for all nonprofessional staff (except for 

skilled crafts staff) was higher at 2-year colleges than at 4-year institutions. Staff in 

technical/paraprofessional, clerical/secretarial, and service/maintenance positions at 2-year 

institutions earned, on average, 103 to 112 percent of what their peers did at 4-year institutions 

(tables 21-C and 21-D). 

However, faculty at 2-year institutions earned considerably less than their peers at 4-year 

institutions. In fact, the gap in average earnings between the staff at 2- and 4-year institutions was 

larger for faculty than for any other primary occupation categories. Furthermore, this gap 

increased over time. In 1993, faculty at 2-year institutions earned 88 percent of what their peers 

earned at 4-year institutions; in 2003, this decreased to 79 percent. 

In both 1993 and 2003, full-time staff in doctoral institutions earned, on average, more than 

their peers did anywhere else. By contrast, full-time staff in bachelor’s institutions earned the 

least in average salaries—e.g., their salaries were, on average, 88 percent of those for their 

counterparts in doctoral institutions in 2003. These differences may reflect in part the relatively 

high proportion of staff in baccalaureate institutions who worked in low-paid 

service/maintenance positions (as shown in tables 15-A and 15-B), and the relatively low 

proportion of Asian staff (table 14), who were the highest-paid racial/ethnic group. 

It is interesting to note that the salary differences between staff in doctoral institutions and 

theirs peers elsewhere tended to increase over time. For example, staff in master’s institutions 

earned, on average, 97 percent of what their peers in doctoral institutions did in 1993; but this 

dropped to 90 percent in 2003. 
Table 21-A.—Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary ins

Table 21-A.—racial/ethnic group: Fall 1993

 Ameri

Institution and employee characteristics Total White Black Hispanic Asian Ind Total $41,713 $43,463 $31,891 $34,635 $47,339 $35,1Control of institution1

 Public 42,001 43,750 31,933 34,704 48,029 35,7 Private not-for-profit (as percent of those for public) 98 98 100 100 96  Private for-profit (as percent of those for public) 82 81 95 86 79 Level of institution2 4-year 41,744 43,625 31,334 34,067 47,568 35,1 2-year (as percent of those for 4-year) 100 98 117 110 95 1Sector of institution3 Public 4-year 42,003 43,933 31,021 33,761 48,431 35,3 Private not-for-profit 4-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 98 98 103 103 95  Private for-profit 4-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 88 87 98 82 81  Public 2-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 100 98 118 112 94 1 Private not-for-profit 2-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 76 76 84 87 80  Private for-profit 2-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 76 74 98 83 72 

See notes at end of table.
Table 21-A.—Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary ins

Table 21-A.—racial/ethnic group: Fall 1993—Continued

 Ameri

Institution and employee characteristics Total White Black Hispanic Asian IndCarnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting $42,782 $44,888 $31,124 $34,195 $47,104 $35,3 Master’s (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 97 95 106 103 108 1 Bachelor’s (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 88 86 97 99 90  Associate’s (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 97 95 116 109 96 1 Specialized (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 94 96 95 94 98 

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

explanation of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and AmeNative. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does no

indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993.
Table 21-B.—Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary ins

Table 21-B.—racial/ethnic group: Fall 2003

 Ameri

Institution and employee characteristics Total White Black Hispanic Asian Ind Total $46,946 $48,949 $36,454 $38,480 $53,357 $38,9Control of institution1

 Public 46,647 48,538 36,461 38,454 53,544 39,4 Private not-for-profit (as percent of those for public) 102 103 100 101 99  Private for-profit (as percent of those for public) 86 86 101 91 84 Level of institution2 4-year 47,518 49,698 36,101 38,246 54,011 39,4 2-year (as percent of those for 4-year) 92 90 107 103 88 Sector of institution3 Public 4-year 47,361 49,479 35,879 38,012 54,515 39,6 Private not-for-profit 4-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 101 102 102 102 98 1 Private for-profit 4-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 84 83 100 89 82  Public 2-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 93 91 108 104 87  Private not-for-profit 2-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 72 70 90 75 70  Private for-profit 2-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 83 82 102 99 83 

See notes at end of table.
Table 21-B.—Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary ins

Table 21-B.—racial/ethnic group: Fall 2003—Continued

 Ameri

Institution and employee characteristics Total White Black Hispanic Asian IndCarnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting $49,594 $52,204 $36,206 $39,048 $54,599 $40,7 Master’s (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 90 88 101 96 98  Bachelor’s (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 83 80 97 95 86  Associate’s (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 88 85 107 101 86 1 Specialized (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 98 101 100 97 99 

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

explanation of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and AmeNative. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and does no

indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.
Table 21-C.—Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary ins

Table 21-C.—primary occupation group: Fall 1993

Executive/ Techadmini- Profes- nical/ 

Profes- strative/ sional para- 

Institution and employee sional mana- 9 to 10 11 to 12 support/ profes- characteristics Total (total) gerial Total months months service Total sional  Total $41,794 $52,752 $60,385 $57,403 $56,249 $60,323 $42,765 $26,687 $30,534 

Control of institution1

 Public 42,001 53,100 63,188 57,329 56,256 60,237 43,154 26,664 30,285  Private not-for-profit (as percent of those for public) 98 98 90 99 98 101 98 100 103  Private for-profit (as percent of those for public) 82 73 78 65 65 62 73 91 96 Level of institution2 4-year 41,744 52,909 60,104 58,474 57,144 61,423 42,794 26,532 30,452  2-year (as percent of those for 4-year) 100 97 103 88 91 79 102 104 104 Sector of institution3 Public 4-year 42,003 53,472 63,381 59,230 58,093 61,748 43,037 26,468 30,005 

 Private not-for-profit 4-year (as percent of  those for public 4-year) 98 97 90 96 95 99 98 101 104  Private for-profit 4-year (as percent of those  for public 4-year) 88 82 81 77 67 76 80 91 95  Public 2-year (as percent of those for  public 4-year) 100 97 99 87 89 81 103 105 106  Private not-for-profit 2-year (as percent of  those for public 4-year) 76 69 74 61 60 60 65 79 89  Private for-profit 2-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 76 65 74 53 60 51 67 91 99 

See notes at end of table.

Professional No

Faculty
Table 21-C.—Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary ins

Table 21-C.—primary occupation group: Fall 1993—Continued

Executive/ Techadmini- Profes- nical/ 

Profes- strative/ sional para- 

Institution and employee sional mana- 9 to 10 11 to 12 support/ profes- characteristics Total (total) gerial Total months months service Total sional Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting $42,782 $54,428 $62,149 $61,385 $60,948 $62,112 $44,313 $27,447 $30,785  Master’s (as percent of those for  doctorate-granting) 97 96 96 90 91 93 89 92 100  Bachelor’s (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 88 87 87 82 83 83 77 85 92  Associate’s (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 97 94 99 83 85 78 97 99 101  Specialized (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 94 95 94 99 84 102 95 96 95 

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

explanation of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993.

Faculty

Professional No
Table 21-D.—Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary ins

Table 21-D.—primary occupation group: Fall 2003

Executive/ Techadmini- Profes- nical/ 

Profes- strative/ sional para- 

Institution and employee sional mana- 9 to 10 11 to 12 support/ profes- characteristics Total (total) gerial Total months months service Total sional  Total $46,997 $57,528 $70,516 $64,622 $61,170 $73,549 $44,849 $28,346 $33,423 

Control of institution1

 Public 46,647 57,276 74,623 63,466 60,080 73,250 45,284 28,333 33,518  Private not-for-profit (as percent of those for public) 102 102 88 106 106 103 98 100 99  Private for-profit (as percent of those for public) 86 78 83 73 52 64 81 96 95 Level of institution2 4-year 47,518 58,223 70,731 67,024 63,280 75,407 45,066 28,098 32,930  2-year (as percent of those for 4-year) 92 91 98 79 84 71 94 106 108 Sector of institution3 Public 4-year 47,361 58,229 76,256 66,783 62,986 75,490 45,601 27,920 32,789  Private not-for-profit 4-year (as percent of  those for public 4-year) 101 101 87 101 101 101 97 102 101  Private for-profit 4-year (as percent of those  for public 4-year) 84 77 83 79 44 73 81 97 94  Public 2-year (as percent of those for  public 4-year) 93 92 92 80 85 74 94 107 109  Private not-for-profit 2-year (as percent of  those for public 4-year) 72 67 70 55 54 53 70 76 85  Private for-profit 2-year (as percent of those for public 4-year) 83 73 79 58 40 52 79 97 101 

See notes at end of table.

Professional Non

Faculty
Table 21-D.—Institutional differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees in postsecondary ins

Table 21-D.—primary occupation group: Fall 2003—Continued

Executive/ Techadmini- Profes- nical/ 

Profes- strative/ sional para- 

Institution and employee sional mana- 9 to 10 11 to 12 support/ profes- characteristics Total (total) gerial Total months months service Total sional Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting $49,594 $60,929 $74,853 $72,558 $70,347 $76,252 $47,246 $29,124 $32,903  Master’s (as percent of those for  doctorate-granting) 90 89 93 81 82 88 88 91 101  Bachelor’s (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 83 82 81 75 78 71 75 83 94  Associate’s (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 88 86 92 73 75 70 88 101 107  Specialized (as percent of those for doctorate-granting) 98 99 89 103 81 105 94 102 102 

1Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cov

percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in both years.

2Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covere

had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions cove

had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See appendix A at the end of 

explanation of this reduced version.

5Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie classification system in at leas

had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accountin

the entire workforce in 1993 and 2003, respectively.NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weeligible institutions in 2003. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.

Non

Faculty

Professional
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

115 

Salary Differences by Gender 

The issue of inequality in pay for women is still unresolved, despite decades of efforts—

including the legislation of the federal Equal Pay Act of 1963 (Hoeller 2005). Even though 

female postsecondary staff experienced a slightly higher increase in their average salary, they still 

lagged behind male staff as a whole in what they earned. In 2003, the average salary for women 

was 77 percent of that for men ($41,100 vs. $53,700) (table 22), slightly higher than 10 years 

earlier when, on average, women earned 75 percent of what men did. The higher education 

workplace was not much better than the nation as a whole with regard to the gender gap in 

earnings. In 2003, the national median salary among full-time women age 15 years or older was 

76 percent of that for their male counterparts (U.S. Census Bureau 2004). 

In both years, the gender disparity in salaries was greater at 4-year institutions than at 2-

year institutions. For example, in 1993, the average salary of female staff was 81 percent of that 

of males at 2-year institutions ($38,000 vs. $46,600), compared with 74 percent at 4-year 

institutions ($35,800 vs. $48,100). Furthermore, this gap grew over the decade studied (to 

women making 86 percent of what men earned at 2-year institutions but only 75 percent at 4-

year), as a result of the higher gain in the growth rate of female salaries relative to that of their 

male counterparts at 2-year institutions (8 vs. 2 percent growth). The gain in the rate of salary 

increases for women was smaller at 4-year institutions (15 vs. 14 percent). 

In 1993, the gender gap in average salaries was similar among staff at doctorate-granting, 

master’s degree, and bachelor’s degree institutions (females’ average salary was 74 percent of 

that for their male peers). In 2003, the gap for master’s and bachelor’s degree institutions 

narrowed, with women earning 77 to 78 percent of what men earned, although no change was 

evident in doctorate-granting institutions. 

In both years, the gender disparity in average salaries was most apparent among White staff 

and least among Black staff. For example, in 1993, the average salary for White females was 74 

percent of that for White males, compared with Black females earning, on average, 91 percent of 

what Black males earned. The corresponding proportion ranged from 80 to 86 percent among 

other racial/ethnic groups. The greater gender disparity in average salaries among White 

employees on postsecondary campuses remained in 2003 despite a gain in the rate of salary 

increase by White females relative to White males (14 vs. 12 percent). This gender gap between 

White men and women exceeding that for other racial/ethnic groups is consistent with findings 

based on a trend analysis study that examined the earnings of high school graduates and college 

graduates between 1975 and 1997, using the Current Population Survey data collected by the 

U.S. Census Bureau (Coley 2001). 
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

116 

Table 22.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of male and female full-time employees in 

Table 22.—postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 1993, and average salaries of females as 

Table 22.—percentage of those for males, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003

Institution and employee characteristics Male Female Male Female Male Female 1993 2003

 Total $47,837 $36,083 $53,709 $41,122 12.3 14.0 75 77

Control of institution1

 Public 48,222 36,200 53,261 40,898 10.4 13.0 75 77

 Private not-for-profit 47,127 35,931 55,013 41,709 16.7 16.1 76 76

 Private for-profit 39,098 31,255 43,490 37,597 11.2 20.3 80 86

Level of institution2

 4-year 48,080 35,816 54,650 41,189 13.7 15.0 74 75

 2-year 46,635 37,975 47,723 40,957 2.3 7.9 81 86

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 48,547 35,720 54,487 40,841 12.2 14.3 74 75

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 47,251 36,009 55,176 41,824 16.8 16.1 76 76

 Private for-profit 4-year 43,017 32,088 42,889 37,240 -0.3 16.1 75 87

 Public 2-year 46,969 38,215 47,982 41,174 2.2 7.7 81 86

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 33,830 30,467 37,294 31,591 10.2 3.7 90 85

 Private for-profit 2-year 35,514 29,677 42,686 36,281 20.2 22.3 84 85

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 49,305 36,479 57,285 42,489 16.2 16.5 74 74

 Master’s 47,688 35,183 50,351 39,290 5.6 11.7 74 78

 Bachelor’s 43,410 31,959 46,528 36,056 7.2 12.8 74 77

 Associate’s 46,477 37,718 47,482 40,739 2.2 8.0 81 86

 Specialized 46,350 35,877 57,250 42,909 23.5 19.6 77 75

Race/ethnicity6

 White 50,037 37,153 56,187 42,505 12.3 14.4 74 76

 Black 33,844 30,710 39,249 34,805 16.0 13.3 91 89

 Hispanic 37,532 32,149 42,268 35,625 12.6 10.8 86 84

 Asian 51,884 41,868 59,935 46,452 15.5 10.9 81 78

 American Indian 39,046 31,873 43,227 35,857 10.7 12.5 82 83

 Nonresident alien 42,898 35,282 48,757 40,509 13.7 14.8 82 83

 Race/ethnicity unknown 40,046 32,172 45,261 37,405 13.0 16.3 80 83

See notes at end of table.

for females (as

Average salaries 

1993 2003 since 1993

Percent change

those for males)

percent of 
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

117 

The gender gap in salaries also varied by primary occupation. In both years, female 

professional staff as a whole experienced greater salary inequality with men than their 

nonprofessional peers did. While female nonprofessional staff earned, on average, 92 percent in 

Table 22.—Average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of male and female full-time employees in 

Table 22.—postsecondary institutions, percentage change since fall 1993, and average salaries of females as 

Table 22.—percentage of those for males, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993 and 2003

Table 22.——Continued

Institution and employee characteristics Male Female Male Female Male Female 1993 2003

Primary occupation

 Professional $56,934 $46,955 $63,213 $51,312 11.0 9.3 82 81

 Executive/administrative/managerial 64,168 54,862 76,693 64,261 19.5 17.1 85 84

 Faculty 59,993 51,210 68,809 57,706 14.7 12.7 85 84

 9 to 10 months 59,016 49,981 65,387 54,711 10.8 9.5 85 84

 11 to 12 months 62,343 54,630 76,990 66,319 23.5 21.4 88 86

 Professional support/service 45,124 41,229 47,953 42,612 6.3 3.4 91 89

 Nonprofessional 28,093 25,818 30,293 27,178 7.8 5.3 92 90

 Technical/paraprofessional 32,357 29,329 35,675 31,842 10.3 8.6 91 89

 Clerical/secretarial 26,234 26,036 27,761 27,331 5.8 5.0 99 98

 Skilled crafts 33,632 27,778 36,750 30,165 9.3 8.6 83 82

 Service/maintenance 23,775 20,582 25,151 20,096 5.8 -2.4 87 80

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this 

country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless 

specified.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 2003.

1993 2003 since 1993 those for males)

Average salaries 

for females (as

Percent change percent of 
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

118 

1993 and 90 percent in 2003 of what their male counterparts earned, female professional staff 

earned only 82 and 81 percent of that of their male counterparts. Among all primary occupation 

categories, the gender difference was the least for clerical and secretarial staff. In fact, the 

average salary for female clerical and secretarial staff was almost equal to that of their male 

counterparts (99 and 98 percent in 1993 and 2003, respectively). At the other end of the 

spectrum, in skilled crafts and service/maintenance positions women earned 17 to 18 percent less 

than men did. 

It is worth pointing out that there appear to be smaller gender differences in salaries when 

analyzed separately for each primary occupation group, compared with the overall gender 

difference. For instance, in 2003, among all occupation categories, the largest gender gap 

occurred among service/maintenance staff where women earned, on average, 80 percent of what 

men did; yet this gap is smaller than the overall gap of women earning 77 percent of what men 

earned. There are two explanations for this seemingly counterintuitive phenomenon. First, as 

mentioned earlier, average salaries were calculated by dividing salary outlays by the 

corresponding number of employees. Thus, the overall salaries are not the direct arithmetic 

averages among subgroups; neither were the percentage measures of women’s earnings. 

Secondly and perhaps more directly, the phenomenon is related to women’s share of total in 

salary outlays relative to their share in number of employees and how this varies when all staff 

are combined. The overall percentage share for women in salary outlay was 7 percentage points 

lower than their share in number of employees in both years (e.g., 45 vs. 52 percent in 1993) 

(table B-1 in appendix B). A much smaller deficit is evident when each primary occupation 

group is examined separately. The largest deficit in percentage share for women between salary 

outlay and number of employees was with the occupation group executive/administrative/ 

managerial staff for whom there was a difference of 4 percentage points both in 1993 (38 vs. 42 

percent) and 2003 (46 vs. 50 percent). Not surprisingly, among clerical/secretarial staff, the 

occupation group with the smallest gender gap in average salaries, women’s percentage share in 

salary outlays matched that in number of employees (91 vs. 91 percent in 1993 and 89 vs. 89 

percent in 2003). 

When interpreting the gender differences in salary earnings, readers are cautioned that these 

differences may be due to factors other than gender such as rank and years of services, and field. 

For instance, it is well documented that female faculty are less likely than their male counterparts 

to be in the higher-paying field of business and engineering but more likely to be in the lowerpaying field of education (Glover and Parsad 2002; Ehrenberg 2004; Cataldi, Bradburn, and 

Fahimi 2005). Female faculty are also less likely than male faculty to be full professors (Curtis 

2005), the highest-paid subgroup among full-time faculty. On the other hand, other studies have 

determined that gender disparity in average salary for faculty persists even after controlling for 
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

119 

other factors including, among others, academic rank, discipline, and years since highest degree 

(Nettles, Perna, and Bradburn 2000; Bradburn and Sikora 2002).

Salary Differences by Race/Ethnicity 

On average, Asian postsecondary staff earned the highest salaries, followed by Whites, 

nonresident aliens, staff whose race/ethnicity is unknown, American Indians, Hispanics, and 

Blacks. On average, Black staff earned the lowest salary, a pattern that persisted over time (tables 

23-A and 23-B). Expressed as percentages of earnings for White staff ($43,500 in 1993 and 

$48,900 in 2003), Asians averaged 109 percent; nonresident aliens, 93 percent; staff of unknown 

race/ethnicity, 84 percent; American Indians and Hispanics, 79 to 81 percent; and Blacks, 73 to 

74 percent. In general, this pattern of variation in average salaries by race/ethnicity was 

consistent across sectors and Carnegie classifications. 

While it is not the intent of this study to pinpoint specific reasons for racial/ethnic 

differences in salary earnings on higher education campuses, readers are cautioned that the 

findings reported here are descriptive in nature and causal inferences should not be made. Factors 

other than race/ethnicity may be related to differences observed among racial/ethnic groups. For 

example, as shown in table 13, the proportion of staff who were male was highest, in both 1993 

and 2003, among Asians, followed in order by Whites, Hispanics, and Blacks, and men earn 

more than women on average. 

In addition, in both 1993 and 2003, Asian staff were more likely than Whites to be 

professional employees, followed by Hispanics and Blacks (tables 15-A and 15-B), and 

professional staff earn more on average than nonprofessional staff. 

The racial/ethnic disparity in average salary was higher for men than for women in both 

years. For example, in 2003, the average salary for Black men was 70 percent of that for White 

male staff, compared with Black women earning 82 percent of what White women earned (table 

23-B). 

As discussed earlier, gender differences in earnings declined when examined within 

primary occupation categories. The same pattern holds with respect to racial/ethnic differences in 

average salaries. For instance, while overall Blacks earned, on average, 73 to 74 percent of what 

their White counterparts did, within occupational categories, Blacks earned from 84 to 99 percent 

of what Whites did. As shown earlier (tables 15-A and 15-B), compared with White staff, Blacks 

were more likely to work in lower-paid nonprofessional occupations (such as clerical/secretarial 
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

120 

Table 23-A.—Racial/ethnic differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees 

Table 23-A.—in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993

Average Race/

salary of Amer- Non- ethnicWhite His- ican resident ity unInstitution and employee characteristics staff Black panic Asian Indian alien known

 Total $43,463 73 80 109 81 93 84

Control of institution1

 Public, total 43,750 73 79 110 82 93 86

 Private not-for-profit 42,993 74 81 107 74 92 79

 Private for-profit 35,283 86 84 107 85 92 112

Level of institution2

 4-year 43,625 72 78 109 81 93 84

 2-year 42,862 85 88 105 82 84 85

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 43,933 71 77 110 80 93 87

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 43,116 74 80 107 80 92 79

 Private for-profit 4-year 38,179 79 73 103 83 73 89

 Public 2-year 43,160 85 88 105 86 84 83

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 33,459 78 88 115 64 70 84

 Private for-profit 2-year 32,312 94 86 107 69 107 133

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 44,888 69 76 105 79 90 85

 Master’s 42,852 77 82 119 87 106 84

 Bachelor’s 38,566 78 88 110 85 103 88

 Associate’s 42,673 84 87 105 90 85 85

 Specialized 43,181 68 75 107 68 89 87

Gender

 Male 50,037 68 75 104 78 86 80

 Female 37,153 83 87 113 86 95 87

See notes at end of table.

Average salaries (as percent of those of White staff’s)
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

121 

Table 23-A.—Racial/ethnic differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees 

Table 23-A.—in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993—

Table 23-A.—Continued

Average Race/

salary of Amer- Non- ethnicWhite His- ican resident ity unInstitution and employee characteristics staff Black panic Asian Indian alien known

Primary occupation

 Professional $53,158 91 94 104 86 81 87

 Executive/administrative/managerial 60,639 95 95 103 86 96 108

 Faculty 57,373 93 97 104 89 86 86

 9 to 10 months 56,040 93 98 108 91 96 86

 11 to 12 months 60,848 94 97 97 85 74 87

 Professional support/service 43,149 95 96 108 86 80 86

 Nonprofessional 27,332 88 95 109 94 96 85

 Technical/paraprofessional 31,169 89 97 104 95 95 86

 Clerical/secretarial 26,043 98 101 114 96 96 83

 Skilled crafts 33,683 91 97 109 98 93 84

 Service/maintenance 23,751 86 96 105 90 81 84

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary

basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993.

Average salaries (as percent of those of White staff’s)
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

122 

Table 23-B.—Racial/ethnic differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees 

Table 23-B.—in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Average Race/

salary of Amer- Non- ethnicWhite His- ican resident ity unInstitution and employee characteristics staff Black panic Asian Indian alien known

 Total $48,949 74 79 109 80 93 84

Control of institution1

 Public, total 48,538 75 79 110 81 92 87

 Private not-for-profit 50,051 73 77 106 77 95 81

 Private for-profit 41,589 89 84 108 82 89 74

Level of institution2

 4-year 49,698 73 77 109 79 92 83

 2-year 44,857 86 88 106 85 97 92

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 49,479 73 77 110 80 90 85

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 50,225 73 77 106 80 95 81

 Private for-profit 4-year 41,224 87 82 108 82 74 80

 Public 2-year 45,089 86 88 105 87 96 96

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 34,769 93 83 109 75 81 111

 Private for-profit 2-year 40,357 91 93 112 86 101 71

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 52,204 69 75 105 78 87 82

 Master’s 45,920 80 82 116 86 105 84

 Bachelor’s 41,885 83 88 112 85 107 86

 Associate’s 44,590 87 88 105 94 97 90

 Specialized 52,973 68 71 102 61 86 86

Gender

 Male 56,187 70 75 107 77 87 81

 Female 42,505 82 84 109 84 95 88

See notes at end of table.

Average salaries (as percent of those of White staff’s)
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

123 

Table 23-B.—Racial/ethnic differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees 

Table 23-B.—in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003—

Table 23-B.—Continued

Average Race/

salary of Amer- Non- ethnicWhite His- ican resident ity unInstitution and employee characteristics staff Black panic Asian Indian alien known

Primary occupation

 Professional $58,459 88 91 105 85 82 84

 Executive/administrative/managerial 71,396 91 92 100 87 90 91

 Faculty 64,828 92 97 109 88 87 83

 9 to 10 months 61,122 93 97 111 91 98 86

 11 to 12 months 74,988 91 98 101 84 71 75

 Professional support/service 45,621 91 93 104 87 81 88

 Nonprofessional 29,102 88 94 108 91 96 93

 Technical/paraprofessional 34,051 90 95 103 93 94 92

 Clerical/secretarial 27,279 99 102 114 94 101 97

 Skilled crafts 36,986 88 95 109 91 97 101

 Service/maintenance 24,624 84 94 100 87 84 88

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003. Black includes African American, Hispanic

includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. A

nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this country on a visa or temporary

basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data

System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.

Average salaries (as percent of those of White staff’s)
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

124 

and service/maintenance) and less likely to be in higher-paid professional occupations (e.g., 

faculty). 

Salary Differences by Primary Occupation 

In both 1993 and 2003, executive, administrative, and managerial staff earned the highest 

average salary, followed by faculty,35 professional support/service staff, skilled crafts staff, 

technical and paraprofessional staff, clerical and secretarial staff, and service/maintenance staff 

(tables 24-A and 24-B). However, the differences in average salary by occupation were higher in 

2003 than in 1993 across all primary occupation categories. For example, relative to the average 

salary of executive, administrative, and managerial staff, faculty earned, on average, 95 percent 

in 1993, but 92 percent in 2003; likewise, clerical and secretarial staff earned 43 percent in 1993, 

but 39 percent in 2003. 

Of noticeable exception to the pattern was among staff at private not-for-profit 4-year 

institutions and specialized institutions, where the average earnings of faculty on 11- to 12-month 

contracts actually exceeded those of executive, administrative, and managerial staff, a trend that 

increased over time. In 1993, faculty on 11- to 12-month contracts earned, on average, 108 to 109 

percent of what executive, administrative, and managerial staff earned at private not-for-profit 4-

year or specialized institutions, and in 2003, their salaries ranged from 115 to 120 percent of the 

earnings of executive, administrative, and managerial staff at such institutions. 

 

35 Notice that the overall average earnings for faculty on 11- to 12-month contracts were not less compared to staff in executive, 

administrative, and managerial positions, as shown in tables 24-A and 24–B. However, the majority (71 percent in both 1993 and 

2003) of full-time faculty members surveyed in the salary section of this report were on 9- to 10-month contracts (data not shown 

in tables), and they trailed executive, administrative, and managerial staff in average salary, more so in 2003 than in 1993. 
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

125 

Table 24-A.—Occupational differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees

Table 24-A.—in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993

Average

salary of

executive/ Techadmini- Profes- nical Clerstrative/ sional para- ical/ Service/

Institution and employee manage- 11/12- 9/10- support/ Skilled profes- secre- maintecharacteristics rial Total month month service crafts sional tarial nance

 Total $60,385 95 100 93 71 55 51 43 37

Control of institution1

 Public 63,188 91 95 89 68 52 48 41 36

 Private not-for-profit 56,619 100 107 97 75 61 55 46 40

 Private for-profit 49,417 75 76 74 64 58 59 48 39

Level of institution2

 4-year 60,104 97 102 95 71 56 51 43 37

 2-year 61,887 83 78 84 70 54 51 43 39

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 63,381 93 97 92 68 52 47 41 35

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 56,765 101 108 98 75 61 55 46 40

 Private for-profit 4-year 51,180 89 92 76 67 64 56 47 38

 Public 2-year 62,882 82 80 83 70 53 51 43 39

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 46,818 77 80 75 60 62 57 48 36

 Private for-profit 2-year 46,743 68 67 75 61 50 64 51 37

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 62,149 99 100 98 71 55 50 43 37

 Master’s 59,489 93 97 93 66 54 52 41 37

 Bachelor’s 54,201 93 95 93 63 58 52 42 38

 Associate’s 61,447 83 78 84 70 53 51 43 39

 Specialized 58,244 105 109 88 72 56 50 44 36

Gender

 Male 64,168 93 97 92 70 52 50 41 37

 Female 54,862 93 100 91 75 51 53 47 38

See notes at end of table.

executive/administrative/managerial staff)

Average salaries (as percentage of those for

Faculty
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

126 

Table 24-A.—Occupational differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees

Table 24-A.—in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 1993

Table 24-A.——Continued

Average

salary of

executive/ Techadmini- Profes- nical Clerstrative/ sional para- ical/ Service/

Institution and employee manage- 11/12- 9/10- support/ Skilled profes- secre- maintecharacteristics rial Total month month service crafts sional tarial nance

Race/ethnicity6

 White $60,639 95 100 92 71 56 51 43 39

 Black 57,637 92 99 90 71 53 48 44 35

 Hispanic 57,617 97 102 95 72 57 52 46 40

 Asian 62,287 96 95 97 75 59 52 47 40

 American Indian 52,156 98 99 98 71 63 57 48 41

 Nonresident alien 58,076 85 78 93 60 54 51 43 33

 Race/ethnicity unknown 65,672 75 80 73 56 43 41 33 31

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this 

country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless 

specified.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS), Fall 1993.

Faculty

Average salaries (as percentage of those for

executive/administrative/managerial staff)
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

127 

Table 24-B.—Occupational differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees

Table 24-B.—in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Average

salary of

executive/ Techadmini- Profes- nical Clerstrative/ sional para- ical/ Service/

Institution and employee manage- 11/12- 9/10- support/ Skilled profes- secre- maintecharacteristics rial Total month month service crafts sional tarial nance

 Total $70,516 92 104 87 64 52 47 39 33

Control of institution1

 Public, total 74,623 85 98 81 61 48 45 36 31

 Private not-for-profit 66,027 102 114 96 67 58 50 42 36

 Private for-profit 61,939 74 76 50 60 53 52 43 40

Level of institution2

 4-year 70,731 95 107 89 64 52 47 39 32

 2-year 69,261 77 77 77 61 51 51 40 37

Sector of institution3

 Public 4-year 76,256 88 99 83 60 47 43 35 30

 Private not-for-profit 4-year 66,158 102 115 96 67 58 50 42 36

 Private for-profit 4-year 62,930 84 87 44 58 50 49 42 42

 Public 2-year 70,044 77 80 76 61 50 51 40 37

 Private not-for-profit 2-year 53,246 68 76 64 60 46 53 40 33

 Private for-profit 2-year 59,987 65 66 41 60 57 55 43 38

Carnegie classification of institution4,5

 Doctorate-granting 74,853 97 102 94 63 51 44 38 32

 Master’s 69,631 84 97 83 59 50 48 36 32

 Bachelor’s 60,766 90 90 90 59 56 51 39 35

 Associate’s 68,855 77 77 77 61 50 51 40 37

 Specialized 66,683 113 120 85 67 54 50 43 36

Gender

 Male 76,693 90 100 85 63 48 47 36 33

 Female 64,261 90 103 85 66 47 50 43 31

See notes at end of table.

Average salaries (as percentage of those for

executive/administrative/managerial staff)

Faculty
Growth in the Average Salaries of Full-Time Postsecondary Staff and Salary Differences

128 

Table 24-B.—Occupational differences in average salaries (in constant 2003 dollars) of full-time employees

Table 24-B.—in postsecondary institutions, by institution and employee characteristics: Fall 2003

Table 24-B.——Continued

Average

salary of

executive/ Techadmini- Profes- nical Clerstrative/ sional para- ical/ Service/

Institution and employee manage- 11/12- 9/10- support/ Skilled profes- secre- maintecharacteristics rial Total month month service crafts sional tarial nance

Race/ethnicity6

 White $71,396 91 105 86 64 52 48 38 34

 Black 65,024 92 105 87 64 50 47 41 32

 Hispanic 65,799 95 112 90 64 54 49 42 35

 Asian 71,653 99 106 95 66 56 49 43 34

 American Indian 62,034 92 101 89 64 55 51 41 34

 Nonresident alien 64,147 88 83 93 58 56 50 43 32

 Race/ethnicity unknown 65,118 83 86 81 62 58 48 41 33

1

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose control changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 0.5 percent had changed control, accounting for 0.1 percent of the entire workforce in

both years.

2

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose level changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 3.6 percent had changed level, accounting for 0.9 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

3

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions whose sector changed between 1993 and 2003.

Among all institutions covered in this study, 4.1 percent had changed sector, accounting for 1.0 and 1.1 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

4

This is a condensed version of both the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classification that was created by collapsing certain categories. See

appendix A at the end of the report for an explanation of this reduced version.

5

Included in the totals but not shown as a separate category are staff at institutions that were either unclassified by the Carnegie 

classification system in at least one of the survey years or had changed in Carnegie classification between 1993 and 2003. Among all

institutions covered in this study, 14.3 percent belonged to this category, accounting for 7.9 and 8.6 percent of the entire workforce

in 1993 and 2003, respectively.

6

Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian includes Alaska Native. A nonresident alien is a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States and who is in this 

country on a visa or temporary basis and does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless 

specified.

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia and were degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions in 2003.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data

System (IPEDS), Fall 2003.

Faculty

Average salaries (as percentage of those for

executive/administrative/managerial staff)
129 

Conclusions 

Between fall 1993 and fall 2003, the growth of the workforce at colleges and universities 

outpaced the growth of both the overall civilian labor force and student enrollment (22 vs. 13 and 

16 percent, respectively), continuing a pattern that began in the 1970s. The growth of part-time 

employees in the postsecondary workforce over the 10-year period was twice that of full-time 

employees (34 vs. 17 percent). Likewise, while professional positions increased by 34 percent 

between 1993 and 2003, the number of nonprofessionals plateaued at about 0.9 million (an 

increase of 1 percent). These patterns may reflect the staffing strategies of colleges and 

universities to use part-time staff and to outsource campus services in an effort to contain costs 

while still meeting the increased demand for postsecondary education. 

As shown in this study, the total number of part-time faculty grew by 44 percent, while the 

number of full-time faculty increased by 16 percent. Consequently, the percentage of faculty who 

were employed in part-time positions increased from 40 percent in 1993 to 46 percent in 2003, a 

trend that started in the 1970s, persisted through the 1980s and 1990s, and continued into the 

early 2000s. Because it is likely that this pattern will continue into the future, some predict parttime faculty might soon represent the majority of postsecondary faculty (Maitland and Rhoades 

2005). 

The changes in the diversity of staff employed at postsecondary institutions somewhat 

mirrored those in the general U.S. population. The proportion of the workforce on college and 

university campuses who were Hispanic, Asian, American Indian, and nonresident alien staff all 

increased over the 10-year period. 

Additionally, the proportion of female staff rose slightly over the decade (from 52 percent 

in 1993 to 53 percent in 2003). The prevalence of female over male staff was particularly evident 

when looking at state data. The total number of states (including the District of Columbia) in 

which women outnumbered men in the postsecondary workforce increased from 36 states in 

1993 to 48 states 10 years later. 

Probably reflecting in part the efforts made by colleges and universities to contain 

spending, and supporting the argument that salary raises are not the major cause of the increase in 

tuition, the overall average salary (inflation-adjusted) of full-time postsecondary staff grew by 13 

percent between 1993 and 2003. This growth paralleled the rate of growth of the median family 
Conclusions

130 

income (14 percent). Although the average salaries of full-time employees increased for each 

primary occupation category, only the increases for executive, administrative, and managerial 

positions (17 percent) exceeded those for the overall U.S. median family income. Salary 

increases for faculty (13 percent) were at a comparable rate, while those for positions in all of the 

five support personnel categories fell below that rate (3–9 percent). 
131 

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A-1 

Appendix A—Glossary 

This glossary describes the variables (including relevant IPEDS terms) used in this report. Except for the 

variable names, all variable documentation was compiled from the IPEDS website (at http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/

AboutIPEDS.asp) and the Carnegie Foundation’s Carnegie Classification website (at 

http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/Classification). The variable names are provided solely for ease of reference in 

this glossary. 

The glossary index is organized into two sections: institution characteristics and employee characteristics. In 

the index below, the variables in each section are listed in the order they appear in the tables. The variables in the 

glossary appear in alphabetical order by variable name (displayed in the right-hand column). 

Glossary Index 

INSTITUTION CHARACTERISTICS

Postsecondary education ..........................................PSE 

Postsecondary education institution.................PSEINST 

Control of institution.....................................CONTROL 

Level of institution..............................................LEVEL 

Sector of institution ......................................... SECTOR 

Carnegie classification of institution........... CARNEGIE 

Institution of higher education .........................IHEINST 

Degree-granting institution ........................... DEGINST 

Title IV institution ............................................. T4INST 

EMPLOYEE CHARACTERISTICS

Employment status ........................................EMPSTAT 

Gender.............................................................GENDER 

Race/ethnicity....................................................... RACE 

Primary occupation.............................................OCCUP 

Professional staff ........................................... PROFSTF 

Nonprofessional staff .................................. NPROFSTF 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-2 

Carnegie classification of institution CARNEGIE 

The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education is a taxonomy of U.S. higher education institutions 

that has been used for a wide variety of purposes over three decades. It includes all colleges and universities in the 

United States that are degree-granting and accredited by an agency recognized by the U.S. Secretary of Education. It 

is the framework in which institutional diversity in U.S. higher education is commonly described. Because of its 

emphasis on institutional “functions,” the Classification is widely interpreted as differentiating colleges and 

universities with respect to mission. The Carnegie Classification was originally published in 1973; subsequently 

updated in 1976, 1987, 1994, and 2000; and a new revision is currently being prepared for publication. 

The 2000 Carnegie Classification edition classifies institutions based on their degree-granting activities from 1995–

96 through 1997–98. It groups institutions into the following 10 categories: 

Doctoral/Research Universities—Extensive; 

Doctoral/Research Universities—Intensive; 

Master’s Colleges and Universities I; 

Master’s (Comprehensive) Colleges and Universities II; 

Baccalaureate Colleges—Liberal Arts; 

Baccalaureate Colleges—General; 

Baccalaureate/Associate’s Colleges; 

Associate’s Colleges; 

Specialized Institutions offering degrees ranging from the bachelor’s to the doctorate and typically awarding a 

majority of degrees in a single field; and 

Tribal colleges and universities. 

 

The 1994 Carnegie Classification edition differs from the 2000 edition primarily by using federal funding to further 

differentiate doctorate-granting institutions and using admissions selectivity as a criterion to group baccalaureate 

colleges. It is based on survey data for 1988–89, 1989–90, and 1990–91 on degree-granting activity (from IPEDS), 

federal funding (from National Science Foundation’s annual report), and admissions selectivity (from The College 

Board). The 1994 edition classifies institutions into the following 11 categories: 

Research Universities I; 

Research Universities II; 

Doctoral Universities I; 

Doctoral Universities II; 

Master’s (Comprehensive) Colleges and Universities I; 

Master’s (Comprehensive) Colleges and Universities II; 

Baccalaureate (Liberal Arts) Colleges I; 

Baccalaureate Colleges II; 

Associate of Arts Colleges; 

Professional and Specialized Institutions offering degrees ranging from the bachelor’s to the doctorate and 

typically awarding a majority of degrees in a single field; and 

Tribal colleges and universities (all members of the American Indian Higher Education Consortium). 

For details about specific criteria for each Carnegie category and differences between the 2000 and 1994 editions, 

readers are referred to the Carnegie Foundation’s website at http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/Classification/). 

Because of differences between the two Carnegie Classification editions, individual categories could not be 

compared directly. To make the two classifications more uniform—and make comparisons between the 1993 and 

2003 staff data more meaningful—a general version was developed for this study by collapsing certain categories 

from both classifications. This consolidated version divides institutions into the following five broad categories: 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-3 

Carnegie classification of institution—continued CARNEGIE 

Doctorate-granting universities; 

Master’s universities and colleges; 

Bachelor’s colleges; 

Associate’s colleges; and 

Specialized institutions (including tribal universities and colleges). 

Details about how this reduced version relates to the 1994 and 2000 Carnegie classifications are shown in table A-1 

below. 

New Carnegie category of 

institution

Equivalency of 1994 Carnegie 

categories1 Equivalency of 2000 Carnegie categories1

Doctorate-granting universities Research universities I & II

Doctoral universities I & II

Doctoral/Research Universities—Extensive

Doctoral/Research Universities—Intensive

Master’s universities/colleges Master’s (comprehensive) 

universities and colleges I

Master’s (comprehensive) 

universities and colleges II

Master’s colleges and universities I

Master’s colleges and universities II

Bachelor’s colleges Baccalaureate (liberal arts) 

colleges I

Baccalaureate (liberal arts) 

colleges II

Baccalaureate colleges—Liberal arts

Baccalaureate colleges—General

Baccalaureate/Associate’s Colleges

Associate’s colleges Associate of arts colleges Associate’s colleges

Specialized Institutions Specialized Institutions

Tribal colleges and universities

Specialized Institutions

Tribal colleges and universities

Table A-1.—Aggregated Carnegie classification used in this study in relation to 1994 and 2000 Carnegie 

Table A-1.—classifications

1

 For details about definitions for each category, consult the Carnegie Foundation website at 

http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/Classification/CIHE2000/foreword.htm
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-4 

Control of institution CONTROL 

A classification of whether an institution is operated by publicly elected or appointed officials or by privately elected 

or appointed officials and derives its major source of funds from private sources. Institutions are grouped into three 

categories as follows: 

 Public institution—An educational institution whose programs and activities are operated by publicly elected 

or appointed school officials and that is supported primarily by public funds. 

Private not-for-profit institution—A private institution in which the individual(s) or agency in control receives 

no compensation, other than wages, rent, or other expenses for the assumption of risk. These include both 

independent not-for-profit institutions and those affiliated with a religious organization. 

Private for-profit institution—A private institution in which the individual(s) or agency in control receives 

compensation other than wages, rent, or other expenses for the assumption of risk. 

Degree-granting institution DEGINST

An institution that offers an associate’s, bachelor’s, master’s, doctor’s, or a first-professional degree. (In contrast, a nondegree-granting institution offers certificates or other formal awards.) 

Employment status EMPSTAT

Indicates whether an employee is employed full time or part time as defined by the institution. The type of 

appointment at the “snapshot date” determines whether an employee is full time or part time. The employee’s term of 

contract is not considered in making the determination of full- or part-time status, only the type of appointment at the 

snapshot date. For example, a full-time, one-term appointment should be considered full time for the purpose of the 

IPEDS “Fall Staff Survey.” Casual employees (hired on an ad-hoc or occasional basis to meet short-term needs) and 

students in the College Work-Study Program are not considered part-time staff. Instruction/research assistants are all 

part time by definition in the IPEDS Staff survey. 

 Full-time 

 Part-time

Gender GENDER 

Employee’s gender 

 Male 

 Female 

Institution of higher education IHEINST

An institution that is accredited by an agency or organization that was recognized by the U.S. Department of 

Education or recognized directly by the Secretary of Education. This definition is used for IPEDS data collected 

before 1997 in referring to institutions generally considered as offering college and university education. (Note that 

only 2- and 4-year IHEINST institutions are covered in the present study.) Since 1997, the definition has been 

limited to institutions that are degree-granting and eligible to participate in Title IV federal financial aid programs 

(see DEGINST and T4INST for details). 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-5 

Level of institution LEVEL 

A classification of whether an institution’s programs are 4-year or higher (4-year institution), 2-year but less-than 4-

year (2-year institution), or less-than-2-year. However, institutions that are less-than-2-year are not included in this 

study. 

4-year 

2-year 

Nonprofessional staff NPROFSTF 

Staff from the primary occupation categories of “technical/paraprofessional,” “clerical/secretarial,” “skilled crafts,” 

and “service/maintenance” (see OCCUP for definition). 

Primary occupation OCCUP 

The principal activity of a staff member as determined by the institution. It divides employees into eight categories. 

Employees are assigned to one category based on job title, work performed, skills, education, training, and 

credentials. If the employee performs in more than one occupation, the employee should be classified in the 

occupation that requires the highest level of skill. If there is no measurable difference in skill, the employee should 

be included in the functional category (occupation) in which he or she spends the most time. The eight categories are 

as follows: 

• Executive, administrative, and managerial: individuals whose assignments require management of the 

institution or a customarily recognized department or subdivision thereof. Assignments require the 

performance of work directly related to management policies or general business operations of the 

institution, department, or subdivision. Assignments in this category customarily and regularly require 

the incumbent to exercise discretion and independent judgment. Included in this category are employees 

holding the following titles: top executives; chief executives; general and operations managers; 

advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers; operations specialties 

managers; administrative services managers; computer and information systems managers; financial 

managers; human resources managers; purchasing managers; postsecondary education administrators, 

such as presidents, vice presidents (including assistants and associates), deans (including assistants and 

associates) if their principal activity is administrative and not primarily instruction, research, or public 

service, directors (including assistants and associates), department heads (including assistants and 

associates) if their principal activity is administrative and not primarily instruction, research, or public 

service, and assistant and associate managers (including first-line managers of service, production, and 

sales workers who spend more than 80 percent of their time performing supervisory activities); 

engineering managers; food service managers; lodging managers; and medical and health services 

managers. 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-6 

Primary occupation—continued OCCUP 

• Faculty (instructional/research/public service): employees identified by the institution as such and 

typically whose initial assignments are made for the purpose of conducting instruction, research, or 

public service as a principal activity (or activities). They may hold academic rank titles of professor, 

associate professor, assistant professor, instructor, lecturer, or the equivalent of any of those academic 

ranks. Faculty may also include the chancellor/president, provost, vice provosts, deans, directors, or the 

equivalent, as well as associate deans, assistant deans, and executive officers of academic departments 

(chairpersons, heads, or the equivalent) if their principal activity is instruction combined with research 

and/or public service. The designation as “faculty” is separate from the activities to which they may be 

currently assigned. For example, a newly appointed president of an institution may also be appointed as 

a faculty member. Graduate/instruction/research assistants are part-time employees by definition of the 

IPEDS “Fall Staff Survey.” Librarians and counselors are normally reported in the other professional 

category (defined below); however, some institutions treat them like faculty. Faculty are appointed either 

full time or part time. Full-time faculty are further divided into three subgroups based on the length of 

their salary contracts. Less-than-9-month contract faculty are faculty who are employed full time for less 

than 9 months in a year; 9- to 10-month contract faculty are those who are employed full time for two 

semesters, three quarters, two trimesters, two 4-month sessions, or the equivalent; 11- to 12-month 

contract faculty are employed full time for 11 or 12 months. 

• Instruction/research assistants: students employed on a part-time basis for the primary purpose of 

assisting in classroom or laboratory instruction or in the conduct of research. Graduate students having 

titles such as graduate assistant, teaching assistant, teaching associate, teaching fellow, or research 

assistant typically hold these positions. Excluded are students in the College Work-Study Program. 

• Other professionals (support/service): staff employed for the primary purpose of performing academic 

support, student service, and institutional support, whose assignments would require either a 

baccalaureate degree or higher or experience of such kind and amount as to provide a comparable 

background. Included in this category are all employees holding titles such as business operations 

specialists; buyers and purchasing agents; human resources, training, and labor relations specialists; 

management analysts; meeting and convention planners; miscellaneous business operations specialists; 

financial specialists; accountants and auditors; budget analysts; financial analysts and advisors; financial 

examiners; loan counselors and officers; computer specialists; computer and information scientists, 

researchers; computer programmers; computer software engineers; computer support specialists; 

computer systems analysts; database administrators; network and computer systems administrators; 

network systems and data communication analysts; counselors, social workers, and other community and 

social service specialists; health educators; clergy; directors, religious activities and education; lawyers; 

librarians, curators, and archivists; museum technicians and conservators; artists and related workers; 

designers; athletes, coaches, and umpires; dancers and choreographers; music directors and composers; 

chiropractors; dentists; dietitians and nutritionists; optometrists; pharmacists; physicians and surgeons; 

podiatrists; registered nurses; therapists; and veterinarians. 

• Technical staff and paraprofessionals: persons whose assignments require specialized knowledge or 

skills that may be acquired through experience, apprenticeship, on-the-job training, or academic work in 

occupationally specific programs that result in a 2-year degree or other certificate or diploma. Included 

are persons who perform some of the duties of a professional in a supportive role, which usually requires 

less formal training and experience than normally required for professional status. Technical and 

paraprofessionals typically hold job titles such as mathematical technicians; life, physical, and social 

science technicians; agricultural and food science technicians; chemical technicians; geological and 

petroleum technicians; nuclear technicians; paralegals and legal assistants; miscellaneous legal support 

workers; health technologists and technicians; dietetic technicians; pharmacy technicians; licensed 

practical and licensed vocational nurses; medical records and health information technicians; opticians, 

dispensing; healthcare support occupations; nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants; physical therapist 

assistants and aides; massage therapists; dental assistants; medical assistants; and pharmacy aides. 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-7 

Primary occupation—continued OCCUP 

• Clerical and secretarial staff: all persons whose assignments typically are associated with clerical 

activities or are specifically of a secretarial nature. Included are personnel who are responsible for 

internal and external communications, recording and retrieval of data (other than computer 

programmers), and/or information and other paperwork required in an office. Clerical and secretarial 

staff hold job titles such as switchboard operators, including answering service; telephone operators; bill 

and account collectors; billing and posting clerks and machine operators; bookkeeping, accounting, and 

auditing clerks; payroll and timekeeping clerks; procurement clerks; file clerks; clerical library 

assistants; human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping; shipping, receiving, and traffic 

clerks; secretaries and administrative assistants; computer operators; data entry and information 

processing workers; desktop publishers; mail clerks and mail machine operators (except postal service); 

office clerks (general); office machine operators (except computer); and proofreaders and copy markers. 

• Skilled crafts staff: persons whose assignments typically require special manual skills and a thorough 

and comprehensive knowledge of the processes involved in the work, acquired through on-the-job 

training and experience or through apprenticeship or other formal training programs. Skilled crafts staff 

hold job titles such as welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers; bookbinders and bindery workers; 

printers; cabinetmakers and bench carpenters; plant and system operators; stationary engineers and 

boiler operators; water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators; crushing, grinding, 

polishing, mixing, and blending workers; medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory technicians; 

painting workers; photographic process workers and processing machine operators; and etchers and 

engravers. 

• Service/maintenance: persons whose assignments require limited degrees of previously acquired skills 

and knowledge and in which workers perform duties that result in or contribute to the comfort, 

convenience, and hygiene of personnel and the student body or that contribute to the upkeep of the 

institutional property. They hold job titles such as firefighters; law enforcement workers; parking 

enforcement workers; police officers; security guards; lifeguards; ski patrol; cooks and food preparation 

workers; food and beverage serving workers; fast food and counter workers; waiters and waitresses; 

other food preparation- and serving-related workers; building cleaning and pest control workers; grounds 

maintenance workers; electrical and electronic equipment mechanics; installers and repairers; radio and 

telecommunications equipment installers and repairers; avionics technicians; electric motor, power tool, 

and related repairers; vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics, installers, and repairers; control and 

valve installers and repairers; heating, air conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; air 

transportation workers; motor vehicle operators; and parking lot attendants.

Professional staff PROFSTF 

Staff from the primary occupation categories of “executive, administrative, and managerial,” “faculty,” 

“instruction/research assistants,” and “other professionals (support/service)” (see OCCUP for definition). 

Postsecondary education PSE 

Postsecondary education is defined within IPEDS as the provision of a formal instructional program whose curriculum is 

designed primarily for students who are beyond the compulsory age for high school. 

Postsecondary education institution PSEINST 

An institution whose sole purpose or one of its primary missions is the provision of postsecondary education. 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-8 

Race/ethnicity RACE 

The manner of collecting employees’ racial/ethnic information is left to the discretion of the institution, provided that 

the system established results in reasonably accurate data, which may be replicated by others when the same 

documented system is utilized. An employer may acquire the racial/ethnic information necessary for this section 

either by visual survey of the workforce or from postemployment records. For the purpose of IPEDS surveys, an 

individual may be included in the group to which he or she appears to belong, identifies with, or belongs in the eyes 

of the community. A person may be counted in only one group. Racial/ethnic designations are requested only for 

U.S. citizens, resident aliens, and other eligible noncitizens (see definitions below). Racial/ethnic designations used 

in the IPEDS “Fall Staff Survey” do not denote scientific definitions of anthropological origins. The categories are as 

follows: 

American Indian/Alaska Native A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North 

America or who maintains cultural identification through tribal 

affiliation or community recognition. Includes Alaska Native. 

Asian/Pacific Islander A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the 

Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent or Pacific 

Islands. This includes people from China, Japan, Korea, India, 

the Philippine Islands, American Samoa, India, and Vietnam. 

Black, non-Hispanic A person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of 

Africa (except those of Hispanic origin). 

White, non-Hispanic A person having origins in any of the original peoples of 

Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East (except those of 

Hispanic origin). 

Hispanic A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South 

American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of 

race. 

Nonresident alien A person who is not a citizen or national of the United States 

and who is in this country on a visa or temporary basis and 

does not have the right to remain indefinitely. Note that

nonresident aliens are reported separately, in the rows of the 

tables throughout this report, rather than included in any of the 

five racial/ethnic categories above. Resident aliens and other 

eligible (for financial aid purposes) noncitizens who are not 

citizens or nationals of the United States but who have been 

admitted as legal immigrants for the purpose of obtaining 

permanent resident alien status (and who hold either an alien 

registration card [Form 1 -551 or 1-151], a Temporary 

Resident Card [Form 1-688], or an Arrival-Departure Record 

[Form 1-94] with a notation that conveys legal immigrant 

status such as Section 207 Refugee, Section 208 Asylee, 

Conditional Entrant Parolee or Cuban-Haitian) are to be 

reported in the appropriate racial/ethnic categories along with 

U.S. citizens. 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-9 

Race/ethnicity—continued RACE 

Race/ethnicity unknown This category is used only if the employee did not select a 

racial/ethnic designation, and the postsecondary institution 

finds it impossible to place the employee in one of the 

aforementioned racial/ethnic categories. 

Sector of institution SECTOR 

An institution falls into one of nine possible institutional categories resulting from dividing the universe according to 

control within each level of institution as described above. Since only 2- and 4-year institutions are covered in the 

present study, the total number of sectors reported is six, not nine. 

Additionally, the IPEDS survey also reports a sector category for institution entities that are “central, system, or 

corporate office.” Of the institution universe covered in the present study, the percentage of institutions that are 

“administrative unit only” is 2 percent each in fall 1993 and 2003; however, the total number of staff employed at 

such institutions constituted only 0.6 and 0.7 percent, respectively, of the corresponding entire higher education 

workforce. Such staff were included in the total but not reported separately throughout this report. 

Public 4-year 

Private not-for-profit 4-year 

Private for-profit 4-year 

Public 2-year 

Private not-for-profit 2-year 

Private for-profit 2-year 

Title IV institution T4INST

An institution that has a written agreement with the Secretary of Education that allows the institution to participate in any 

of the Title IV federal student financial assistance programs.
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
B-1 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System “Fall Staff Survey” 

The data for this study come from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS) “Fall Staff Survey” of 1993 and 2003. The “Fall Staff Survey” is one of the eight 

components1 of the IPEDS, conducted by the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center 

for Education Statistics (NCES). IPEDS, which began in 1986, is the NCES core postsecondary 

institution data collection program. (Before IPEDS, some of the same information was collected 

by the Higher Education General Information Survey [HEGIS], which began in 1966.) IPEDS is 

a single, comprehensive system that encompasses all identified institutions whose primary 

purpose is to provide postsecondary education. The survey includes institution-level data that can 

be used to describe trends in postsecondary education with regard to student enrollment, 

institutional revenue and expenditure patterns, salaries of full-time instructional faculty, degree 

completions (awards), tuition and fee charges, and other issues of interest. 

The “Fall Staff Survey” reports the number of staff at the institutional level by occupational 

activity, full- and part-time status, gender, and race/ethnicity. For full-time employees, the survey 

also reports their distribution by salary class intervals. Data are collected in odd-numbered years. 

In addition to the 50 states and the District of Columbia, the “Fall Staff Survey” also covers 

outlying areas (i.e., American Samoa, the Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, the Marshall 

Islands, the Northern Marianas, Palau, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands). However, outlying 

areas are excluded from this study. 

The 1993 “Fall Staff Survey” collected information on all employees who were on the 

payroll as of October 1, 1993; the 2003 Fall Staff data include all employees on the payroll as of 

November 1, 2003. Efforts were made both during and after data collection to ensure data quality 

(e.g., for response institutions, data edit procedures were performed for internal, inter-year, and 

inter-IPEDS component consistency, and addition checks were carried out for resolving possible 

discrepancies between generated and reported totals). Institutions that did not respond were 

subject to imputation, as were item nonresponse cases for response institutions. For more 

information about the specifics of the two “Fall Staff Surveys”—particularly with regard to the 

 

1 The other seven IPEDS components are Institutional Characteristics (e.g., tuition and fees and types of programs); Fall 

Enrollment; Completions; Graduation Rate; Faculty; Financial Statistics; and Student Financial Aid. 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

B-2 

imputation techniques used—consult the survey methodology section of the respective reports: 

Fall Staff in Postsecondary Institutions, 1993 (Cahalan and Roey 1996) and Staff in 

Postsecondary Institutions, Fall 2003, and Salaries of Full-Time Instructional Faculty, 2003–04

(Knapp et al. 2005b). 

Institutional Coverage and Response Rates 

Institutional Coverage 

Due to changes in the IPEDS data collection over time, the institutions covered in the 1993 

Fall Staff data collection are not directly comparable to those covered in the 2003 survey. For 

example, the 1993 survey collected information from all identified postsecondary institutions, 

while the 2003 survey focused only on Title IV eligible institutions (i.e., institutions eligible to 

participate in federal financial aid programs). Additionally, changes could have occurred in 

individual institutions (e.g., openings and closings). Furthermore, changes were implemented by 

NCES in 1996 in how postsecondary institutions are classified.2 Consequently, it is not 

appropriate to examine trends of changes between 1993 and 2003 in the total number of staff 

employed at postsecondary institutions and average salaries of full-time staff by directly 

comparing the two full sets of institutions surveyed.3

Therefore, to make the comparisons between fall 1993 and fall 2003 comparable, this study 

focuses only on institutions that were surveyed in both fall 1993 and fall 2003 and were degreegranting and eligible to participate in Title IV federal financial aid programs in 2003.4 This 

limitation reduces the total number of institutions covered in this study to 3,186.5 However, 

although only a subset of all institutions surveyed, these institutions represent 92 percent in 1993 

 

2 Before 1997, NCES reports on staff focused on institutions of higher education (IHE)—that is, postsecondary institutions 

accredited by an agency or organization that was recognized by the U.S. Department of Education (ED), or directly by the 

Secretary of Education. Since 1997, ED no longer distinguishes institutions based on accreditation level and now subdivides the 

postsecondary institution universe into schools that are eligible to receive Title IV federal financial aid and those that are not. 

3 Some 9,305 in 1993 and 4,886 in 2003 (including outlying areas), based on U.S. Department of Education, National Center for 

Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 1993 and 2003 “Fall Staff Survey” (data not 

shown in tables). 

4 Such information was not available in 1993. 

5 Data for these institutions were collected in the IPEDS_S form (or long form) of the “Fall Staff Survey.” Although the S-form 

survey participation is supposedly limited only to institutions with at least 15 full-time employees, the actual survey data 

included some institutions that had fewer than 15 full-time employees. For institutions covered in this study, the proportion of 

staff employed at such institutions was 0.2 percent of the entire reported workforce in 1993 and virtually 0 percent in 2003. 

Institutions that were non-IHE (or did not offer a baccalaureate or higher degree) in 1993 and non-degree-granting in 2003 

reported their staffing information through the IPEDS_CN form (or short-form), which is much less detailed (e.g., no data on 

employee counts by salary class intervals). For details about how the IPEDS_S and IPEDS_CN forms differ, consult the IPEDS 

website at http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/ipedssurveys.asp. 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology

B-3 

and 95 percent in 2003 of the entire workforce in all institutions surveyed in the respective 

survey years.6

Institution Response Rates and Proportion of Data That Were Imputed 

For the institutions of higher education (IHE) portion of the institutions surveyed in 1993, 

the overall response rate is 92 percent (94, 91, and 89 percent at public, private not-for-profit, 

and private for-profit institutions, respectively) (Cahalan and Roey 1996).7 The overall 

institutional response rate for all degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions surveyed in 2003 

was 99.9 percent and, of the corresponding postsecondary workforce, only 0.1 percent was based 

on imputation (due to either institutional nonresponse or item nonresponse for response 

institutions as mentioned earlier in this appendix) (Knapp et al. 2005b).8 (Similar data for fall 

1993 are not available.) With such high response rate and low imputation rate, it is unlikely that 

data presented throughout this study would be seriously biased. 

Data Accuracy 

Since IPEDS surveys are universal, there are no sampling errors associated with the data 

presented in all the tables and figures of this report. However, even census data could be 

inaccurate because of potential nonsampling errors. Nonsampling errors can be attributed to a 

number of causes: missing data due to inability to obtain complete information about all 

employees in all institutions in the survey (e.g., some institutions could be nonresponse 

institutions by refusing to participate, or institutions participated but information on employee 

characteristics was filled out only for certain items, making others nonresponse items); 

ambiguous definitions; differences in interpreting questions; inability or unwillingness to give 

correct information; mistakes in recording or coding data; and other errors of collecting, 

processing, and imputing missing data. Readers interested in efforts to minimize nonsampling 

errors for data used in this report should consult the methodology section of the respective 

reports referenced earlier in this appendix. 

 

6 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), 1993 and 2003 “Fall Staff Survey” (data not shown in tables).

7 Note that these response rates refer to all IHE institutions surveyed, including IHE institutions that were less-than-2-year. 

However, less-than-2-year IHE institutions made up only 0.5 percent of all IHE institutions surveyed (Cahalan and Roey 1996), 

none of which was included in the present study. Furthermore, there were 46 institutions covered in this study that did not have a 

valid identification number as IHE institutions. 

8 Note that both the institutional response rate and the postsecondary workforce imputation rate refer to all degree-granting, Title 

IV eligible institutions located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia, which total 3,886 in number of institutions and

3,194,169 in number of staff employed. Of this full set of degree-granting, Title IV eligible institutions, 3,186 were reported in 

this study, representing 97 percent of the entire postsecondary workforce. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the response 

rate and imputation rate as reported for the full set would closely approximate those for the subset used in this study. 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

B-4 

Cautionary Notes 

As explained above, the present study is limited to 2- and 4-year institutions that were 

surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. Although these institutions employed most of the postsecondary 

workforce surveyed in both years (92 percent in 1993 and 95 percent in 2003), they nonetheless 

are short of a complete picture of the workforce at all postsecondary institutions. 

Additionally, despite the fact that the IPEDS “Fall Staff Survey” is a census survey, some 

data were imputed for both institutional nonresponse and item nonresponse and edit checks were 

performed with a certain amount of tolerance for inconsistency. Furthermore, although most 

institutions—and almost the entire postsecondary workforce—covered in this study did not 

change in their characteristics (such as sector and Carnegie classification) during the decade 

studied (1993–2003), a few of them did (as shown in table B-1), and those changes in staffing 

and salaries could have been confounded by changes in institutional characteristics, albeit an 

impact of very limited degree on the overall pattern of changes reported in this study as discussed 

in the introduction. 

Lastly, as explained in the introduction, average salaries reported in this study were derived 

from categorically collected survey data through a methodology routinely practiced with the 

Current Population Survey (CPS) data (Kaufman et al. 2000; Kaufman, Alt, and Chapman 2001). 

After this “raw” data manipulation, average salaries were calculated by dividing salary outlays by 

the corresponding total number of employees, resulting in two immediate ramifications as shown 

in table B-1. First, the overall average salaries are different from the arithmetic averages among 

all subgroups. For instance, in fall 1993, the average salary among all postsecondary full-time 

staff was $47,837 for men and $36,083 for women; yet the corresponding arithmetic averages 

among the various primary occupation groups were $40,755 and $35,861, respectively. Secondly, 

the gender gap in average salaries (expressed as women’s average salary as a percentage of that 

for men) for each primary occupation group is smaller than the overall gender gap (e.g., 83–99 

vs. 75 percent in 1993). This is because the overall percentage contribution by women in salary 

outlay was 7 percent lower than their contribution in number of employees in both years (e.g., 45 

vs. 52 percent in 1993), a much wider deficit than that when each primary occupation group is 

examined separately. The largest deficit in percentage contribution by women between salary 

outlay and number of employees occurred with executive/administrative/managerial staff; it was 

4 percentage points both in 1993 (38 vs. 42 percent) and 2003 (46 vs. 50 percent). Not 

surprisingly, among clerical/secretarial staff, the occupation group with the smallest gender gap 

in average salaries (women earned, on average, 99 percent of what men earned in 1993 and 98 

percent in 2003), women’s percentage contribution in salary outlay matched that in number of 

employees (91 vs. 91 percent in 1993 and 89 vs. 89 percent in 2003). 
Table B-1.—Salary outlay and number of full-time staff by gender, percentage share of total by women in salary outlay and nu

Table B-1.—and average salaries of full-time staff by gender in postsecondary institutions, by primary occupation: Fall 1993 an

Share

Deficit: salary 

outlays– 

Number Number Salary Number number 

Salary outlay of staff Salary outlay of staff outlay of staff of staff M

Fall 1993 Total $39,860,467,345 833,262 $32,702,303,311 906,302 45 52 -7 $47, Executive/administrative/mangerial 5,006,465,848 78,021 3,075,157,456 56,053 38 42 -4 64,

 Faculty 21,186,332,129 353,146 9,009,923,786 175,941 30 33 -3 59, Professional support/service 6,283,783,609 139,255 8,581,812,951 208,150 58 60 -2 45, Technical/paraprofessional 1,870,514,426 57,808 2,398,811,020 81,791 56 59 -2 32, Clerical/secretarial 844,669,723 32,197 8,130,012,465 312,255 91 91 0 26, Skilled crafts 1,909,204,858 56,767 86,389,995 3,110 4 5 -1 33, Service/maintenance 2,759,496,752 116,068 1,420,195,637 69,002 34 37 -3 23, Average (among all categories above) 40Fall 2003

50,466,145,762 939,628 44,872,976,894 1,091,203 47 54 -7 53,

 Total Executive/administrative/mangerial 6,584,355,077 85,853 5,582,169,046 86,867 46 50 -4 76,

 Faculty 25,508,996,412 370,724 13,780,486,704 238,805 35 39 -4 68, Professional support/service 10,154,372,565 211,757 12,989,297,695 304,825 56 59 -3 47, Technical/paraprofessional 2,230,472,571 62,522 2,831,476,608 88,922 56 59 -3 35, Clerical/secretarial 1,004,160,298 36,172 8,259,065,844 302,182 89 89 0 27, Skilled crafts 2,036,261,149 55,408 95,079,445 3,152 4 5 -1 36, Service/maintenance 2,947,527,690 117,192 1,335,401,552 66,450 31 36 -5 25, Average (among all categories above) 45,

NOTE: Data are based on 3,186 institutions that were surveyed in both 1993 and 2003. They were located in the 50 states and the District of Columbia and weTitle IV eligible institutions in 2003. Salaries in fall 2003 were in constant 2003 dollars.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 1993 and 

Men Women 

 Women’s percentage

share of total